PERFORMANCE

2. ENGINE PERFORMANCE & INDICATOR CARDS

1. INTRODUCTION TO ENGINE PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

1. ABOUT

 The efficiency of any machinery on board ship is directly related to its

performance. In order to get the best out of marine engines, it is very
important to monitor their performances and take measures to achieve an
efficient combustion.
 Ensuring this will not only reduce generation of pollution from engines but
also the overall operating cost of the ship.

2. INDICATOR CARDS

 There are two types of Indicator Card : 1) Manual   2) Automatic

 Reading is to be taken at:
1. NCR (Nominal Continuous Rating)
2. When the ship is in loaded condition (not ballast).
3. And the sea should be calm
 Before taking the reading always:
1. Blow through
2. Clean Piston and Liner (and put a drop of oil in it)
 The first Card is made by the Maker and the Ship-yard as the basis
 Atmospheric Line: Rotate the barrel manually when the engine is not
running and press the stylus on the Card – this gives Atmospheric Pressure
Line.
2.1. TYPES OF INDICATOR DIAGRAMS

1. Power card
2. Draw card
3. Compression diagram
4. Light spring diagram
 

3. ENGINE CONTROL PARAMETERS

 The engine control parameters like fuel injection timing, exhaust
valve timing, variable turbocharger vane opening angles, lambda
control etc. are monitored and any variation is set to achieve the best
possible efficient combustion.
 

4. ENGINE PARAMETERS

 The engine parameters are the best source for finding out any fault or
variation in the engine performance. Variation in temperature,
pressure and power produced by each cylinder must be frequently
monitored and adjustment must be done accordingly to achieve
efficient combustion (mostly includes all logbook recordings).

5. PERFORMANCE CURVES

 During the test bed or shop trial the performance curves of the engine
are plotted. The performance curves are the graphs of different
parameters on x-axis plotted against engine power or load on the y-
axis.  These different plotted curves are as follows:


1. Engine RPM vs. Load: This curve helps in ascertaining whether main
engine is overloaded or not. A higher power generated at a lower
RPM indicates an over loaded main engine.

2. Mean effective pressure vs. Load: Mean effective pressure is used to

calculate horse power hence these two values should co-relate. In
case they don’t then there may be some error in calculation or
instrumentation.

3. Maximum pressure vs. Load: This curve helps in knowing the

condition of fuel injection equipment, injection timing and the
compression in the cylinder etc.
4. Compression pressure vs. Load: This curve indicates the condition of
the parts maintaining compression like piston, piston rings and
exhaust valves.

5. Scavenge air pressure vs. Load:  It indicates the condition of the

turbocharger and associated equipment.

6. Exhaust gas temperature in receiver vs. Load: It indicates the

enthalpy of the exhaust gas prior to entry in turbocharger. This value
compared with the value after the turbocharger gives the temperature
drop across the turbocharger, is an indicator of turbocharger
efficiency.

7. Exhaust gas temperature after exhaust valve vs. Load: This curve
sheds light on the combustion, fuel injection, timing and compression
etc.  A higher temperature may be caused due to after burning.

8. Exhaust gas temperature after turbocharger vs. Load: This curve is

very useful as it indicates the enthalpy captured from the exhaust by
the turbocharger and hence its condition. In case the receiver
temperature is within range but the outlet temperature is higher it
may indicate fouling of the turbocharger and hence the associated
lower scavenge air pressure and high exhaust gas temperature.

9. Total excess air ratio vs. Load: This curve is scarcely used by ship
staff and is useful for design engineers. This curve sheds light on
scavenging and the turbocharger capacity and condition. It shows
that as the power increases the excess air decreases due to
consumption.

10. Specific fuel oil consumption vs. Load: This curve helps to

counter check whether the engine is consuming fuel oil correctly as
per the load.
 There may be other parameters listed as per manufacturer. A typical
performance curve for a slow speed two stroke marine diesel engine
is given below.

2. POWER CARD

1. USE TO POWER CARD

 Power card is used to find out,

1. IHP developed by each unit
2. Total BHP
3. To check if engine is balanced
4. To know engine is running at what % of MCR
5. To find SFOC

2. MEASURE INDICATED POWER WITH INDICATOR DIAGRAM

 The burning of fuel in an engine cylinder (2-stroke or 4-stroke diesel

engine) will result in the production of power at an output shaft, some
of the power produced in the cylinder will be used to drive the rotating
masses of the engine.
 Typical indicator diagram for a 2-stroke engine is shown in figure
below. This power card or PV-diagram can be used to measure
indicated power in diesel engines. The area within the diagram “a”
represents the work done within the cylinder in one cycle.

 The area can be measured by an instrument known as ‘Planimeter’ or

by the use of the mid ordinates rule. The area “a” is then divided by
the length “l” of the diagram in order to obtain mean height . This
mean height, when multiplied by the spring scale “k” of the indicator
mechanism, gives the indicated mean effective pressures for the
cylinder.
 The mean effective or average pressure “Pm” can now be used to
determine the work done in the cylinder. Following calculations can
be made to the area of indicator diagram to measure indicated
power.
 

2.1 CALCULATION
 Area of the indicator diagram = a [mm2]
Average height of the diagram = a (mm2] / l [mm]
Average mean indicator pressure = a [mm2] / l [mm] x  k [bar/mm]

or Pm = (a/l)  x  k [bar]

where k = spring scale in bar per mm

 Work done in one cycle = Mean Indicated Pressure  x  Area of the
Piston  x  Length of stroke
= [PM]  x  [A]  x  [L]
 To obtain the power of this unit, it is necessary to determine the rate
at which work is done,
i.e. multiply work by number of power strokes in one second.
 Now, Indicated Power of Unit [ip] = 
Mean Indicated Pressure [Pm]  x  Area of Piston [A]   x  Length of
Stroke [L]  x  Number of Power Strokes per Second [N]

(or) Indicated Power of Unit = Pm LAN

 Unit of Final Result

Indicated Power = PmLAN

= (a/l) xk [bar] x L [m] XA [m2] x N [1/s]

= [bar] x [m] x [m2] x [1/s] = 105 N/m2 x mx m2 x 1/s
= 105 Nm/s = 105 Joules/s
= 105 Watts
 

2.2 MEAN EFFECTIVE AND INDICATED PRESSURE

 The Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) is a theoretical parameter used to

measure the performance of an internal combustion engine (ICE). Even if it
contains the word “pressure” it’s not an actual pressure measurement
within the engine cylinder.
 The mean effective pressure can be regarded as an average pressure in the
cylinder for a complete engine cycle. Mean effective pressure is the ratio
between the work and engine displacement.
 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure or Mean Indicated Pressure (MIP) It is a
pressure which on acting upon the piston, performs the same works as the
actual pressure on the operating cycle. It is the ratio of the work done
during the working stroke to the swept volume.
 It may be thought of as the average pressure acting on a piston during the
different portions of its cycle.
 Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) is the mean effective pressure
calculated with indicated power (work). This parameter does not consider
the efficiency of the engine.

3. CALCULATING TOTAL BHP

 Total BHP = Sum of BHP’s of all units.

 BHP = IHP – Losses
 To find BHP, a theoretical method is used,

 Just plot the (Fuel Index) x (RPM) against BHP and you have the Total BHP
of the engine.
 Fuel Index – Ignition quality of the fuel
 This Graph is given by the maker which is made from the initial testing at
sea trial.
 Now if you are using a different fuel than the one used at the sea trial,
1. Calorific Value changes
2. Temperature at the Viscotherm changes (viscosity index)
 A separate graph is there which will tell us about the variation that has
occurred and how much Value we need to multiply to the value obtained
by the Sea Trial method to get the Current Actual Value of the BHP.
 Then we can use BHP to find out SFOC and SCOC.
 Alternative Method used nowadays,

o
 A Graph of Turbocharger RPM, Scavenge Pressure, M/E RPM,
are used to calculate the BHP.
 More Attributes – more accuracy.
 The Procedure for the Calculation is given in the Manual.

4. TO CHECK IF THE ENGINE IS BALANCED

 BHP’s of all units should be equal.

 

5. TO KNOW THE % OF MCR THE ENGINE IS RUNNINTG AT

 The % of MCR the engine is running at = % of BHP the engine is producing.

 

6. FINDING SFOC (SPECIFIC FUEL OIL CONSUMPTION)

 SFOC = grams of fuel oil burned to create 1 BHP in hour

           = (fuel consumption in grams) / (BHP output) / (time in hrs)
Suppose,  1 Day  ➡  24 m3 (Consumption)                       1 hr     ➡  1  m3  =  1,000
lit of fuel
°
 And,         sp.gvt.  ➡ 0.99 @ 15 C
We heated it to 130°C, and from the table we find
                          Sp.gvt.  ➡ 0.95 @ 130*C
 So now fuel consumption per hour  =  1,000  x  0.95
                                                                = 950 kg/hr
                                                                = 950  x  1,000 g/hr
 Therefore,        SFOC = 950 x 1,000 / BHP  (this is normally around 120-135
g/BHP/hr)
                                  

6.1. FINDING SCOC (SPECIFIC CYLINDER OIL CONSUMPTION)

 Lets say,      240 lit/day  (consumption)

Then,            10   lit/hr
 And,               Sp.gvt.  ➡  0.95 @ 15°C
We get,          Sp.gvt.  ➡  0.94 @ 40°C
 So,      SCOC = 9.4 x 1,000 / BHP (Normally around 1.0  g/BHP/hr)      
 If, SCOC<1.0    -> Cylinder liner, rings maybe dry, you are using less oil
If, SCOC>1.0    -> Deposition of oil maybe occurring

7. AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC INDICATOR INSTRUMENT

 On modern engines indicator diagrams can be continuously taken by

employing two transducers, one pressure transducer in the combustion
space and other transducer on the shaft. Through the computer we can
thus get online indicated diagram and power of all cylinders automatically
calculated continuously
 (1) – Amplifier – The signals from transducers are very small
 (2) – Injector Pressure Transducers is connected to Fuel Valve usually
having a Plug-On system.
 (3) – Connected to the Indicator cock.
 (4) – Magnetic Pick-Ups are used (usually-2) they read the degrees marked
on the flywheel to know at what degree the fuel was injected, etc. (much
more accurate and flywheel twisting is also accounted).

 Disadvantage of Electrotonic Indicator Card is that if suppose the Indicator

cock is chocked, more heat will be present there and will give incorrect
reading.
 To overcome – Strain Gauges are put over two cylinder head studs and the
strain on them is read through the microprocessor.

3. DRAW CARDS

1. ABOUT
 The compression and peak pressures can be measured with a scale directly
by measuring their lengths. It is kept in the box of the instrument.
 If there is a problem in the unit (which is usually fuel), we cannot find it by
using power card since the ignition start – end is very small as shown
above, therefore we use Draw Card

 Draw cards are also called 90° Out of Phase Cards, it is around 90° out of
phase.
 This card is pulled manually.
 The starting point is when the Compression starts, start pulling the card at
such a speed that the end of the card coincides with the end of Expansion.
 This in a way magnifies the Volume scale to detect any variation.

2. WORKING

 (1)-(2) ➡  Delay in Injection
 (2)        ➡  Injection Starts
 (2)-(3) ➡  Delay in Ignition
 (3)        ➡  Ignition Starts
 (3)-(4) ➡  Ignition
 (4)        ➡  Ignition of the Later Injected fuel starts (after start of
ignition)
 (5)        ➡  Injection Ends
 (4)-(6) ➡  Ignition of Later injected fuel
 (6)        ➡  Ignition of Later injected fuel ends
 (6)-(7) ➡  If fuel manages to burn after (6) ➡ Afterburning (the
diagram may look as shown in the figure). This usually happens due
to Sack Volume (Slack Volume – The fuel left in the Nozzle after the
Valve is closed).

3. FALUT FINDING

3.1. EARLY IGNITION 

 At MCR if Peak Pressure is Increased -> Damage due to

Knocking, Exhaust temperature also increases.
 At NCR if we intentionally do Early Ignition -> Peak Pressure Increases
but within Limits -> This Increases the Area of Card (A) -> BHP
Increases -> SFOC & SCOC Decreases -> also results in Complete
Combustion.
 Indications of Early Ignition:

1. Abnormal High Peak Pressure.

2. A Heavy Shock load will be transmitted to the Running Gear and to
the Bearing with a corresponding Knocking Sound.
3. Thermal Efficiency is High, and Exhaust Temperature is Low (but
Shock Load and Consequent Vibration may cause damage).

 Causes of Early Ignition:

1. Incorrect Fuel Pump Timing.

2. Broken (or) Wrongly set Injection Spring.
3. Incorrect Fuel condition.
4. Overheating of parts within the Cylinder.

3.2. LATE IGNITION

 Indications of Late Ignition:

1. Low Peak Pressure.

2. Combustion may continue during Expansion Stroke and maybe
Incomplete resulting in:
3. Loss of energy
4. High Exhaust Temperature
5. Smoke
6. Power is Lost (incomplete Combustion).
7. Sealing of the Piston Rings maybe effected – Blow Past – If for long
time – Scavenge Fire.

 Causes of Late Ignition:

1. Excessive Injector Spring setting.

2. Poor Quality of Fuel.
3. Incorrect Viscotherm
4. Fuel Pump – Leaky (or) Incorrectly Timed.
5. Undercooling of Parts within Cylinder.
6. Poor Atomization.
7. Low Compression.
8. Insufficient Supply of Combustion Air.

3.3. AFTERBURNING

 Question – What is happening when Exhaust Temperature is High but

Peak Pressure is Low – Afterburning

 Indications of Afterburning:

1. Rise in expansion Pressure in the Later part of the stroke.

2. Exhaust Temperature and pressure will be high,
3. Black Smoke (Burning Fuel and carbon passing through the Exhaust).
4. – This may burn Exhaust Valve
– Foul Exhaust System
– Risk of Turbocharger Surging
– Risk in fir in uptakes
5. High temperature in Cylinder – Deterioration in Lubrication (sludge
formation) and Possible Damage – Liner Surface, Piston Rings,
Piston Crown can be burned too

 Causes:
1. Slow or Late Combustion of the Fuel.
2. Poor Quality of the Fuel
3. High Viscosity and Low Temperature of the Fuel.
4. Leaky or partly chocked injector valve

3.4. LEAKY FUEL INJECTO

 Indications of Leaky Fuel Injector:

1. Loss of Power, Black Smoke at Exhaust, High Exhaust Temperature.

2. Maybe Knock or Pressure Wave in the Injector System.
3. Fluctuations of Pressure in the Indicator Diagram during the Process.
4. A High Expansion Line at the Exhaust Opening – Indicates
Afterburning.

 Causes of Leaky Fuel Injector:

1. Fuel Leaks from the Valve (improper closing).

2. Closing spring lost its tension or broken.
3. Hot Gasses from the Cylinder may Blowback into the Injector Tip (if
hole size increased), forming Carbon and Chocking the Atomizer
(improper closing).
4. Carbon may also form on the Outside of the Automizer due to burning
of the Dribble Fuel.
5. Filter not working properly – Chocking
 

3.5. PARTLY CHOCKED FUEL VALVE:

 Indications of Partly Chocked Fuel Valve:

1. Reduced exhaust Temperature.

2. Indications in Power Draw card.
3. Loss of Power in Engine.

 Causes of Partly Chocked Fuel Valve:

1. Contamination of fuel with Debris.

2. Hot Gases Blowback to Leaky Injector to form Carbon.
3. Overheating of Injector Causes Build-up of Carbon.
 LIGHT SPRING & COMPRESSION CARD 

1. LIGHT SPRING DIAGRAM

 Replace the Actual Spring with a Light Spring (given in the Instrument Box).
 It tells us about any faults in Exhaust and Scavenge Systems.
 It shows the Pressure up to 5-6 kgs.

 (A) – Atmospheric Line

 (B) – Pressure at which the Compression begins
 (C)-(D) – Fall in Exhaust Pressure after Exhaust Valve opens
 (C) – Exhaust Valve opens
 (D) – Scavenge port opens
 (E) – Lowest pressure in the cylinder during Scavenging
 (F) – Compression Line
1.1. Early Exhaust Valve Opening 

 High Exhaust Temperature with the Risk of Overheating (or) Contamination.

 Causes a Loss of Power since Pressure is Released too soon.
 

1.2. Late Exhaust Valve Opening 

 Reduces the Scavenge Efficiency by reducing Blowdown.

 Affects the Supply of Energy to the Turbocharger.

1.3. Chocked Exhaust

 Indications and Effects

1. Power loss in the unit

2. Increased exhaust temperature
3. Turbocharger surging
4. adversely affect scavenging efficiency
 Causes

1. Improper combustion
2. Increased cylinder lube oil

2. COMPRESSION CARDS

 Taken with fuel cut-off to that unit

2.1. Low Compression:

 Indications 

1. Indicates Low Pressure in the Diagram.

2. Engine Power Loss.
3. Low Exhaust temperature.

 Causes 

1. Faulty Combustion.
2. Lack of Air being Supplied.
3. Air escaping past the Piston during Compression due to Worn Out
(or) Broken Piston Rings, Worn Liner, Worn Inlet/Exhaust Valve, etc.
5. SHIP SEA TRIAL

1. ABOUT

 There are Two Books onboard to refer the readings with:

1. Sea Trial (taken among E, Captain, Compony Executive, Classification
Society Executive).
2. Shop Test (made during the ship was made).

2. OFFICIAL SEA TRIAL

 This is done officially in the open sea. This trial includes:

1. Consumption Test (SFOC).
2. Guarantee Speed Test: Between two fixed point power at MCR and
NCR, indicator cards are taken at 50%, 60%, …, 100% with 10% slip
allowed.
%Slip  =  [Theoretical Distance – Observed Distance / Theoretical
Distance] x  100  

3. Astern Speed Test: Where astern power is limited to 50-80% of MCR.

4. Overload Test: The engine runs in an overload condition (usually
110%) at set controlled overload rating (for 1 hour).
5. Minimum Stable Speed Test: It is confirmed for smooth running at a
given irregularity factor. The engine shall not stall at their speed. This
decides our Dead Slow Ahead.
6. Starting and Reversing Test: It checks the starting/reversing systems
for reliability, and capacity of air reservoir for minimum number of
starts (6-ahead, 6-astern) and its pressure drops (without air
compressor running).
7. Vibration Test: Torsional and transverse vibrations are checked (with
a device at different places- bridge, accommodation, E/R, etc) also at
hard port and stbd.
8. Cylinder Cut-out Test: Cut-out one of the units (fuel) and see if
engine is still running.
9. Minimum Number of Units Firing Test: Cut-out, suppose, 2 units and
the engine should work at low RPM.
10. Noise Measurement Test.
11. Stop Trial Test: To test how quickly the ship can stop, for safety
reasons, when sailing under constant propulsion.
 Acknowledge the bridge request for reversal of direction.

 The start air cam gets reversed due to telegraph acknowledgment.

However, the fuel is cut off by the running direction interlock since
telegraph is opposite to the turning direction of the engine.
 Now put the fuel lever at ‘0’ setting.
 When rpm reduces to 20% to 40% MCR rpm, put the fuel lever to
minimum start setting.
 Astern rpm is much less than the ahead rpm as the engine is
tremendously overloaded due to increased propeller slip.
 Start air becomes braking air because the start air cam reversal
allows air supply in for astern timings, when the engine is still moving
with ahead timings.
3. SHOP TEST

 Similar tests are done in shop and engine parameters are checked.
 In Sop Test to find out the BHP a belt is put on the flywheel which
gives friction (load), the belt is continuously supplied with water or
any cooling medium. Then the engine is run at NCR and the peak
pressure is taken.

6. OTHER COMMON QUESTIONS

Q. What are the readings and diagrams taken from the indicator cards
compared with while looking for irregularities?

 There are Two Books onboard to refer the readings with:

1. Sea Trial (taken among E, Captain, Compony Executive, Classification
Society Executive).
2. Shop Test (made during the ship was made).

Q. How will we remove elasticity from the cord of the instrument in case there
is present any?

 To remove the elasticity from the cord suspend a weight through it for a
certain amount of time depending upon the amount of elasticity present in
the cord.
Q. Why we do not take Indicator Card readings for generators?

 Their RPM is too high (700-900) (while, M/E – 100). And The
Consumption is not that much.
 For Generators, we generally take Peak Pressure for Investigation, a
Compression Pressure can be taken by cutting off the fuel supply.

Q. How to know whether the Indicator Cam is in align with the Actual Cam?
 We take a reading (diagram) with the fuel shut off,
 If the case like above happens, Retard the Indicator Cam from its motion
until it gives the right reading
 The first card is taken by the shipyard which acts the basis to refer.
 In case Compression Stroke shows more pressure than Expansion Stroke
then we need to Advance the Indicator Cam.

Q. How to find whether all units are equal in the engine using draw card?

 To find If the units are equal in the engine by Draw Card ➡ All Peak
Pressures should be equal.

Q. Reasons for increase in engine’s SFOC?

1. Quality of fuel received after bunkering is not good.
2. Improper maintenance of main engine.
3. Engine part defective. For eg. fuel injector, exhaust valve, air cooler,
turbocharger (compressor side), etc.
4. Rough sea and weather conditions.
5. Ship’s external body dirty or weared out. For eg. Ship’s hull or propeller.
6. Improper shaft or cylinder lubrication causing resistance in the propeller
motion.