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Glossary

Laws of Indices

Last digit of an

HCF and LCM

Factor Theory

NUMBER SYSTEM Divisibility Rules

Algebraic Formulae

Remainder / Modular Arithmetic

Base System Concepts

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Glossary Absolute value: Absolute value of x (written as |x|) is

the distance of 'x' from 0 on the number line. |x| is
Natural Numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4….. always positive. |x| = x for x > 0 OR -x for x < 0

Whole Numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4…..

Integers: ….-2, -1, 0, 1, 2 ….. Funda: The product of ‘n’ consecutive natural numbers
is always divisible by n!
Rational Numbers: Any number which can be expressed
as a ratio of two integers for example a p/q format Funda: Square of any natural number can be written in
where ‘p’ and ‘q’ are integers. Proper fraction will have the form of 3n or 3n+1. Also, square of any natural
(p<q) and improper fraction will have (p>q) number can be written in the form of 4n or 4n+1.

Factors: A positive integer ‘f’ is said to be a factor of a Funda: Square of a natural number can only end in 0, 1,
given positive integer 'n' if f divides n without leaving a 4, 5, 6 or 9. Second last digit of a square of a natural
remainder. e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 are the factors of 12. number is always even except when last digit is 6. If the
last digit is 5, second last digit has to be 2.
Prime Numbers: A prime number is a positive number
which has no factors besides itself and unity. Funda: Any prime number greater than 3 can be written
as 6k 1.
Composite Numbers: A composite number is a number
which has other factors besides itself and unity. Funda: Any two digit number ‘pq’ can effectively be
written as 10p+q and a three digit number ‘pqr’ can
Factorial: For a natural number 'n', its factorial is effectively be written as 100p+10q+r.
defined as: n! = 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x .... x n (Note: 0! = 1)

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Laws of Indices Last digit of an

n(Right)
1 2 3 4 Cyclicity
a(Down)
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 4 8 6 4
3 3 9 7 1 4
4 4 6 4 6 2
5 5 5 5 5 1
6 6 6 6 6 1
7 7 9 3 1 4
8 8 4 2 6 4
9 9 1 9 1 2

m n
Funda: The fifth power of any number has the same
Funda: If a = a , then m = n units place digit as the number itself.
Funda: If am = bm and m ;
Then a = b if m is Odd
Or a = b if m is Even

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Last 2 digits Factor Theory

Last two digits of a1^b will be [last digit of a*b]1 If N = xaybzc where x, y, z are prime factors. Then,
Last two digits of 24^Odd will be 24 and 24^Even will be Number of factors of N = P = (a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1)
76. We can use this to find last two digits of any even
– – –
number. Sum of factors of N =
Last two digits of a5^x, given that a is even, will be 25 if Number of ways N can be written as product of two
a is even. Last two digits of a5^x, given that a is odd, will factors = P/2 or (P+1)/2 if P is even or odd respectively
be 25 if x even and 75 if x id odd.
The number of ways in which a composite number can
HCF and LCM be resolved into two co-prime factors is 2m-1, where m is
the number of different prime factors of the number.
For two numbers, HCF x LCM = product of the two.
Number of numbers which are less than N and co-prime
HCF of Fractions = to {Euler’s Totient}

LCM of Fractions = Funda: If N = (2)a(y)b(z)c where x, y, z are prime factors

Number of even factors of N = (a)(b+1)(c+1)
Relatively Prime or Co-Prime Numbers: Two positive Number of odd factors of N = (b+1)(c+1)
integers are said to be relatively prime to each other if
their highest common factor is 1.

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Divisibility Rules Algebraic Formulae

A number is divisible by:
2, 4 & 8 when the number formed by the last, last two, a3 ± b3 = (a ± b)(a2 ab + b2). Hence, a3 ± b3 is divisible
by (a ± b) and (a2 ± ab + b2).
last three digits are divisible by 2,4 & 8 respectively.
3 & 9 when the sum of the digits of the number is an - bn = (a – b)(an-1 + an-2b+ an-3b2 + ... + bn-1)[for all n].
divisible by 3 & 9 respectively. Hence, an - bn is divisible by a - b for all n.

an - bn = (a + b)(an-1 – an-2b + an-3b2 ... – bn-1)[n-even]

11 when the difference between the sum of the digits in Hence, an - bn is divisible by a + b for even n.
the odd places and of those in even places is 0 or a
multiple of 11. an + bn = (a + b)(an-1 – an-2b + an-3b2 + ... + bn-1)[n-odd]
Hence, an + bn is divisible by a + b for odd n.
6, 12 & 15 when it is divisible by 2 and 3, 3 and 4 & 3 a3 + b3 + c3 - 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 - ab - ac - bc)
and 5 respectively. Hence, a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc if a + b + c = 0

7, if the number of tens added to five times the number

of units is divisible by 7. For ex., check divisibility of 312 by 7, 13 & 19
13, if the number of tens added to four times the
number of units is divisible by 13.  For 7: 31 + 2 x 5 = 31 + 10 = 41 Not divisible
 For 13: 31 + 2 x 4 = 31 + 8 = 39 Divisible.
19, if the number of tens added to twice the number of
 For 19: 31 + 2 x 2 = 31 + 4 = 35 Not divisible.
units is divisible by 19.
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Remainder / Modular Arithmetic  {Such that ax+by = 1}

Example:

Case 1 – When the dividend (M) and divisor (N) have a 

factor in common (k)
{Such that 3x+5y=1}
  Valid values are x = -3 and y = 2

Example: 

Case 2 – When the divisor can be broken down into

smaller co-prime factors. Case 3 – Remainder when
is divided by the remainder is
 {HCF (a,b) = 1} Funda: If f(a) = 0, (x-a) is a factor of f(x)
 Let
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Remainder Related Theorems Fermat’s Theorem:

If N is a prime number and M and N are co-primes
Euler’s Theorem:

Number of numbers which are less than N =
and co-prime to it are 

 Example:
If M and N are co-prime ie HCF(M,N) = 1
Wilson’s Theorem
 If N is a prime number

Example:

 Example:


Funda: Any single digit number written (P-1) times is
 divisible by P, where P is a prime number >5.

 Examples: 222222 is divisible by 7

444444….. 18 times is divisible by 19
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Base System Concepts Converting from base ‘n’ to decimal

Decimal  (pqrst)n = pn4 + qn3 + rn2 + sn + t

Hex
0 0 Converting from decimal to base ‘n’
1 0001 1 # The example given below is converting from 156 to
2 0010 2 binary. For this we need to keep dividing by 2 till we get
3 0011 3 the quotient as 0.
4 0100 4 2)156 0
2)78 0
5 0101 5 2)39 1
2)19 1
6 0110 6 2)9 1
7 0111 7 2)4 0
2)2 0
8 1000 8 2)1 1
0
9 1001 9
10 1010 A Starting with the bottom remainder, we read the
11 1011 B sequence of remainders upwards to the top. By that, we
12 1100 C get 15610 = 100111002
13 1101 D Funda: (pqrst)n x n2 = (pqrst00)n
14 1110 E (pqrst)n x n3 = (pqrst000)n
15 1111 F

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Arithmetic
Averages

Percentages

Interest
Profit & Loss

Mixtures & Alligation

Ratio & Proportion
Time Speed & Distance

Races & Clocks

Time & Work

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Averages Funda: AM GM HM is always true. They will be

equal if all elements are equal to each other. If I have
just two values then GM2 = AM x HM
Simple Average =
Funda: The sum of deviation (D) of each element with
Weighted Average =
respect to the average is 0
Arithmetic Mean = (a1 + a2 + a3 ….an) / n 

Geometric Mean =
Funda:
Harmonic Mean =

For two numbers a and b Median of a finite list of numbers can be found by
 AM = (a + b)/2 arranging all the observations from lowest value to
 GM = highest value and picking the middle one.

 HM = Mode is the value that occurs most often.

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Percentages Funda: r% change can be nullified by % change in

Fractions and their percentage equivalents: another direction. Eg: An increase of 25% in prices can
be nullified by a reduction of [100x25/(100+25)] = 20%
Fraction %age Fraction %age reduction in consumption.

1/2 50% 1/9 11.11%

1/3 33.33% 1/10 10% Funda: If a number ‘x’ is successively changed by a%,
b%, c%...
1/4 25% 1/11 9.09%
 Final value =
1/5 20% 1/12 8.33%
1/6 16.66% 1/13 7.69%
Funda: The net change after two successive changes of
1/7 14.28% 1/14 7.14%
a% and b% is
1/8 12.5% 1/15 6.66%

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Interest Growth and Growth Rates

Amount = Principal + Interest Absolute Growth = Final Value – Initial Value

Simple Interest = PNR/100 Growth rate for one year period =

–
n x 100
Compound Interest = P(1+ ) –P
n –
Population formula P’ = P(1 ) SAGR or AAGR = x 100
n
Depreciation formula = Initial Value x (1 – )
–
CAGR= –1
Funda: SI and CI are same for a certain sum of money (P)
at a certain rate (r) per annum for the first year. The
difference after a period of two years is given by
Funda: If the time period is more than a year, CAGR <
AAGR. This can be used for approximating the value of

CAGR instead of calculating it.

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Profit and Loss Mixtures and Alligation

– Successive Replacement – Where a is the original
%Profit / Loss = quantity, b is the quantity that is replaced and n is the
number of times the replacement process is carried out,
In case false weights are used while selling, then

% Profit =
Alligation – The ratio of the weights of the two items
– mixed will be inversely proportional to the deviation of
Discount % = x 100 attributes of these two items from the average attribute
of the resultant mixture

 =
Funda: Effective Discount after successive discount of
a% and b% is (a + b – ). Effective Discount when you

buy x goods and get y goods free is x 100.

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Ratio and Proportion Funda: If a/b = c/d = e/f = k

Compounded Ratio of two ratios a/b and c/d is ac/bd,  =k

Duplicate ratio of a : b is a2 : b2
Triplicate ratio of a : b is a3 : b3
Sub-duplicate ratio of a : b is a : b  =k
Sub-triplicate ratio of a : b is ³ a : ³ b
Reciprocal ratio of a : b is b : a
 = kn
Componendo and Dividendo

If
Four (non-zero) quantities of the same kind a,b,c,d are
said to be in proportion if a/b = c/d. Given two variables x and y, y is (directly) proportional
to x (x and y vary directly, or x and y are in direct
The non-zero quantities of the same kind a, b, c, d.. are variation) if there is a non-zero constant k such that y =
said to be in continued proportion if a/b = b/c = c/d. kx. It is denoted by y α x
Proportion Two variables are inversely proportional (or varying
a, b, c, d are said to be in proportion if inversely, or in inverse variation, or in inverse
a, b, c, d are said to be in continued proportion if proportion or reciprocal proportion) if there exists a
non-zero constant k such that y = k/x.

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Time Speed and Distance Funda: Given that the distance between two points is
constant, then
Speed = Distance / Time
 If the speeds are in Arithmetic Progression, then the
1 kmph = 5/18 m/sec; 1 m/sec = 18/5 kmph times taken are in Harmonic Progression
 If the speeds are in Harmonic Progression, then the
SpeedAvg = = times taken are in Arithmetic Progression

If the distance covered is constant then the average For Trains, time taken =
speed is Harmonic Mean of the values (s1,s2,s3….sn)
For Boats,
 SpeedAvg = SpeedUpstream = SpeedBoat – SpeedRiver
SpeedDownstream = SpeedBoat + SpeedRiver
 SpeedAvg = (for two speeds)
SpeedBoat =
If the time taken is constant then the average speed is
Arithmetic Mean of the values (s1,s2,s3….sn) SpeedRiver =

 SpeedAvg =
For Escalators,
 SpeedAvg = (for two speeds) The difference between escalator problems and boat
problems is that escalator can go either up or down.
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Races & Clocks Two people are running on a circular track of length L
with speeds a and b in the opposite direction
Linear Races  Time for 1st meeting =
Winner’s distance = Length of race  They meet at a + b distinct points (reduced ratio)
 Time for 1st meeting at the starting point =
Loser’s distance = Winner’s distance – (beat distance +
LCM
start distance)

Winner’s time = Loser’s time – (beat time + start time) Three people are running on a circular track of length L
with speeds a, b and c in the same direction
Deadlock / dead heat occurs when beat time = 0 or beat
distance = 0  Time for 1st meeting = LCM
 Time for 1st meeting at the starting point =
Circular Races
LCM
Two people are running on a circular track of length L
with speeds a and b in the same direction Clocks To solve questions on clocks, consider a circular
track of length 360 . The minute hand moves at a speed
 Time for 1st meeting = of 6 per min and the hour hand moves at a speed of ½
per minute. The angle at H : M is given by |30H – 5.5M|
 They meet at a – b distinct points (reduced ratio)
 Time for 1st meeting at the starting point = Funda: Hands of a clock coincide (or make 180 ) 11
LCM times in every 12 hours. Any other angle is made 22
times in every 12 hours.
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Time and Work Funda: If A does a particular job in ‘a’ hours and A&B
together do the job in ‘t’ hours, the B alone will take
If a person can do a certain task in t hours, then in 1
hour he would do 1/t portion of the task. hours.

A does a particular job in ‘a’ hours and B does the same Funda: If A does a particular job in ‘a’ hours, B does the
job in ‘b’ hours, together they will take hours same job in ‘b’ hours and ABC together do the job in ‘t’
hours, then

 C alone can do it in hours

A does a particular job in ‘a’ hours more than A and B
combined whereas B does the same job in ‘b’ hours  A and C together can do it in hours
more than A and B combined, then together they will  B and C together can do it in hours
take hours to finish the job.
Funda: If the objective is to fill the tank, then the Inlet
pipes do positive work whereas the Outlet pipes do
Funda: A does a particular job in ‘a’ hours, B does the negative work. If the objective is to empty the tank,
same job in ‘b’ hours and C does the same job in ‘c’ then the Outlet pipes do positive work whereas the Inlet
hours, then together they will take hours. Pipes do negative work.

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Quadratic &
Other
Algebra Equations

Functions
Logarithm
Inequalities

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Quadratic and Other Equations Funda: If c = a, then roots are reciprocal of each other
Funda: If b =0, then roots are equal in magnitude but
For a quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0, its roots opposite in sign.
Funda: Provided a, b and c are rational
  If one root is p + iq, other root will be p – iq
 Sum of roots =  If one root is p + , other root will be p –

 Product of roots = Cubic equation ax3+bx2+cx+d = 0

Discriminant  Sum of the roots = - b/a

 Sum of the product of the roots taken two at a
time = c/a
Condition Nature of Roots  Product of the roots = -d/a

Complex Conjugate Biquadratic equation ax4+bx3+cx2+dx+e = 0

 Sum of the roots = - b/a

Real and equal
 Sum of the product of the roots taken two at a
time = c/a
> 0 and a perfect square Rational and unequal
 Sum of the product of the roots taken three at a
> 0 and not a perfect square Irrational and unequal time = -d/a
 Product of the roots = e/a

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Inequalities Quadratic Inequalities

If a > b and c > 0, (x – a) (x – b) > 0 {a < b}

 a+c>b+c  (x < a) U (x > b)

 a-c>b-c
(x – a) (x – b) < 0 {a > b}
 ac > bc
 a/c > b/c  a<x<b
If a, b ≥ 0, then an > bn and 1/an< 1/bn, where n is For any set of positive numbers: AM GM HM
positive.
 (a1+a2+ ….+an)/n (a1.a2. …..an)1/n
a < b and x > 0, then
If a and b are positive quantities, then

a > b and x > 0, then 

Modular Inequalities If a,b,c,d are positive quantities, then
|x- y| = |y - x|
|x. y| = |x| . |y|
 + + +
|x+ y| < |x| + |y| 
|x+ y| > |x| - |y|

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If a,b,c …. k are n positive quantities and m is a natural Funda: If a > b and both are natural numbers, then
number, then
 {Except }


Funda: (n!)2 nn

Funda: If the sum of two or more positive quantities is

Funda: > constant, their product is greatest when they are equal
and if their product is constant then their sum is the
least when the numbers are equal.

 If x + y = k, then xy is greatest when x = y

Funda: For any positive integer n, 2 3  If xy = k, then x + y is least when x = y

Funda: ambncp……..will be greatest when = =

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Logarithm

Ln x means

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Functions One to One: Every element in the Domain has one and
only one image in the Co-Domain. Every element in Co-
Domain: Set of real and finite values that the Domain has one and only one pre-image in the Domain.
independent variable can take.
Many to One: If at least two elements in Domain have the
Range: Set of real and finite values that the dependent same image in the co-domain. Onto Function: If for every
variable can have corresponding to the values of the element in the Co-Domain there is at least one pre-image
independent variable in the Domain. In this case, Range = Co-Domain
Co-Domain: Set of real and finite values that the Into Function: If there is at least one element in the Co-
dependent variable can have. Domain which does not have a pre-image in the Domain. In
this case, Range is a proper subset of Co-Domain.
Funda: Range is a subset of Co-Domain. Co-domain may
or may not have values which do not have a pre-image Even Function: f(x) is even if and only if f(-x) = f(x) for all
in the domain. values of x. The graph of such a function is symmetric
Funda: It is not a function if for some value in the about the Y-Axis
domain, the relationship gives more than one value. Eg: Odd Function: f(x) is odd if and only if f(-x) = - f(x) for all
f(x) = (At x = 4, f(x) could be both +2 and -2) values of x. The graph is symmetric about the origin
Funda: Domain cannot have any extra value i.e. the
Funda: If f(x) is an odd function and f(0) exists
values at which the function does not exist.
f(0) = 0 Continued >>

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Graphs If we consider f(x+2), it shifts left by 2 units

f(x) = |x|

If we consider –f(x), it gets mirrored in the X-Axis.

If we consider f(x-2), it shifts right by 2 units.

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If we consider f(x) + 2, it shifts up by 2 units. If we consider f(2x) or 2f(x) ,the slope doubles and the rise
and fall become much sharper than earlier

If we consider f(x) – 2, it shifts down by 2 units. If we consider f(x/2) or ½ f(x), the slope halves and the
rise and fall become much flatter than earlier.

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G
E
O Lines
Triangles
&
M Angles

E Solid
Polygons Circles Figures
T
Co-ordinate Trigonometry
R Geometry
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Lines and Angles

Sum of the angles in a straight line is 180°

Vertically opposite angles are congruent (equal).

If any point is equidistant from the endpoints of a

segment, then it must lie on the perpendicular bisector.

Funda: The ratio of intercepts formed by a transversal

When two parallel lines are intersected by a intersecting three parallel lines is equal to the ratio of
transversal, corresponding angles are equal, alternate corresponding intercepts formed by any other
angles are equal and co-interior angles are transversal.
supplementary. (All acute angles formed are equal to
each other and all obtuse angles are equal to each 
other)

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Triangles Area of a triangle:

 Sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180° and sum

of exterior angles is 360°.

 Exterior Angle = Sum of remote interior angles.

 Sum of two sides is always greater than the third

side and the difference of two sides is always lesser
than the third side. = ½ x Base x Height
= ½ x Product of sides x Sine of included angle

 Side opposite to the biggest angle is longest and the = ; here s is the semi perimeter
side opposite to the smallest angle is the shortest. [s = (a+b+c)/2 ]
=rxs [r is radius of incircle]
= [R is radius of circumcircle]
Continued >>
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A Median of a triangle is a line segment joining a vertex

to the midpoint of the opposing side. The three medians
Funda: Centroid and Incenter will always lie inside the
intersect in a single point, called the Centroid of the
triangle.
triangle. Centroid divides the median in the ratio of 2:1
- For an acute angled triangle, the Circumcenter and
An Altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a
the Orthocenter will lie inside the triangle.
vertex and perpendicular to the opposite side or an
- For an obtuse angled triangle, the Circumcenter and
extension of the opposite side. The three altitudes
the Orthocenter will lie outside the triangle.
intersect in a single point, called the Orthocenter of the
- For a right angled triangle the Circumcenter will lie at
triangle.
the midpoint of the hypotenuse and the Orthocenter
A Perpendicular Bisector is a line that forms a right will lie at the vertex at which the angle is 90°.
angle with one of the triangle's sides and intersects that
side at its midpoint. The three perpendicular bisectors
Funda: The orthocenter, centroid, and circumcenter
intersect in a single point, called the Circumcenter of
always lie on the same line known as Euler Line.
the triangle. It is the center of the circumcircle which
passes through all the vertices of the triangle. - The orthocenter is twice as far from the centroid as
the circumcenter is.
An Angle Bisector is a line that divides the angle at one
- If the triangle is Isosceles then the incenter lies on
of the vertices in two equal parts. The three angle
the same line.
bisectors intersect in a single point, called the Incenter
- If the triangle is equilateral, all four are the same
of the triangle. It is the center of the incircle which
point.
touches all sides of a triangle.
Continued >>
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Theorems

Apollonius’ Theorem: AB2 + AC2 = 2 (AD2 + BD2)

Mid Point Theorem: The line joining the midpoint of any
two sides is parallel to the third side and is half the
length of the third side.

Interior Angle Bisector Theorem: AE/ED = BA/BD

Basic Proportionality Theorem: If DE || BC, then AD/DB
= AE/EC
Continued >>
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Special Triangles
Height = x Side
Right Angled Triangle:

Area = x Side2
Inradius = 1/3 Height
Circumradius = 2/3 Height.

ABC ADB BDC Isosceles Triangle:

2
BD = AD*DC and AB*BC = BD*AC

Equilateral Triangle:

Angles equal to opposite sides are equal.

Area =

All angles are equal to 60°. All sides are equal also. Continued >>
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30°-60°-90° Triangle 30°-30°-120° Triangle

Area = * x2
2
Area = *x Continued >>

45°-45°-90° Triangle

2
Area = x /2
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Similarity of Triangles Congruency of Triangles

Two triangles are similar if their corresponding angles
Two triangles are congruent if their corresponding sides
are congruent and corresponding sides are in
and angles are congruent.
proportion.

Tests of similarity: (AA / SSS / SAS) Tests of congruence: (SSS / SAS / AAS / ASA)
For similar triangles, if the sides are in the ratio of a:b
All ratios mentioned in similar triangle are now 1:1
 Corresponding heights are in the ratio of a:b
 Corresponding medians are in the ratio of a:b
 Circumradii are in the ratio of a:b
 Inradii are in the ratio of a:b
 Perimeters are in the ratio of a:b
 Areas are in the ratio a2 : b2

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Polygons Quadrilaterals:
Sum of interior angles = (n-2) x 180° = (2n-4) x 90°
Sum of exterior angles = 360°
Number of diagonals = nC2 – n =
Number of triangles which can be formed by the
vertices = nC3

Regular Polygon: Sum of the interior angles = Sum of the exterior angles =
360°
If all sides and all angles are equal, it is a regular
Area for a quadrilateral is given by ½ d1 d2 Sin .
polygon.

All regular polygons can be inscribed in or circumscribed

about a circle.

Area = ½ x Perimeter x Inradius {Inradius is the

perpendicular from centre to any side}

Each Interior Angle = ; Exterior = 360°/n

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Cyclic Quadrilateral
Parallelogram

If all vertices of a quadrilateral lie on the circumference

of a circle, it is known as a cyclic quadrilateral. Opposite sides are parallel and congruent.
Opposite angles are supplementary
Area = where s is the Opposite angles are congruent and consecutive angles
are supplementary.
semi perimeter
Funda: A parallelogram inscribed in a circle is always a
Rectangle. A parallelogram circumscribed about a circle
is always a Rhombus.

Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Perimeter = 2(Sum of adjacent sides);

Area = Base x Height = AD x BE

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Funda: Each diagonal divides a parallelogram in two A parallelogram with all sides equal is a Rhombus. Its
triangles of equal area. diagonals bisect at 90°.

Funda: Sum of squares of diagonals = Sum of squares of

Perimeter = 4a; Area = ½ d1 d2 ; Area = d x
four sides

 AC2 + BD2 = AB2 + BC2 + CD2 + DA2 Rectangle

Funda: A Rectangle is formed by intersection of the four A parallelogram with all angles equal (90°) is a
angle bisectors of a parallelogram. Rectangle. Its diagonals are congruent.

Perimeter = 2(l+b); Area = lb

Rhombus Square

A parallelogram with sides equal and all angles equal is a

square. Its diagonals are congruent and bisect at 90°.

Perimeter = 4a; Area = a2; Diagonals = a

Funda: From all quadrilaterals with a given area, the

square has the least perimeter. For all quadrilaterals
with a given perimeter, the square has the greatest
area.

Continued >>
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Kite Trapezium / Trapezoid

A quadrilateral with exactly one pair of sides parallel is

known as a Trapezoid. The parallel sides are known as
bases and the non-parallel sides are known as lateral
sides.

Two pairs of adjacent sides are congruent. Area = ½ x (Sum of parallel sides) x Height

The longer diagonal bisects the shorter diagonal at 90°. Median, the line joining the midpoints of lateral sides, is
half the sum of parallel sides.
Area = Product of Diagonals / 2
Funda: Sum of the squares of the length of the diagonals
= Sum of squares of lateral sides + 2 Product of bases.

 AC2 + BD2 = AD2 + BC2 + 2 x AB x CD

Continued >>

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Isosceles Trapezium

Funda: If a trapezium is inscribed in a circle, it has to be

an isosceles trapezium. If a circle can be inscribed in a
trapezium, Sum of parallel sides = Sum of lateral sides.
The non-parallel sides (lateral sides) are equal in length.
Angles made by each parallel side with the lateral sides
are equal.

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Hexagon (Regular) Number of diagonals = 9 {3 big and 6 small}

Length of big diagonals (3) = 2a

Length of small diagonals (6) = a

2
Area of a Pentagon = 1.72 a
2
Area of an Octagon = 2( + 1) a

Funda: A regular hexagon can be considered as a

combination of six equilateral triangles. All regular
polygons can be considered as a combination of ‘n’
isosceles triangles.

2
Perimeter = 6a; Area = x a

Sum of Interior angles = 720°.

Each Interior Angle = 120°. Exterior = 60°

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Circles Chords / Arcs of equal lengths subtend equal angles.

Diameter = 2r; Circumference = 2 r; Area = r2

Chords equidistant from the centre of a circle are equal.

A line from the centre, perpendicular to a chord, bisects

the chord.

Equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre.

The diameter is the longest chord of a circle. Chord AB divides the circle into two parts: Minor Arc
AXB and Major Arc AYB
Measure of arc AXB = AOB =

Length (arc AXB) = x2 r

Area (sector OAXB) = = x r2

Area of Minor Segment = Shaded Area in above figure

 Area of Sector OAXB - Area of OAB

A chord /arc subtends equal angle at any point on the
circumference and double of that at the centre.  r2 [ – ]
Continued >>
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Properties of Tangents, Secants and Chords

PA x PB = PC x PD

= ½ [ m(Arc AC) – m(Arc BD) ]

The radius and tangent are perpendicular to each other.

There can only be two tangents from an external point,

which are equal in length PA = PB

PA x PB = PC x PD
= ½ [ m(Arc AC) + m(Arc BD) ]
Continued >>
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Properties (contd.) Alternate Segment Theorem

PA x PB = PC2
The angle made by the chord AB with the tangent at A
= ½ [ m(Arc AC) - m(Arc BC) ] (PQ) is equal to the angle that it subtends on the
opposite side of the circumference.

 BAQ = ACB
Continued >>

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Common Tangents

No. of
Distance Between
Two Circles Common
Centers (d)
Tangents
One is
completely 0 < r1 - r2
inside other Length of the Direct Common Tangent (DCT)
Touch  AD = BC =
1 = r1 - r2
internally Length of the Transverse Common Tangent (TCT)
Intersect 2 r1 - r2 < d < r1 + r2  RT = SU =
Touch
3 = r1 + r2
externally Funda: The two centers(O and O’), point of intersection
One is of DCTs (P)and point of intersection of TCTs (Q) are
completely 4 > r1 + r2 collinear. Q divides OO’ in the ratio r1 : r2 internally
outside other
whearea P divides OO’ in the ratio r1 : r2 externally.

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Solid Figures

Volume Total Surface Area Lateral / Curved Surface Area

Cube Side3 6 x Side2 4 x Side2

Cuboid LxBxH 2(LB + LH + BH) 2 (LH + BH)

Cylinder r2h 2 r (r + h) 2 rh

Cone (1/3) r2h r (r +L) rl {where L = }

Sphere (4/3) r3 r2 r2
3
Hemisphere (2/3) r r2 r2
Funda: There are 4 body diagonals in a cube / cuboid of length ( x side) and respectively.

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Prism
Frustum / Truncated Cone

It can be obtained by cutting a cone with a plane parallel

to the circular base.

It is a solid with rectangular vertical faces and bases as

congruent polygons (of n sides). It will have ‘2n’ Vertices;
‘n+2’ Faces and ‘3n’ Sides / Edges.
Volume = 1/3 h (R2 + r2 + Rr)
Lateral Surface Area = Perimeter x Height
Lateral Surface Area = (R+r) L
Total Surface Area = Perimeter x Height + 2 AreaBase
2 2
Total Surface Area = (R+r) L + (R +r )
Volume = AreaBase x Height
Continued >>
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Pyramid

Funda: If a sphere is inscribed in a cube of side a, the

radius of the sphere will be a/2. If a sphere is
circumscribed about a cube of side a, the radius of the
sphere will be a /2.

Funda: If a largest possible sphere is inscribed in a

cylinder of radius ‘a’ and height h, its radius r will be

 r = h/2 {If 2a > h}

 r=a {If 2a < h}
It is a figure in which the outer surfaces are triangular and
Funda: If a largest possible sphere is inscribed in a cone
converge at a point known as the apex, which is aligned
of radius r and slant height equal to 2r, then the radius
directly above the centre of the base.
of sphere = r/
Lateral Surface Area = ½ x Perimeter x Slant Height
Funda: If a cube is inscribed in a hemisphere of radius
Total Surface Area = ½ x Perimeter x Slant Height +
AreaBase r, then the edge of the cube = r

Volume = x AreaBase x Height

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Co-ordinate Geometry Slope(m) of a line is the tangent of the angle made by the
line with the positive direction of the X-Axis.
Distance between two points P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) is given For a general equation ax + by + c = 0; slope (m) = -a/b.
by = For a line joining two points, P (x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2), the
slope(m) is =
If a point R (x,y) divides P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) internally in
the ratio of m:n, the coordinates of R i.e. (x,y) are given
Angle with X-
by = , Slope(m) Type of line
Axis
If a point R (x,y) divides P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) externally in > 0 (+ive) Rising Acute
the ratio of m:n, the coordinates of R i.e. (x,y) are given 0 Parallel to X-Axis 0⁰
by = , < 0 (-ive) Falling Obtuse
infinite Parallel to Y-Axis 90⁰

Funda: The X axis divides the line joining P(x1,y1) and Equation of a line parallel to X-axis is y = a {Of X-Axis is y = 0}
Q(x2,y2) in the ratio of y1 : y2 Equation of a line parallel to Y-Axis is x = a {Of Y-Axis is x = 0}

Funda: The Y axis divides the line joining P(x1,y1) and The intercept of a line is the distance between the point
Q(x2,y2) in the ratio of x1 : x2 where it cuts the X-Axis or Y-Axis and the origin. Y-
Intercept is often denoted with the letter ‘c’.
Continued >>
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Equation of a line  For parallel lines, = 0°;

 For perpendicular lines, = 90°;
General form: ax + by + c = 0
Distance of a point P (x1,y1) from a line ax + by + c = 0
Slope Intercept Form: Slope is m, y-intercept is c

 y = mx + c  d=| |
 From origin, d = | |
Slope Point Form: Slope is m, point is x1,y1

 y – y1 = m(x – x1) Distance between two parallel lines, ax + by + c1 = 0 and

ax + by + c2 = 0
Two Point Form: Two points are x1,y1 and x2,y2
 d=| |
 y – y1 =[ ](x – x1)

Two Intercept Form: X-intercept is a, Y-intercept is b. Funda: If we know three points A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2 ) and
C(x3,y3) of a parallelogram, the fourth point is given by
 + = 1 OR bx + ay = ab
 (x1 + x3 – x2, y1 + y3 – y2)
Acute angle between two lines with slope m1 and m2 is
given by

 Tan = | |
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Triangle Circle

General Equation: x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

 Centre is (-g, -f) and radius =

Centre is (h, k) and radius is r


The vertices are P (x1,y1), Q(x2,y2 ) and R(x3,y3)
Centre is origin and radius is r
Incenter = { , }  x 2 + y2 = r2

Centroid = { , }

Area = ½ [ x1 (y2 – y3) + x2 (y3 – y1) + x3 (y1 – y2) ]

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Trigonometry Sin Cos Tan

00 0 1 0
sin = =
300
cos = = 450 1

tan = = 600

cosec = 900 1 0
Signs of T-ratios in Different Quadrants:
sec =

cot =

Some Basic Identities:

sin2 + cos2 = 1
1 + tan2 = sec2
1 + cot2 = cosec2

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Addition Formulae Trigonometric Rules

Sin (A + B) = sinA cos B + cosA sinB

Cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B

Tan (A + B) -

Subtraction Formulae

sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B Sine Rule: = =

cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
Cosine Rule: Cos A =
tan (A - B) =

Cos B =

Cos C =

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Set Binomial
Fundamentals Theorem

Modern Permutation
& Partitioning
Math Combination

Sequence
Probability &
Series

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Set Fundamentals
The number of elements in a set is called its cardinal number and is written as n(A). A set with cardinal number 0 is
called a null set while that with cardinal number ∞ is called an infinite set.

Set A is said to be a subset of Set B if each and every element of Set A is also contained in Set B. Set A is said to be a
proper subset of Set B if Set B has at least one element that is not contained in Set A. A set with ‘n’ elements will have
2n subsets (2n – 1 proper subsets)

The Universal set is defined as the set of all possible objects under consideration.

Union of two sets is represented as A B and consists of elements that are present in either Set A or Set B or both.

Intersection of two sets is represented as A B and consists of elements that are present in both Set A and Set B.
n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) — n(A B)

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Venn Diagram: A venn diagram is used to visually represent the relationship between various sets. What do each of the
areas in the figure represent?

I – only A; II – A and B but not C; III – Only B; IV – A and C but not B; V – A and B and C; VI – B and C but not A; VII – Only C

n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) — n(A B) — n(A C) - n(B C) + n(A B C)

Funda: Any set is a subset of itself, but not a proper subset.

The empty set, denoted by , is also a subset of any given set X.

The empty set is always a proper subset, except of itself.

Every other set is then a subset of the universal set.

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Funda: There is one more term than the power of the

Binomial Theorem exponent, n. That is, there are terms in the expansion
of (a + b)n.
For some basic values:
Funda: In each term, the sum of the exponents is n, the
power to which the binomial is raised.

Funda: The exponents of a start with n, the power of

the binomial, and decrease to 0. The last term has no
factor of a. The first term has no factor of b, so powers
of b start with 0 and increase to n.

Theorem Funda: The coefficients start at 1 and increase through

certain values about “half”-way and then decrease
through these same values back to 1.

Funda: To find the remainder when (x + y)n is divided

by x, find the remainder when yn is divided by x.
Funda: (1+x)n 1 + nx, when x<<1

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Permutation & Combination

When two tasks are performed in succession, i.e., they Linear arrangement of ‘r’ out of 'n' distinct items (nPr):
are connected by an 'AND', to find the total number of The first item in the line can be selected in 'n' ways AND
ways of performing the two tasks, you have to MULTIPLY the second in (n — 1) ways AND the third in (n — 2) ways
AND so on. So, the total number of ways of arranging 'r'
the individual number of ways. When only one of the two
items out of 'n' is
tasks is performed, i.e. the tasks are connected by an
'OR', to find the total number of ways of performing the (n)(n - 1)(n — 2)...(n - r + 1) =
two tasks you have to ADD the individual number of
ways. Circular arrangement of 'n' distinct items: Fix the first
item and then arrange all the other items linearly with
Eg: In a shop there are ‘d’ doors and ‘w’ windows. respect to the first item. This can be done in (n — 1)!
Case1: If a thief wants to enter via a door or window, he ways.
can do it in – (d+w) ways.
Case2: If a thief enters via a door and leaves via a Funda: In a necklace, it can be done in ways.
window, he can do it in – (d x w) ways.

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Selection of r items out of 'n' distinct items (nCr): Arrange of r items out of n = Select r items out of n and then arrange
those r items on r linear positions.

n
Pr =nCr x r! n
Cr = =

Dearrangement If 'n' things are arranged in a row, the number of ways in which they can, be deranged so that none of
them occupies its original place is

Funda: Number of ways of arranging 'n' items out of which `p' are alike, 'q' are alike, 'r' are alike in a line is given by =

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Partitioning

‘n’ similar items in ‘r’ distinct No restrictions n+r-1

Cr-1
groups

No group empty n-1

Cr-1
‘n’ distinct items in ‘r’ distinct No restrictions rn
groups

Arrangement in a group
important

‘n’ similar items in ‘r’ similar groups List the cases and then find out in how many ways is each case possible

‘n’ similar items in ‘r’ similar groups List the cases and then find out in how many ways is each case possible

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Probability
Multiplication Rule :P(A B) = P(A) P(B/A) = P(B) P(A/B)
P(A) =

For Complimentary Events: P(A) + P(A’) = 1 For Independent Events P(A/B) = P(B) and P(B/A) = P(B)
For Exhaustive Events: P(A) + P(B) +P(C)… = 1  P(A B) = P(A).P(B)
Addition Rule: P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A).P(B) Funda: If the
P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A B) probability of an event occurring is P, then the
probability of that event occurring ‘r’ times in ‘n’ trials
r n-r
is = nCr x P x (1-P)
For Mutually Exclusive Events P(A B) = 0 Odds
 P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B)
Odds in favor =

Odds against =

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Sequence, Series & Progression Funda: Sum of first n odd numbers


Arithmetic Progression
Funda: Sum of first n even numbers


Funda: If you have to consider 3 terms in an AP,

consider {a-d,a,a+d}. If you have to consider 4 terms,
consider {a-3d,a-d,a+d,a+3d}
Funda: Number of terms
Funda: If all terms of an AP are multiplied with k or
divided with k, the resultant series will also be an AP
with the common difference dk or d/k respectively.
Geometric Progression
Funda: Sum of first n natural numbers = n(n+1)/2

Funda: Sum of squares of first n natural numbers =

n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

Sum till infinite terms = (Valid only when r<1) Funda: Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers =
[n(n+1)/2]2

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