PE 319 MDP – Module 2:

Material Deformation
Theories

Dr. Gayatri Paul

Department of Production and Industrial Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology Mesra
Vectors

• Vector: Collection of scalars

• Cartesian vector: Vector defined using Cartesian coordinates
y
• 2D, 3D Cartesian vectors
u2

 u1 
 u1   
u =   , or u =  u2  e2
e1 x
 u2  u 
 3 e3 u1
u3
z

• Using basis vectors: e1 = {1, 0, 0}T, e2 = {0, 1, 0}T, e3 = {0, 0, 1}T

u = u1 e1 + u2 e2 + u3e3
Index Notation And Summation Rule

• Index notation: Any vector or matrix can be expressed in

terms of its indices
 v1   A11 A12 A13 
v = [vi ] =  v2  A = [Aij ] =  A21 A22 A23 
 v3   A31 A32 A33 
• Einstein summation convention
3
 akbk = akbk Repeated indices mean summation!!
k =1

– In this case, k is a dummy variable (can be j or i) akbk = ajbj

– The same index cannot appear more than twice
• Basis representation of a vector
– Let ek be the basis of vector space V N
– Then, any vector in V can be represented by w=  wk ek = wk ek
k =1
Special Symbols and Examples

Special Symbols
Kronecker Delta function
Equivalent to
 1 if i = j  jj = 11 + 22 + 33 = 3 change index j to
ij = 
 0 if i  j i, or vice versa

0 unless i, j,k are distinct

Permutation 
symbol
eijk =  +1 if (i, j,k) is an even permutation
 −1 if (i, j,k) is an odd permutation


Examples
– Matrix multiplication: C = AB Cij = AikBkj
– Trace operator: tr(A) = A11 + A22 + A33 = Akk
– Dot product: u  v = u1v1 + u2v2 + u3v3 = uk vk
– Cross product: u  v = ujvk ( ej  ek ) = eijkujvk ei
Tensor and Rank

Tensor
– A tensor is an extension of scalar, vector, and matrix
(multidimensional array in a given basis)
– Tensors extend the description of vectors to geometric objects that
have magnitude and any number of directions
– A tensor is independent of any chosen frame of reference

Rank of Tensor
– No. of indices required to write down the components of tensor
– Scalar (rank 0), vector (rank 1), matrix (rank 2), etc
– Every tensor can be expressed as a linear combination of rank 1 tensors
– Rank 1 tensor v: vi  11 12 13 
[ij ] =  21 23 
Rank-2
– Rank 2 tensor A: Aij 22 stress
tensor
– Rank 4 tensor C: Cijkl  31 32 33 
Tensor Operations
• Full definition of a second order tensor
𝑨 = 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝒆𝒊 𝒆𝒋 = 𝐴𝑖𝑗
• Basic rules for tensors
Different notations
( TS)R = T(SR) TS = T  S
T(S + R) = TS + TR
Identity tensor
( TS) = (T )S = T(S)
1 = [ij ]
1T = T1 = T
• Tensor (dyadic) product: increase rank

A = u  v = uivjei  ej Aij = uivj AT = Ajiei  ej

• Rank-4 tensor: D = Dijklei  ej  ek  el

Forces acting on a Body – Body Forces

Body Forces: The forces which act at a distance on the internal particles of
a continuous medium
Examples: gravitational force, inertial forces, magnetic attraction forces
Forces acting on a Body – Surface Forces

Surface Forces: The forces which act on the boundary of the material
volume considered. They can be regarded as produced by the contact actions
of the particles located in the boundary of the medium with the exterior of
this medium.
Examples: gravitational force, inertial forces, magnetic attraction forces
Traction Vector

❑ The traction vector remains unchanged for all surfaces

passing through the point P and having the same normal
vector n at P
❑ The traction vectors acting at point P on opposite sides of the
same surface are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.
Cartesian Stress Components
• Surface traction changes according to the direction of the
surface.
• Impossible to store stress information for all directions.
• Let’s store surface traction parallel to the three coordinate
directions.
• Surface traction in other directions can be calculated from
them.
• Consider the x-face of an infinitesimal cube
Dx
t (x)
= t1(x) e1 + t2(x) e2 + t3(x) e3
Dz
t (x)
= 11 e1 + 12 e2 + 13e3 13
z DF

Normal
11 12
Shear
stress stress Dy
x y
Stress Tensor
– First index is the face and the second index is its direction
– When two indices are the same, normal stress, otherwise shear
stress.
– Continuation for other surfaces.
– Total nine components
– Same stress components are defined for the negative planes.

• Rank-2 Stress Tensor 33

Dx
 = ijei  ej
31 32
Dz
• Sign convention 13 23
z
sgn(11 ) = sgn(n)  sgn( DFx ) 12 21
11 22
sgn(12 ) = sgn(n)  sgn( DFy ) Dy
x y
State of Stress at a Point

Prove: 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥

Symmetry of Stress Tensor
– Stress tensor should be symmetric
9 components 6 components 21
– Equilibrium of the angular moment A B
y
 M = Dl(12 − 21 ) = 0 12 Dl O x 12
 12 = 21
– Similarly for all three directions: Dl
C D
12 = 21 , 23 = 32 , 13 = 31 21

 11 
 
– Let’s use vector notation:
 22   11 12 13 
Cartesian components  33  [ij ] =  12 22 23 
of stress tensor { } =  
 12   13 23 33 
 23 
 
 13 
Stresses on Inclined Plane

S
Stresses on Inclined Plane

S ❑ BCD is an arbitrary plane

whose normal is n
❑ BCDO forms a tetrahedron
❑ 𝐴 = area of the plane BCD
❑ 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 are the areas of the
planes normal to 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3
directions, respectively
❑ 𝑺 is the stress vector acting
on the inclined plane
❑ 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 are the magnitudes
of the three components of 𝑺
acting along 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3
directions, respectively

𝑆1 . 𝐴 − 𝜎11 . 𝐴1 + 𝜎21 . 𝐴2 + 𝜎31 . 𝐴3 = 0 … (1)

𝑆2 . 𝐴 − 𝜎12 . 𝐴1 + 𝜎22 . 𝐴2 + 𝜎32 . 𝐴3 = 0 … (2)
𝑆3 . 𝐴 − 𝜎13 . 𝐴1 + 𝜎23 . 𝐴2 + 𝜎33 . 𝐴3 = 0 … (3)
Stresses on Inclined Plane

❑ 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , 𝑛3 are the components of

𝑥2 the unit normal vector 𝒏 with
respect to 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 directions,
respectively

𝑛1 = 𝐴1 Τ𝐴; 𝑛2 = 𝐴2 Τ𝐴; 𝑛3 = 𝐴3 Τ𝐴
𝑥1

𝑆1 = 𝜎11 . 𝑛1 + 𝜎21 . 𝑛2 + 𝜎31 . 𝑛3 … (4)

𝑆2 = 𝜎12 . 𝑛1 + 𝜎22 . 𝑛2 + 𝜎32 . 𝑛3 … (5)
𝑥3 𝑆3 = 𝜎13 . 𝑛1 + 𝜎23 . 𝑛2 + 𝜎33 . 𝑛3 … (6)

Since 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑗𝑖 𝑆𝑖 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 . 𝑛𝑗 … (7)

Stresses on Inclined Plane
S
❑ 𝜎𝑛 is the stress are the
components of the unit normal
vector 𝒏 with respect to 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ,
𝑥3 directions, respectively

𝜎𝑛 = 𝑺 ∙ 𝒏 … (8)

𝑺 = 𝑆1 . 𝑒1 + 𝑆2 . 𝑒2 + 𝑆3 . 𝑒3 … (9)
𝒏 = 𝑛1 . 𝑒1 + 𝑛2 . 𝑒2 + 𝑛3 . 𝑒3 … (10)

𝜎𝑛 = 𝑆1 . 𝑛1 + 𝑆2 . 𝑛2 + 𝑆3 . 𝑛3
= 𝑆𝑖 . 𝑛𝑖 … (11)
❑ 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 are the unit vectors along 𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 . 𝑛𝑖 . 𝑛𝑗 … (12)
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 directions, respectively
❑ 𝜎𝑠 is the shear component acting 𝜎𝑠 = 𝑆 2 − 𝜎𝑛2 … (13)
on the plane BCD
Principal Stresses

❑ Regardless of the state of stress, it is always possible to choose a

special set of axes (principal axes of stress or principal stress
directions) so that the shear stress components vanish when the
stress components are referred to this system.
❑ The three planes perpendicular to the principal axes are the
principal planes.
❑ The normal stress components in the principal planes are the
principal stresses.

𝜎1 0 0
𝜎= 0 𝜎2 0
0 0 𝜎3

𝜎1 ≥ 𝜎2 ≥ 𝜎3
Principal Stresses

S
❑ For a given state of stress,
there is only one set of
three principal planes and
one set of three principal
stresses acting on them.
❑ For some orientation of
the generic inclined plane,
the shear stress
component will become
zero and the total stress
vector on these planes
would be directed in the
direction of their normal.
𝑺 = 𝜎 ∙ 𝒏 … (14) ❑ In such cases, the stress
vector will be a scalar
multiple of unit normal
𝑆1 = 𝜎𝑛1 ; 𝑆2 = 𝜎𝑛2 ; 𝑆3 = 𝜎𝑛3 … (15) vector
Principal Stresses

Substituting in equations 4, 5, 6 leads to

𝜎11 − 𝜎 . 𝑛1 + 𝜎21 . 𝑛2 + 𝜎31 . 𝑛3 = 0 … (16)

𝜎12 . 𝑛1 + 𝜎22 − 𝜎 . 𝑛2 + 𝜎32 . 𝑛3 = 0 … (17)
𝜎13 . 𝑛1 + 𝜎23 . 𝑛2 + 𝜎33 − 𝜎 . 𝑛3 = 0 … (18)

Representing in matrix form

𝜎11 − 𝜎 𝜎21 𝜎31 𝑛1

𝜎12 𝜎22 − 𝜎 𝜎32 𝑛2 = 0
𝜎13 𝜎23 𝜎33 − 𝜎 𝑛3
Principal Stresses

For non-trivial solution

𝜎11 − 𝜎 𝜎21 𝜎31

𝜎12 𝜎22 − 𝜎 𝜎32 =0
𝜎13 𝜎23 𝜎33 − 𝜎

Principal Stresses can be found out by solving the above cubical

equation which are the three roots of the equation

𝜎 3 − 𝐼1 𝜎 2 + 𝐼2 𝜎 − 𝐼3 = 0 … (19)
𝐼1 = 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 … 20
2 2 2
𝐼2 = 𝜎11 𝜎22 + 𝜎22 𝜎33 + 𝜎33 𝜎11 − 𝜎12 − 𝜎23 − 𝜎31 … 22
2 2 2
𝐼3 = 𝜎11 𝜎22 𝜎33 + 2𝜎12 𝜎23 𝜎31 − 𝜎11 𝜎23 − 𝜎22 𝜎31 − 𝜎33 𝜎12 … 23
Stress Invariants

𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 are called the stress invariants because the values of

𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 do not change even if the reference co-ordinates are
changed.

𝜎 3 − 𝐼1 𝜎 2 + 𝐼2 𝜎 − 𝐼3 = 0 … (19)

𝐼1 = 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 … 20

𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎22 𝜎23 𝜎33 𝜎31

𝐼2 = 𝜎 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 𝜎33 + 𝜎13 𝜎11 … 22
21

𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13

𝐼3 = 𝜎21 𝜎22 𝜎23 … 23
𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33
Principal Directions
• There are three cases for principal directions:
1. σ1, σ2, and σ3 are distinct  principal directions are three unique
mutually orthogonal unit vectors.
2. σ1 = σ2 and σ3 are distinct  n3 is a unique principal direction, and
any two orthogonal directions on the plane that is perpendicular to n3
are principal directions.
3. σ1 = σ2 = σ3 =-P = σH  any three orthogonal directions are principal
directions. This state of stress corresponds to a hydrostatic
pressure.

n3
Spherical and Deviatoric Stress Tensor
The stress tensor can be separated into two components.
❑ One component is a spherical or hydrostatic stress [𝜎𝐻 =
1
𝜎 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 ] that acts to change the volume of the material
3 11
only;
❑ The other is the deviatoric stress that acts to change the shape
only.

𝜎11 𝜎21 𝜎31

𝜎12 𝜎22 𝜎32
𝜎13 𝜎23 𝜎33
𝜎𝐻 0 0 𝜎11 − 𝜎𝐻 𝜎21 𝜎31
= 0 𝜎𝐻 0 + 𝜎12 𝜎22 − 𝜎𝐻 𝜎32
0 0 𝜎𝐻 𝜎13 𝜎23 𝜎33 − 𝜎𝐻

Hydrostatic stress Deviatoric stress

Example

The stress state at a point is given by the three principal stress 100,
120 and 200 N/mm2. Determine the shear and normal stresses on a
plane which has normal with direction cosines 1Τ√2 , 1Τ√2 , 0
Equations of Motion

A solid body is in static equilibrium when the resultant force and moment
on each axis is equal to zero. This can be expressed by the equilibrium
equations.
Equations of Motion
Equations of Motion
For equilibrium, the resultant forces along each of
the three axes must be zero. Let 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 be the
body forces acting along 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , respectively

𝜕𝜎11
𝜎11 + 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥3 − 𝜎11 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥3 +
𝜕𝑥1
𝜕𝜎21
+ 𝜎21 + 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥3 − 𝜎21 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥3 +
𝜕𝑥2
𝜕𝜎31 𝑑𝑣1
+ 𝜎31 + 𝑑𝑥3 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 − 𝜎31 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 + 𝑓1 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥3 = ρ 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥3 … (24)
𝜕𝑥3 𝑑𝑡
where 𝑑𝑥1 , 𝑑𝑥2 , 𝑑𝑥3 are the dimensions of the parallelepiped and 𝜌 is the density of the
material. The RHS represents the acceleration force along 𝑥1 axis and 𝑣1 is the velocity
𝜕𝜎11 𝜕𝜎21 𝜕𝜎31 𝑑𝑣1
+ + + 𝑓1 = ρ … (25)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝜎12 𝜕𝜎22 𝜕𝜎32 𝑑𝑣2
+ + + 𝑓2 = ρ … (26)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝜎13 𝜕𝜎23 𝜕𝜎33 𝑑𝑣3
+ + + 𝑓3 = ρ … (27)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝑑𝑡
Equilibrium Equations

In steady state,
accelerations are zero and
the equations of motion are
called equilibrium
equations

𝜕𝜎11 𝜕𝜎21 𝜕𝜎31

+ + + 𝑓1 = 0 … (28)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3
𝜕𝜎12 𝜕𝜎22 𝜕𝜎32
+ + + 𝑓2 = 0 … (29)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3
𝜕𝜎13 𝜕𝜎23 𝜕𝜎33
+ + + 𝑓3 = 0 … (30)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3
Strains (Simple Version)

– Strain is defined as the elongation per unit length

Du2

Dx2

P Dx1 Du1 P

– Tensile (normal) strains in x1- and x2-directions

Du1 u1
11 = lim =
Dx1 → 0 Dx1 x1
Du2 u2
22 = lim =
Dx2 → 0 Dx2 x2

– Strain is a dimensionless quantity. Positive for elongation

and negative for compression
Shear Strain
– Shear strain is the tangent of the change in angle between two
originally perpendicular axes
Du1
Du2
q1 ~ tan q1 =
Dx1 q2
Dx2
Du1 p/2 – g12
q2 ~ tan q2 =
Dx2 P
q1 Du2
Dx1
– Shear strain (change of angle)
Du2 Du1 u2 u1
g12 = q1 + q2 = lim + lim = +
Dx1 → 0 Dx1 Dx2 → 0 Dx2 x1 x2
1 1  u2 u1 
12 = g12 =  +
2 2  x1 x2 
– Positive when the angle between two positive (or two negative) faces is
reduced and negative when the angle is increased.
– Valid for small deformation
Strains (Rigorous Version)
• Strain: a measure of deformation
– Normal strain: change in length of a line segment
– Shear strain: change in angle between two perpendicular line segments
• Displacement of P = (u1, u2, u3)
• Displacement of Q & R

u1 u1
u1Q = u1 + Dx1 u1R = u1 + Dx2
x1 x2
u2 u2
R'

u2Q = u2 + Dx1 u2R = u2 + Dx2

x1 x2 Q'

u3 u3 R P'(x1+u1, x2+u2, x3+u3)

u3Q = u3 + Dx1 R
u3 = u3 + Dx2 Dx2
x1 x2 x 2 Dx1
P(x1,x2,x3) Q

x1

x3
Displacement Field
• Coordinates of P, Q, and R before and after deformation
P : (x1 , x2, x3 )
Q : (x1 + Dx1 , x2, x3 )
R : (x1 , x1 + Dx2, x3 )
P : (x1 + u1P , x2 + u2P , x3 + u3P ) = (x1 + u1, x2 + u2, x3 + u3 )
Q : (x1 + Dx1 + u1Q , x2 + u2Q , x3 + u3Q )
u1 u u
= (x1 + Dx1 + u1 + Dx1 , x2 + u2 + 2 Dx1 , x3 + u3 + 3 Dx1 )
x1 x1 x1
R : (x1 + u1R , x2 + Dx2 + u2R , x3 + u3R )
u1 u u
= (x1 + u1 + Dx2 , x2 + Dx2 + u2 + 2 Dx2, x3 + u3 + 3 Dx2 )
x2 x2 x2

• Length of the line segment P'Q'

( ) +( ) +( )
2 2 2
PQ = x1P − x1Q x2P − x2Q x3P − x3Q
Deformation Field
• Length of the line segment P'Q'
2 2 2
 u1   u2   u3 
PQ = Dx1  1 +  +  x  +  x 
 x1   1  1
2 1/2
 2 2
u1  u1   u2   u3  
= Dx1  1 + 2 +  +  +  
 x1  x1   x1   x1  

 u1 1  u1 
2
1  u2 
2 2
1  u3    u1 
 Dx1  1 + +   +   +     Dx  1 + 
 x1 2  x1  2  x1  2  x1   x
   1 
Linear Nonlinear Ignore H.O.T. when displacement
gradients are small
• Linear normal strain
PQ − PQ u1
11 = =
PQ x1
u2 u3
22 = , 33 =
x2 x3
Deformation Field
• Shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦
– change in angle between two lines originally parallel to x– and y–axes
x2Q − x2Q u2 x1R − x1R u1
q1 = = q2 = =
Dx1 x1 Dx2 x2
u1 u2
g12 = q1 + q2 = +
x2 x1
u2 u3
g23 = + Engineering shear strain
x3 x2
u3 u1
g13 = +
x1 x3 Different notations
1  u u 
=  1 + 2
1  ui uj 
12 ij =  + 
2  x2 x1  
2  xj xi
u 

1  u
23 =  2 + 3
2  x3 x2  ij = 21 (ui,j + uj,i )
1  u3 u1 
13 = +
2  x1 x3 
  = sym(u)
Compatibility Equations

❑ All components of strain are function of the three components of

displacement
❑ Knowledge of the displacement function determines the strains
uniquely
❑ But for arbitrarily chosen strains, the displacement function may
not be unique
❑ The relationship obtained between the strain components by
eliminating the displacements is known as the equations of
compatibility

1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2
𝜖12 = 𝜖21 = +
2 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥1
Compatibility Equations

𝜕 2 𝜖12 1 𝜕 3 𝑢1 𝜕 3 𝑈2
= 2 + 2
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 2 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2
1 𝜕 2 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕 2 𝜕𝑢2
= 2 + 2
2 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2

𝜕 2 𝜖12 1 𝜕 2 𝜖11 𝜕 2 𝜖22

= 2 +
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 2 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥12
𝜕 2 𝜖23 1 𝜕 2 𝜖22 𝜕 2 𝜖33
= 2 +
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥22
𝜕 2 𝜖13 1 𝜕 2 𝜖11 𝜕 2 𝜖33
= 2 +
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥3 2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥12
Compatibility Condition – Physical Significance
❑ Physical significance of
compatibility condition - the
separate particles of the body
must deform under load in
such a way that they fit
together after deformation
❑ Explained through jig-saw
analogy – The deformation of
the puzzle should follow the
following
(i) The forces on any given
piece (including
external forces if any)
must be in equilibrium.
(ii) The deformed pieces
must be the right shape
to fit together to make
the deformed puzzle
Basic Relationship

Equilibrium Summation of all forces and

moments applied upto the
equations elementary volume as well

Constitutive Physical laws explaining the relation

between stresses and strains
equations

Compatibility Solid body should remain

continuous while being deformed
equations
Tensile Test
❑ Tensile testing is a
engineering test in
which a sample is
subjected to a
controlled tension
until failure.
❑ Properties measured
are ultimate tensile
strength, breaking
strength, maximum
elongation and
reduction in area.
❑ Properties
determined: Young’s
modulus, Poisson’s
ratio, yield strength,
and strain-hardening
characteristics.
Stress – Strain Relationship

B
Engineering Stress – Strain
Engineering stress
(nominal stress) is
defined as the ratio of
the applied load, P, to
the original cross-
sectional area, Ao, of
the specimen
𝑃
𝑠=
𝐴0
Engineering strain
is the change in length
to original length
Hooke’s Law
𝑙 − 𝑙0
𝑒=
𝑙0 𝐸 = 𝜎Τ𝑒
True Stress – Strain
True stress is defined
as the ratio of the load,
P, to the actual
(instantaneous,
hence true) cross-
sectional area, A, of the
specimen
𝑃
𝜎 = = 𝑠(1 + 𝑒)
𝐴
True strain is the ratio
of change in
instantaneous length to
instantaneous length
𝑙
𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑙0
= ln(1 + 𝑒)
Elastic – Plastic Regions

https://msestudent.com/true-stress-strain-vs-engineering-stress-strain/
Stress – Strain Relationship
True Stress – Strain
Flow Curve
A true stress-strain curve (in the log-log scale) is frequently called a flow
curve because it gives the stress required to cause the metal to flow
plastically to any given strain

𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
𝑛 is the strain
hardening
component and
constant 𝐾 is
called the strength
coefficient
Idealized Stress – Strain Curves

Rigid material is one which has no strain

regardless of the applied stress. This idealization
is useful in studying the gross motions and forces
on machine parts to provide for adequate power
and for resistance to wear.

Linearly elastic material is one in which the

strain is proportional to the stress. This
idealization is useful when we are designing for
small deformations, for stiffness, or to prevent
fatigue or fracture in brittle structures.

Perfectly plastic material is one in which

elastic and time-dependent deformations are
neglected. If the stress is released, the
deformation remains. Strain-hardening may be
neglected
Idealized Stress – Strain Curves
Rigid plastic material is one in which elastic
and time-dependent deformations are neglected.
If the stress is released, the deformation
remains. Strain hardening is assumed. Such
idealizations are useful in designing structures
for their maximum loads

Elastic-perfectly plastic material is one

which both elastic and plastic strains are present;
strain-hardening may is assumed to be
negligible. This idealization is useful in designing
against moderate deformations

Elastic-plastic material is one which both

elastic and plastic strains are present; strain-
hardening is substantial. This idealization is
useful in designing against moderate
deformations
Elastic Stress – Strain Relationship
Generalized Hooke’s law

1 1
𝜖11 = 𝜎11 − 𝜈 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 𝛾12 = 2𝜖12 = 𝜎12
𝐸 𝐺
1 1
𝜖22 = 𝜎22 − 𝜈 𝜎33 + 𝜎11 𝛾23 = 2𝜖23 = 𝜎23
𝐸 𝐺
1 1
𝜖33 = 𝜎33 − 𝜈 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 𝛾31 = 2𝜖31 = 𝜎31
𝐸 𝐺
𝜎𝑙𝑗ሶ = 𝜆𝜖𝑘𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑗 + 2𝜇𝜖𝑖𝑗 E = Young’s modulus
𝜖𝑘𝑘 = 𝜖11 + 𝜖22 + 𝜖33 G = shear modulus
𝜇 3𝜆 + 2𝜇 𝜆 B = bulk modulus
𝐸= ;𝜈 = 𝜈 = Poisson’s ratio
𝜆+𝜇 2 𝜆+𝜇
𝜆, 𝜇 = Lame’s Constant
𝐺 = 𝜇; 𝐵 = 3𝜆 + 2𝜇 Τ3
Plastic Stress – Strain Relationship

Flow Curve: 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
𝑛 is the strain hardening component and constant 𝐾 is called
the strength coefficient

❑ Elastic region – strains are determined from the stresses

from generalized Hooke’s law
❑ Plastic region – strains cannot be uniquely determined from
stresses but depends on the entire history of loading
❑ In plasticity, it is necessary to determine the differential or
increments of plastic strains throughout the loading path
Plastic Stress – Strain Theories
❑ Incremental or flow theories – relate the stresses to
plastic strain increments
❑ Deformation or total strain theories – relate the
stresses to integral of the plastic strains over the path of
plastic deformation
𝑒
𝑒 𝑃 𝜖𝑖𝑗 is the elastic part of the strain and
Total strain, 𝜖𝑖𝑗 = 𝜖𝑖𝑗 + 𝜖𝑖𝑗 𝑃
𝜖𝑖𝑗 is the plastic part of the strain
′ Hydrostatic stress, 𝜎𝐻 , is
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝐻 𝛿𝑖𝑗 + 𝜎𝑖𝑗
responsible only for change in
1 volume and does not contribute
𝜎𝐻 = 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 to yielding whereas, deviatoric
3 stress, 𝜎𝑖𝑗′ , only contributes to
𝜎𝑖𝑗′ = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 − 𝜎𝐻 yielding phenomenon in plastic
deformation
Levy-Mises Equations
❑ Levy-Mises equations gives the relationship between stress
and strain for ideal plastic material
❑ Elastic strains are negligible
❑ No strain hardening taken into account
❑ Components of the strain increments are related to the
stresses during plastic deformation

In an isotropic body, the principal axes of stress and strain

coincide, i.e. it goes the way you push it.
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝑑𝜖11 𝑑𝜖22 𝑑𝜖33 𝑑𝜖12 𝑑𝜖23 𝑑𝜖31
′ = ′ = ′ = ′ = ′ = ′ = 𝑑𝜆
𝑑𝜎11 𝑑𝜎22 𝑑𝜎33 𝑑𝜎12 𝑑𝜎23 𝑑𝜎31
𝑃
𝑑𝜆 is a positive constant 𝑑𝜖𝑖𝑗 = 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜎𝑖𝑗′
Levy-Mises Equations

𝑃
2 1
𝑑𝜖11 = 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜎11 − 𝑑𝜎22 + 𝑑𝜎33
3 2
𝑃
2 1
𝑑𝜖22 = 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜎22 − 𝑑𝜎33 + 𝑑𝜎11
3 2
𝑃
2 1
𝑑𝜖33 = 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜎33 − 𝑑𝜎11 + 𝑑𝜎22
3 2
𝑃
𝑑𝜖12 = 𝑑𝜆𝑑𝜎12
𝑃
𝑑𝜖23 = 𝑑𝜆𝑑𝜎23
𝑃
𝑑𝜖31 = 𝑑𝜆𝑑𝜎31
Prandtl-Reuss Equations
❑ Prandtl Reuss equations gives the relationship between stress
and strain for elastic-plastic material
❑ Elastic strain increments are considered
❑ No strain hardening taken into account
❑ Components of the strain increments are related to the both
the elastic and plastic stresses during deformation
𝑒
𝑑𝜖𝑖𝑗 is the elastic part of the strain
Total strain increment, 𝑃
𝑒 𝑃 increment and 𝑑𝜖𝑖𝑗 is the plastic part
𝑑𝜖𝑖𝑗 = 𝑑𝜖𝑖𝑗 + 𝑑𝜖𝑖𝑗
of the strain

𝑒 1 + 𝜈 ′ 1 − 2𝜈 𝑑𝜎𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝜖𝑖𝑗 = 𝑑𝜎𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑖𝑗
𝐸 𝐸 3
𝑃
𝑑𝜖𝑖𝑗 = 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜎𝑖𝑗′
Prandtl-Reuss Equations
𝑑𝜖11
1 2 1
= 𝑑𝜎11 − 𝜈 𝑑𝜎22 + 𝑑𝜎33 + 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜎11 − 𝑑𝜎22 + 𝑑𝜎33
𝐸 3 2
𝑑𝜖22
1 2 1
= 𝑑𝜎22 − 𝜈 𝑑𝜎33 + 𝑑𝜎11 + 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜎22 − 𝑑𝜎33 + 𝑑𝜎11
𝐸 3 2
𝑑𝜖33
1 2 1
= 𝑑𝜎33 − 𝜈 𝑑𝜎11 + 𝑑𝜎22 + 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜎33 − 𝑑𝜎11 + 𝑑𝜎22
𝐸 3 2
1+𝜈
𝑑𝜖12 = 𝑑𝜎12 + 𝑑𝜆𝑑𝜎12
𝐸
1+𝜈
𝑑𝜖23 = 𝑑𝜎23 + 𝑑𝜆𝑑𝜎23
𝐸
1+𝜈
𝑑𝜖31 = 𝑑𝜎31 + 𝑑𝜆𝑑𝜎31
𝐸
Octahedral Stress

Consider the
principal
directions as the
coordinate axes.
The plane whose
normal vector
forms equal
angles with the
coordinate
system is called
octahedral plane.
There are eight
such planes
forming an
octahedron.
Octahedral Stress
𝜎1 0 0
𝜎= 0 𝜎2 0
0 0 𝜎3

1
𝑛1 = 𝑛2 = 𝑛3 =
3

1 1
𝜎𝑜𝑐𝑡 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝐻 = 𝐼1
3 3
1 2 2 2 1Τ2 2 ′
𝜏𝑜𝑐𝑡 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 = 𝐼
3 3 2
Effective Stress and Effective Strain
2 2 2 2 1Τ2
𝜎ത = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1
2
2 2 2 2 1ൗ2
𝑑𝜖 ҧ = 𝑑𝜖1 − 𝑑𝜖2 + 𝑑𝜖2 − 𝑑𝜖3 + 𝑑𝜖3 − 𝑑𝜖1
2
1ൗ
2 2
𝑑𝜖 ҧ = 𝑑𝜖12 + 𝑑𝜖22 + 𝑑𝜖32
3
3 𝑑𝜖 ҧ
𝑑𝜆 =
2𝜎ത
Yield Criterion
❑ Analysis of metal forming processes requires knowledge of
the yield criterion, work hardening and stress-strain relations
❑ Yield conditions are functions of stresses

❑ For a simple tensile in case of uniaxial state of stress, the yield

condition is given as 𝝈𝟏𝟏 − 𝝈𝟎 ≥ 𝟎 where 𝜎0 is the yield
strength of the material in tension or compression

❑ For multi axial state of 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝐻 𝛿𝑖𝑗 + 𝜎𝑖𝑗′

stress, the yield
condition as some 1
function may be written 𝜎𝐻 = 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33
as
3
𝜎𝑖𝑗′ = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 − 𝜎𝐻
𝑭 𝝈𝒊𝒋 = 𝟎
Yield Criterion

❑ A yield criterion is a hypothesis defining the limit of elasticity

in a material and the onset of plastic deformation under any
possible combination of stresses.
❑ Yield function is a function of the invariants of the deviator
part of the stress tensor
❑ Valid for isotropic metallic materials
❑ Let 𝐼1′ , 𝐼2′ , 𝐼3′ be the three invariants of the components of the
deviator part of the stress tensor
𝑭 𝑰′𝟏 , 𝑰′𝟐 , 𝑰′𝟑 = 𝟎

𝐼1′ = 0, 𝑭 𝑰′𝟐 , 𝑰′𝟑 = 𝟎

𝐹 𝐼2′ , 𝐼3′ = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐼2′ + 𝐶𝐼3′ + 𝐷 𝐼3′ 2 + 𝐸 𝐼2′ 𝐼3′ + ⋯ = 0

A, B, C, D, E, … are constants
Yield Criterion
Von-Mises’ Yield Criterion
❑ Von-Mises proposed that yielding would occur when the
second invariant of the stress deviator would exceed some
critical value
𝑰′𝟐 = 𝒌𝟐
Where 𝑘 is a constant which may be related to the material
properties

𝜎11 − 𝜎22 2 + 𝜎22 − 𝜎33 2 + 𝜎33 − 𝜎11 2

2 2 2
+ 6 𝜎12 + 𝜎23 + 𝜎31 = 6𝑘 2

𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2 = 6𝑘 2
𝜎0
Under uniaxial tension, 𝜎1 = 𝜎0 , 𝜎2 = 0, 𝜎3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑘 =
√3
Von-Mises’ Yield Criterion
Von-Mises’ Yield Criterion
Tresca Criterion

❑ Tresca proposed – A metal body reaches the yield point when

the maximum shear stress in the body reaches a critical value
1 1 1
max 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 , 𝜎𝟐 − 𝜎𝟑 , 𝜎𝟑 − 𝜎𝟏 = 𝑘
2 2 2
where 𝑘 is a constant which may be related to the material
properties
❑ In terms of the invariants of deviator stress
𝑓 𝐼21 , 𝐼3′ = 4 = 𝐼2′3 − 27𝐼3′3 − 36𝑘 2 𝐼2′2 + 96𝑘 4 𝐼2′ − 64𝑘 6 = 0
Principal Stress Space
A purely hydrostatic stress σ1 = σ2 = σ3=σH will
lie along the vector [111] in principal stress
space. For any point on this line, there can be
no yielding, since in metals, it is found
experimentally that hydrostatic stress does not
induce plastic deformation
Suppose σ1 > σ2 > σ3, then the largest difference Hydrostatic line
between principal stresses is given by (σ1 – σ3).
If yielding occurs when σ1 = Y, σ2 = σ3 = 0,
then (σ1 – σ3) = Y.
For yield in pure shear at some shear
stress k, when referred to the principal
stress state we could have
𝜎1 = 𝑘, 𝜎2 = 0, 𝜎3 = −𝑘 ⇒ 𝑌 = 2𝑘
The Tresca criterion is (σ1 – σ3) = Y = 2k.
Yield Surface

❑ A yield surface is a two-dimensional area for 2D state of

stress and a 3D surface for 3D state of stress
❑ It is usually convex and the state of stress of inside the yield
surface is elastic
❑ When the stress state lies on the surface the material is said
to have reached its yield point and the material is said to
have become plastic.
❑ Further deformation of the material causes the stress state to
remain on the yield surface, even though the shape and size
of the surface may change as the plastic deformation evolves.
❑ The yield surface is usually expressed in terms of a three-
dimensional principal stress space (𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 ), a two- or
three-dimensional space spanned by stress invariants
Biaxial Yield Surface
For plane stress, let the principal
stresses be σ1 and σ2, with σ3 = 0.
𝜎33 = 𝜎13 = 𝜎23 = 0
The second invariant of the
deviatoric stress is
1 2
𝐼2 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎22 = 𝑘 2
′
3
Coordinate transformation

The equation in x-y coordinate is

As it can be seen from the equation, the semi-
major and the semi-minor axes of the yield
curve are 2𝜎𝑦 and 2/3𝜎𝑦 respectively
Biaxial Yield Surface
The Tresca yield surface is an irregular
hexagon and the von Mises yield surface is an
ellipse. The ratio of the length of the major
and minor axes of this ellipse is √3: 1.
In the quadrant where 𝜎1 > 0 and 𝜎2 > 0, the
Tresca yield surface is a square.
To see this, first suppose 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 for
example. Since 𝜎3 < 𝜎2 , yield occurs on the
Tresca criterion when 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 = 𝑌 i.e.,
for 𝜎1 = 𝑌 because 𝜎3 = 0 . When 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 ,
yield occurs at 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = Y. Similarly,
for 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 in this quadrant, yield occurs
when 𝜎2 = Y.
The shape of the Tresca yield surface in the quadrant where 𝜎1 > 0 and
𝜎2 < 0 is a straight line because the third principal stress 𝜎3 will be the
intermediate principal stress. Hence in this quadrant the yield criterion
becomes |𝜎1 − 𝜎2 | = 𝑌
whence the straight line linking (-1,0) to (0,1) in the diagram. The shape of
the Tresca yield surface in the remaining two quadrants follows similarly.
Triaxial Yield Surface
❑ It shows a bounding surface
in a 3-D principal stress
coordinate system where the
von Mises stress is a
constant value. (This is the
so called High-Westerguard
Space.)
❑ It is based on the fact that
any stress state can be
converted into its principal
values and compared to this
sketch.
❑ If the resulting principal
stress point in the
coordinate system is within
the cylinder, then the
material has not yielded.
❑ If it is on the surface, then the material has yielded. And if it is outside the
cylinder, it means that you did an elastic analysis of a situation that cannot
in fact be correct because yielding would have long since taken place.
Triaxial Yield Surface
1

2
Von Mises and Tresca criteria on p plane
Experimental Verification of Yield Surface
❑ In the uniaxial tensile test, the
condition for the beginning of
plastic flow was described by the
yield strength, giving the axial
normal component of stress at
which practically important
plastic deformation was
observed.
❑ When several components of
stress are present, yielding must
depend on some particular
combination of these
components.
❑ Experiments have been carried
out thin-walled tubes with
various amounts of axial load
applied to determine under what
combinations of these two
normal components of stress the
material will yield.
Experimental Verification of Yield Surface
Strain Hardening
In the elastic range the force-displacement behavior for most
engineering materials is linear. After passing the elastic limit the
material “gives” and is said to undergo plastic flow. Further
increases in load are usually required to maintain the plastic
flow and an increase in displacement; this phenomenon is
known as work-hardening or strain-hardening.
Strain Hardening
The true stress-strain
can be approximated by
a power law expression
𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
𝑛 is the strain hardening
component and
constant 𝐾 is called the
strength coefficient

Barreling during Isotropic Hardening

Behavior during necking compression Kinematic Hardening
Strain Hardening Constants
Work Hardening Rules – Isotropic Hardening

❑ The yield strength increases equally in all directions

❑ The yield surface expands uniformly in the radial direction
❑ The extent or magnitude of work hardening is generally
related to plastic work done or the total strain suffered by the
material
Work Hardening Rules – Kinematic Hardening

❑ The yield surface remains the same shape and size. It is rigid
transformation
❑ The entire yield surface transforms in the direction of the
strain vector
❑ The extend of shift is related to the magnitude of the strain
suffered
Bauschinger Effect
If one takes a virgin sample and
loads it in tension into the plastic
range, and then unloads it and
continues on into compression, one
finds that the yield stress in
compression is not the same as the
yield strength in tension, as it
would have been if the specimen
had not first been loaded in tension.
In fact the yield point in this case
will be significantly less than the
corresponding yield stress in
tension. This reduction in yield
stress is known as the
Bauschinger effect.
Bauschinger Effect
The lowering of the yield
stress in reversed loading is
mainly caused by residual
stresses that are left in the
specimen on a microscopic
scale due to the different
stress states in the individual
crystals. The Bauschinger
effect can, therefore, be
largely removed by a mild
annealing. In the theory of
plasticity, it is generally
necessary to neglect the
Bauschinger effect, the
material being assumed to
have identical yield stresses
in tension and compression
irrespective of the previous
cold-work.
Strain Rate
Infinitesimal rectangular
material element ABCD
on a sheet that deforms
within an infinitesimal
time dt under the action
of internal forces into the
rhombus
A'B'C'D'

The whole deformation

consists of three basic
items:
1. Change of length of the
sides in two orthogonal
directions x and y
2. Change of the included
90° angle between the
sides of the infinitesimal The change in normal strain per unit
element time along each coordinate axis is
3. Rigid body translation
and rotation of the defined as the strain rate
whole element
Velocity and Strain rate
𝑑𝜖𝑥𝑥 𝜕 𝑑𝑢 Τ𝜕 𝑥 𝜕 𝑑 𝑢Τ𝑑 𝑡
𝜖𝑥𝑥
ሶ = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢ሶ
𝜖𝑥𝑥
ሶ =
𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝜖𝑦𝑦 𝜕 𝑑𝑣 Τ𝜕 𝑦 𝜕 𝑑 𝑣Τ𝑑 𝑡
𝜖𝑦𝑦
ሶ = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣ሶ
𝜖𝑦𝑦
ሶ =
𝜕𝑦
1
𝑑𝜖𝑥𝑦 𝜕 𝑑𝜈 Τ𝜕 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑢 Τ𝜕 𝑦
𝜖𝑥𝑦
ሶ = = 𝜖𝑦𝑥
ሶ = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Effective strain in terms of effective strain rate
1 𝜕𝜈ሶ 𝜕𝑢ሶ 𝑡
𝜖𝑥𝑦
ሶ = +
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜖 ҧ = න 𝜖ሶ ҧ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0