HI-TECH C Tools for the PIC18

MCU Family
HI-TECH Software
Copyright (C) 2008 HI-TECH Software.
All Rights Reserved. Printed in Australia.
Produced on: November 13, 2008
HI-TECH Software Pty. Ltd.
ACN 002 724 549
45 Colebard Street West
Acacia Ridge QLD 4110
Australia
email: [email protected]
web: http://microchip.htsoft.com
ftp: ftp://www.htsoft.com
Contents

Table of Contents 3

List of Tables 17

1 Introduction 19
1.1 Typographic conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2 PICC18 Command-line Driver 21

2.1 Invoking the Compiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.1 Long Command Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 The Compilation Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.1 Single-step Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.2 Generating Intermediate Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.3 Special Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.3.1 Printf check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.3.2 Assembly Code Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Runtime Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.1 Library Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.1.1 Standard Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.1.2 Flash and EEPROM Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.1.3 MPLAB C18 Compatible Peripheral Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.2 Runtime Startup Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.2.1 Initialization of Data psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.2.2 Clearing the Bss Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.3 The Powerup Routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.4 The printf Routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 Debugging Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.1 Output File Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

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2.4.2 Symbol Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.4.3 MPLAB-specific information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Compiler Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5.1 Messaging Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5.2 Message Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5.3 Message Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5.4 Message Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5.5 Changing Message Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5.5.1 Disabling Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5.5.2 Changing Message Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.6 PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.6.1 -Bmodel: Select Memory Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.2 -C: Compile to Object File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.3 -Dmacro: Define Macro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.4 -Efile: Redirect Compiler Errors to a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.6.5 -Gfile: Generate Source-level Symbol File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6.6 -Ipath: Include Search Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6.7 -Llibrary: Scan Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.6.8 -L-option: Adjust Linker Options Directly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.6.9 -Mfile: Generate Map File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.6.10 -Nsize: Identifier Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.6.11 -Ofile: Specify Output File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.6.12 -P: Preprocess Assembly Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.6.13 -Q: Quiet Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.6.14 -S: Compile to Assembler Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.6.15 -Umacro: Undefine a Macro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.6.16 -V: Verbose Compile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6.17 -X: Strip Local Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6.18 --ASMLIST: Generate Assembler .LST Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6.19 --CALLGRAPH=type: Select callgraph type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6.20 --CHECKSUM=start-end@destination<,specs>: Calculate a check-
sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.6.21 --CHIP=processor: Define Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.6.22 --CHIPINFO: Display List of Supported Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.6.23 --CODEOFFSET: Offset Program Code to Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.6.24 --CP=size: Set the Size of Pointers to Code Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.6.25 --CR=file: Generate Cross Reference Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.6.26 --DEBUGGER=type: Select Debugger Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.6.27 --DOUBLE=type: Select kind of Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

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2.6.28 --ECHO: Echo command line before processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2.6.29 --EMI=type: Select operating mode of the external memory interface (EMI) 54
2.6.30 --ERRATA=type: Specify to add or remove specific errata workarounds . . . 54
2.6.31 --ERRFORMAT=format: Define Format for Compiler Messages . . . . . . . 54
2.6.32 --ERRORS=number: Maximum Number of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6.33 --FILL=opcode: Fill Unused Program Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6.34 --GETOPTION=app,file: Get Command-line Options . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6.35 --HELP<=option>: Display Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6.36 --IDE=type: Specify the IDE being used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6.37 --LANG=language: Specify the Language for Messages . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6.38 --MEMMAP=file: Display Memory Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6.39 --MSGDISABLE=messagelist: Disable Warning Messages . . . . . . . . 56
2.6.40 --MSGFORMAT=format: Set Advisory Message Format . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.6.41 --NODEL: Do not Remove Temporary Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.6.42 --NOEXEC: Don’t Execute Compiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.6.43 --OPT<=type>: Invoke Compiler Optimizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.6.44 --OBJDIR=dir: Specify a Directory for Intermediate Files . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6.45 --OUTDIR=path: Specify a Directory for Output Files . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6.46 --OUTPUT=type: Specify Output File Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6.47 --PASS1: Compile to P-code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6.48 --PRE: Produce Preprocessed Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6.49 --PROTO: Generate Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6.50 --RAM=lo-hi,<lo-hi,...>: Specify Additional RAM Ranges . . . . . . 60
2.6.51 --ROM=lo-hi,<lo-hi,...>|tag: Specify Additional ROM Ranges . . . 61
2.6.52 --RUNTIME=type: Specify Runtime Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6.53 --SCANDEP: Scan for Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6.54 --SERIAL=hexcode@address: Store a Value at this Program Memory
Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6.55 --SETOPTION=app,file: Set The Command-line Options for Application 63
2.6.56 --STRICT: Strict ANSI Conformance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6.57 --SUMMARY=type: Select Memory Summary Output Type . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6.58 --TIME: Report time taken for each phase of build process . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.6.59 --VER: Display The Compiler’s Version Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.6.60 --WARN=level: Set Warning Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.6.61 --WARNFORMAT=format: Set Warning Message Format . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.7 MPLAB Universal Toolsuite Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.7.1 Directories Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.2 Compiler Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.7.3 Linker Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

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2.7.4 Global Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3 C Language Features 73
3.1 ANSI Standard Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.1 Divergence from the ANSI C Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.2 Implementation-defined behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.3 Non-ANSI Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2 Processor-related Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2.1 Processor Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2.2 Configuration Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2.3 ID Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2.4 Bit Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2.5 EEPROM and Flash Runtime Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.5.1 EEPROM Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.5.2 Flash Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.6 Multi-byte SFRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3 Supported Data Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3.1 Radix Specifiers and Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3.2 Bit Data Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3.3 Using Bit-Addressable Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.3.4 8-Bit Integer Data Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.5 16-Bit Integer Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.6 24-Bit Integer Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.7 32-Bit Integer Data Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.8 Floating Point Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.9 Structures and Unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3.9.1 Bit-fields in Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.3.9.2 Structure and Union Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.10 Standard Type Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.10.1 Const and Volatile Type Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.11 Special Type Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.11.1 Persistent Type Qualifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.11.2 Near Type Qualifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.11.3 Far Type Qualifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3.12 Pointer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3.12.1 Combining Type Qualifiers and Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3.12.2 Data Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3.12.3 Pointers to Const . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.3.12.4 Pointers to Both Memory Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

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3.3.12.5 Function Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

3.4 Storage Class and Object Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.4.1 Local Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.4.1.1 Auto Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.4.1.2 Static Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.4.2 Absolute Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.4.3 Objects in Program Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.5 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.5.1 Absolute Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.5.2 Function Argument Passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.5.3 Function Return Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.5.3.1 8-Bit Return Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.5.3.2 16-Bit, 24-bit and 32-bit Return Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.5.3.3 Structure Return Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.6 Register Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.7 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.7.1 Integral Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.7.2 Shifts applied to integral types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.7.3 Division and modulus with integral types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.8 Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.8.1 Compiler-generated Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.9 Interrupt Handling in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.9.1 Interrupt Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.9.2 Context Saving on Interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.9.3 Context Retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.9.4 Function Duplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.9.4.1 Implicit Calls to Library Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.9.5 Interrupt Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.10 Mixing C and Assembly Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.10.1 External Assembly Language Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.10.2 #asm, #endasm and asm() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.10.3 Accessing C objects from within Assembly Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.10.3.1 Accessing special function register names from assembler . . . . . 113
3.10.4 Interaction between Assembly and C Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.10.4.1 Absolute Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.10.4.2 Undefined Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.11 Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.11.1 C Language Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.11.2 Preprocessor Directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

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3.11.3 Predefined Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

3.11.4 Pragma Directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.11.4.1 The #pragma jis and nojis Directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.11.4.2 The #pragma printf_check Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.11.4.3 The #pragma regsused Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.11.4.4 The #pragma switch Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.11.4.5 The #pragma warning Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.12 Linking Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.12.1 Replacing Library Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.12.2 Signature Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.12.3 Linker-Defined Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.13 Standard I/O Functions and Serial I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

4 Macro Assembler 127

4.1 Assembler Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.2 Assembler Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.3 HI-TECH C Assembly Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.3.1 Assembler Format Deviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.3.2 Pre-defined Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3.3 Statement Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3.4 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3.4.1 Delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3.4.2 Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3.5 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3.5.1 Special Comment Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3.6 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3.6.1 Numeric Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3.6.2 Character Constants and Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.7 Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.7.1 Significance of Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.7.2 Assembler-Generated Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.7.3 Location Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.7.4 Register Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.7.5 Symbolic Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.3.8 Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.3.9 Program Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.3.10 Assembler Directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3.10.1 GLOBAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3.10.2 END . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

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4.3.10.3 PSECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

4.3.10.4 ORG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.3.10.5 EQU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.3.10.6 SET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.3.10.7 DB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.3.10.8 DW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.3.10.9 DS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.3.10.10 DABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.3.10.11 FNALIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.3.10.12 FNADDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.3.10.13 FNARG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.3.10.14 FNBREAK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.3.10.15 FNCALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.3.10.16 FNCONF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.3.10.17 FNINDIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.3.10.18 FNSIZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.3.10.19 FNROOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.3.10.20 IF, ELSIF, ELSE and ENDIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.3.10.21 MACRO and ENDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.3.10.22 LOCAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.3.10.23 ALIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.3.10.24 REPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.3.10.25 IRP and IRPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.3.10.26 PROCESSOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3.10.27 SIGNAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3.11 Assembler Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.3.11.1 COND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.3.11.2 EXPAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.3.11.3 INCLUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.3.11.4 LIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.3.11.5 NOCOND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.3.11.6 NOEXPAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.3.11.7 NOLIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.3.11.8 NOXREF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.3.11.9 PAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.3.11.10 SPACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.3.11.11 SUBTITLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.3.11.12 TITLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.3.11.13 XREF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

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5 Linker and Utilities 155

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.2 Relocation and Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.3 Program Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.4 Local Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.5 Global Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.6 Link and load addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.7 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.7.1 Numbers in linker options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.7.2 -Aclass=low-high,... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.7.3 -Cx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.7.4 -Cpsect=class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.7.5 -Dclass=delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.7.6 -Dsymfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.7.7 -Eerrfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.7.8 -F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.7.9 -Gspec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.7.10 -Hsymfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.7.11 -H+symfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.7.12 -Jerrcount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.7.13 -K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.7.14 -I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.7.15 -L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.7.16 -LM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.7.17 -Mmapfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.7.18 -N, -Ns and-Nc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.7.19 -Ooutfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.7.20 -Pspec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.7.21 -Qprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.7.22 -S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.7.23 -Sclass=limit[, bound] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.7.24 -Usymbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.7.25 -Vavmap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.7.26 -Wnum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.7.27 -X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.7.28 -Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.8 Invoking the Linker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.9 Compiled Stack Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.9.1 Parameters involving Function Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

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5.10 Map Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

5.10.1 Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.10.2 Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.10.2.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.10.2.2 Call Graph Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.10.2.3 Psect Information listed by Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.10.2.4 Psect Information listed by Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.10.2.5 Segment Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.10.2.6 Unused Address Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.10.2.7 Symbol Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.11 Librarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.11.1 The Library Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.11.2 Using the Librarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.11.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.11.4 Supplying Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.11.5 Listing Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.11.6 Ordering of Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.11.7 Error Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.12 Objtohex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.12.1 Checksum Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.13 Cref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.13.1 -Fprefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.13.2 -Hheading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.13.3 -Llen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.13.4 -Ooutfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.13.5 -Pwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.13.6 -Sstoplist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.13.7 -Xprefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.14 Cromwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.14.1 -Pname[,architecture] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.14.2 -N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.14.3 -D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.14.4 -C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.14.5 -F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.14.6 -Okey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.14.7 -Ikey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.14.8 -L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.14.9 -E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.14.10 -B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

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5.14.11 -M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.14.12 -V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.15 Hexmate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.15.1 Hexmate Command Line Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.15.1.1 specifications,filename.hex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.15.1.2 + Prefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.15.1.3 -ADDRESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.15.1.4 -BREAK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.15.1.5 -CK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.15.1.6 -FILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.15.1.7 -FIND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.15.1.8 -FIND...,DELETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.15.1.9 -FIND...,REPLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.15.1.10 -FORMAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.15.1.11 -HELP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.15.1.12 -LOGFILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.15.1.13 -MASK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.15.1.14 -Ofile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.15.1.15 -SERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.15.1.16 -SIZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.15.1.17 -STRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.15.1.18 -STRPACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

A Library Functions 203

__CONFIG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
__EEPROM_DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
__IDLOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
_DELAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
_DELAY3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
ABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
ACOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
ASCTIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
ASIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
ASSERT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
ATAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
ATAN2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
ATOF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
ATOI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
ATOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

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BSEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
CEIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
CGETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
CLRWDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
CONFIG_READ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
COS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
COSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
CPUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
CTIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
device_id_read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
DI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
DIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
EEPROM_READ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
EVAL_POLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
EXP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
FABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
FLASH_ERASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
FMOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
FLOOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
FREXP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
FTOA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
GETCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
GETCHAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
GETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
GMTIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
IDLOC_READ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
ISALNUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
ISDIG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
ITOA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
LABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
LDEXP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
LDIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
LOCALTIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
LOG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
LONGJMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
LTOA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
MEMCMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
MEMMOVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
MKTIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

13
CONTENTS CONTENTS

MODF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
NOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
OS_TSLEEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
POW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
PUTCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
PUTCHAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
PUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
QSORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
RAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
READTIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
RESET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
ROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
SETJMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
SIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
SLEEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
SQRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
SRAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
STRCAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
STRCHR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
STRCMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
STRCPY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
STRCSPN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
STRLEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
STRNCAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
STRNCMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
STRNCPY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
STRPBRK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
STRRCHR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
STRSPN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
STRSTR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
STRTOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
STRTOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
STRTOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
TAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
TOLOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
TRUNC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
UDIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
ULDIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

14
CONTENTS CONTENTS

UNGETCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
UTOA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
VA_START . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
WRITETIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
XTOI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

B Error and Warning Messages 341

1... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
138... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
184... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
226... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
268... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
311... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
354... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
398... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
443... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
487... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
595... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
668... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
720... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
764... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
817... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
866... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
923... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
982... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
1039... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
1185... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
1234... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
1289... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

C Chip Information 479

D Configuration Attributes 485

Index 527

15
CONTENTS CONTENTS

16
List of Tables

2.1 PICC18 input file types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.2 Support languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3 Messaging environment variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Messaging placeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5 Supported Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.6 Supported IDEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.7 Supported languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.8 Optimization Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.9 Output file formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.10 Runtime environment suboptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.11 Memory Summary Suboptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

3.1 Basic data types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

3.2 Radix formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3 Floating-point formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.4 Floating-point format example IEEE 754 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.5 Integral division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.6 Preprocessor directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.8 Pragma directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.9 Valid register names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.10 Switch types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.11 Supported standard I/O functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

4.1 ASPIC18 command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

4.2 ASPIC18 statement formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3 ASPIC18 numbers and bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.4 ASPIC18 operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

17
LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES

4.5 ASPIC18 assembler directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

4.6 PSECT flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.7 PIC18 assembler controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.8 LIST control options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

5.1 Linker command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

5.1 Linker command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.2 Librarian command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.3 Librarian key letter commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.4 OBJTOHEX command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.5 CREF command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.6 CROMWELL format types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.7 CROMWELL command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.8 -P option architecture arguments for COFF file output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.9 Hexmate command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.10 Hexmate Checksum Algorithm Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.11 INHX types used in -FORMAT option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

C.1 Devices supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family . . . . . . . . . 479
C.1 Devices supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family . . . . . . . . . 480
C.1 Devices supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family . . . . . . . . . 481
C.1 Devices supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family . . . . . . . . . 482
C.1 Devices supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family . . . . . . . . . 483

18
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Typographic conventions

Different fonts and styles are used throughout this manual to indicate special words or text. Com-
puter prompts, responses and filenames will be printed in constant-spaced type. When the
filename is the name of a standard header file, the name will be enclosed in angle brackets, e.g.
<stdio.h>. These header files can be found in the INCLUDE directory of your distribution.
Samples of code, C keywords or types, assembler instructions and labels will also be printed in
a constant-space type. Assembler code is printed in a font similar to that used by C code.
Particularly useful points and new terms will be emphasized using italicized type. When part of
a term requires substitution, that part should be printed in the appropriate font, but in italics. For
example: #include <filename.h>.

19
Typographic conventions Introduction

20
Chapter 2

PICC18 Command-line Driver

PICC18 is the driver invoked from the command line to perform all aspects of compilation, including
C code generation, assembly and link steps. It is the recommended way to use the compiler as it
hides the complexity of all the internal applications used in the compilation process and provides a
consistent interface for all compilation steps.
This chapter describes the steps the driver takes during compilation, files that the driver can
accept and produce, as well as the command-line options that control the compiler’s operation.

W HAT IS “ THE COMPILER”? Throughout this manual, the term “the compiler” is
used to refer to either all, or some subset of, the collection of applications that form
the HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family package. Often it is not important
to know, for example, whether an action is performed by the parser or code generator
application, and it is sufficient to say it was performed by “the compiler”.
It is also reasonable for “the compiler” to refer to the command-line driver (or just
“driver”), PICC18, as this is the application executed to invoke the compilation process.
Following this view, “compiler options” should be considered command-line driver op-
tions, unless otherwise specified in this manual.
Similarly “compilation” refers to all, or some part of, the steps involved in generating
source code into an executable binary image.

21
Invoking the Compiler PICC18 Command-line Driver

Table 2.1: PICC18 input file types

File Type Meaning
.c C source file
.p1 p-code file
.lpp p-code library file
.as Assembler source file
.obj Relocatable object code file
.lib Relocatable object library file
.hex Intel HEX file

2.1 Invoking the Compiler

This chapter looks at how to use PICC18 as well as the tasks that it and the internal applications
perform during compilation.
PICC18 has the following basic command format:

PICC18 [options] files [libraries]

It is conventional to supply options(identified by a leading dash “-” or double dash “–”) before
the filenames, although this is not mandatory.
The formats of the options are discussed below in Section 2.6, and a detailed description of each
option follows.
The files may be any mixture of C and assembler source files, and precompiled intermediate
files, such as relocatable object (.obj) files or p-code (.p1) files. The order of the files is not
important, except that it may affect the order in which code or data appears in memory, and may
affect the name of some of the output files.
Libraries is a list of either object code or p-code library files that will be searched by the
linker. The -L option, see Section 2.6.7, can also be used to specify library files to search.
PICC18 distinguishes source files, intermediate files and library files solely by the file type or
extension. Recognized file types are listed in Table 2.1. This means, for example, that an assembler
file must always have a .as extension. Alphabetic case of the extension is not important from the
compiler’s point of view.

•
M ODULES AND SOURCE FILES: A C source file is a file on disk that contains all or
part of a program. C source files are initially passed to the preprocessor by the driver.
A module is the output of the preprocessor, for a given source file, after inclusion of
any header files (or other source files) which are specified by #include preprocessor

22
PICC18 Command-line Driver Invoking the Compiler

directives. These modules are then passed to the remainder of the compiler applications.
Thus, a module may consist of several source and header files. A module is also often
referred to as a translation unit. These terms can also be applied to assembly files, as
they too can include other header and source files.

Some of the compiler’s output files contain project-wide information and are not directly associated
with any one particular input file, e.g. the map file. If the names of these project-wide files are not
specified on the command line, the basename of these files is derived from the first C source file
listed on the command line. If there are no files of this type being compiled, the name is based on
the first input file (regardless of type) on the command line. Throughout this manual, the basename
of this file will be called the project name.
Most IDEs use project files whose names are user-specified. Typically the names of project-wide
files, such as map files, are named after the project, however check the manual for the IDE you are
using for more details.

2.1.1 Long Command Lines

The PICC18 driver is capable of processing command lines exceeding any operating system limita-
tion. To do this, the driver may be passed options via a command file. The command file is read by
using the @ symbol which should be immediately followed (i.e. no intermediate space character) by
the name of the file containing the command line arguments.
The file may contain blank lines, which are simply skipped by the driver. The command-line
arguments may be placed over several lines by using a space and backslash character for all non-
blank lines, except for the last line.
The use of a command file means that compiler options and project filenames can be stored along
with the project, making them more easily accessible and permanently recorded for future use.

T UT•RIAL

U SING COMMAND FILES A command file xyz.cmd is constructed with your favorite
text editor and contains both the options and file names that are required to compile your
project as follows:
--chip=18F242 -m \
--opt=all -g \
main.c isr.c
After it is saved, the compiler may be invoked with the command:
PICC18 @xyz.cmd

23
The Compilation Sequence PICC18 Command-line Driver

Figure 2.1: Flow diagram of the initial compilation sequence

.c .p1 .as .obj
.lpp .lib

CPP --PRE .pre

P1 --PASS1 .p1

code -S
.as
generator

.lst --ASMLIST -C
assembler .obj

HLINK

2.2 The Compilation Sequence

PICC18 will check each file argument and perform appropriate actions on each file. The entire
compilation sequence can be thought of as the initial sequence up to the link stage, and the final
sequence which takes in the link step and any post link steps required.
Graphically the compilation steps up to the link stage are illustrated in Figure 2.1. This diagram
shows all possible input files along the top; intermediate and transitional files, along the right side;
and useful compiler output files along the left. Generated files are shown along with the options that
are used to generate and preserve these. All the files shown on the right, can be generated and fed to
the compiler in a subsequent compile step; those on the left are used for debug purposes and cannot
be used as an input to any subsequent compilation.
The individual compiler applications are shown as boxes. The C preprocessor, CPP, and parser,
P1, have been grouped together for clarity.
The thin, multi-arrowed lines indicate the flow of multiple files — one for each file being pro-
cessed by the revel ant application. The thick single-arrowed lines indicate a single file for the project
being compiled. Thus, for example, when using the --PASS1 driver option, the parser produces one
.p1 file for each C source file that is being compiled as part of the project, but the code generator
produces only one .as file from all .c, .p1 and .lpp input files which it is passed.
Dotted lines indicate a process that may require an option to create or preserve the indicated file.

24
PICC18 Command-line Driver The Compilation Sequence

Figure 2.2: Flow diagram of the final compilation sequence

.hex

-M --NODEL
.map HLINK l.obj

OBJTOHEX

.hex
HEXMATE

debug CROMWELL

The link and post-link steps are graphically illustrated in Figure 2.2.
This diagram shows .hex files as additional input file type not considered in the initial compi-
lation sequence. These files can be merged into the .hex file generated from the other input files in
the project by an application called HEXMATE. See Section 5.15 for more information on this utility.
The output of the linker is a single absolute object file, called l.obj, that can be preserved by
using the --NODEL driver option. Without this option, this temporary file is used to generate an
output file (e.g. a HEX file ) and files used for debugging by development tools (e.g. COFF files)
before it is deleted. The file l.obj can be used as the input to OBJTOHEX if running this application
manually, but it cannot be passed to the driver as an input file as it absolute and cannot be further
processed.

2.2.1 Single-step Compilation

The command-line driver, PICC18, can compile any mix of input files in a single step. All source
files will be re-compiled regardless of whether they have been changes since that last time a compi-
lation was performed.
Unless otherwise specified, a default output file and debug file are produced. All intermedi-
ate files (.p1 and .obj) remain after compilation has completed, but all other transitional files are
deleted, unless you use the --NODEL option which preserves all generated files. Note some generated
files may be in a temporary directory not associated with your project and use a pseudo-randomly

25
The Compilation Sequence PICC18 Command-line Driver

generated filename.

T UT•RIAL

S INGLE STEP COMPILATION The files, main.c, io.c, mdef.as, sprt.obj, a_sb.lib
and c_sb.lpp are to be compiled. To perform this in a single step, the following com-
mand line can be used as a starting point for the project development.
PICC18 --chip=18F242 main.c io.c mdef.as sprt.obj a_sb.lib c_sb.lpp
This will run the C pre-processor then the parser with main.c as input, and then again
for io.c producing two p-code files. These two files, in addition to the library file
c_sb.lpp, are passed to the code generator producing a single temporary assembler file
output. The assembler is then executed and is passed the output of the code generator.
It is run again with mdef.as, producing two relocatable object files. The linker is then
executed, passing in the assembler output files in addition to sprt.obj and the library
file a_sb.lib. The output is a single absolute object file, l.obj. This is then passed to
the appropriate post-link utility applications to generate the specified output file format
and debugging files. All temporary files, including l.obj, are then deleted. The inter-
mediate files: p-code and relocatable object files, are not deleted. This tutorial does not
consider the runtime startup code that is automatically generated by the driver.

2.2.2 Generating Intermediate Files

The HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family version compiler uses two types of intermediate
files. For C source files, the p-code file (.p1 file) is used as the intermediate file. For assembler
source files, the relocatable object file (.obj file) is used.
You may wish to generate intermediate files for several reasons, but the most likely will be if
you are using an IDE or make system that allows an incremental build of the project. The advantage
of a incremental build is that only the source files that have been modified since the last build need
to be recompiled before again running the final link step. This dependency checking may result in
reduced compilation times, particularly if there are a large number of source files.
You may also wish to generate intermediate files to construct your own library files, although
PICC18 is capable of constructing libraries in a single step, so this is typically not necessary. See
Section 2.6.46 for more information.
Intermediate files may also assist with debugging a project that fails to work as expected.
If a multi-step compilation is required the recommended compile sequence is as follows.

• Compile all modified C source files to p-code files using the --PASS1 driver option

26
PICC18 Command-line Driver The Compilation Sequence

• Compile all modified assembler source files to relocatable object files using the -C driver
option

• Compile all p-code and relocatable object files into a single output object file

The final step not only involves the link stage, but also code generation of all the p-code files. In
effect, the HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family version code generator performs some of
the tasks normally performed by the linker. Any user-specified (non standard) libraries also need
to be passed to the compiler during the final step. This is the incremental build sequence used by
TM
HI-TIDE .

T UT•RIAL

M ULTI - STEP COMPILATION The files in the previous example are to be compiled
using a multi-step compilation. The following could be used.
PICC18 --chip=18F242 --pass1 main.c
PICC18 --chip=18F242 --pass1 io.c
PICC18 --chip=18F242 -c mdef.as
PICC18 --chip=18F242 main.p1 io.p1 mdef.obj sprt.obj c_sb.lpp a_sb.lib
If using a make system with incremental builds, only those source files that have changed
since the last build need the first compilation step performed again, so not all of the first
three steps need be executed.

If is important to note that the code generator needs to compile all p-code or p-code library files in
the one step. Thus, if the --PASS1 option is not used (or --PRE is not used), all C source files, and
any p-code libraries, must be built together in the one command.
If a compilation is performed, and the source file that contains main() is not present in the list
of C source files, an undefined symbol error for _main will be produced by the code generator. If the
file that contains the definition for main() is present, but it is a subset of the C source files making
up a project that is being compiled, the code generator will not be able to see the entire C program
and this will defeat most of the optimization techniques employed by the code generator.
There may be multi-step compilation methods employed that lead to compiler errors as a result
of the above restrictions, for example you cannot have an C function compiled into a p-code library
that is called only from assembler code.

2.2.3 Special Processing

There are several special steps that take place during compilation.

27
Runtime Files PICC18 Command-line Driver

2.2.3.1 Printf check

An extra execution of the code generator is performed for prior to the actual code generation phase.
This pass is part of the process by which the printf library function is customized, see Section 2.3.4
for more details.

2.2.3.2 Assembly Code Requirements

After pre-processing and parsing of any C source files, but before code generation of these files, the
compiler assembles any assembly source files to relocatable object files. These object files, together
with any object files specified on the command line, are scanned by the compiler driver and certain
information from these files are collated and passed to the code generator. Several actions are taken
based on this information. See Section 3.10.4.
The driver instructs the code generator to preserve any C variables which map to symbols which
are used, but not defined, in the assembly/object code. This allows variables to be defined in C
code, and only every referenced in assembly code. Normally such C variables would be removed
as the code generator would consider them to be used (from the C perspective). Specifically, the
C variables are automatically qualified as being volatile which is sufficient to prevent the code
generator making this optimization.
The driver also takes note of any absolute psects (viz. use the abs and ovrld PSECT directive
flags) in the assembly/object code. The memory occupied by the psects is removed from the available
memory ranges passes to the code generator and linker. This information ensures that this memory
is not allocated to any C resources.

2.3 Runtime Files

In addition to the input files specified on the command line by the user, there are also compiler-
generated source files and pre-compiled library files which might be compiled into the project by the
driver. These are:

• Library files;
• The runtime startup module;
• The powerup routine; and
• The printf routine.

Strictly speaking, the powerup routine is neither compiler-generated source, nor a library routine. It
is fully defined by the user, however as it is very closely associated with the runtime startup module,
it is discussed with the other runtime files in the following sections.

28
PICC18 Command-line Driver Runtime Files

By default, libraries appropriate for the selected driver options are automatically passed to the
code generator and linker. Although individual library functions or routines will be linked in once
referenced in C code, the compiler still requires the inclusion of the appropriate header file for the
library function that is being used. See the appropriate library function section in Chapter A for the
header file that should be used.

2.3.1 Library Files

By default, PICC18 will search the LIB directory of the compiler distribution for several p-code and
relocatable object library files, which are then passed to the code generator and linker, respectively.
These library files typically contain:
• The C standard library functions
• Assembly routines implicitly called by the code generator
• Chip-specific peripherals functions
• Chip-specific memory functions
These library files are always scanned after scanning any user-specified libraries passed to the driver
on the command line, thus allowing library routines to be easily replaced with user-defined alterna-
tives. See Section 3.12.1.
The C standard libraries and libraries of implicitly-called assembly routines can be omitted from
the project by disabling the clib suboption of --RUNTIME. 2.6.52. For example:
--RUNTIME=default,-clib
If these libraries are excluded from the project then calls to any routine, or access of any variable,
that is defined in the omitted library files will result in an error from the linker. The user must provide
alternative libraries or source files containing definitions for any routine or symbol accessed by the
project.
•
Do not confuse the actual library (.lib) files and the header (.h) files. Both are covered
by a library package, but the library files contain precompiled code, typically functions
and variable definitions; the header files provide declarations (as opposed to defini-
tions) for functions, variables and types in the library files, as well as other preprocessor
macros. PICC18 will always link in all the library files associated with the C standard
library (unless you have used an option to prevent this), however with user-defined li-
brary packages, the inclusion of a header does not imply that the corresponding library
file(s) will be searched.

29
Runtime Files PICC18 Command-line Driver

2.3.1.1 Standard Libraries

The C standard libraries contain a standardised collection of functions, such as string, math and
input/output routines. The range of these functions are described in Appendix A.
These libraries contain C routines that perform tasks as complex as floating point operations.
The general form of the standard library names is pic8xldc.lpp. The meaning of each field is
described by:

• Processor Type is always pic.

• Processor Range is 8 for the PIC18 family.

• The configuration digit, x, relates to errata information; each bits has the meaning:

– 0 for devices that cannot use the LFSR instruction.

– 2 for devices that can use the LFSR instruction.
– 6 for devices that can use the LFSR instruction, but which must observe the 4000h ad-
dress boundary workaround.

• Memory Model is always l.

• The double type, d, is - for 24-bit doubles, and d for 32-bit doubles.

• Library Type is always c.

• The extension is .lpp for p-code libraries, or .lib for relocatable object libraries.

Typically there will both a .lpp and .lib version of each library, for C-defined and assembler-
defined library routines, respectively.
See Section 2.6.30 for more information on the action taken by the compiler’s with regard to
hardware errata.

2.3.1.2 Flash and EEPROM Libraries

In addition to the C standard libraries, PICC18 automatically passes to the code generator a set of p-
code libraries which contain functions that are reliant on peripherals that vary from device to device.
Such routines may, for example, access the EEPROM, or flash memory of the device.
The general form of the Flash and EEPROM library name is pfamily-xp.lpp. The meaning
of each field is described by:

• Processor Type is always pic.

30
PICC18 Command-line Driver Runtime Files

• The family is named to be compatible with the device-specific header files - e.g. if the
pic18f2480 is defined in pic18f4580.h, it is considered part of the 18f4580 family and will
use the p18f4580-xp.lpp libraries for flash/EEPROM access.

• The configuration digit, x, relates to errata information; each bit has the meaning:

– bit #0 is true for devices implementing EEDATA errata workaround for EEPROM reads.
– bit #1 is true for devices that implement additional NOPs when reading beyond program
space at -40C.

• The library type and extension is f.lpp for flash libraries and e.lpp for eeprom libraries. Note
that as these are p-code libraries, the 4000h address boundary workaround does not need to be
implemented until compile time.

See Section 2.6.30 for more information on the action taken by the compiler’s with regard to hard-
ware errata.

2.3.1.3 MPLAB C18 Compatible Peripheral Libraries

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family has support for all of MPLAB C18 peripheral libraries.
The source for these routines can be viewed in the sources and include directories of the compiler.
For more information concerning peripheral libraries, please visit Microchip’s website. Note that to
use peripheral libraries, the --RUNTIME=plib option will need to be used. See Section 2.6.52.

2.3.2 Runtime Startup Module

A C program requires certain objects to be initialised and the processor to be in a particular state
before it can begin execution of its function main(). It is the job of the runtime startup code to
perform these tasks, specifically:

• Initialisation of global variables assigned a value when defined

• Clearing of non-initialised global variables

• General setup of registers or processor state

Rather than the traditional method of linking in a generic, precompiled routine, HI-TECH C PRO
for the PIC18 MCU Family uses a more efficient method which actually determines what runtime
startup code is required from the user’s prorgam. It does this by performing an additional link step,
the output of which is used to determine the requirements of the program. From this information

31
Runtime Files PICC18 Command-line Driver

PICC18 then “writes” the assembler code which will perform the startup sequence. This code is
stored into a file which is then assembled and linked into the remainder of the program automatically.
The runtime startup code is generated automatically on every compilation. If required, the as-
sembler file which contains the runtime startup code can be deleted after compilation by using the
driver option:

--RUNTIME=default,-keep

If the startup module is kept, it will be called startup.as and will be located in the current working
directory. If you are using an IDE to perform the compilation the destination directory is dictated by
the IDE itself, however you may use the --OUTDIR option to specify an explicit output directory to
the compiler.
This is an automatic process which does not require any user interaction, however some aspects
of the runtime code can be controlled, if required, using the --RUNTIME option. Section 2.6.52
describes the use of this option, and the following sections describes the functional aspects of the
code contained in this module and its effect on program operation.
If you require any special initialization to be performed immediately after reset, you should use
the powerup routine feature decsribed later in Section 2.3.3.

2.3.2.1 Initialization of Data psects

One job of the runtime startup code is ensure that any initialized variables contain their initial value
before the program begins execution. Initialized variables are those which are not auto objects and
which are assigned an initial value in their definition, for example input in the following example.

int input = 88;

void main(void) { ...

Such initialized objects have two components: their initial value stored in a psect destined for non-
volatile memory (i.e. placed in the HEX file), and space for the variable in RAM psect where the
variable will reside and be accessed during program execution.
The actual initial values are placed in a psect called idata. Space is reserved for the runtime
location of initialized variables in a psect called rdata. This psect does not contribute to the output
file and consitutes a reservation of space in the RAM once the program is running.
The runtime startup code performs a block copy of the values from the idata to the rdata psect
so that the RAM variables will contain their initial values before main() is executed. Each location
in the idata psect is copied to the corresponding place in the rdata psect.
The block copy of the data psects may be omitted by disabling the init suboption of --RUNTIME.
For example:

--RUNTIME=default,-init

32
PICC18 Command-line Driver Runtime Files

With this part of the runtime startup code absent, the contents of initialized variables will be unpre-
dictable when the program begins execution. Code relying on variables containing their initial value
will fail.

•
Since auto objects are dynamically created, they require code to be positioned in the
function in which they are defined to perform their initialization. It is also possible that
their initial value changes on each instance of the function. As a result, initialized auto
objects do not use the data psects and are not considered by the runtime startup code.

Variables whose contents should be preserved over a reset, or even power off, should be qualified
with persistent, see Section 3.3.11.1. Such variables are linked at a different area of memory and are
not altered by the runtime startup code in any way.

2.3.2.2 Clearing the Bss Psects

The ANSI standard dictates that those non-auto objects which are not initialized must be cleared
before execution of the program begins. The compiler does this by grouping all such uninitialized
objects into one of the bss psects. This psect is then cleared as a block by the runtime startup code.

•
The abbreviation "bss" stands for Block Started by Symbol and was an assembler pseudo-
op used in IBM systems back in the days when computers were coal-fired. The contin-
ued usage of this term is still appropriate.

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family uses several bss psects. There are the more traditional
psects: rbss and bss, which are used for unitialized variables placed in the access bank memory,
and in banked memory, respectively. However, most unitialized variables are allocated memory by
the code generator directly in the dataspace RAM without being located in a psect at all. They are
then handled as if they were absolute variables.
To ensure that these variables are cleared, the code generator defines symbols that are used by
the command line driver to generate the appropriate code. The symbols have the form: __Labsbssn
and __Habsbssn, where n is a number starting from 0. As these unitialized absolute variables can
be placed anywhere in available memory, and are not restricted to being placed in a single large
block, there may be more than one set of these symbols defined to ensure that all blocks are cleared.
These symbols look like the __Lxxxx and __Hxxxx symbols defined by the linker to represent
the upper and lower bounds of a psect, and can be used in the same way. See Section 3.12.3.

33
Runtime Files PICC18 Command-line Driver

Assembly code that defines variables which should be cleared at startup should be placed in the
rbss and bss psects. Do not create and use a psect with a name of the form absbssn. Appropriate
default linker options will be issued for rbss and bss, thus their use does not require modification
of the linker options, and the command-line driver will automatically check the size of these psects
to determine if block-clear code is required. Variables placed into psects other than the comipler-
defined bss psects will not be cleared at startup by default.
The block clear of all the bss psects (including the memory allocated by the code generator) can
be omitted by disabling the clear suboption of --RUNTIME. For example:

--RUNTIME=default,-clear

With this part of the runtime startup code absent, the contents of uninitialized variables will be
unpredictable when the program begins execution.
Variables whose contents should be preserved over a reset, or even power off, should be qualified
with persistent. See Section 3.3.11.1 for more information. Such variables are linked at a different
area of memory and are not altered by the runtime startup code in anyway.

2.3.3 The Powerup Routine

Some hardware configurations require special initialization, often within the first few instruction
cycles after reset. To achieve this there is a hook to the reset vector provided via the powerup
routine.
This routine can be supplied in a user-defined assembler module that will be executed immedi-
ately after reset. An empty powerup routine is provided in the file powerup.as which is located
in the SOURCES directory of your compiler distribution. Refer to comments in this file for more
details.
The file should be copied to your working directory, modified and included into your project as
a source file. No special linker options or other code is required; the compiler will detect if you
have defined a powerup routine and will automatically use it, provided the code in this routine is
contained in a psect called powerup.
For correct operation (when using the default compiler-generated runtime startup code), the code
must contain at its end a GOTO instruction to the label called start. As with all user-defined assembly
code, it must take into consideration program memory paging and/or data memory banking, as well
as any applicable errata issues for the device you are using. See Section 2.6.30 for more information
on errata issues. The program’s entry point is already defined by the runtime startup code, so this
should not be specified in the powerup routine at the END directive (if used). See Section 4.3.10.2 for
more information on this assembler directive.

34
PICC18 Command-line Driver Runtime Files

2.3.4 The printf Routine

The code associated with the printf function is not found in the library files. The printf function
is generated from a special C source file that is customized after analysis of the user’s C code. See
Appendix 341 for more information on the printf library function.
This template file is found in the LIB directory of the compiler distribution and is called doprnt.c.
It contains a minimal implementation of the printf function, but with the more advanced features
included as conditional code which can be utilized via preprocessor macros that are defined when it
is compiled.
The parser and code generator analyze the C source code, searching for calls to the printf func-
tion. For all calls, the placeholders that were specified in the printf format strings are collated to
produce a list of the desired functionality of the final function. The doprnt.c file is then prepro-
cessed with the those macros specified by the preliminary analysis, thus creating a custom printf
function for the project being compiled. After parsing, the p-code output derived from doprnt.c is
then combined with the remainder of the C program in the final code generation step.
T UT•RIAL

C ALLS TO PRINTF A program contains one call to printf, which looks like:
printf(”input is: $d”);
The compiler will note that only the %d placeholder is used and the doprnt module that is
linked into the program will only contain code that handles printing of decimal integers.
The code is latter changed and another call to printf is added. The new call looks like:
printf(”output is %6d”);
Now the compiler will detect that in addition there must be code present in the doprnt
module that handles integers printed to a specific width. The code that handles this flag
will be introduced into the doprnt module.
The size of the doprnt module will increase as more printf features are detected.

If the format string in a call to printf is not a string literal as in the tutorial, but is rather a pointer
to a string, then the compiler will not be able to reliably predict the printf usage, and so it forces a
more complete version of printf to be generated. However, even without being able to scan printf
placeholders, the compiler can still make certain assumptions reagarding the usage of the function.
In particular, the compiler can look at the number and type of the additional arguments to printf
(those following the format string expression) to determine which placeholders could be valid. This
enables the size and complexity of the generated printf routine to be kept to a minimum.
T UT•RIAL

P RINTF WITHOUT LITERAL FORMAT STRINGS If there is only one reference to

printf in a program and it appears as in the following code:

35
Debugging Information PICC18 Command-line Driver

void my_print(const char * mes) {

printf(mes);
}

the compiler cannot determine the exact format string, but can see that there are no
additional arguments to printf following the format string represented by mes. Thus,
the only valid format strings will not contain placeholders that print any arguments,
and a minimal version of printf will be generated and compiled. If the above code
was rewritten as:

void my_print(const char * mes, double val) {

printf(mes, val);
}

the compiler will detect that the argument being printed has double type, thus the only
valid placeholders would be those that print floating point types, for example %e, %f and
%g.

No aspect of this operation is user-controllable (other than by adjusting the calls to printf), how-
ever the actual printf code used by a program can be observed. If compiling a program using
printf, the driver will leave behind the pre-processed version of doprnt.c. This module, called
doprnt.pre in your working directory, will show the C code that will actually be contained in the
printf routine. As this code has been pre-procedssed, indentation and comments will have been
stripped out as part of the normal actions taken by the C pre-processor.

2.4 Debugging Information

TM
Several driver options and output files are related to allow devlopment tools, such as HI-TIDE
or MPLAB R
, to perform source-level debugging of the output code. These are described in the
following sections.

2.4.1 Output File Formats

The compiler is able to directly produce a number of the output file formats which are used by
common PROM programmers and in-circuit emulators.
The default behaviour of the PICC18 command is to produce Bytecraft COD, Microchip COFF
and Intel HEX output. If no output filename or type is specified, PICC18 will produce a Bytecraft
COD, Microchip COFF and Intel HEX file with the same base name as the first source or object file

36
PICC18 Command-line Driver Debugging Information

specified on the command line. Table 2.9 shows the output format options available with PICC18.
The File Type column lists the filename extension which will be used for the output file.
In addition to the options shown, the -O option may be used to request generation of binary or
UBROF files. If you use the -O option to specify an output filename with a .bin type, for example
-Otest.bin, PICC18 will produce a binary file. Likewise, if you need to produce UBROF files,
you can use the -O option to specify an output file with type .ubr, for example -Otest.ubr.

2.4.2 Symbol Files

The PICC18 -G option tells the compiler to produce several symbol files which can be used by
debuggers and simulators to perform symbolic and source-level debugging. Using the --IDE option
may also enable symbol file generation as well.
The -G option produces an absolute symbol files which contain both assembler- and C-level
information. This file is produced by the linker after the linking process has ben completed. If
no symbol filename is specified, a default filename of file.sym will be used, where file is the
basename of the first source file specified on the command line. For example, to produce a symbol
file called test.sym which includes C source-level information:

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -Gtest.sym test.c init.c

This option will also generate other symbol files for each module compiled. These files are produced
by the code generator and do not contain absolute address. These files have the extension .sdb.
The base name will be the same as the base name of the module being compiled. Thus the above
command line would also generate symbols files with the names test.sdb and init.sdb.

2.4.3 MPLAB-specific information

Certain options and compiler features are specifically intended to help MPLAB perform symbolic
debugging. The --IDE=MPLAB switch performs two functions, both specific to MPLAB. Since
MPLAB does not read the local symbol information produced by the compiler, this options gen-
erates additional global symbols which can be used to represent most local symbols in a program.
The format for the symbols is function.symbol. Thus, if a variable called foo was defined inside
the function main(), MPLAB would allow access to a global object called main.foo. This symbol
format is not available in assembler code. References to this object in assembler would be via the
symbol
The --IDE=MPLAB switch also alters the line numbering information produced so that MPLAB
can better follow the C source when performing source-level stepping.
This option also adjusts the format for compiler errors so that they can be more readily interpreted
by the MPLAB IDE.

37
Compiler Messages PICC18 Command-line Driver

2.5 Compiler Messages

All compiler applications, including the command-line driver, PICC18, use textual messages to
report feedback during the compilation process. A centralized messaging system is used to produce
the messages which allows a consistancy during all stages of the compilation process.

2.5.1 Messaging Overview

A message is referenced by a unique number which is passed to the alert system by the compiler
application that needs to convey the information. The message string corresponding to this number
is obtained from Message Description Files (MDF) which are stored in the DAT directory of the
compiler distribution.
When a message is requested by a compiler application, its number is looked up in the MDF
which corresponds to the currently selected language. The language of messages can be altered as
discussed in Section 2.5.2.
Once found, the alert system determines the message type that should be used to display the
message. There are several different message types which are described in Section 2.5.3. The default
type is stored in the MDF, however this can be overridden by the user, as described in Section 2.5.3.
The user is also able to set a threshold for warning message importance, so that only those which the
user considers significant will be displayed. In addition, messages with a particular number can be
disabled. Both of these methods are explained in Section 2.5.5.1.
Provided the message is enabled and it is not a warning messages that is below the warning
threshold, the message string will be displayed.
In addition to the actual message string, there are several other pieces of information that may
be displayed, such as the message number, the name of the file for which the message is applicable,
the file’s line number and the application that requested the message, etc.
If a message is being displayed as an error, a counter is incremented. After a certain number of
errors has been reached, compilation of the current module will cease. The default number of errors
that will cause this termination can be adjusted by using the --ERRORS option, see Section 2.6.32.
This counter is reset after each compilation step of each module, thus specifying a maximum of five
errors will allow up to five errors from the parser, five from the code generator, five from the linker,
five from the driver, etc.
If a language other than English is selected, and the message cannot be found in the appropriate
non-English MDF, the alert system tries to find the message in the English MDF. If an English
message string is not present, a message similar to:

error/warning (*) generated, but no description available

where * indicates the message number that was generated, will be printed, otherwise the message in
the requested language will be displayed.

38
PICC18 Command-line Driver Compiler Messages

Table 2.2: Support languages

Language MDF name
English en_msgs.txt
German de_msgs.txt
French fr_msgs.txt

2.5.2 Message Language

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family Supports more than one language for displayed mes-
sages. There is one MDF for each language supported.
The language used for messaging may be specified with each compile using the --LANG option,
see Section 2.6.37. Alternatively it may be set up in a more permanent manner by using the --LANG
option together with the --SETUP option which will store the default language in either the reg-
istry, under Windows, or in a configuration file on other systems. On subsequent builds the default
language used will be that specified.
Table shows the MDF applicable for the currently supported languages.

2.5.3 Message Type

There are four types of message whose default behaviour is described below.

Advisory Messages convey information regarding a situation the compiler has encountered or some
action the compiler is about to take. The information is being displayed “for your interest”
and typically require no action to be taken.
Unless prevented by some driver option or another error message, the project will be linked
and the requested output file(s) will be generated.

Warning Messages indicate source code or some other situation that is valid, but which may lead
to runtime failure of the code. The code or situation that triggered the warning should be
investigated, however, compilation of the current module will continue, as will compilation of
any remaining modules.
Unless prevented by some driver option or another error message, the project will be linked
and the requested output file(s) will be generated.

Error Messages indicate source code that is illegal and that compilation of this code either cannot
or will not take place. Compilation will be attempted for the remaining source code in the
current module, but no additional modules will be compiled and the compilation process will
then conclude.
The requested output files will not be produced.

39
Compiler Messages PICC18 Command-line Driver

Table 2.3: Messaging environment variables

Variable Effect
HTC_MSG_FORMAT All advisory messages
HTC_WARN_FORMAT All warning messages
HTC_ERR_FORMAT All error and fatal error messages

Fatal Error Messages indicate a situation that cannot allow compilation to proceed and which re-
quired the the compilation process to stop immediately.
The requested output files will not be produced.

2.5.4 Message Format

By default, messages are printed in the most useful human-readable format as possible. This format
can vary from one compiler application to another, since each application reports information about
different file formats. Some applications, for example the parser, are typically able to pinpoint the
area of interest down to a position on a particular line of C source code, whereas other applications,
such as the linker, can at best only indicate a module name and record number, which is less directly
associated with any particular line of code. Some messages relate to driver options which are in no
way associated with any source code.
There are several ways of changing the format in which message are displayed, which are dis-
cussed below.
The driver option -E (with or without a filename) alters the format of all displayed messages. See
Section 2.6.4. Using this option produces messages that are better suited to machine parsing, and
user-friendly. Typically each message is displayed on a single line. The general form of messages
produced with the -E option in force is:
filename line_number: (message number) message string (message type)
The -E option also has another effect. If it is being used, the driver first checks to see if special
environment variables have been set. If so, the format dictated by these variables are used as a
template for all messages produced by all compiler applications. The names of these variables are
given in Table 2.3.
The value of these environment variables are strings that are used as templates for the message
format. Printf-like placeholders can be placed within the string to allow the message format to be
customised. The placeholders and what they represent are indicated in Table 2.4.
•
If these options are used in a DOS batch file, two percent characters will need to be used
to specify the placeholders, as DOS interprets a single percent character as an argument
and will not pass this on to the compiler. For example:

40
PICC18 Command-line Driver Compiler Messages

Table 2.4: Messaging placeholders

Placeholder Replacement
%a application name
%c column number
%f filename
%l line number
%n message number
%s message string (from MDF)

--ERRFORMAT=”file %%f: line %%l”

The message environment variables, in turn, may be overridden by the driver options: --MSGFORMAT,
--WARNFORMAT and --ERRFORMAT, see Sections 2.6.31, 2.6.40 and 2.6.61. These options take a
string as their argument. The option strings are formatted, and can use the same placeholders, as
their variable counterparts.

T UT•RIAL

C HANGING M ESSAGE F ORMATS A project is compiled, but produces a warning from

the parser and an error from the linker. By default the following messages are displayed
when compiling.
main.c: main()
17: ip = &b;
^ (362) redundant "&" applied to array (warning)
(492) attempt to position absolute psect "text" is illegal
Notice that the format of the messages from the parser and linker differ since the parser
is able to identify the particular line of offending source code. The parser has indicated
the name of the file, indicated the function in which the warning is located, reproduced
the line of source code and highlighted the position at which the warning was first
detected, as well as show the actual warning message string.
The -E option is now used and the compiler issues the same messages, but in a new
format as dictated by the -E option. Now environment variables are set and no other
messaging driver options were specified so the default -E format is used.
main.c: 12: (362) redundant "&" applied to array (warning)
(492) attempt to position absolute psect "text" is illegal (error)

41
Compiler Messages PICC18 Command-line Driver

Notice that now all message follow a more uniform format and are displayed on a single
line.
The user now sets the environment variable HTC_WARN_FORMAT to be the following
string. (Under Windows, this can be performed via the Control Panel’s System panel.)
%a %n %l %f %s
and the project recompiled. The following output will be displayed.
parser 362 12 main.c redundant "&" applied to array (492)
attempt to position absolute psect "text" is illegal (error)
Notice that the format of the warning was changed, but that of the error message was
not. The warning format now follows the specification of the environment variable. The
application name (parser) was substituted for the %a placeholder, the message number
(362) substituted the %n placeholder, etc.
The option --ERRFORMAT="%a %n %l %f %s" is then added to the driver command
line and the following output is observed.
parser 362 12 main.c redundant "&" applied to array
linker 492 attempt to position absolute psect "text" is illegal
Note that now the warning and error formats have changed to that requested. For the
case of the linker error, there is no line number information so the replacement for this
placeholder is left blank.

2.5.5 Changing Message Behaviour

Both the attributes of individual messages and general settings for messaging system can be modified
during compilation. There are both driver command-line options and C pragmas that can be used to
achieve this.

2.5.5.1 Disabling Messages

Each warning message has a default number indicating a level of importance. This number is speci-
fied in the MDF and ranges from -9 to 9. The higher the number, the more important the warning.
Warning messages can be disabled by adjusting the warning level threshold using the --WARN
driver option, see Section 2.6.60. Any warnings whose level is below that of the current threshold
are not displayed. The default threshold is 0 which implies that only warnings with a warning level of
0 or higher will be displayed by default. The information in this option is propagated to all compiler
applications, so its effect will be observed during all stages of the compilation process.

42
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

Warnings may also be disabled by using the --MSGDISABLE option, see Section 2.6.39. This
option takes a comma-separated list of message numbers. Any warnings which are listed are disabled
and will never be issued, regardless of any warning level threshold in place. This option cannot be
used to disable error messages.
Some warning messages can also be disabled by using the warning disable pragma. This
pragma will only affect warnings that are produced by either parser or the code generator, i.e. errors
directly associated with C code. See Section 3.11.4.5 for more information on this pragma.
Error messages can also be disabled, however a slighty more verbose form of the command is
required to confirm the action required. To specify an error message number in the --MSGDISABLE
command, the number must be followed by :off to ensure that it is actually disabled. For example:
--MSGDISABLE=195:off will disable error number 195.

•
Disabling error or warning messages in no way fixes any potential problems reported
by the message. Always use caution when exercising this option.

2.5.5.2 Changing Message Types

It is also possible to change the type of some messages. This is only possible by the use of the
warning pragma and only affects messages generated by the parser or code generator. See Section
3.11.4.5 for more information on this pragma.

2.6 PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

Most aspects of the compilation can be controlled using the command-line driver, PICC18. The
driver will configure and execute all required applications, such as the code generator, assembler
and linker.
PICC18 recognizes the compiler options listed in the table below. The case of the options is not
important, however command shells in UNIX-based operating systems are case sensitive when it
comes to names of files.
All single letter options are identified by a leading dash character, “-”, e.g. -C. Some single letter
options specify an additional data field which follows the option name immediately and without any
whitespace, e.g. -Ddebug.
Multi-letter, or word, options have two leading dash characters, e.g. --ASMLIST. (Because of the
double dash, you can determine that the option --ASMLIST, for example, is not a -A option followed
by the argument SMLIST.) Some of these options define suboptions which typically appear as a

43
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

comma-separated list following an equal character, =, e.g. --OUTPUT=hex,cof. The exact format of
the options varies and are described in detail in the following sections.
Some commonly used suboptions include default, which represent the default specification
that would be used if this option was absent altogether; all, which indicates that all the available
suboptions should be enabled as if they had each been listed; and none, which indicates that all
suboptions should be disabled. Some suboptions may be prefixed with a plus character, +, to indicate
that they are in addition to the other suboptions present, or a minus character “-”, to indicate that
they should be excluded. In the following sections, angle brackets, < >, are used to indicate optional
parts of the command.
See the –HELP option, Section 2.6.35, for more information about options and suboptions.

2.6.1 -Bmodel: Select Memory Model

The -Bmodel option tells PICC18 Standard compiler that this build is configured for memory model,
model.

This option is not implemented on the PICC18 PRO version compiler. There is no PRO
version equivalent option. The PICC18 PRO compiler handles memory allocation is a
more sophisticated manner, rather than pre-defined memory models.

2.6.2 -C: Compile to Object File

The -C option is used to halt compilation after generating a relocatable object file. This option
is frequently used when compiling assembly source files using a “make” utility. Use of this option
when only a subset of all the C source files in a project are being compiled will result in an error from
the code generator. See Section 2.2.2 for more information on generating and using intermediate
files.

2.6.3 -Dmacro: Define Macro

The -D option is used to define a preprocessor macro on the command line, exactly as if it had
been defined using a #define directive in the source code. This option may take one of two forms,
-Dmacro which is equivalent to:

#define macro 1

44
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

placed at the top of each module compiled using this option, or -Dmacro=text which is equivalent
to:

#define macro text

where text is the textual substitution required. Thus, the command:

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -Ddebug -Dbuffers=10 test.c

will compile test.c with macros defined exactly as if the C source code had included the directives:

#define debug 1
#define buffers 10

2.6.4 -Efile: Redirect Compiler Errors to a File

This option has two purposes. The first is to change the format of displayed messages. The second
is to optionally allow messages to be directed to a file as some editors do not allow the standard
command line redirection facilities to be used when invoking the compiler.
The general form of messages produced with the -E option in force is:
filename line_number: (message number) message string (message type)
If a filename is specified immediately after -E, it is treated as the name of a file to which all
messages (errors, warnings etc) will be printed. For example, to compile x.c and redirect all errors
to x.err, use the command:

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -Ex.err x.c

The -E option also allows errors to be appended to an existing file by specifying an addition charac-
ter, +, at the start of the error filename, for example:

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -E+x.err y.c

If you wish to compile several files and combine all of the errors generated into a single text file, use
the -E option to create the file then use -E+ when compiling all the other source files. For example,
to compile a number of files with all errors combined into a file called project.err, you could use
the -E option as follows:

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -Eproject.err -O --PASS1 main.c

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -E+project.err -O --PASS1 part1.c
PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -E+project.err -C asmcode.as

Section 2.5 has more information regarding this option as well as an overview of the messaging
system and other related driver options.

45
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

2.6.5 -Gfile: Generate Source-level Symbol File

The -G option generates a source-level symbol file (i.e. a file which allows tools to determine which
line of source code is associated with machine code instructions, and determine which source-level
variable names correspond with areas of memory, etc.) for use with supported debuggers and simu-
TM
lators such as HI-TIDE and MPLAB R
. If no filename is given, the symbol file will have the same
base name as the project name (see Section 2.1), and an extension of .sym. For example the option
-Gtest.sym generates a symbol file called test.sym. Symbol files generated using the -G option
include source-level information for use with source-level debuggers.
Note that all source files for which source-level debugging is required should be compiled with
the -G option. The option is also required at the link stage, if this is performed separately. For
example:

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -G --PASS1 test.c modules1.c

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -Gtest.sym test.p1 module1.p1

The --IDE option, see Section 2.6.36 will typically enable the -G option.

2.6.6 -Ipath: Include Search Path

Use -I to specify an additional directory to use when searching for header files which have been
included using the #include directive. The -I option can be used more than once if multiple
directories are to be searched.
The default include directory containing all standard header files is always searched even if no
-I option is present. The default search path is searched after any user-specified directories have
been searched. For example:

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -C -Ic:\include -Id:\myapp\include test.c

will search the directories c:\include and d:\myapp\include for any header files included into
the source code, then search the default include directory (the include directory where the compiler
was installed).
It is strongly advised not to use -I to add the compiler’s default include path, not only because
it is unnecessary but in the event that the build tool changes, the path specified here will be searched
prior to searching the new compiler’s default path.
This option has no effect for files that are included into assembly source using the INCLUDE
directive. See Section 4.3.11.3.

46
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

2.6.7 -Llibrary: Scan Library

The -L option is used to specify additional libraries which are to be scanned by the linker and code
generator. Libraries specified using the -L option are scanned before any C standard libraries.
The argument to -L is a library keyword to which the prefix pic8 and other letters and digits, as
described in Section 2.3.1, are added. Both a p-code and object code library filename is generated
and passed to the code generator and linker, respectively. The case of the string following the option
is important for enviroments where filenames are case sensative.
Thus the option -Lt when compiling for a 18F452 will, for example, specify the library filenames
pic86l-t.lpp and pic86l-t.lib. The option -Lxx will specify libraries called pic86l-xx.lpp
and pic86l-xx.lib. All libraries must be located in the LIB subdirectory of the compiler installa-
tion directory.
If you wish the linker to scan libraries whose names do not follow the above naming conven-
tion or whose locations are not in the LIB subdirectory, simply include the libraries’ names on the
command line along with your source files.

•
The commonly-used PICC-18 Standard compiler options -Ll, -Lf and -Lw should not
be used for altering the behaviour of the printf function. The library files correspond-
ing to these opptions are not provided with the PRO version of this compiler, and an
error will result if these options are used with creating these library sets. A custom
printf function is automatically generated by the compiler when required, as descibed
in section 2.3.4.

2.6.8 -L-option: Adjust Linker Options Directly

The -L driver option can also be used to specify an option which will be passed directly to the linker.
If -L is followed immediately by text starting with a dash character “-”, the text will be passed
directly to the linker without being interpreted by PICC18. For example, if the option -L-FOO is
specified, the -FOO option will be passed on to the linker. The linker will then process this option,
when, and if, it is invoked, and perform the appropriate function, or issue an error if the option is
invalid.

•
Take care with command-line options. The linker cannot interpret driver options; sim-
ilarly the command-line driver cannot interpret linker options. In most situations, it is
always the command-line driver, PICC18, that is being executed. If you need to add

47
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

alternate settings in the linker tab in an MPLAB Build options... dialogue, these
are the driver options (not linker options), but which are used by the driver to generate
the appropriate linker options during the linking process.

The -L option is especially useful when linking code which contains non-standard program sections
(or psects), as may be the case if the program contains assembly code which contains user-defined
psects. Without this -L option, it would be necessary to invoke the linker manually to allow the
linker options to be adjusted.
One commonly used linker option is -N, which sorts the symbol table in the map file by address,
rather than by name. This would be passed to PICC18 as the option -L-N.
This option can also be used to replace default linker options: If the string starting from the first
character after the -L up to the first = character matches first part of a default linker option, then that
default linker option is replaced by the option specified by the -L.
T UT•RIAL

R EPLACING DEFAULT LINKER OPTIONS In a particular project, the psect entry is

used, but the programmer needs to ensure that this psect is positioned above the address
800h. This can be achieved by adjusting the default linker option that positions this
psect. First, a map file is generated to determine how this psect is normally allocated
memory. The Linker command line: in the map file indicates that this psect is nor-
mally linked using the linker option:
-pentry=CODE
Which places entry anywhere in the memory defined by the CODE class. The program-
mer then re-links the project, but now using the driver option:
-L-pentry=CODE+800h
to ensure that the psect is placed above 800h. Another map file is generated and the
Linker command line: section is checked to ensure that the option was recieved and
executed by the linker. Next, the address of the psect entry is noted in the psect lists
that appear later in the map file. See Section 5.10 for more information on the contents
of the map file.

If there are no characters following the first = character in the -L option, then any matching default
linker option will be deleted. For example: -L-pfirst= will remove any default linker option that
begins with the string -pfirst=. No warning is generated if such a default linker option cannot be
found.
T UT•RIAL

A DDING AND DELETING DEFAULT LINKER OPTIONS The default linker options for

48
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

for a project links several psects in the following fashion.

-pone=600h,two,three
which links one at 600h, then follows this with two, then three. It has been decided
that the psects should be linked so that one follows two, which follows three, and
that the highest address of one should be located at 5FFh. This new arragement can be
specified issuing the following driver option:
-L-pthree=-600h,two,one
which creates passes the required linker options to the linker. The existing default option
is still present, so this must be removed by use the driver option:
-L-pone=
which will remove the existing option.

The default option that you are deleting or replacing must contain an equal character.

2.6.9 -Mfile: Generate Map File

The -M option is used to request the generation of a map file. The map is generated by the linker
an includes detailed information about where objects are located in memory, see Section 5.10 for
information regarding the content of map files.
If no filename is specified with the option, then the name of the map file will have the project
name, with the extension .map.

2.6.10 -Nsize: Identifier Length

This option allows the C identifier length to be increased from the default value of 31. Valid sizes
for this option are from 32 to 255. The option has no effect for all other values.

2.6.11 -Ofile: Specify Output File

This option allows the basename of the output file(s) to be specified. If no -O option is given, the
output file(s) will be named after the first source or object file on the command line. The files
controlled are any produced by the linker or applications run subsequent to that, e.g. CROMWELL. So
for instance the HEX file, MAP file and SYM file are all controlled by the -O option.
The -O option can also change the directory in which the output file is located by including the
required path before the filename, e.g. -Oc:\project\output\first. This will then also specify
the output directory for any files produced by the linker or subsequently run applications. Any
relative paths specified are with respect to the current working directory.
Any extension supplied with the filename will be ignored. The name and path specified by the
-O option will apply to all output files.

49
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

The options that specify MAP file creation (-M, see 2.6.9), and SYM file creation (-G, see 2.6.5)
override any name or path information provided by -O relevant to the MAP and SYM file.
To change the directory in which all output and intermediate files are written, use the --OUTDIR
option, see Section 2.6.45. Note that if -O specifies a path which is inconsistent with the path
specified in the --OUTDIR option, this will result in an error.

2.6.12 -P: Preprocess Assembly Files

The -P option causes the assembler files to be preprocessed before they are assembled thus allowing
the use of preprocessor directives, such as #include, with assembler code. By default, assembler
files are not preprocessed.

2.6.13 -Q: Quiet Mode

This option places the compiler in a quiet mode which suppresses the HI-TECH Software copyright
notice from being displayed.

2.6.14 -S: Compile to Assembler Code

The -S option stops compilation after generating an assembler source file. An assembler file will be
generated for each C source file passed on the command line. The command:

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 -S test.c

will produce an assembler file called test.as which contains the code generated from test.c.
This option is particularly useful for checking function calling conventions and signature values
when attempting to write external assembly language routines.
The file produced by this option differs to that produced by the --ASMLIST option in that it does
not contain op-codes or addresses and it may be used as a source file and subsequently passed to the
assembler to be assembled.

2.6.15 -Umacro: Undefine a Macro

The -U option, the inverse of the -D option, is used to undefine predefined macros. This option takes
the form -Umacro. The option, -Udraft, for example, is equivalent to:

#undef draft

placed at the top of each module compiled using this option.

50
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

2.6.16 -V: Verbose Compile

The -V is the verbose option. The compiler will display the command lines used to invoke each of
the compiler applications or compiler passes. Displayed will be the name of the compiler application
being executed, plus all the command-line arguments to this application. This option may be useful
for determining the exact linker options if you need to directly invoke the HLINK command.
If this option is used twice, it will display the full path to each compiler application as well as the
full command line arguments. This would be useful to ensure that the correct compiler installation
is being executed if there is more than one installed.

2.6.17 -X: Strip Local Symbols

The option -X strips local symbols from any files compiled, assembled or linked. Only global sym-
bols will remain in any object files or symbol files produced.

2.6.18 --ASMLIST: Generate Assembler .LST Files

The --ASMLIST option tells PICC18 to generate one or more assembler listing file for each C and
assembly source module being compiled.
In the case of code being assembled that was originally C source, the list file shows both the
original C code and the corresponding assembly code generated by the code generator. For both
C and assembly source code, a line number, the binary op-codes and addresses are shown. If the
assembler optimizer is enabled (default operation) the list file may differ from the original assem-
bly source code. The assembler optimizer may also simpify some expression and remove some
assembler directives from the listing file for clarity, although they are processed in the usual way.
Provided the link stage has successfully concluded, the listing file will be updated by the linker
so that it contains absolute addresses and symbol values. Thus you may use the assembler listing file
to determine the position of, and exact op codes corresponding to, instructions.

2.6.19 --CALLGRAPH=type: Select callgraph type

This option allows control over the type of callgraph produced in the map file. Allowable suboptions
include: none, to specify that no callgraph should be produced; and full to indicate that the full
callgraph be displayed in the map file. In addition, the suboption std can be specified to indicate
that a shorter form, without redundant information relating to ARG functions be produced; or crit,
to indicate that only critical path information be displayed in the callgraph.
See also Sections

51
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

2.6.20 --CHECKSUM=start-end@destination<,specs>: Calculate a

checksum
This option will perform a checksum over the address range specified and store the result at the
destination address specified. Additional specifications can be appended as a comma separated list
to this option. Such specifications are:

,width=n select the byte-width of the checksum result. A negative width will store the result in
little-endian byte order. Result widths from one to four bytes are permitted.

,offset=nnnn An initial value or offset to be added to this checksum.

,algorithm=n Select one of the checksum algorithms implemented in hexmate. The selectable al-
gorithms are described in Table 5.10.

2.6.21 --CHIP=processor: Define Processor

This option can be used to specify the target processor for the compilation.
To see a list of supported processors that can be used with this option, use the --CHIPINFO option
described in Section 2.6.22.
See also Section 4.3.10.26 for information on setting the target processor from within assembly
files.

2.6.22 --CHIPINFO: Display List of Supported Processors

The --CHIPINFO option simply displays a list of processors the compiler supports. The names listed
are those chips defined in the chipinfo file and which may be used with the --CHIP option.

2.6.23 --CODEOFFSET: Offset Program Code to Address

In some circumstances, such as bootloaders, it is necessary to shift the program image to an alter-
native address. This option is used to specify a base address for the program code image. With this
option, all code psects (including interrupt vectors and constant data) that the linker would ordinarily
control the location of, will be adjusted.

2.6.24 --CP=size: Set the Size of Pointers to Code Space

Pointers to code/functions, pointers to const, pointers to far and pointers to void can be set to either
16 bits wide or 24 bits wide.

52
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

•
This option is not implemented on the PICC18 PRO version compiler. There is no PRO
version equivalent option. The PICC18 PRO compiler dynamically handles the size of
all pointer types making this option redundant.

2.6.25 --CR=file: Generate Cross Reference Listing

The --CR option will produce a cross reference listing. If the file argument is omitted, the “raw”
cross reference information will be left in a temporary file, leaving the user to run the CREF utility.
If a filename is supplied, for example --CR=test.crf, PICC18 will invoke CREF to process the
cross reference information into the listing file, in this case test.crf. If multiple source files are
to be included in the cross reference listing, all must be compiled and linked with the one PICC18
command. For example, to generate a cross reference listing which includes the source modules
main.c, module1.c and nvram.c, compile and link using the command:

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 --CR=main.crf main.c module1.c nvram.c

Thus this option can not be used when using any compilation process that compiles each source file
separately using the -C or --PASS1 options. Such is the case for most IDEs, including HI-TIDE,
and makefiles.

2.6.26 --DEBUGGER=type: Select Debugger Type

This option is intended for use for compatibility with debuggers. PICC18supports the Microchip
ICD2 debugger and using this option will configure the compiler to conform to the requirements of
the ICD2 (reserving memory addresses, etc.). For example:

PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 --DEBUGGER=icd2 main.c

Basic debugging with Microchip REALICE, ICD3, PICKIT2 and PICKIT3 are also supported
when –debugger=realice, –debugger=icd3, –debugger=pickit2 or –debugger=pickit3 is used.

2.6.27 --DOUBLE=type: Select kind of Double Types

This option allows the kind of double types to be selected. By default the compiler will choose the
truncated IEEE754 24-bit implementation for double types. With this option, this can be changed to
32-bits.

53
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

Table 2.5: Supported Double Types

Suboption Type
24 Truncated IEEE754 24-bit doubles
32 IEEE754 32-bit doubles

2.6.28 --ECHO: Echo command line before processing

Use of this option will result in the command line being echoed to the stderr stream before com-
pilation is commenced. Each token of the command line will be printed on a separate line and will
appear in the order in which they are placed on the command line.

2.6.29 --EMI=type: Select operating mode of the external memory inter-

face (EMI)
Those PIC18 devices which can interface with an external memory are capable of operating in sev-
eral modes. The mode selected is determined by the type of memory available and the connection
method used. The interface can operate in 16-bit modes; word write and byte select mode or in
an 8-bit mode: byte write mode. Valid types that can be specified to this option are: wordwrite,
byteselect or bytewrite. Which mode is selected will affect the code generated when writing
to the external data. In word write mode, dummy reads and writes may be added to ensure that an
even number of bytes are always written. In byte select or byte write modes dummy reads and writes
are not generated and can result in more efficient code. Note that this option does not in any way
pre-configure the device for operation in the selected mode.

2.6.30 --ERRATA=type: Specify to add or remove specific errata workarounds

This option allows specification of the types of software workarounds to apply in order to overcome
documented silicon errata issues. The chip configuration file nominates a default set of errata issues
that apply to each device. To compile for an ideal chip, that is, apply no additional workarounds use
--ERRATA=none.

2.6.31 --ERRFORMAT=format: Define Format for Compiler Messages

If the --ERRFORMAT option is not used, the default behaviour of the compiler is to display any
errors in a “human readable” format line. This standard format is perfectly acceptable to a person
reading the error output, but is not generally usable with environments which support compiler error
handling. The following sections indicate how this option may be used in such situations.

54
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

This option allows the exact format of printed error messages to be specified using special place-
holders embedded within a message template. See Section 2.5 for full details of the messaging
system employed by PICC18.
This section is also applicable to the --WARNFORMAT and --MSGFORMAT options which adjust the
format of warning and advisory messages, respectively.
See Section 2.6.37 for the appropriate option to change the message language.

2.6.32 --ERRORS=number: Maximum Number of Errors

This option sets the maximum number of errors each compiler application, as well as the driver, will
display before stopping. By default, up to 20 error messages will be displayed. See Section 2.5 for
full details of the messaging system employed by PICC18.

2.6.33 --FILL=opcode: Fill Unused Program Memory

This option allows specification of a hexadecimal opcode that can be used to fill all unused program
memory locations with a known code sequence. Multi-byte codes should be entered in little endian
byte order.

2.6.34 --GETOPTION=app,file: Get Command-line Options

This option is used to retrieve the command line options which are used for named compiler appli-
cation. The options are then saved into the given file. This option is not required for most projects.

2.6.35 --HELP<=option>: Display Help

The --HELP option displays information on the PICC18 compiler options. To find out more about a
particular option, use the option’s name as a parameter. For example:

PICC18 --help=warn

This will display more detailed information about the --WARN option, the available suboptions, and
which suboptions are enabled by default.

2.6.36 --IDE=type: Specify the IDE being used

This option is used to automatically configure the compiler for use by the named Integrated Devel-
opment Environment (IDE). The supported IDE’s are shown in Table 2.6.

55
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

Table 2.6: Supported IDEs

Suboption IDE
hitide HI-TECH Software’s HI-TIDE
mplab Microchip’s MPLAB

Table 2.7: Supported languages

Suboption Language
en, english English
fr, french,francais French
de, german, deutsch German

2.6.37 --LANG=language: Specify the Language for Messages

This option allows the compiler to be configured to produce error, warning and some advisory mes-
sages in languages other than English. English is the default language and some messages are only
ever printed in English regardless of the language specified with this option.
Table 2.7 shows those langauges currently supported.
See Section 2.5 for full details of the messaging system employed by PICC18.

2.6.38 --MEMMAP=file: Display Memory Map

This option will display a memory map for the specified map file. This option is seldom required,
but would be useful if the linker is being driven explicitly, i.e. instead of in the normal way through
the driver. This command would display the memory summary which is normally produced at the
end of compilation by the driver.

2.6.39 --MSGDISABLE=messagelist: Disable Warning Messages

This option allows warning or advisory messages to be disabled during compilation of all modules
within the project, and during all stages of compilation. Warning mesasges can also be disabled
using pragma directives. For full information on the compiler’s messaging system, see Section 2.5.
The messagelist is a comma-separated list of warning numbers that are to be disabled. If the
number of an error is specified, it will be ignored by this option. If the message list is specified as 0,
then all warnings are disabled.

56
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

Table 2.8: Optimization Options

Option name Funcion
1..9 Select global optimization level (1 through 9)
asm Select optimizations of assembly derived from C source
asmfile Select optimizations of assembly source files
debug Favor accurate debugging over optimization
space Favour optimization of code for space over speed (default)
speed Favour optimization of code for speed over space
all Enable all compiler optimizations (also includes space)
none Do not use any compiler optimziations

2.6.40 --MSGFORMAT=format: Set Advisory Message Format

This option sets the format of advisory messages produced by the compiler. See Section 2.5 for full
information.

2.6.41 --NODEL: Do not Remove Temporary Files

Specifying --NODEL when building will instruct PICC18not to remove the intermediate and tempo-
rary files that were created during the build process.

2.6.42 --NOEXEC: Don’t Execute Compiler

The --NOEXEC option causes the compiler to go through all the compilation steps, but without ac-
tually performing any compilation or producing any output. This may be useful when used in con-
junction with the -V (verbose) option in order to see all of the command lines the compiler uses to
drive the compiler applications.

2.6.43 --OPT<=type>: Invoke Compiler Optimizations

The --OPT option allows control of all the compiler optimizers. By default, without this option, all
optimizations are enabled. The options --OPT or --OPT=all also enable all optimizations. Opti-
mizations may be disabled by using --OPT=none, or individual optimizers may be controlled, e.g.
--OPT=asm will only enable some assembler optimizations. Table 2.8 lists the available optimization
types. The optimizations that are controlled through specifying a level 1 through 9 affect optimiza-
tion during the code generation stage. The level selected is commonly referred to as the global
optimization level.

57
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

2.6.44 --OBJDIR=dir: Specify a Directory for Intermediate Files

This option allows a directory to be nominated in for PICC18to locate its intermediate files. Interme-
diate file include .pre and .p1 file for C source, and also includes .obj and .lst files for assembly
source and the compiler-generated runtime startup source file.
If this option is omitted, intermediate files will be created in the current working directory. This
option will not set the location of output files, instead use --OUTDIR. See 2.6.45 and 2.6.11 for more
information.

2.6.45 --OUTDIR=path: Specify a Directory for Output Files

This option allows a directory to be nominated in for PICC18to locate its output files. If this option
is omitted, output files will be created in the current working directory. This option will not set the
location of intermediate files, instead use --OBJDIR. See ?? and 2.6.11 for more information.

2.6.46 --OUTPUT=type: Specify Output File Type

This option allows the type of the output file(s) to be specified. If no --OUTPUT option is specified,
the output file’s name will be derived from the first source or object file specified on the command
line.
The available output file format are shown in Table 2.9. More than one output format may be
specified by supplying a comma-separated list of tags. Those output file types which specify library
formats stop the compilation process before the final stages of compilation are executed. Hence
specifying an output file format list containing, e.g. lib or all will over-ride the non-library output
types, and only the library file will be created.

2.6.47 --PASS1: Compile to P-code

The --PASS1 option is used to generate a p-code intermediate files (.p1 file) from the parser, then
stop compilation. Such a file needs to be generated if creating a p-code library file.

2.6.48 --PRE: Produce Preprocessed Source Code

The --PRE option is used to generate preprocessed C source files with an extension .pre. This may
be useful to ensure that preprocessor macros have expanded to what you think they should. Use
of this option can also create C source files which do not require any separate header files. This is
useful when sending files for technical support.
If you wish to see the preprocessed source for the printf family of functions, do not use this
option. The source for this function is customised by the compiler, but only after the code generator
has scanned the project for printf usage. Thus, as the –PRE option stops compilation after the

58
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

Table 2.9: Output file formats

Type tag File format
lib Library File
lpp P-code library
intel Intel HEX
inhx032 Intel HEX with upper address initialization of zero
tek Tektronic
aahex American Automation symbolic HEX file
mot Motorola S19 HEX file
ubrof UBROF format
bin Binary file
mcof Microchip PIC COFF
cof Common Object File Format
cod Bytecraft COD file format
elf ELF/DWARF file format

preprocessor stage, the code generator will not execute and no printf code will be processed. If this
option is omitted, the preprocessed source for printf will be retained in the file doprnt.pre.
If you wish to see the preprocessed source for the printf family of functions, do not use this
option. The source for this function is customised by the compiler, but only after the code generator
has scanned the project for printf usage. Thus, as the –PRE option stops compilation after the
preprocessor stage, the code generator will not execute and no printf code will be processed. If this
option is omitted, the preprocessed source for printf will be retained in the file doprnt.pre.

2.6.49 --PROTO: Generate Prototypes

The --PROTO option is used to generate .pro files containing both ANSI and K&R style function
declarations for all functions within the specified source files. Each .pro file produced will have
the same base name as the corresponding source file. Prototype files contain both ANSI C-style
prototypes and old-style C function declarations within conditional compilation blocks.
The extern declarations from each .pro file should be edited into a global header file which is
included in all the source files comprising a project. The .pro files may also contain static decla-
rations for functions which are local to a source file. These static declarations should be edited into
the start of the source file. To demonstrate the operation of the --PROTO option, enter the following
source code as file test.c:

#include <stdio.h>
add(arg1, arg2)

59
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

int * arg1;
int * arg2;
{
return *arg1 + *arg2;
}

void printlist(int * list, int count)

{
while (count--)
printf("%d ", *list++);
putchar(’\n’);
}
If compiled with the command:
PICC18 --CHIP=18F242 --PROTO test.c
PICC18 will produce test.pro containing the following declarations which may then be edited as
necessary:
/* Prototypes from test.c */
/* extern functions - include these in a header file */
#if PROTOTYPES
extern int add(int *, int *);
extern void printlist(int *, int);
#else /* PROTOTYPES */
extern int add();
extern void printlist();
#endif /* PROTOTYPES */

2.6.50 --RAM=lo-hi,<lo-hi,...>: Specify Additional RAM Ranges

This option is used to specify memory, in addition to any RAM specified in the chipinfo file, which
should be treated as available RAM space. Strictly speaking, this option specifies the areas of mem-
ory that may be used by writable (RAM-based) objects, and not necessarily those areas of memory
which contain physical RAM. The output that will be placed in the ranges specified by this option
are typically variables that a program defines.
Some chips have an area of RAM that can be remapped in terms of its location in the memory
space. This, along with any fixed RAM memory defined in the chipinfo file, are grouped an made
available for RAM-based objects.
For example, to specify an additional range of memory to that present on-chip, use:

60
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

--RAM=default,+100-1ff

for example. To only use an external range and ignore any on-chip memory, use:

--RAM=0-ff

This option may also be used to reserve memory ranges already defined as on-chip memory in the
chipinfo file. To do this supply a range prefixed with a minus character, -, for example:

--RAM=default,-100-103

will use all the defined on-chip memory, but not use the addresses in the range from 100h to 103h
for allocation of RAM objects.

2.6.51 --ROM=lo-hi,<lo-hi,...>|tag: Specify Additional ROM Ranges

This option is used to specify memory, in addition to any ROM specified in the chip configuration
file, which should be treated as available ROM space. Strictly speaking, this option specifies the
areas of memory that may be used by read-only (ROM-based) objects, and not necessarily those
areas of memory which contain physical ROM. The output that will be placed in the ranges specified
by this option are typically executable code and any data variables that are qualified as const.
When producing code that may be downloaded into a system via a bootloader the destination
memory may indeed be some sort of (volatile) RAM. To only use on-chip ROM memory, this option
is not required. For example, to specify an additional range of memory to that on-chip, use:

--ROM=default,+100-2ff

for example. To only use an external range and ignore any on-chip memory, use:

--ROM=100-2ff

This option may also be used to reserve memory ranges already defined as on-chip memory in the
chip configuration file. To do this supply a range prefixed with a minus character, -, for example:

--ROM=default,-100-1ff

will use all the defined on-chip memory, but not use the addresses in the range from 100h to 1ffh for
allocation of ROM objects.

61
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

Table 2.10: Runtime environment suboptions

Suboption Controls On (+) implies
init The code present in the startup mod- The idata, ibigdata and
ule that copies the idata, ibigdata and ifardata psects’ ROM image is
ifardata psects’ ROM-image to RAM. copied into RAM.
clib The inclusion of library files into the output Library files are linked into the
code by the linker. output.
clear The code present in the startup module that The bss, bigbss, rbss and
clears the bss, bigbss, rbss and farbss farbss psects are cleared.
psects.
download Conditioning of the Intel hex file for use
with bootloaders. Data records in the Intel hex file
are padded out to 16 byte lengths
and will align on 16 byte bound-
aries. Startup code will not as-
sume reset values in certain reg-
isters.
keep Whether the start-up module source file is The start-up module is not
deleted after compilation. deleted.
no_startup Whether the startup module is linked in The start-up module is generated
with user-defined code. and linked into the program.
stackwarn Checking the depth of the stack used. The stack depth is monitored at
compile time and a warning will
be produced if a potential stack
overflow is detected.
plib Compiler links the Microchip compatible Compiler links the Microchip
peripheral libraries. Other than <htc.h> compatible peripheral libraries.
no other header files need to be included
to use the functions in these libraries. By
default this option is not set.

62
PICC18 Command-line Driver PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions

2.6.52 --RUNTIME=type: Specify Runtime Environment

The --RUNTIME option is used to control what is included as part of the runtime environment. The
runtime environment encapsulates any code that is present at runtime which has not been defined by
the user, instead supplied by the compiler, typically as library code.
All runtime features are enabled by default and this option is not required for normal compilation.
The usable suboptions include those shown in Table 2.10.

2.6.53 --SCANDEP: Scan for Dependencies

When this option is used, a .dep (dependency) file is generated. The dependency file lists those
files on which the source file is dependant. Dependencies result when one file is #included into
another.

2.6.54 --SERIAL=hexcode@address: Store a Value at this Program Mem-

ory Address
This option allows a hexadecimal code to be stored at a particular address in program memory. A
typical application for this option might be to position a serial number in program memory. The
byte-width of data to store is determined by the byte-width of the hexcode parameter in the option.
A label __serial0 is defined by the runtime startup code that marks the position of the hexadec-
imal code. This symbol may be referenced by C or assembly code in the usual way.
For example, to store the one byte value, 0, at program memory address 1000h, use the option
--SERIAL=00@1000. Use the option --SERIAL=00000000@1000 to store the same value as a
four byte quantity. This option is functionally identical to the corresponding hexmate option. For
more detailed information and advanced controls that can be used with this option, refer to Section
5.15.1.15 of this manual.

2.6.55 --SETOPTION=app,file: Set The Command-line Options for Ap-

plication
This option is used to supply alternative command line options for the named application when com-
piling. The app component specifies the application that will recieve the new options. The file
component specifies the name of the file that contains the additional options that will be passed to
the application. This option is not required for most projects. If specifying more than one option to
a component, each option must be entered on a new line in the option file.
This option can also be used to remove an application from the build sequence. If the file param-
eter is specified as off, execution of the named application will be skipped. In most cases this is
not desirable as almost all applications are critical to the success of the build process. Disabling a

63
PICC18 Driver Option Descriptions PICC18 Command-line Driver

Table 2.11: Memory Summary Suboptions

Suboption Controls On (+) implies
psect Summary of psect usage. A summary of psect names and
the addresses they were linked at
will be shown.
mem General summary of memory used. A concise summary of memory
used will be shown.
class Summary of class usage. A summary of all classes in each
memory space will be shown.
hex Summary of address used within the hex A summary of addresses and hex
file. files which make up the final out-
put file will be shown.
file Whether summary information is shown Summary information will be
on the screen or shown and saved to a file. shown on screen and saved to a
file.

critical application will result in catastrophic failure. However it is permissible to skip a non-critical
application such as clist or hexmate if the final results are not reliant on their function.

2.6.56 --STRICT: Strict ANSI Conformance

The --STRICT option is used to enable strict ANSI conformance of all special keywords. HI-
TECH C supports various special keywords (for example the persistent type qualifier). If the
--STRICT option is used, these keywords are changed to include two underscore characters at
the beginning of the keyword (e.g. __persistent) so as to strictly conform to the ANSI stan-
dard. Be warned that use of this option may cause problems with some standard header files (e.g.
<intrpt.h>).

2.6.57 --SUMMARY=type: Select Memory Summary Output Type

Use this option to select the type of memory summary that is displayed after compilation. By default,
or if the mem suboption is selected, a memory summary is shown. This shows the total memory usage
for all memory spaces.
A psect summary may be shown by enabling the psect suboption. This shows individual psects,
after they have been grouped by the linker, and the memory ranges they cover. Table 2.11 shows
what summary types are available.

64
PICC18 Command-line Driver MPLAB Universal Toolsuite Equivalents

2.6.58 --TIME: Report time taken for each phase of build process
Adding --TIME when building generate a summary which shows how much time each stage of the
build process took to complete.

2.6.59 --VER: Display The Compiler’s Version Information

The --VER option will display what version of the compiler is running.

2.6.60 --WARN=level: Set Warning Level

The --WARN option is used to set the compiler warning level. Allowable warning levels range from
-9 to 9. The warning level determines how pedantic the compiler is about dubious type conversions
and constructs. The higher the warning level, the more important the warning message. The default
warning level is 0 and will allow all normal warning messages.
Use this option with care as some warning messages indicate code that is likely to fail during
execution, or compromise portability.
Warning message can be individually disabled with the --MSGDISABLE option, see 2.6.39. See
also Section 2.5 for full information on the compiler’s messaging system.

2.6.61 --WARNFORMAT=format: Set Warning Message Format

This option sets the format of warning messages produced by the compiler. See Section 2.5.4 for
more information on this option. For full information on the compiler’s messaging system, see
Section 2.5.

2.7 MPLAB Universal Toolsuite Equivalents

When compiling under the MPLAB IDE, it is still the compiler’s command-line driver that is being
executed and compiling the program. The HI-TECH Universal Toolsuite plugin controls the MPLAB
IDE build options dialog that is used to access the compiler options, however these graphical controls
ultimately adjust the command-line options passed to the command-line driver when compiling. You
can see the command-line options being used when building in MPLAB IDE in the Output window.
The following dialogs and descriptions identify the mapping between the dialog controls and
command-line options. As the toolsuite is universal across all HI-TECH compilers supporting Mi-
crochip, not all options are applicable for HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family.

65
MPLAB Universal Toolsuite Equivalents PICC18 Command-line Driver

Figure 2.3: The Directories dialog

2.7.1 Directories Tab

The options in this dialog control the output and search directories for some files. See Figure 2.3 in
conjunction with the following command line option equivalents.

1. Output directory
This selection uses the buttons and fields grouped in the bracket to specify an output directory
for files output by the compiler.
2. Include Search path
This selection uses the buttons and fields grouped in the bracket to specify include (header)

66
PICC18 Command-line Driver MPLAB Universal Toolsuite Equivalents

3 5

6
4
7

Figure 2.4: The Compiler dialog

file search directories. See 2.6.6.

2.7.2 Compiler Tab

The options in this dialog control the aspects of compilation up to code generation. See Figure 2.4
in conjunction with the following command line option equivalents.

1. Define macros
The buttons and fields grouped in the bracket can be used to define preprocessor macros. See
2.6.3.

67
MPLAB Universal Toolsuite Equivalents PICC18 Command-line Driver

2. Undefine macros
The buttons and fields grouped in the bracket can be used to undefine preprocessor macros.
See 2.6.15.
3. Preprocess assembly
This checkbox controls whether assembly source files are scanned by the preprocessor. See
2.6.12.
4. Optimization settings
These controls are used to adjust the different optimizations the compiler employs. See 2.6.43.
5. Identifier length
This selector controls the maximum identifier length in C source. See 2.6.10.
6. Verbose
This checkbox controls whether the full command-lines for the compiler applications are dis-
played when building. See 2.6.16.
7. Warning level
This selector allows the warning level print threshold to be set. See 2.6.60.

2.7.3 Linker Tab

The options in this dialog control the link step of compilation. See Figure 2.5 in conjunction with
the following command line option equivalents.

1. Runtime options
These checkboxes control the many runtime features the compiler can employ. See 2.6.52.
2. Fill
This field allows a fill value to be specified for unused memory locations. See 2.6.33.
3. Codeoffset
This field allows an offset for the program to be specified. See 2.6.23.
4. Checksum
This field allows the checksum specification to be specified. See 2.6.20.
5. Errata
This field allows the errata workarounds employed by the compiler to be controlled. See
2.6.30.

68
PICC18 Command-line Driver MPLAB Universal Toolsuite Equivalents

1 8

10

11

12

13

14 15

Figure 2.5: The Linker dialog

69
MPLAB Universal Toolsuite Equivalents PICC18 Command-line Driver

6. Vectors
Not applicable.
7. Callgraph
This selector allows the type of call graph printed in the map file to be chosen. See 5.10.2.2.
8. Debugger
This selector allows the type of hardware debugger to be chosen. See 2.6.26.
9. Trace type
Not yet implemented.
10. Stack size
Not applicable.
11. Heap size
Not applicable.
12. Frequency
Not applicable.
13. Extend address 0 in HEX file
This option specifies that the intel HEX file should have initialization to zero of the upper
address . See 2.6.46.
14. Interrupt options
Not applicable.
15. Summary Options
These checkboxes control which summaries are printed after compilation. See 2.6.57.

2.7.4 Global Tab

The options in this dialog control aspects of compilation that are applicable throughout code gener-
ation and link steps. See Figure 2.6 in conjunction with the following command line option equiva-
lents.

1. Memory model
Not applicable.
2. Double float
This selector allows the size of double float objects to be selected. See 2.6.27.

70
PICC18 Command-line Driver MPLAB Universal Toolsuite Equivalents

1
6
2
7
3
8
4

5 9

Figure 2.6: The Global dialog

71
MPLAB Universal Toolsuite Equivalents PICC18 Command-line Driver

3. Printf
Not applicable.

4. Use strict calls

Not applicable.

5. RAM ranges
This field allows the default RAM (data space) memory used to be adjusted. See 2.6.50.

6. Code pointer size

Not applicable.

7. External memory
This selector allows the type of external memory access to be specified. See 2.6.29.

8. Instruction set
Not applicable.

9. ROM ranges
This field allows the default ROM (program space) memory used to be adjusted. See 2.6.51.

72
Chapter 3

C Language Features

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports a number of special features and extensions
to the C language which are designed to ease the task of producing ROM-based applications. This
chapter documents the compiler options and special language features which are specific to the
Microchip PIC 18 family of processors.

3.1 ANSI Standard Issues

3.1.1 Divergence from the ANSI C Standard

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family diverges from the ANSI C standard in one area:
function recursion.
Due to the PIC18’s hardware limitations of no easily-usable stack and limited memory, function
recursion is unsupported.

3.1.2 Implementation-defined behaviour

Certain sections of the ANSI standard have implementation-defined behaviour. This means that the
exact behaviour of some C code can vary from compiler to compiler. Throughout this manual are
sections describing how the HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family compiler behaves in such
situations.

73
Processor-related Features C Language Features

3.1.3 Non-ANSI Operations

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Familycan detect specific sequences of portable ANSI C code
that implicitly implements a rotate operation. The C language only specifies a left and right shift
operator, but no rotate operator. The code generator encodes matching sequences using assembly
rotate instructions where possible.
The code sequence to implement a rotate right by 1 bit looks like:

var = (var > > 1) | (var < < 7);

where var must be an unsigned char or:

var = (var > > 1) | (var < < 15);

where var must be an unsigned int. Rotates can be either left or right and of any number of bits.
Note that a rotate left of 1 bit is equivalent to a rotate right of 7 bits when dealing with byte-wide
variables, or a rotate right of 15 bits when dealing with 2-byte quantities.

3.2 Processor-related Features

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family has many features which relate directly to the PIC18
family of processors. These are detailed in the following sections.

3.2.1 Processor Support

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports the full range of Microchip PIC 18 proces-
sors. Additional code-compatible processors may be added by editing the picc-18.ini file in the DAT
directory. User-defined processors should be placed at the end of the file. The header of the file
explains how to specify a processor. Newly added processors will be available the next time you
compile by selecting the name of the new processor on the command line in the usual way.

3.2.2 Configuration Fuses

The PIC18 processor’s have several locations which contain the configuration bits or fuses. These
bits may be set using the configuration macro. The macro has the form:

__CONFIG(n,x);

(there are two leading underscore characters) where n is the configuration register number and x is
the value that is to be the configuration word. The macro is defined in <htc.h> so be sure to include
that into each module that uses this macro.

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C Language Features Processor-related Features

The configuration macro programs the upper and lower half of each register, i.e. it programs
16 bits with each call. Special named quantities are defined in the header file appropriate for the
processor you are using to help you enable the required features.
For example, to set a PIC18Cxx1 chip to have an RC type oscillator, an 8-bit bus width, the
powerup timer disabled, the watchdog timer enabled with a post scale factor of 1:1, and the stack
full/underflow reset disabled, the following could be used.

#include <htc.h>
__CONFIG(1, RC);
__CONFIG(2, BW8 & PWRTDIS & WDTPS1 & WDTEN);
__CONFIG(4, STVRDIS);

Note that the individual selections are ANDed together. Any bits which are not selected in these
macros will remain unprogrammed. You should ensure that you have specified all bits correctly
to ensure proper operation of the part when programmed. Consult your PIC18 datasheet for more
details.
The __CONFIG macro does not produce executable code and should be placed outside function
definitions.

3.2.3 ID Locations
Some PIC18 devices have location outside the addressable memory area that can be used for storing
program information, such as an ID number. The __IDLOC macro may be used to place data into
these locations. The macro is used in a manner similar to:

#include <htc.h>
__IDLOC(x);

where x is a list of nibbles which are to be positioned into the ID locations. Only the lower four bits
of each ID location is programmed, so the following:

__IDLOC(15F01);

will attempt to fill ID locations which the values: F1H, F5H, FFH, F0H, F1H. The base address of
the ID locations is specified by the idloc psect which will be automatically assigned as appropriate
address based on the type of processor selected.

3.2.4 Bit Instructions

Wherever possible, HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family will attempt to use the PIC18 bit
instructions. For example, when using a bitwise operator and a mask to alter a bit within an integral

75
Processor-related Features C Language Features

type, the compiler will check the mask value to determine if a bit instruction can achieve the same
functionality.
unsigned int foo;
foo |= 0x40;
will produce the instruction:
bsf _foo,6
To set or clear individual bits within integral type, the following macros could be used:
#define bitset(var,bitno) ((var) |= 1UL < < (bitno))
#define bitclr(var,bitno) ((var) &= ~(1UL < < (bitno)))
To perform the same operation as above, the bitset macro could be employed as follows:
bitset(foo,6);

3.2.5 EEPROM and Flash Runtime Access

The compiler offers several methods of accessing EEPROM and Flash memory. These are described
in the following sections.

3.2.5.1 EEPROM Access

For those PIC devices that support external programming of their EEPROM data area, the __EEP-
ROM_DATA() macro can be used to place the initial EEPROM data values into the HEX file ready
for programming. The macro is used as follows.
#include <htc.h>
__EEPROM_DATA(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7);
The macro accepts eight parameters, being eight data values. Each value should be a byte in size.
Unused values should be specified as a parameter of zero. The macro may be called multiple times
to define the required amount of EEPROM data. It is recommended that the macro be placed outside
any function definitions.
The macro defines, and places the data within, a psect called eeprom_data. This psect is posi-
tioned by a linker option in the usual way.
This macro is not used to write to EEPROM locations during run-time. The macros EEP-
ROM_READ() and EEPROM_WRITE(), and the function versions of these macros, can be called to
read from, and write to, the EEPROM during program execution. For example, to write a byte-size
value to an address in EEPROM memory using the macro version of EEPROM write:

76
C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables

EEPROM_WRITE(address,value);
To read a byte of data from an address in EEPROM memory, and store it in a variable:
variable=EEPROM_READ(address);
For convenience, __EEPROMSIZE predefines the number of bytes of EEPROM available on chip.

3.2.5.2 Flash Access

To copy a block of code/data to an area in flash memory:
flash_write(source_pointer, length, dest_pointer);
To read a byte of data from an address in flash memory, and store in a variable:
variable=flash_read(address);

3.2.6 Multi-byte SFRs

Some of the SFRs associated with the PIC18 can be grouped to form multi-byte values, e.g. the
TMRxH and TMRxL register together form a 16-bit timer count value. Depending on the device
and mode of operation, there may be hardware requirements to read these registers correctly, e.g.
the TMRxL register often must be read before trying to read the TMRxH register to obtain a valid
16-bit result.
Although it is possible to define an absolute non-char C variable to map over such registers, the
order in which HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family reads the bytes of a multi-byte object
varies depending on the context of the variable in an expression, i.e. it may read the most significant
byte first, or the least. Thus, it highly recommended that the existing SFR char definitions in the
chip header files be used. Each SFR should be accessed directly and in the required order by the
programmer’s code. This will ensure a much higher degree of portability.
The following code copies the two byte registers into C unsigned variable i for subsequent use.
i = TMR0L;
i += TMR0H < < 8;

3.3 Supported Data Types and Variables

The HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family compiler supports basic data types with 1, 2, 3
and 4 byte sizes. All multi-byte types follow least significant byte first format, also known as little-
endian. Word size values thus have the least significant byte at the lower address, and double word
size values have the least significant byte and least significant word at the lowest address. Table 3.1
shows the data types and their corresponding size and arithmetic type.

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Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features

Table 3.1: Basic data types

Type Size (bits) Arithmetic Type
bit 1 unsigned integer
char 8 signed or unsigned integer
unsigned char 8 unsigned integer
short 16 signed integer
unsigned short 16 unsigned integer
int 16 signed integer
unsigned int 16 unsigned integer
long 32 signed integer
unsigned long 32 unsigned integer
float 24 real
double 24 or 32 1 real

Table 3.2: Radix formats

Radix Format Example
binary 0bnumber or 0Bnumber 0b10011010
octal 0number 0763
decimal number 129
hexadecimal 0xnumber or 0Xnumber 0x2F

3.3.1 Radix Specifiers and Constants

The format of integral constants specifies their radix. HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Fam-
ily supports the ANSI standard radix specifiers as well as ones which enables binary constants to
specified in C code. The format used to specify the radices are given in Table 3.2. The letters used
to specify binary or hexadecimal radices are case insensitive, as are the letters used to specify the
hexadecimal digits.
Any integral constant will have a type which is the smallest type that can hold the value without
overflow. The suffix l or L may be used with the constant to indicate that it must be assigned either
a signed long or unsigned long type, and the suffix u or U may be used with the constant to
indicate that it must be assigned an unsigned type, and both l or L and u or U may be used to indicate
unsigned long int type.
Floating-point constants have double type unless suffixed by f or F, in which case it is a float
constant. The suffixes l or L specify a long double type which is considered an identical type to
double by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family.
Character constants are enclosed by single quote characters ’, for example ’a’. A character

78
C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables

constant has char type. Multi-byte character constants are not supported.
String constants or string literals are enclosed by double quote characters ", for example "hello
world". The type of string constants is const char [] and the strings are stored in the program
memory. Assigning a string constant to a non-const char pointer will generate a warning from the
compiler. For example:

char * cp= "one"; // "one" in ROM, produces warning

const char * ccp= "two"; // "two" in ROM, correct

Defining and initializing a non-const array (i.e. not a pointer definition) with a string, for example:

char ca[]= "two"; // "two" different to the above

produces an array in data space which is initialised at startup with the string "two" (copied from
program space), whereas a constant string used in other contexts represents an unnamed const-
qualified array, accessed directly in program space.
HI-TECH C will use the same storage location and label for strings that have identical character
sequences, except where the strings are used to initialise an array residing in the data space as shown
in the last statement in the previous example.
Two adjacent string constants (i.e. two strings separated only by white space) are concatenated
by the compiler. Thus:

const char * cp = "hello " "world";

assigned the pointer with the string "hello world".

3.3.2 Bit Data Types and Variables

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Familysupports bit integral types which can hold the values
0 or 1. Single bit variables may be declared using the keyword bit. bit objects declared within a
function, for example:

static bit init_flag;

will be allocated in the bit-addressable psect rbit, and will be visible only in that function. When
the following declaration is used outside any function:

bit init_flag;

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Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features

init_flag will be globally visible, but located within the same psect.
Bit variables cannot be auto or parameters to a function. A function may return a bit object
by using the bit keyword in the functions prototype in the usual way. The bit return value will be
returning in the carry flag in the status register.
Bit variables behave in most respects like normal unsigned char variables, but they may only
contain the values 0 and 1, and therefore provide a convenient and efficient method of storing boolean
flags without consuming large amounts of internal RAM. It is, however, not possible to declared
pointers to bit variables or statically initialise bit variables.
Operations on bit objects are performed using the single bit instructions (bsf and bcf) wherever
possible, thus the generated code to access bit objects is very efficient.
Note that when assigning a larger integral type to a bit variable, only the least-significant bit is
used. For example, if the bit variable bitvar was assigned as in the following:

int data = 0x54;

bit bitvar;
bitvar = data;

it will be cleared by the assignment since the least significant bit of data is zero. If you want to set
a bit variable to be 0 or 1 depending on whether the larger integral type is zero (false) or non-zero
(true), use the form:

bitvar = data != 0;

The psects in which bit objects are allocated storage are declared using the bit PSECT directive
flag. Eight bit objects will take up one byte of storage space which is indicated by the psect’s scale
value of 8 in the map file. The length given in the map file for bit psects is in units of bits, not bytes.
All addresses specified for bit objects are also bit addresses.
The bit psects are cleared on startup, but are not initialised. To create a bit object which has a
non-zero initial value, explicitly initialise it at the beginning of your code.
If the PICC18 flag --STRICT is used, the bit keyword becomes unavailable.

3.3.3 Using Bit-Addressable Registers

The bit variable facility may be combined with absolute variable declarations (see Section 3.4.2) to
access bits at specific addresses. Absolute bit objects are numbered from 0 (the least significant bit
of the first byte) up. Therefore, bit number 3 (the fourth bit in the byte since numbering starts with
0) in byte number 5 is actually absolute bit number 43 (that is 8bits/byte * 5 bytes + 3 bits).
For example, to access the power down detection flag bit in the RCON register, declare RCON to
be a C object at absolute address 03h, then declare a bit variable at absolute bit address 27:

80
C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables

static unsigned char RCON @ 0xFD0;

static near bit PD @ (unsigned)&RCON*8+2;

Note that all standard registers and bits within these registers are defined in the header files provided.
The only header file you need to include to have access to the PIC18 registers is <htc.h> - at compile
time this will include the appropriate header for the selected chip.

3.3.4 8-Bit Integer Data Types and Variables

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports both signed char and unsigned char
8-bit integral types. If the signed or unsigned keyword is absent from the variable’s definition,
the default type is unsigned char unless the PICC18 --CHAR=signed option is used, in which
case the default type is signed char. The signed char type is an 8-bit two’s complement signed
integer type, representing integral values from -128 to +127 inclusive. The unsigned char is an
8-bit unsigned integer type, representing integral values from 0 to 255 inclusive. It is a common
misconception that the C char types are intended purely for ASCII character manipulation. This is
not true, indeed the C language makes no guarantee that the default character representation is even
ASCII. The char types are simply the smallest of up to four possible integer sizes, and behave in all
respects like integers.
The reason for the name “char” is historical and does not mean that char can only be used to
represent characters. It is possible to freely mix char values with short, int and long values in C
expressions. With HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family the char types will commonly be
used for a number of purposes, as 8-bit integers, as storage for ASCII characters, and for access to
I/O locations.
Variables may be declared using the signed char and unsigned char keywords, respectively,
to hold values of these types. Where only char is used in the declaration, the type will be signed
char unless the option, mentioned above, to specify unsigned char as default is used.

3.3.5 16-Bit Integer Data Types

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports four 16-bit integer types. short and int are
16-bit two’s complement signed integer types, representing integral values from -32,768 to +32,767
inclusive. Unsigned short and unsigned int are 16-bit unsigned integer types, representing in-
tegral values from 0 to 65,535 inclusive. All 16-bit integer values are represented in little endian
format with the least significant byte at the lower address.
Variables may be declared using the signed short int and unsigned short int keyword
sequences, respectively, to hold values of these types. When specifying a short int type, the
keyword int may be omitted. Thus a variable declared as short will contain a signed short int
and a variable declared as unsigned short will contain an unsigned short int.

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Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features

3.3.6 24-Bit Integer Data Types

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports two 24-bit integer types. short long
are 24-bit two’s complement signed integer types, representing integral values from -8,388,608 to
+8,388,607 inclusive. Unsigned short long are 24-bit unsigned integer types, representing inte-
gral values from 0 to 16,777,215 inclusive. All 24-bit integer values are represented in little endian
format with the least significant byte at the lower address.
Variables may be declared using the signed short long int and unsigned short long
int keyword sequences, respectively, to hold values of these types. When specifying a short
long int type, the keyword int may be omitted. Thus a variable declared as short long will
contain a signed short long int and a variable declared as unsigned short long will contain
an unsigned short long int.

3.3.7 32-Bit Integer Data Types and Variables

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Familysupports two 32-bit integer types. Long is a 32-bit
two’s complement signed integer type, representing integral values from -2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647
inclusive. The unsigned long type is a 32-bit unsigned integer type, representing the integral val-
ues from 0 to 4,294,967,295 inclusive. All 32-bit integer values are represented in little endian
format with the least significant word and least significant byte at the lowest address. Long and
unsigned long occupy 32 bits as this is the smallest long integer size allowed by the ANSI stan-
dard for C.
Variables may be declared using the signed long int and unsigned long int keyword se-
quences, respectively, to hold values of these types. Where only long int is used in the declaration,
the type will be signed long. When specifying this type, the keyword int may be omitted. Thus
a variable declared as long will contain a signed long int and a variable declared as unsigned
long will contain an unsigned long int.

3.3.8 Floating Point Types and Variables

Floating point is implemented using either a IEEE 754 32-bit format or a modified (truncated) 24-bit
form of this.
The 24-bit format is used for all float values. For double values, the 24-bit format is the
default, or if the --double=24 option is used. The 32-bit format is used for double values if the
--double=32 option is used.
This format is described in 3.3, where:

• sign is the sign bit

• The exponent is 8-bits which is stored as excess 127 (i.e. an exponent of 0 is stored as 127).

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C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables

Table 3.3: Floating-point formats

Format Sign biased exponent mantissa
IEEE 754 32-bit x xxxx xxxx xxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
modified IEEE 754 24-bit x xxxx xxxx xxx xxxx xxxx xxxx

Table 3.4: Floating-point format example IEEE 754

Format Number biased expo- 1.mantissa decimal
nent
32-bit 7DA6B69Bh 11111011b 1.01001101011011010011011b 2.77000e+37
(251) (1.302447676659)
24-bit 42123Ah 10000100b 1.001001000111010b 36.557
(132) (1.142395019531)

• mantissa is the mantissa, which is to the right of the radix point. There is an implied bit to the
left of the radix point which is always 1 except for a zero value, where the implied bit is zero.
A zero value is indicated by a zero exponent.

The value of this number is (-1)sign x 2(exponent−127) x 1.mantissa.

Here are some examples of the IEEE 754 32-bit formats:
Note that the most significant bit of the mantissa column in 3.4 (that is the bit to the left of the
radix point) is the implied bit, which is assumed to be 1 unless the exponent is zero (in which case
the float is zero).
The 32-bit example in 3.4 can be calculated manually as follows.
The sign bit is zero; the biased exponent is 251, so the exponent is 251-127=124. Take the binary
number to the right of the decimal point in the mantissa. Convert this to decimal and divide it by 223
where 23 is the number of bits taken up by the mantissa, to give 0.302447676659. Add one to this
fraction. The floating-point number is then given by:
−10 × 2124 × 1.302447676659 = 1×2.126764793256e + 37 × 1.302447676659≈ 2.77000e + 37
Variables may be declared using the float and double keywords, respectively, to hold values
of these types. Floating point types are always signed and the unsigned keyword is illegal when
specifying a floating point type. Types declared as long double will use the same format as types
declared as double.

3.3.9 Structures and Unions

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports struct and union types of any size from one
byte upwards. Structures and unions only differ in the memory offset applied for each member. The

83
Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features

members of structures and unions may not be objects of type bit, but bit-fields are fully supported.
Structures and unions may be passed freely as function arguments and return values. Pointers to
structures and unions are fully supported.

3.3.9.1 Bit-fields in Structures

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family fully supports bit-fields in structures.
Bit-fields are allocated within 8- or 16-bit words. Although the ANSI standard only allows for
bit-fields of type int or unsigned int, this is not optimial on PICC18 devices. The allocation size
of the bit-field structure is based on the number of bits defined in the structure as a whole, thus the
following structure:

struct {
unsigned lo : 1;
unsigned dummy : 6;
unsigned hi : 1;
} foo;

will be allocated 1 byte of memory in total, but the following:

struct {
unsigned lo : 1;
unsigned dummy : 6;
unsigned hi : 1;
unsigned extra : 2;
} foo;

will be allocated 2 bytes of storage.

Unnamed bit-fields may be declared to pad out unused space between active bits in control
registers. For example, if dummy is never used the structure above could have been declared as:

struct {
unsigned lo : 1;
unsigned : 6;
unsigned hi : 1;
} foo;

A structure with bit-fields may be initialised by supplying a comma-separated list of initial values
for each field. For example:

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C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables

struct {
unsigned lo : 1;
unsigned mid : 6;
unsigned hi : 1;
} foo = {1, 8, 0};
As PIC18 devices are little endian, the first bit defined will be the least significant bit of the word in
which it will be stored. When a bit-field is declared, it is allocated within the current word if it will
fit, otherwise a new word is allocated within the structure. Bit-fields can never cross the boundary
between word allocation units. For example, the declaration:
struct {
unsigned lo : 1;
unsigned dummy : 6;
unsigned hi : 1;
} foo;
will produce a structure occupying 1 byte. If foo was ultimately linked at address 10H, the field lo
will be bit 0 of address 10H, hi will be at bit 7. The least significant bit of dummy will be bit 1 of
address 10H and the most significant bit of dummy will be at bit 6.

3.3.9.2 Structure and Union Qualifiers

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports the use of type qualifiers on structures. When
a qualifier is applied to a structure, all of its members will inherit this qualification. In the following
example the structure is qualified const.
const struct {
int number;
int *ptr;
} record = { 0x55, &i};
In this case, the structure will be placed into the program space and each member will, obviously, be
read-only. Remember that all members must be initialized if a structure is const as they cannot be
initialized at runtime.
If the members of the structure were individually qualified const but the structure was not, then
the structure would be positioned into RAM, but each member would be read-only. Compare the
following structure with the above.
struct {
const int number;
int * const ptr;
} record = { 0x55, &i};

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Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features

3.3.10 Standard Type Qualifiers

Type qualifiers provide information regarding how an object may be used, in addition to its type
which defines it storage size and format. HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports
both ANSI qualifiers and additional special qualifiers which are useful for embedded applications
and which take advantage of the PIC18 architecture.

3.3.10.1 Const and Volatile Type Qualifiers

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports the use of the ANSI type qualifiers const
and volatile.
The const type qualifier is used to tell the compiler that an object is read only and will not be
modified. If any attempt is made to modify an object declared const, the compiler will issue a
warning. User-defined objects declared const are placed in a special psects in the program space.
Obviously, a const object must be initialised when it is declared as it cannot be assigned a value at
any point at runtime. For example:

const int version = 3;

The volatile type qualifier is used to tell the compiler that an object cannot be guaranteed to retain
its value between successive accesses. This prevents the optimizer from eliminating apparently
redundant references to objects declared volatile because it may alter the behaviour of the program
to do so. All Input/Output ports and any variables which may be modified by interrupt routines
should be declared volatile, for example:

volatile static near unsigned char PORTA @ 0xF80;

Volatile objects may be accessed using different generated code to non-volatile objects. For ex-
ample, when assigning a non-volatile object the value 1, the object may be cleared and then incre-
mented, but the same operation performed on a volatile object will load the W register with 1 and
then store this to the appropriate address.

3.3.11 Special Type Qualifiers

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports special type qualifiers, persistent, near
and far to allow the user to control placement of static and extern class variables into partic-
ular address spaces. If the PICC18 option, --STRICT is used, these type qualifiers are changed to
__persistent, __near and __far, respectively. These type qualifiers may also be applied to point-
ers. These type qualifiers may not be used on variables of class auto; if used on variables local to a
function they must be combined with the static keyword. For example, you may not write:

86
C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables

void test(void) {
persistent int intvar; /* WRONG! */
... other code ...
}
because intvar is of class auto. To declare intvar as a persistent variable local to function
test(), write:
static persistent int intvar;
HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family also supports the keywords bank1, bank2 and bank3.
These keywords have been included to allow code to be easily ported from PICC. These keywords
are accepted by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family, but have no effect in terms of the
object’s storage or how they are accessed. These keywords do, however, affect the storage of objects
when compiling with the PICC compiler - see your PICC manual for more details.

3.3.11.1 Persistent Type Qualifier

By default, any C variables that are not explicitly initialised are cleared to zero on startup. This is
consistent with the definition of the C language. However, there are occasions where it is desired for
some data to be preserved across resets or even power cycles (on-off-on).
The persistent type qualifier is used to qualify variables that should not be cleared on startup.
In addition, any persistent variables will be stored in a different area of memory to other variables.
Persistent objects are placed within one of the non-volatile psects. If the persistent object is
also qualified near, it placed in the nvrram psect. Persistent bit objects are placed within the
nvbit psect. All other persistent objects are placed in the nvram psect.

3.3.11.2 Near Type Qualifier

The near type qualifier is a recommendation to place static variables in the access bank of the PIC18.
Near objects are represented by 8 bit addresses and the access bank is always accessible regardless
of the currently selected RAM bank so accessing near objects may be faster than accessing other
objects, and typically results in smaller code sizes.
Here is an example of an unsigned char object placed within the access bank:
static near unsigned char fred;
The memory allocation scheme used by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family automatically
allocates variables to the access bank. The access bank will be filled before banked memory is used.
The allocation scheme uses the number of times the each object is referenced, as well the size of the
object to determine which are given preference to the access bank. The near qualifier increases the
probability of a variable being placed in the access bank.

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Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features

3.3.11.3 Far Type Qualifier

The far type qualifier is used to place variables of permanent duration into external program space
of the PIC18 for those devices which can support additional memory. Accesses to far variables are
less efficient than accesses to internal variables and extensive accesses to these variables will result
in larger code sizes.
Here is an example of an unsigned int object placed into the device’s external code space:

far unsigned int farvar;

Note that not all devices support extending their memory space in this way and the far qualifier is not
applicable to all PIC18 devices. For those devices that can extend their memory, the address range
where the additional memory will be mapped must first be specified with a –RAM option. For exam-
ple, to map additional data memory from 20000h to 2FFFFh use --RAM=default,+20000-2FFFF.
Also consider that if the external memory area uses addresses greater than FFFFh (as in most
cases) the --CP=24 command line option will also be required in order to access these variables
correctly.

3.3.12 Pointer Types

There are two basic pointer types supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family: data
pointers and function pointers. Data pointers hold the address of variables which can be read, and
possible written, indirectly by the program. Function pointers hold the address of an executable
routine which can be called indirectly via the pointer.
Typically qualifiers are used with pointer definitions to customise the scope of the pointer, al-
lowing the code generator to set an appropriate size and format for the addresses the pointer will
hold. PRO version compilers use sophisticated algorithms to track the assignment of addresses to
data pointers, and, as a result, many of these qualifiers no longer need to be used, and the size of the
pointer is optimal for the its intended usage.
It is helpful to first review the ANSI standard conventions for definitions of pointer types.

3.3.12.1 Combining Type Qualifiers and Pointers

Pointers can be qualified like any other C object, but care must be taken when doing so as there are
two quantities associated with pointers. The first is the actual pointer itself, which is treated like
any ordinary C variable and has memory reserved for it. The second is the target that the pointer
references, or to which the pointer points. The general form of a pointer definition looks like the
following.

target_type_&_qualifiers * pointer’s_qualifiers pointer’s_name;

88
C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables

Any qualifiers to the right of the * (i.e. next to the pointer’s name) relate to the pointer variable itself.
The type and any qualifiers to the left of the * relate to the pointer’s targets.

T UT•RIAL

E XAMPLE OF POINTER QUALIFIERS Here are three examples of pointer definitions

using the volatile qualifier. The fields in the definitions have been highlighted with
spacing:
volatile int * vip ;
int * volatile ivp ;
volatile int * volatile vivp ;
The first example is a pointer called vip. It contains the address of int objects that
are qualified volatile. The pointer itself — the variable that holds the address — is
not volatile, however the objects that are accessed when the pointer is dereferenced
are volatile. That is, the target objects accessible via the pointer may be externally
modified.
The second example is a pointer called ivp which also contains the address of int
objects. In this example, the pointer itself is volatile, that is, the address the pointer
contains may be externally modified, however the objects that can be accessed when
dereferencing the pointer are not volatile.
The last example is of a pointer called vivp which is itself qualified volatile and
which also holds the address of a volatile object.

Bear in mind that one pointer can be assigned the address of many objects, for example a pointer
that is a parameter to a function is assigned a new object address every time the function is called.
The definition of the pointer must be valid for every target address assigned.

Care must be taken when describing pointers: Is a “const pointer” a pointer that points
to const objects, or a pointer that is const itself. You can talk about “pointers to const”
and “const pointers” to help clarify the definition, but such terms may not be universally
understood.

89
Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features

3.3.12.2 Data Pointers

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family monitors and records all assignments of addresses to
each data pointer the program defines. The size and format of the address held by each pointer is
based on this information. When more than one address is assigned to a pointer at different places
in the code, a set of all possible targets the pointer can address is maintained. This information
is specific to each pointer defined in the program, thus two pointers with the same type may hold
addresses of different sizes and formats due to the different nature of objects they address in the
program.
The following pointer classifications are currently implemented:

• An 8-bit pointer capable of accessing the access bank;

– Address is an offset into the access bank

• A 16-bit pointer capable of accessing the entire data memory space;

• An 8-bit pointer capable of accessing up to 256 bytes of program space data;

– Address is an offset into psect smallconst;

• A 16-bit pointer capable of accessing up to 64 kbytes of program space data;

– Address is an offset into psect mediumconst which is linked into any 64k block, but with
an offset into this block equal to the size of the data space memory;

• A 24-bit pointer capable of accessing the entire program space;

• A 16-bit pointer capable of accessing the entire data space memory and up to 64 kbytes of
program space data;

– Addresses above the top of the data space access program space; other addresses access
data space;

• A 24-bit pointer capable of accessing the entire data space memory and the entire program
space;

– Bit #21 determines destination: this bit set indicates a data space address; clear indicates
a program space address
– This is the default pointer configuration as it can point to any object.

90
C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables

Each data pointer will be allocated one of the above classifications after preliminary scans of the
source code. There is no mechanism by which the programmer can specify the style of pointer
required (other than by the address assignments to the pointer).

T UT•RIAL

DYNAMIC POINTER SIZES A program in the early stages of development contains the
following code;
void main(void) {
int i, *ip;
ip = &i;
}
The code generator is able to automatically allocate the variable i to the access bank,
which it does. The code generator notes that the pointer ip only points to the access
bank variable i, so this pointer is made an 8-bit wide access bank pointer.
As the program is developed, other near variables are defined and allocated space in the
access bank. A point is reach at which the variable i will no longer fit in the access bank
and it is automatically moved to banked RAM. When the program is next compiled, the
pointer ip will automatically become a 16-bit pointer to all of the data space, and the
code used to initialize and dereference the pointer will change accordingly.

One positive aspect of tracking pointer targets is less of a dependence on pointer qualifiers. The
standard qualifiers const and volatile must still be used in pointer definitions to indicate a read-
only or externally-modifiable target object, respectively. However this is in strict accordance with the
ANSI standard. HI-TECH specific qualifiers, like near and far, do not need to be used to indicate
pointer targets, and should be avoided. The non-use of these qualifiers will result in more portable
and readable code, and lessen the chance of extraneous warnings being issued by the compiler.

3.3.12.3 Pointers to Const

The const qualifier plays no direct part in specifying the pointer classification that the compiler will
allocate to a pointer. This qualifier should be used when the target, or targets, referenced by the
pointer should be read-only. The addresses of const objects assigned to a pointer will result in that
pointer having a classification capable of accessing the program space. The exact classification will
also depend on other factors.
The code generator tracks the total size of const qualified variables that are defined. It uses
this information to determine how large any pointers that can access const objects must be. Such
pointers may be either 1, 2 or 3 bytes wide.

91
Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features

T UT•RIAL

P OINTERS AND CONST DATA Assume a program contains of the following:

void main(void) {
const char in_table[20] = { /* values */ };
char * cp;
cp = &in_table;
}
If the array above is the only const data in the program, then there are 20 bytes of const
data used in the program. In this instance, the code generator will make the pointer, cp,
a one byte wide pointer to objects in the program space.
Later, the program is changed and another const array is added to the code:
const char out_table[200] = { /* values */ };
As the total size of const data for this program now exceeds 255 bytes, the size of any
pointer that can access const objects will be made 2 bytes long. Even if the pointer, cp,
is not assigned the address of this new array, out_table, its size will increase.

For pointer that are accessing const objects, the address contained within the pointer is an offset into
the psect used to store the const data. For programs defining less than 256 bytes of const data, this
data is placed into a psect called smallconst; for larger const data amounts up to 64 kbytes, the
psect is called mediumconst.
The size of pointers that can access const data indicates the storage size of the address. However,
PIC18 devices use a 3-byte table pointer SFR to access data in the program space and all 3 bytes
of this register must be loaded and valid to access program space data. To avoid having to load all
3 bytes of this register with each program space access, the code generator also keeps track of the
number of table pointer registers that are modified during the program. These active table pointer
registers will be re-loaded with each program space access. The non-active registers are assumed to
retain the value assigned to them in the runtime startup code.

Any hand-written assembler code, or C code that writes to the table pointer SFRs di-
rectly, must ensure that the contents of any non-active table registers are preserved.
Saving both TBLPTRH and TBLPTRU will ensure that this requirement is met.

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C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables

3.3.12.4 Pointers to Both Memory Spaces

When a pointer is assigned the address of one or more objects allocated memory in the data space,
and also assigned the address of one or more const objects, the pointer will be classified such that
it can dereference both memory spaces, and the address will be encoded so that the target memory
space can be determined at runtime.
A 16-bit mixed space pointer is encoded such that if it holds an address that is higher than the
highest general purpose RAM address, it holds the address of a program space object; all other
address reference objects in the data space.
A 24-bit mixed space pointer is encoded such that if bit number #21 is set, it contains the address
of an object in the data space; all other addresses hold the address of a program space object.

T UT•RIAL

P OINTERS TO DIFFERENT TARGETS A program in the early stages of development

contains the following code;
int getValue(int * ip) {
return 2 + *ip ;
}
void main(void) {
int j, i = setV();
j = getValue(&i)
}
The code generator allocate the variable i to the access bank and the pointer ip (the
parameter to the function getValue) is made an 8-bit wide access bank pointer. At a
later date, the function main is changed, becoming:
void main(void) {
int j, i = setV();
const int start = 0x10;
j = getValue(&i)
j += getValue(&start);
}
Now the pointer, ip, is assigned addresses of both data and const objects. After the
next compilation the size and encoding of ip will change, as will the code that assigns
the addresses to ip. The generated code that dereferences ip (in getValue) will check
the address to determine the memory space of the target address.

93
Storage Class and Object Placement C Language Features

3.3.12.5 Function Pointers

Function pointers can be defined to indirectly call functions or routines in the program space. The
size of these pointers are 16 or 24 bits wide and is determined by the amount of program memory
defined. Function pointers are 16-bits wide for memory spaces less the 64 kbytes in size. For larger
program space memory sizes, these then swap to 3 bytes in size.
It should be stressed that direct calls to functions are not affected by the size of function pointers.
The size of function pointers only affect code calling functions indirectly. The addresses for all code
labels are always shown in the map file as an untruncated 3-byte address regardless of the pointer
size determined by the code generator.
The size of function pointers will affect the number of table pointer registers considered active.

3.4 Storage Class and Object Placement

Objects are positioned in different memory areas dependant on their storage class and declaration.
This is discussed in the following sections.

3.4.1 Local Variables

A local variable is one which only has scope within the block in which it was defined. That is, it may
only be referenced within that block. C supports two classes of local variables in functions: auto
variables which are normally allocated in the function’s auto-variable block, and static variables
which are always given a fixed memory location and have permanent duration.

3.4.1.1 Auto Variables

auto (short for automatic) variables are the default type of local variable. Unless explicitly declared
to be static a local variable will be made auto, however the auto keyword may be used if desired.
auto variables are allocated in the auto-parameter block and referenced via an index from the sym-
bol that represents that block. The variables will not necessarily be allocated in the order declared
- in contrast to parameters which are always in lexical order. Note that most type qualifiers cannot
be used with auto variables, since there is no control over the storage location. The exceptions are
const and volatile.
All auto variables are automatically allocated memory within the access bank, or one bank of
RAM. At present, all functions share the same bank of memory for auto objects. The size of a
program’s auto parameter block may not exceed the size of one bank, which is 100H bytes.
The auto parameter blocks for a number of functions are overlapped by the linker if those func-
tions are never called at the same time.

94
C Language Features Storage Class and Object Placement

auto objects are referenced with a symbol that consists of two question marks, ??, concatenated
with the assembly name of the function in which the auto is defined, plus some offset. For example,
if the int object test is the first object placed in main()’s auto parameter block, it will be accessed
using the addresses ??_main and ??_main+1, since an int is two bytes long.
•
Note that standard version compilers use the prefix ?a instead of ?? However the allo-
cation and access of auto variables is otherwise the same.

3.4.1.2 Static Variables

Uninitialized static variables are allocated in one of the bss, rbss or bigbss psects. Objects
qualified near appear in the rbss psect; objects larger than one bank in size or byte long objects
are placed in the bigbss psect and the remainder in the bss psect. They will occupy fixed memory
locations which will not be overlapped by storage for other functions. Static variables are local in
scope to the function in which they are declared, but may be accessed by other functions via pointers
since they have permanent duration. Static variables are guaranteed to retain their value between
calls to a function, unless explicitly modified via a pointer. Static variables are not subject to any
architectural limitations on the PIC18.
Static variables which are initialised are only done so once during the program’s execution.
Thus, they may be preferable over initialised auto objects which are assigned a value every time the
block in which the definition is placed is executed.

3.4.2 Absolute Variables

A global or static variable can be located at an absolute address by following its declaration with
the construct @ address, for example:
volatile unsigned char Portvar @ 0x06;
will declare a variable called Portvar located at 06h. The compiler will reserve storage for this
object via the assembler DABS directive, and will equate the variable to that address. The compiler-
generated assembler will include a line of the form:
_Portvar EQU 06h
This construct is primarily intended for equating the address of a C identifier with a microprocessor
special function register, but can be used to place user-defined variables at an absolute address. The
compiler and linker do not make any checks for overlap of absolute variables with other absolute
variables.

95
Functions C Language Features

Defining absolute objects can fragment memory and may make it impossible for the
linker to position other objects. Avoid absolute objects if at all possible. If absolute
objects must be defined, try to place them at one end of a memory bank or space.

3.4.3 Objects in Program Space

Const objects are usually placed in program space. On the PIC18 devices, the program space is
byte-wide, the compiler stores one character per byte location and values are read using the table read
instructions. All const-qualified data objects and string literals are placed in either the smallconst,
mediumconst or const psect, depending on the amount of const data defined in the program. The
appropriate const psect is placed at an address above the upper limit of RAM since RAM and const
pointers use this address to determine if an access to ROM or RAM is required. See Section 3.3.12.

3.5 Functions
In some situations, the code associated with a function is output more than once. See Section 3.9.4
from more information.

3.5.1 Absolute Functions

The generated code associated with a function can be placed at an absolute address. This can be
accomplished by using an @ address construct in a similar fashion to that used with absolute vari-
ables.
The following example of an absolute function which will place the function label and first
assembly instruction corresponding to the function at address 400h:

int mach_status(int mode) @ 0x400

{
/* function body */
}

Using this construct with interrupt functions will not alter the position of the interrupt context
saving code that precedes the code associated with the interrupt function body. See also Section
2.6.23.

96
C Language Features Functions

3.5.2 Function Argument Passing

The method used to pass function arguments depends on the size of the argument or arguments.
If there is only one argument, and it is one byte in size, it is passed in the W register.
If there is only one argument, and it is greater than one byte in size, it is passed in the argument
area of the called function. If there are subsequent arguments, these arguments are also passed in the
argument area of the called function. The argument area is referenced by an offset from the symbol
?_function, where function is the assembly name of the function concerned.
If there is more than one argument, and the first argument is one byte in size, it is passed in the
W register, with subsequent arguments being passed in the argument area of the called function.

T UT•RIAL

F UNCTION ARGUMENT LOCATIONS Take, for example, the following ANSI-style

function:
void test(char a, int b){
}
The function test() will receive the parameter b in its function argument block and a
in the W register. A call:
test( ’a’, 8);
would generate code similar to:
movlw 08h
movff wreg,?_test
movlw 0h
movff wreg,?_test+1
movlw 061h
call (_test)
In this example, the parameter b is held in the memory locations ?_test and ?_test+1.

If you need to determine, for assembly code for example, the exact entry or exit code within a
function or the code used to call a function, it is often helpful to write a dummy C function with the
same argument types as your assembler function, compile this, and then inspect the assembly list
file (PICC18 --ASMLIST option), allowing you to examine the assembly code.

3.5.3 Function Return Values

Function return values are passed to the calling function as follows:

97
Functions C Language Features

3.5.3.1 8-Bit Return Values

Eight-bit values are returned from a function in the W register. For example, the function:

char return_8(void){
return 0;
}

will exit with the following code:

movlw 0
return

3.5.3.2 16-Bit, 24-bit and 32-bit Return Values

16-bit, 24-bit and 32-bit values are returned in the parameter memory locations, with the least sig-
nificant word in the lowest memory location. For example, the function:

int return_16(void){
return 0x1234;
}

will exit with the code similar to the following :

movlw 34h
movwf (?_return_16)
movlw 12h
movwf (?_return_16)+1
return

3.5.3.3 Structure Return Values

Composite return values (struct and union) of size 4 bytes or smaller are returned in memory as
with 16-bit and 32-bit return values. For composite return values of greater than 4 bytes in size,
the structure or union is copied into the struct psect. Data is copied using the library routine
structcopy which uses FSR0 for the source address, FSR1 for the destination address and W for
the structure size. For example:

struct fred {
int ace[4];
};

98
C Language Features Register Usage

struct fred return_struct(void){

struct fred wow;
return wow;
}

will exit with the following code:

movlw low(??_return_struct)
movwf fsr0l
movlw high(??_return_struct)
movwf fsr0h
movlw structret
movwf fsr1l
clrf fsr1h
movlw 8
global structcopy
call structcopy

3.6 Register Usage

The W register is used for register-based function argument passing and for function return values.
This register should be preserved by any assembly language routines which are called.
The code generator assumes that either on or both of the upper bytes of the table pointer register
(TBLPTRU and TBLPTRH) will not be changed by hand-written assembly code, or C code that writes
directly to these SFRs. These registers should be preserved by such code.

3.7 Operators
HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family supports all the ANSI operators. The exact results of
some of these are implementation defined. The following sections illustrate code produced by the
compiler.

3.7.1 Integral Promotion

When there is more than one operand to an operator, they typically must be of exactly the same type.
The compiler will automatically convert the operands, if necessary, so they have the same type. The
conversion is to a “larger” type so there is no loss of information. Even if the operands have the same
type, in some situations they are converted to a different type before the operation. This conversion

99
Operators C Language Features

is called integral promotion. HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family performs these integral
promotions where required. If you are not aware that these changes of type have taken place, the
results of some expressions are not what would normally be expected.
Integral promotion is the implicit conversion of enumerated types, signed or unsigned varieties
of char, short int or bitfield types to either signed int or unsigned int. If the result of the
conversion can be represented by an signed int, then that is the destination type, otherwise the
conversion is to unsigned int.
Consider the following example.

unsigned char count, a=0, b=50;

if(a - b < 10)
count++;

The unsigned char result of a - b is 206 (which is not less than 10), but both a and b are con-
verted to signed int via integral promotion before the subtraction takes place. The result of the
subtraction with these data types is -50 (which is less than 10) and hence the body of the if() state-
ment is executed. If the result of the subtraction is to be an unsigned quantity, then apply a cast.
For example:

if((unsigned int)(a - b) < 10)

count++;

The comparison is then done using unsigned int, in this case, and the body of the if() would not be
executed.
Another problem that frequently occurs is with the bitwise compliment operator, “~”. This
operator toggles each bit within a value. Consider the following code.

unsigned char count, c;

c = 0x55;
if( ~c == 0xAA)
count++;

If c contains the value 55h, it often assumed that ~c will produce AAh, however the result is FFAAh
and so the comparison above would fail. The compiler may be able to issue a mismatched compari-
son error to this effect in some circumstances. Again, a cast could be used to change this behaviour.
The consequence of integral promotion as illustrated above is that operations are not performed
with char-type operands, but with int-type operands. However there are circumstances when the
result of an operation is identical regardless of whether the operands are of type char or int. In
these cases, HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family will not perform the integral promotion
so as to increase the code efficiency. Consider the following example.

100
C Language Features Operators

Table 3.5: Integral division

Operand 1 Operand 2 Quotient Remainder
+ + + +
- + - -
+ - - +
- - + -

unsigned char a, b, c;
a = b + c;

Strictly speaking, this statement requires that the values of b and c should be promoted to unsigned
int, the addition performed, the result of the addition cast to the type of a, and then the assignment
can take place. Even if the result of the unsigned int addition of the promoted values of b and c
was different to the result of the unsigned char addition of these values without promotion, after
the unsigned int result was converted back to unsigned char, the final result would be the same.
An 8-bit addition is more efficient than a 16-bit addition and so the compiler will encode the former.
If, in the above example, the type of a was unsigned int, then integral promotion would have
to be performed to comply with the ANSI standard.

3.7.2 Shifts applied to integral types

The ANSI standard states that the result of right shifting (> > operator) signed integral types is
implementation defined when the operand is negative. Typically, the possible actions that can be
taken are that when an object is shifted right by one bit, the bit value shifted into the most significant
bit of the result can either be zero, or a copy of the most significant bit before the shift took place.
The latter case amounts to a sign extension of the number.
PICC18 performs a sign extension of any signed integral type (for example signed char,
signed int or signed long). Thus an object with the signed int value 0124h shifted right one
bit will yield the value 0092h and the value 8024h shifted right one bit will yield the value C012h.
Right shifts of unsigned integral values always clear the most significant bit of the result.
Left shifts (< < operator), signed or unsigned, always clear the least significant bit of the result.

3.7.3 Division and modulus with integral types

The sign of the result of division with integers when either operand is negative is implementation
specific. 3.5 shows the expected sign of the result of the division of operand 1 with operand 2 when
compiled with PICC18.
In the case where the second operand is zero (division by zero), the result will always be zero.

101
Psects C Language Features

3.8 Psects
The compiler splits code and data objects into a number of standard program sections referred to
as psects. The HI-TECH assembler allows an arbitrary number of named psects to be included in
assembler code. The linker will group all data for a particular psect into a single segment.

•
If you are using PICC18 to invoke the linker, you don’t need to worry about the informa-
tion documented here, except as background knowledge. If you want to run the linker
manually (this is not recommended), or write your own assembly language subroutines,
you should read this section carefully.

A psect can be created in assembly code by using the PSECT assembler directive (see Section
4.3.10.3).

3.8.1 Compiler-generated Psects

The code generator places code and data into psects with standard names which are subsequent
positioned by the default linker options. These psects are described below.
The compiler-generated psects which are placed in ROM are:

powerup Which contains executable code for the standard or user-supplied power-up routine.

idata These psects contain the ROM image of any initialised variables. These psects are copied into
the data psects at startup.

irdata These psects contain the ROM image of any initialised near variables. These psects are
copied into the rdata psects at startup.

ibigdata These psects contain the ROM image of initialised objects which at runtime reside in the
bigdata psect. This includes global or static local char objects or char arrays, and arrays
whose size exceeds the size of a RAM bank.

ifardata This psect contains the ROM image of initialised objects which at runtime reside in the
fardata psect.

textn Is a global psect used for executable code and library functions. n is a number. The code
associated with each function will be placed a unique text psect.

pa_nodes Is a global psect used for placing the abstracted executable codes from the textn psect.

102
C Language Features Psects

smallconst These psects hold objects that are declared const and string literals which are not mod-
ifiable. Used when the total amount of const data in a program is less than 255 bytes.
mediumconst These psects hold objects that are declared const and string literals which are not
modifiable. Used when the total amount of const data in a program exceeds 255 bytes, but
does not exceed 64k.
const These psects hold objects that are declared const and string literals which are not modifiable.
Used when the total amount of const data in a program exceeds 64k.
config Used to store the configuration words.
idloc Used to store the ID location words.
eeprom_data Used to store data to be programmed into the EEPROM data area.
intcode Is the psect which contains the executable code for the default or high-priority interrupt
service routine. This psect is linked to interrupt vector at address 08H.
intcodelo Is the psect which contains the executable code for the low-priority interrupt service rou-
tine. This psect is linked to interrupt vector at address 018H.
init Used by initialisation code which, for example, clears RAM.
end_init Used by initialization code which, for example, clears RAM.

The compiler-generated psects which are placed in RAM are:

rbss These psects contain any uninitialized near variables. They reside in the access bank.
bigbss These psects contain any uninitialized global or static local char objects or char arrays,
and arrays whose size exceeds the size of a RAM bank. This psect is linked into a psect
class which does not have RAM bank boundaries. Accessing objects in this area may be less
efficient that accessing objects in the data psect.
farbss This psect contains any uninitialized objects which have been declared as far to be posi-
tioned in external code space. The location of this psect must be be specified to the compiler
with a --RAM option which adds an address range beyond the top of program memory.
fardata This psect contains initialized objects which have been declared as far to be positioned in
external code space.
bss These psects contain any uninitialized variables not contained in the above psects.
rdata These psects contain any initialised near variables. They reside in the access bank.

103
Interrupt Handling in C C Language Features

bigdata These psects contain any initialized global or static local char objects or char arrays,
and arrays whose size exceeds the size of a RAM bank. This psect is linked into a psect
class which does not have RAM bank boundaries. Accessing objects in this area may be less
efficient that accessing objects in the data psect.
data These psects contain any initialised variables not contained in the above psects. These psects
will be wholly placed within a RAM bank and so can be accessed more efficiently.
nvrram This psect holds near persistent variables. It is not cleared or otherwise modified by
the runtime startup code.
nvbit This psect hold persistent bit objects. It is not cleared or otherwise modified at startup.
nvram This psect is used to store persistent variables. It is not cleared or otherwise modified at
startup.
rbit These psects are used to store all bit variables. All bit objects are near by default and are
placed in the access bank.
intsave_regs Holds the registers (including temporary locations) saved by the interrupt service rou-
tine.

3.9 Interrupt Handling in C

The compiler incorporates features allowing interrupts to be handled from C code. Interrupt func-
tions are often called interrupt service routines (ISR). Interrupts are also known as exceptions. PIC18
devices have two separate interrupt vectors and a priority scheme to dictate how the interrupt code
is called.

3.9.1 Interrupt Functions

The function qualifier interrupt may be applied to at most two functions to allow them to be called
directly from the hardware interrupts. The compiler will process the interrupt function differently
to any other functions, generating code to save and restore any registers used and exit using the
retfie instruction instead of a retlw or return instructions at the end of the function.
(If the PICC18 option --STRICT is used, the interrupt keyword becomes __interrupt. Wher-
ever this manual refers to the interrupt keyword, assume __interrupt if you are using --STRICT.)
The PIC18 devices have two interrupts, each with their own vector location. These have different
priorities and are known as low-priority and high-priority interrupts. If the PIC18 is placed in com-
patibility mode, only one interrupt is available and this defaults to being the high-priority interrupt.
An interrupt function must be declared as type interrupt void and may not have parameters. In

104
C Language Features Interrupt Handling in C

addition, the keyword low_priority may be used to indicate that the interrupt function is to be
linked with the low-priority vector when not in compatibility mode. Interrupt functions may not
be called directly from C code, but they may call other functions itself, subject to certain limitations.
Once defined, the corresponding interrupt vector is linked to the interrupt function.
An example of a high-priority (default) interrupt function is shown here.

long tick_count;
void interrupt tc_int(void){
++tick_count;
}

A low-priority interrupt function may be defined as in the following example.

void interrupt low_priority tc_clr(void){

tick_count = 0;
}

It is up to the user to determine and set the priority levels associated with each interrupt source on
the PIC18 devices. Defining a low-priority interrupt function does not put the PIC into interrupt-
priority mode.
Low- and high-priority interrupt functions have their own separate areas of memory in which
to save context, thus a high-priority interrupt function may interrupt a low-priority interrupt
function with no loss of data. The high-priority interrupt can also employ the devices’ shadow
registers to enable rapid context switching during the entry and exit of the service routine.
The interrupt_level pragma may be used with either or both interrupt functions in the
usual way.

3.9.2 Context Saving on Interrupts

The PIC18 processor only saves the program counter on its stack whenever an interrupt occurs. Other
registers and objects must be saved in software. PICC18 automatically determines which registers
and objects are used by an interrupt function and saves these appropriately.
If the interrupt routine calls other functions and these functions are defined before the interrupt
code in the same module, then any registers used by these functions will be saved as well. If the
called functions have not been seen by the compiler, a worst case scenario is assumed and all registers
and objects will be saved.
PICC18 does not scan assembly code which is placed in-line within the interrupt function for
register usage. Thus, if you include in-line assembly code into an interrupt function, you may have
to add extra assembly code to save and restore any registers or locations used if they are not already
saved by the interrupt entry routine.

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Interrupt Handling in C C Language Features

By default, the high-priority interrupt function will utilize a fast interrupt save/restore tech-
nique where the W, STATUS and BSR registers are saved and restored via the devices’ internal
shadow registers. This minimizes code size and reduces the instruction cycles to access the high-
priority service routine. Note that for some older devices, the compiler will not apply fast inter-
rupt save/restore if compiling for the MPLAB ICD2 debugger, as the debugger itself utilizes these
shadow registers.
The high-priority or compatibility-mode interrupt function places a small routine in a psect
called intcode which is linked directly to the interrupt vector. This code saves the STATUS (if fast
interrupts are not used) and PCLATH registers then jumps to code placed in a text psect. This code
will save further context if it is necessary and then jump to code directly related to the interrupt
function. The interrupt function code is also placed in a text psect.
All objects saved are done so to locations at an offset to a symbol called saved_regsh, except
for the BSR register. If fast interrupts are not used, BSR is saved to a location symbol called
saved_bsrh.
The low-priority interrupt function places the code to save the STATUS and PCLATH registers
in a psect called intcodelo, which is directly linked to the low-priority interrupt vector. Operation
is then similar to the high-priority interrupt case, only with objects being saved offset to the symbol
saved_regsl and the BSR register saved to a location symbol called saved_bsrl.

3.9.3 Context Retrieval

Any objects saved by the compiler are automatically restored before the interrupt function returns.
The restoration code is placed into a text psect. The retfie instruction placed at the end of the
interrupt code will reload the program counter and the program will return to the location at which
it was when the interrupt occurred.

3.9.4 Function Duplication

It is assumed by the compiler that an interrupt may occur at any time. As functions are not re-entrant,
if a user-defined function appears to be called by an interrupt function and by main-line code, or
another interrupt function, this has the potential to lead to code failure.
HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family has a feature which will duplicate any function
called from more than one call tree in the program’s call graph. A duplicate will be made for each
call tree from which the function is called. The original and any duplicates contribute to the output.
These duplicate functions will have unique names for the assembly function labels themselves,
labels within the functions, and local variables defined in the functions.The name consists of the
usual name prefixed with in, where n is the level number of the interrupt function. The function
called from main-line code will retain its original name.

106
C Language Features Interrupt Handling in C

T UT•RIAL

In a program the function main calls a user-defined function called input. This func-
tion is also called by the low_priority interrupt function. The output will contain
the code corresponding to the original function, called input, as well as the code cor-
responding to a duplicate of this, called i1_input. If there was a compiler-generated
local label placed in the generated assembly code call l26, the Assembly associated
with the duplicate function will contain the label i1l26. An auto variable defined in
input would be referred to by the symbol ??_input in the assembly code generated;
in the duplicate this would become ??i1_input. The assembly code for both functions
will appear in the assembly list file, and all symbols associated with these functions will
appear in the map file in the usual way. The call graph, in the map file, will show the
calls made to both of these functions as if they were independently written.

This feature allows the programmer to write code which is independent of whether the target device
allows re-entrant functions. PRO compilers will have as many duplicates of these routines precom-
piled in the object code libraries as there are interrupt levels. It does not handle cases where functions
are called recursively.

3.9.4.1 Implicit Calls to Library Routines

Evaluation of certain C operators will require the use of C functions that are precompiled into the p-
code library files. The code generator will call these routines as required. These routines are subject
to the same duplication as user-defined routines, described above.
For example: if a compiler uses a routine to perform word multiplication, and this is called wmul,
then an expression in main-line code involving such a multiplication will call wmul; the same code
used in an interrupt function of level 1 will result in a call to the routine i1wmul; in an interrupt
function of level 2 will call i2wmul, etc. These function names will be shown in the callgraph section
of the map file, see Section 5.10.2.2.

3.9.5 Interrupt Registers

It is up to the user how they want the interrupt source configured. All the registers and bits associated
with interrupts are defined in the specific header file which can be accessed by including <htc.h>.
The following is an example of setting up the interrupts associated with the change-on-PORTB
source. Interrupt priorities are used and the interrupt source is made a low priority. See your PIC18
datasheet for more information.

void main(void){

107
Mixing C and Assembly Code C Language Features

TRISB = 0x80; // Only RB7 will interrupt on change

IPEN = 1; // Interrupt priorities enabled
PEIE = 1; // enable peripheral interrupts
RBIP = 0; // make this a low priority interrupt
RBIE = 1; // enable PORTB change interrupt
RBIF = 0; // clear any pending events
GIEL = 1; // enable low-priority interrupts
while(1)continue; // sit here and wait for interrupt
}
void interrupt low_priority b_change(void){
if(RBIE && RBIF){
PORTB; // Read PORTB to clear any mismatch
RBIF = 0; // clear event flag
// process interrupt here
}
}

3.10 Mixing C and Assembly Code

Assembly code can be mixed with C code using three different techniques. The following section
describes writing assembly code in separate assembly modules. The subsequent section looks at two
methods of having assembly code being placed in-line with C code.
The following sections describe consideration of mixing Assembly with C code, and some of the
special features the compiler uses to allow for assembly-C code interaction.

3.10.1 External Assembly Language Functions

Entire functions may be coded in assembly language as separate .as source files, assembled by the
assembler, ASPIC18, and combined into the binary image using the linker. This technique allows
arguments and return values to be passed between C and assembly code.
The following are guidelines that must be adhered to when writing a routine in assembly code
that is callable from C code.

• select, or define, a suitable psect for the executable assembly code

• select a name (label) for the routine so that its corresponding C identifier is valid

• ensure that the routine’s label is globally accessible, i.e. from other modules

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C Language Features Mixing C and Assembly Code

• select an appropriate equivalent C prototype for the routine on which argument passing can be
modelled
• ensure any symbol used to hold arguments to the routine is globally accessible
• ensure any symbol used to hold a return value is globally accessible
• optionally, use a signature value to enable type checking of parameters when the function is
called
• write the routine ensuring arguments are read from the correct location and the return value is
loaded to the correct storage location before returning
• ensure any local variables required by the routine have space reserved by the appropriate
directive

A mapping is performed on the names of all C functions and non-static global variables. See
3.10.3 for a description of mappings between C and assembly identifiers.

T UT•RIAL

C- CALLABLE ASSEMBLY ROUTINES An assembly routine is required which can add

two 16-bit values together. The routine must be callable from C code. Both the values
are passed in as arguments when the routine is called from the C code. The assembly
routine should return the result of the addition as a 16-bit quantity.
Most compiler-generated executable code is placed in a psect called text (see Section
3.8.1). As we do not need to have this assembly routine linked at any particular location,
we can use this same psect so the code is bundled with other executable code and stored
at any location in the program space. This way we do not need to use any additional
linker options. So we use an ordinary looking psect that you would see in assembly
code produced by the compiler. The psect’s name is text. It will be linked somewhere
in the range of addresses defined by the CODE class:
PSECT text,class=CODE
Now we would like to call this routine as add in the C code. Thus, in assembly code, we
must choose the name _add as this then maps to the C identifier add. If the name add
was chosen for the assembly routine label, then it could never be called from C code.
The name of the assembly routine is the label that we will associate with the assembly
code:
_add:
We need to be able to call this from other modules, so make this label globally accessi-
ble:

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Mixing C and Assembly Code C Language Features

GLOBAL _add
By compiling a dummy C function with a similar prototype to the prototype we require
for our function add, we can determine the signature value. To see the value, generate
an assembly list file, and compile with the assembler optimizer turned off. Look for a
directive similar to that below, which can then be copied into the assembly source for
our add routine.
SIGNAT _add,8298
When writing the function, you can find that the parameters will be loaded into the
function’s parameter area by the calling function, and the result should be placed in the
same location to be returned.

To call an assembly routine from C code, a declaration for the routine must be provided. This ensures
that the compiler knows how to encode the function call in terms of parameters and return values,
however no other code is necessary.
If a signature value is present in the assembly code routine, its value will be checked by the linker
when the calling and called routines’ signatures can be compared.

T UT•RIAL

To continue the previous example, here is a code snippet that declares the operation of
the assembler routine, then calls the routine.
extern unsigned int add(unsigned a, unsigned b);
void main(void)
{
int a, result;
a = read_port();
result = add(5, a);
}

Another example, suppose you have an assembly language function to double an unsigned byte
value:

extern char twice(char);

declares an external function called twice() which has a return value type of char and takes a single
argument of type char. The actual code for twice() will be supplied by an external .as file which
will be separately assembled with ASPIC18. The full PIC18 assembly code for twice() would be
something like:

110
C Language Features Mixing C and Assembly Code

PROCESSOR 18F242
PSECT text, class=CODE,local,delta=1
GLOBAL _twice
SIGNAT _twice,4201
_twice:
; parameter passed via W register - assign to ??_twice
movlb ??_twice shr (8) ; select local bank
movwf ??_twice & 0ffh ; assign it
addwf ??_twice & 0ffh,w ; add value to itself
; Return value already in W as required
return
FNSIZE _twice,1,0
GLOBAL ??_twice
END
The name of the assembly language function is the name declared in C, with an underscore prepended.
The GLOBAL pseudo-op is the assembler equivalent to the C extern keyword and the SIGNAT
pseudo-op is used to enforce link time calling convention checking. Signature checking and the
SIGNAT pseudo-op are discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
Note that in order for assembly language functions to work properly they must look in the right
place for any arguments passed and must correctly set up any return values. Local variable allocation
(via the FNSIZE directive), argument and return value passing mechanisms are discussed in the
Section 4.5 and should be understood before attempting to write assembly language routines.

3.10.2 #asm, #endasm and asm()

PIC18 instructions may also be directly embedded “in-line” into C code using the directives #asm,
#endasm or the statement asm().
The #asm and #endasm directives are used to start and end a block of assembly instructions which
are to be embedded into the assembly output of the code generator. The #asm and #endasm construct
is not syntactically part of the C program, and thus it does not obey normal C flow-of-control rules,
however you can easily include multiple instructions with this form of in-line assembly.
The asm() statement is used to embed a single assembler instruction. This form looks and be-
haves like a C statement, however each instruction must be encapsulated within an asm() statement.
•
You should not use a #asm block within any C constructs such as if, while, do etc.
In these cases, use only the asm("") form, which is a C statement and will correctly
interact with all C flow-of-control structures.

111
Mixing C and Assembly Code C Language Features

The following example shows both methods used to rotate a byte left through carry:

unsigned char var;

void main(void){
var = 1;
#asm // like this...
movlb (_var) > > 8
rlcf (_var)&0ffh,f
#endasm
asm(“movlb (_var)> >8”);
asm(“rlcf (_var)&0ffh,f”);
}

When using in-line assembly code, great care must be taken to avoid interacting with compiler-
generated code. If in doubt, compile your program with the PICC18 -S option and examine the
assembly code generated by the compiler.
IMPORTANT NOTE: the #asm and #endasm construct is not syntactically part of the C program,
and thus it does not obey normal C flow-of-control rules. For example, you cannot use a #asm block
with an if statement and expect it to work correctly. If you use in-line assembler around any C
constructs such as if, while, do etc. then you should use only the asm("") form, which is a C
statement and will correctly interact with all C flow-of-control structures.

3.10.3 Accessing C objects from within Assembly Code

Global C objects may be directly accessed from within assembly code using their name prepended
with an underscore character. For example, the object foo defined globally in a C module:

int foo;

may be access from assembler as follows.

GLOBAL _foo
movwf _foo

If the assembler is contained in a different module, then the GLOBAL assembler directive should be
used in the assembly code to make the symbol name available, as above. If the object is being
accessed from in-line assembly in another module, then an extern declaration for the object can be
made in the C code, for example:

extern int foo;

112
C Language Features Mixing C and Assembly Code

This declaration will only take effect in the module if the object is also accessed from within C code.
If this is not the case then, an in-line GLOBAL assembler directive should be used. Care should be
taken if the object is defined in a bank other than 0. The address of a C object includes the bank
information which must be stripped before the address can be used in most PIC18 instructions. The
exceptions are the movff and lsfr instructions. Failure to do this may result in fixup errors issued
by the linker. If in doubt as to writing assembler which access C objects, write code in C which
performs a similar task to what you intend to do and study the assembler listing file produced by the
compiler.
•
C identifiers are assigned different symbols in the output assembly code so that an as-
sembly identifier cannot conflict with an identifier defined in C code. If assembly pro-
grammers choose identifier names that do not begin with an underscore, these identifiers
will never conflict with C identifiers. Importantly, this implies that the assembly identi-
fier, i, and the C identifier i relate to different objects at different memory locations.

3.10.3.1 Accessing special function register names from assembler

If writing separate assembly modules, SFR definitions will not automatically be present. If writing
assembly code from within a C module, SFRs may be accessed by referring to the symbols defined
by the chip-specific C header files. Whenever you include <htc.h> into a C module, all the available
SFRs are defined as absolute C variables. As the contents of this file is C code, it cannot be included
into an assembler module, but assembly code can uses these definitions. To use a SFR in in-line
assembly code from within the same C module that includes <htc.h>, simply use the symbol with
an underscore character prepended to the name. For example:
#include <htc.h>
void main(void)
{
PORTA = 0x55;
asm("movlw 0xAA");
asm("movwf _PORTA");
...
}

3.10.4 Interaction between Assembly and C Code

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family incorporates several features designed to allow C code
to obey requirements of user-defined assembly code.

113
Mixing C and Assembly Code C Language Features

The command-line driver ensures that all user-defined assembly files have been processed first,
before compilation of C source files begin. The driver is able to read and analyse certain information
in the relocatable object files and pass this information to the code generator. This information is
used to ensure the code generator takes into account requirement of the assembly code.

3.10.4.1 Absolute Psects

Some of the information that is extracted from the relocatable objects by the driver relates to absolute
psects, specifically psects defined using the abs and ovrld, PSECT flags, see Section 4.3.10.3 for
more information. These are psects have been rarely required in general coding, but do allow for
data to be collated over multiple modules in a specific order.
HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family is able to determine the address bounds of abso-
lute psects to enure that the output of C code does not consume specific resources required by the
assembly code. The code generator will ensure that any memory used by these psects are reserved
and not used by C code. The linker options are also adjusted by the driver to enure that this memory
is not allocated.

T UT•RIAL

P ROCESSING OF ABSOLUTE PSECTS An assembly code files defines a table that must
be located at address 210h in the data space. The assembly file contains:
PSECT lkuptbl,class=RAM,space=1,abs,ovlrd
ORG 210h
lookup:
ds 20h
When the project is compiled, this file is assembled and the resulting relocatable object
file scanned for absolute psects. As this psect is flagged as being abs and ovlrd, the
bounds and space of the psect will be noted — in this case a memory range from address
210h to 22fh in memory space 1 is being used. This information is passed to the code
generator to ensure that these address spaces are not used by C code. The linker will
also be told to remove these ranges from those available, and this reservation will be
observable in the map file. The RAM class definition, for example, may look like:
-ARAM=00h-0FFhx2,0200h-020Fh,0230h-02FFh,0300h-03FFhx3
for an 18F452 device, showing that addresses 210h through 22F were reserved from this
class range.

114
C Language Features Preprocessing

3.10.4.2 Undefined Symbols

Variables can be defined in assembly code if required, but in some instances it is easier to do so in
C source code, in other cases, the symbols may need to be accessable from both assembly and C
source code.
A problem can occur if there is a variable defined in C code, but is never referenced throughout
the entire the C program. In this case, the code generator may remove the variable believing it is
unused. If assembly code is relying on this definition an error will result.
To work around this issue, HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family also searches assembly-
derived object files for symbols which are undefined. These will typically be symbols that are used,
but not defined, in assembly code. The code generator is informed of these symbols, and if they
are encountered in the C code the variable is automatically marked as being volatile. This is the
equivalent of the programmer having qualified the variable as being volatile in the source code,
see Section 3.3.10. Variables qualified as volatile will never be removed by the code generator,
even if they appear to be unused throughout the program.

T UT•RIAL

P ROCESSING OF UNDEFINED SYMBOLS A C source module defines a global variable

as follows:
int input;
but this variable is only ever used in assembly code. The assembly module(s) can simply
declare and link in to this symbol using the GLOBAL assembler directive, and them make
use of the symbol.
GLOBAL _input
PSECT text,class=CODE,reloc=2
movff PORTA,_input
In this instance the C variable input will not be removed and be treated as if it was
qualified volatile.

3.11 Preprocessing
All C source files are preprocessed before compilation. Assembler files can also be preprocessed if
the -P command-line option is issued, see Section 2.6.12.

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Preprocessing C Language Features

3.11.1 C Language Comments

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family accepts both block and in-line (C99 standard) C
source comments, as shown in the following examples. In-line comments are normally termined
by the newline character, however they can span multiple lines when the line is terminated with a
backslash character.

/* I am a block comment
that can run over more
than one line of source */
// I am an in-line comment
// I am an in-line comment \
that spans two lines

Both these comment styles can be used, in addition to the standard assembly comment (see Section
4.3.5), in assembly source code if the -P command-line option is issued, see Section 2.6.12.
All comments are removed by the C preprocessor before being passed to the parser application.

3.11.2 Preprocessor Directives

HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family accepts several specialised preprocessor directives in
addition to the standard directives. All of these are listed in Table 3.6.
Macro expansion using arguments can use the # character to convert an argument to a string, and
the ## sequence to concatenate tokens.

3.11.3 Predefined Macros

The compiler drivers define certain symbols to the preprocessor (CPP), allowing conditional com-
pilation based on chip type etc. The symbols listed in Table 3.7 show the more common symbols
defined by the drivers. Each symbol, if defined, is equated to 1 unless otherwise stated.

Symbol When set Usage

HI_TECH_C Always To indicate that the compiler in use is HI-
TECH C.
_HTC_EDITION_ Always To indicate which of PRO, STD or Lite
_HTC_EDITION_ compiler is in use. Val-
ues of 2, 1 or 0 are assigned respectively.
continued. . .

116
C Language Features Preprocessing

_HTC_VER_MAJOR_ Always To indicate the integer component of the

compiler’s version number.
_HTC_VER_MINOR_ Always To indicate the decimal component of the
compiler’s version number.
_HTC_VER_PATCH_ Always To indicate the patch level of the com-
piler’s version number.
__PICC18__ Always To indicate the use of a HI-TECH PICC-18
compiler.
_MPC_ Always To indicate the code is compiled for the
Microchip PIC family.
_PIC18 Always To indicate that this is a PIC18 device.
_ROMSIZE Always To indicate the number of bytes of program
space this device has.
_RAMSIZE Always To indicate the number of bytes of data
space this device has.
_EEPROMSIZE If EEPROM is present To indicate if EEPROM memory is present
and how many bytes are available.
_FLASH_ERASE_SIZE Always To indicate the number of bytes erased in a
single flash-erase operation at runtime.
_FLASH_WRITE_SIZE Always To indicate the number of bytes erased in a
single flash-write operation at runtime.
__MPLAB_REALICE__ --DEBUGGER=REALICE To indicate that the code is being generated
for the Microchip Realice debugger.
__MPLAB_PICKIT2__ --DEBUGGER=PICKIT2 To indicate that the code is being generated
for the Microchip PICKIT2 debugger.
__MPLAB_PICKIT3__ --DEBUGGER=PICKIT3 To indicate that the code is being generated
for the Microchip PICKIT3 debugger.
__MPLAB_ICD__ --DEBUGGER=ICD2 To indicate that the code is being generated
for the Microchip ICD In-Circuit debugger.
Value is 2
_ICDROM_START --DEBUGGER=ICD2 Defined the start address of the ICD’s re-
served program space
_ICDROM_END --DEBUGGER=ICD2 Defined the end address of the ICD’s re-
served program space
continued. . .

117
Preprocessing C Language Features

_ERRATA_TYPES Always Defines a bitmask to show which types

of silicon errata may be applicable to this
build.
_chipname When chip selected To indicate the specific chip type selected
__FILE__ Always To indicate this source file being prepro-
cessed.
__LINE__ Always To indicate this source line number.
__DATE__ Always To indicate the current date, e.g. May 21
2004
__TIME__ Always To indicate the current time, e.g.
08:06:31.
_PLIB --runtime=plib To indicate that the microchip compatible
peripheral libraries have been linked in.

3.11.4 Pragma Directives

There are certain compile-time directives that can be used to modify the behaviour of the compiler.
These are implemented through the use of the ANSI standard #pragma facility. The format of a
pragma is:
#pragma keyword options
where keyword is one of a set of keywords, some of which are followed by certain options.
A list of the keywords is given in Table 3.8. Those keywords not discussed elsewhere are detailed
below.

3.11.4.1 The #pragma jis and nojis Directives

If your code includes strings with two-byte characters in the JIS encoding for Japanese and other na-
tional characters, the #pragma jis directive will enable proper handling of these characters, specif-
ically not interpreting a backslash, \, character when it appears as the second half of a two byte
character. The nojis directive disables this special handling. JIS character handling is disabled by
default.

3.11.4.2 The #pragma printf_check Directive

Certain library functions accept a format string followed by a variable number of arguments in the
manner of printf(). Although the format string is interpreted at runtime, it can be compile-time

118
C Language Features Preprocessing

Table 3.6: Preprocessor directives

Directive Meaning Example
# preprocessor null directive, do #
nothing
#assert generate error if condition false #assert SIZE > 10
#asm signifies the beginning of in-line #asm
assembly mov r0, r1h
#endasm
#define define preprocessor macro #define SIZE 5
#define FLAG
#define add(a,b) ((a)+(b))
#elif short for #else #if see #ifdef
#else conditionally include source lines see #if
#endasm terminate in-line assembly see #asm
#endif terminate conditional source see #if
inclusion
#error generate an error message #error Size too big
#if include source lines if constant #if SIZE < 10
expression true c = process(10)
#else
skip();
#endif
#ifdef include source lines if preprocessor #ifdef FLAG
symbol defined do_loop();
#elif SIZE == 5
skip_loop();
#endif
#ifndef include source lines if preprocessor #ifndef FLAG
symbol not defined jump();
#endif
#include include text file into source #include <stdio.h>
#include "project.h"
#line specify line number and filename #line 3 final
for listing
#nn (where nn is a number) short for #20
#line nn
#pragma compiler specific options 3.11.4
#undef undefines preprocessor symbol #undef FLAG
#warning generate a warning message #warning Length not set

119
Preprocessing C Language Features

Table 3.8: Pragma directives

Directive Meaning Example
jis Enable JIS character handling in #pragma jis
strings
nojis Disable JIS character handling (de- #pragma nojis
fault)
printf_check Enable printf-style format string #pragma
checking printf_check(printf) const
regsused Specify registers which are used by #pragma regsused _func r4
a function
switch Specify code generation for switch #pragma switch direct
statements
warning Control messaging parameters #pragma warning disable
299,407

checked for consistency with the remaining arguments.

This directive enables this checking for the named function, e.g. the system header file <stdio.h>
includes the directive #pragma printf_check(printf) const to enable this checking for printf().
You may also use this for any user-defined function that accepts printf-style format strings. The
qualifier following the function name is to allow automatic conversion of pointers in variable argu-
ment lists. The above example would cast any pointers to strings in RAM to be pointers of the type
(const char *)

•
Note that the warning level must be set to -1 or below for this option to have any visible
effect. See Section 2.6.60.

3.11.4.3 The #pragma regsused Directive

HI-TECH C will automatically save context when an interrupt occurs. The compiler will determine
only those registers and objects which need to be saved for the particular interrupt function defined.
The #pragma regsused directive allows the programmer to indicate register usage for functions
that will not be “seen” by the code generator, for example if they were written in assembly code.
The general form of the pragma is:

#pragma regsused routine_name register_list

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C Language Features Preprocessing

Table 3.9: Valid register names

Register Name Description
wreg W register
status STATUS register
pclat PCLATH register
prodl, prodh product result registers
fsr0, fsr1, fsr2 indirect data pointers 0, 1 and 2
tblptrl, tblptrh, tblptru table pointer registers

Table 3.10: Switch types

switch type description
auto use smallest code size method (default)
direct table lookup (fixed delay)

where routine_name is the assembly name of the function or routine whose register usage is
being defined, and register_list is a space-separated list of registers names. Those registers
not listed are assumed to be unused by the function or routine. The code generator may use any
unspecified registers to hold values across a function call. Hence, if the routine does in fact use these
registers, unreliable program execution may eventuate.

The register names are not case sensitive and a warning will be produced if the register name is
not recognised. A blank list indicates that the specified function or routine uses no registers.

3.11.4.4 The #pragma switch Directive

Normally the compiler decides the code generation method for switch statements which results in
the smallest possible code size. The #pragma switch directive can be used to force the compiler to
use one particular method. The general form of the switch pragma is:
#pragma switch switch_type
where switch_type is one of the available switch methods listed in Table .
Specifying the direct option to the #pragma switch directive forces the compiler to generate
the table look-up style switch method. This is mostly useful where timing is an issue for switch
statements (i.e.: state machines).
This pragma affects all code generated onward. The auto option may be used to revert to the
default behaviour.

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Preprocessing C Language Features

3.11.4.5 The #pragma warning Directive

The warning disable pragma Some warning messages can be disabled by using the warning
disable pragma. This pragma will only affect warnings that are produced by either parser or the
code generator, i.e. errors directly associated with C code. The position of the pragma is only
significant for the parser, i.e. a parser warning number may be disabled, then re-enabled around
a section of the code to target specific instances of the warning. Specific instances of a warning
produced by the code generator cannot be individually controlled. The pragma will remain in force
during compilation of the entire module.
The state of those warnings which have been disabled can preserved and recalled using the
warning push and warning pop pragmas. Pushes and pops can be nested to allow a large degree
of control over the message behaviour.

T UT•RIAL

D ISABLING A WARNING The following example shows the warning associated with
qualifying an auto object being disabled, number 348.
void main(void)
{
#pragma warning disable 348
near int c;
#pragma warning enable 348
/* etc */
}
int rv(int a)
{
near int c;
/* etc */
}
which will issue only one warning associated with the second definition of the auto
variable c. Warning number 348 is disabled during parsing of the definition of the auto
variable, c, inside the function main.
altst.c: 35: (348) auto variable "c" should not be qualified (warning)
This same affect would be observed using the following code.
void main(void)
{
#pragma warning push
#pragma warning disable 348
near int c;

122
C Language Features Preprocessing

#pragma warning pop

/* etc */
}
int rv(int a)
{
near int c;
/* etc */
}
Here the state of the messaging system is saved by the warning push pragma. Warning
348 is disabled, then after the source code which triggers the warning, the state of the
messaging system is retrieved by the use of the warning pop pragma.

The warning error/warning pragma It is also possible to change the type of some messages.
This is only possible by the use of the warning pragma and only affects messages generated by the
parser or code generator. The position of the pragma is only significant for the parser, i.e. a parser
message number may have its type changed, then reverted back around a section of the code to target
specific instances of the message. Specific instances of a message produced by the code generator
cannot be individually controlled. The pragma will remain in force during compilation of the entire
module.

T UT•RIAL

The following shows the warning produced in the previous example being converted to
an error for the instance in the function main().
void main(void)
{
#pragma warning error 348
near int c;
#pragma warning warning 348
/* etc */
}
int rv(int a)
{
near int c;
/* etc */
}

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Linking Programs C Language Features

Compilation of this code would result in an error, and as with any error, this will force
compilation to cease after the current module has concluded, or the maximum error
count has been reached.

3.12 Linking Programs

The compiler will automatically invoke the linker unless requested to stop after producing assembly
code (PICC18 -S option) or object code (PICC18 -C option).
HI-TECH C, by default, generates Intel HEX. Use the --OUTPUT= option to specify a different
output format.
After linking, the compiler will automatically generate a memory usage map which shows the
address used by, and the total sizes of, all the psects which are used by the compiled code.
The program statistics shown after the summary provides more concise information based on
each memory area of the device. This can be used as a guide to the available space left in the device.
More detailed memory usage information, listed in ascending order of individual psects, may
be obtained by using the PICC18 --SUMMARY=psect option. Generate a map file for the complete
memory specification of the program.

3.12.1 Replacing Library Modules

Although HI-TECH C comes with a librarian (LIBR) which allows you to unpack a library files and
replace modules with your own modified versions, you can easily replace a library module that is
linked into your program without having to do this. If you add the source file which contains the
library routine you wish to replace on the command-line list of source files then the routine will
replace the routine in the library file with the same name.
•
This method works due to the way the linker scans source and library file. When trying
to resolve a symbol (in this instance a function name) the linker first scans all source
modules for the definition. Only if it cannot resolve the symbol in these files does it
then search the library files. Even though the symbol may be defined in a source file
and a library file, the linker will not search the libraries and no multiply defined symbol
error will result. This is not true if a symbol is defined twice in source files.

For example, if you wished to make changes to the library function max() which resides in the file
max.c in the SOURCES directory, you could make a copy of this source file, make the appropriate
changes and then compile and use it as follows.

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C Language Features Linking Programs

PICC18 --chip=18F242 main.c init.c max.c

The code for max() in max.c will be linked into the program rather than the max() function con-
tained in the standard libraries. Note, that if you replace an assembler module, you may need the
-P option to preprocess assembler files as the library assembler files often contain C preprocessor
directives.

3.12.2 Signature Checking

The compiler automatically produces signatures for all functions. A signature is a 16-bit value
computed from a combination of the function’s return data type, the number of its parameters and
other information affecting the calling sequence for the function. This signature is output in the
object code of any function referencing or defining the function.
At link time the linker will report any mismatch of signatures. HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18
MCU Family is only likely to issue a mismatch error from the linker when the routine is either a
precompiled object file or an assembly routine. Other function mismatches are reported by the code
generator.

T UT•RIAL

It is sometimes necessary to write assembly language routines which are called from C
using an extern declaration. Such assembly language functions should include a signa-
ture which is compatible with the C prototype used to call them. The simplest method of
determining the correct signature for a function is to write a dummy C function with the
same prototype and compile it to assembly language using the PICC18 -S option. For
example, suppose you have an assembly language routine called _widget which takes
two int arguments and returns a char value. The prototype used to call this function
from C would be:
extern char widget(int, int);
Where a call to _widget is made in the C code, the signature for a function with two int
arguments and a char return value would be generated. In order to match the correct
signature the source code for widget needs to contain an assembler SIGNAT pseudo-op
which defines the same signature value. To determine the correct value, you would write
the following code:
char widget(int arg1, int arg2)
{
}
and compile it to assembly code using
PICC18 -S x.c

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Standard I/O Functions and Serial I/O C Language Features

Table 3.11: Supported standard I/O functions

Function name Purpose
printf(const char * s, ...) Formatted printing to stdout
sprintf(char * buf, const char * s, ...) Writes formatted text to buf

The resultant assembly code includes the following line:

SIGNAT _widget,8249
The SIGNAT pseudo-op tells the assembler to include a record in the .obj file which
associates the value 8249 with symbol _widget. The value 8249 is the correct signature
for a function with two int arguments and a char return value. If this line is copied into
the .as file where _widget is defined, it will associate the correct signature with the
function and the linker will be able to check for correct argument passing. For example,
if another .c file contains the declaration:
extern char widget(long);
then a different signature will be generated and the linker will report a signature mis-
match which will alert you to the possible existence of incompatible calling conventions.

3.12.3 Linker-Defined Symbols

The link address of a psect can be obtained from the value of a global symbol with name __Lname
where name is the name of the psect. For example, __Lbss is the low bound of the bss psect. The
highest address of a psect (i.e. the link address plus the size) is symbol __Hname.
If the psect has different load and link addresses the load start address is specified as __Bname.

3.13 Standard I/O Functions and Serial I/O

A number of the standard I/O functions are provided, specifically those functions intended to read
and write formatted text on standard output and input. A list of the available functions is in Table
3.11. More details of these functions can be found in Appendix A.
Before any characters can be written or read using these functions, the putch() and getch()
functions must be written. Other routines which may be required include getche() and kbhit().
You will find samples of serial code which implements the putch() and getch() functions in the
file serial.c in the SAMPLES directory.

126
Chapter 4

Macro Assembler

The Macro Assembler included with HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family assembles source
files for PIC18 MCUs. This chapter describes the usage of the assembler and the directives (assem-
bler pseudo-ops and controls) accepted by the assembler in the source files.
The HI-TECH C Macro Assembler package includes a linker, librarian, cross reference generator
and an object code converter.

•
Athough the term “assembler” is almost universally used to decribe the tool which con-
verts human-readable mnemonics into machine code, both “assembler” and “assembly”
are used to describe the source code which such a tool reads. The latter is more com-
mon and is used in this manual to describe the language. Thus you will see the terms
assembly language (or just assembly), assembly listing and etc, but assembler options,
assembler directive and assembler optimizer.

4.1 Assembler Usage

The assembler is called ASPIC18 and is available to run on Windows, Linux and Mac OS systems.
Note that the assembler will not produce any messages unless there are errors or warnings — there
are no “assembly completed” messages.
Typically the command-line driver, PICC18, is used to envoke the assembler as it can be passed
assembler source files as input, however the options for the assembler are supplied here for instances

127
Assembler Options Macro Assembler

where the assembler is being called directly, or when they are specified using the command-line
driver option --SETOPTION, see Section 2.6.55.
The usage of the assembler is similar under all of available operating systems. All command-line
options are recognised in either upper or lower case. The basic command format is shown:

ASPIC18 [ options ] files

files is a space-separated list of one or more assembler source files. Where more than one source
file is specified the assembler treats them as a single module, i.e. a single assembly will be performed
on the concatenation of all the source files specified. The files must be specified in full, no default
extensions or suffixes are assumed.
options is an optional space-separated list of assembler options, each with a minus sign - as
the first character. A full list of possible options is given in Table 4.1, and a full description of each
option follows.

Table 4.1: ASPIC18 command-line options

Option Meaning Default
-A Produce assembler output Produce object code
-C Produce cross-reference file No cross reference
-Cchipinfo Define the chipinfo file dat\picc-18.ini
-E[file|digit] Set error destination/format
-Flength Specify listing form length 66
-H Output hex values for constants Decimal values
-I List macro expansions Don’t list macros
-L[listfile] Produce listing No listing
-O Perform optimization No optimization
-Ooutfile Specify object name srcfile.obj
-Pprocessor Define the processor
-R Specify non-standard ROM
-Twidth Specify listing page width 80
-V Produce line number info No line numbers
-Wlevel Set warning level threshold 0
-X No local symbols in OBJ file

4.2 Assembler Options

The command-line options recognised by ASPIC18 are as follows.

128
Macro Assembler Assembler Options

-A An assembler file with an extension .opt will be produced if this option is used. This is useful
when checking the optimized assembly produced using the -O assembler option. Thus if both
-A and -O are used with an assembly source file, the file will be optimized and rewritten, with-
out the usual conversion to an object file.
The output file, when this option is used, is a valid assembly file that can be passed to the as-
sembler. This differs to the assembly list file produced by the assembler when the -L assembler
option is used.

-C A cross reference file will be produced when this option is used. This file, called srcfile.crf,
where srcfile is the base portion of the first source file name, will contain raw cross refer-
ence information. The cross reference utility CREF must then be run to produce the formatted
cross reference listing. See Section 4.7 for more information.

-Cchipinfo Specify the chipinfo file to use. The chipinfo file is called picc-18p.ini and can be
found in the DAT directory of the compiler distribution.

-E[file|digit] The default format for an error message is in the form:

filename: line: message

where the error of type message occurred on line line of the file filename.
The -E option with no argument will make the assembler use an alternate format for
error and warning messages. Use of the option in this form has a similar effect as the
same option used with command-line driver. See Section 2.5 for more information.
Specifying a digit as argument has a similar effect, only it allows selection of pre-set
message formats.
Specifying a filename as argument will force the assembler to direct error and warning
messages to a file with the name specified.

-Flength By default when an assembly list file is requested (see assembler option -L), the listing
format is pageless, i.e. the assembly listing output is continuous. The output may be formatted
into pages of varying lengths. Each page will begin with a header and title, if specified. The
-F option allows a page length to be specified. A zero value of length implies pageless
output. The length is specified in a number of lines.

-H Particularly useful in conjunction with the -A or -L ASPIC18 options, this option specifies that
output constants should be shown as hexadecimal values rather than decimal values.

-I This option forces listing of macro expansions and unassembled conditionals which would other-
wise be suppressed by a NOLIST assembler control. The -L option is still necessary to produce
a listing.

129
Assembler Options Macro Assembler

-Llistfile This option requests the generation of an assembly listing file. If listfile is specified
then the listing will be written to that file, otherwise it will be written to the standard output.
An assembly listing file contains additional fields, such as the address and opcode fields, which
are not part of the assembly source syntax, hence these files cannot be passed to the assembler
for compilation. See the assembler -A option for generating processed assembly source files
that can be used as source files in subsequent compilation.

-O This requests the assembler to perform optimization on the assembly code. Note that the use of
this option slows the assembly process down, as the assembler must make an additional pass
over the input code. Debug information for assembler code generated from C source code
may become unreliable.

-Ooutfile By default the assembler determines the name of the object file to be created by stripping
any suffix or extension (i.e. the portion after the last dot) from the first source filename and
appending .obj. The -O option allows the user to override the default filename and specify a
new name for the object file.

-Pprocessor This option defines the processor which is being used. The processor type can also be
indicated by use of the PROCESSOR directive in the assembler source file, see Section 4.3.10.26.
You can also add your own processors to the compiler via the compiler’s chipinfo file.

-Twidth This option allows specification of the assembly list file width, in characters. width
should be a decimal number greater than 41. The default width is 80 characters.

-V This option will include line number and filename information in the object file produced by
the assembler. Such information may be used by debuggers. Note that the line numbers will
correspond with assembler code lines in the assembler file. This option should not be used
when assembling an assembler file produced by the code generator from a C source file, i.e. it
should only be used with hand-written assembler source files.

-W[!]warnlevel This option allow the warning threshold level to be set. This will limit the number
of warning messages produce when the assembler is executing. The effect of this option is
similar to the command-line driver’s --WARN option, see Section 2.6.60. See Section 2.5 for
more information.

-X The object file created by the assembler contains symbol information, including local symbols,
i.e. symbols that are neither public or external. The -X assembler option will prevent the local
symbols from being included in the object file, thereby reducing the file size.

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

4.3 HI-TECH C Assembly Language

The source language accepted by the macro assembler, ASPIC18, is described below. All opcode
mnemonics and operand syntax are strictly PIC18 assembly language. Additional mnemonics and
assembler directives are documented in this section.

4.3.1 Assembler Format Deviations

The HI-TECH PICC-18 assembler uses a slightly modified form of assembly language to that spec-
ifiedby Microchip. Certain PIC18 instructions used by Microchip assembler use the operands “,0”
or “,1” to specify the destination for the result of that operation. The HI-TECH PICC-18 assembler
uses the more-readable operands “,w” and “,f” to specify the destination register. The W register is
selected as the destination when using the “,w” operand, and the file register is selected when using
the “,f” operand or if no destination operand is specified. The case of the letter in the destination
operand in not important. The Microchip numerical operands cannot be used with the HI-TECH
PICC-18 assembler.
The PICC-18 assembler also uses the operands “,b” and “,c” to indicate that a file register is
banked or common. A common register is one that resides in the access bank. Instructions using this
operand will have the RAM access bit in the instruction cleared by the assembler. A banked register
does not reside in the access bank. Instructions using this operand will have the RAM access bit in
the instruction set by the assembler. The BSR register must be correctly loaded prior to executing a
banked instruction to select the appropriate bank. Identifiers that do not use either of these operands
are assumed to be banked.
Reference to a symbol in PICC-18 assembler may be preceded by the characters “c:” to indicate
that the symbol resides in common memory. A common object resides in the access bank.
An access bank indicator, such as “,c” or “c:” is not required when an address used in an
instruction is absolute and the value of the address is within the access bank. The assembler will
determine from the address that this is the case. However, these indicators must be used with all
unresolved identifiers. For example, the following instructions show the WREG being moved to
first, an absolute location and then to an address represented by an identifier. The op codes for these
instructions, assuming that the address assigned to _foo is 0516h, are shown.

6EE5 movwf 0FE5h

6E16 movwf _foo,c
6F16 movwf _foo,b
6F16 movwf _foo

Notice that first two instruction have the RAM access bit (bit 8 of the op-code) cleared, but that it is
set in the last two instructions.

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HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

Table 4.2: ASPIC18 statement formats

Format 1 label:
Format 2 label: mnemonic operands ; comment
Format 3 name pseudo-op operands ; comment
Format 4 ; comment only
Format 5 <empty line>

The retfie instruction may be followed by “f” to indicate that the shadow registers should be
retrieved and copied to their corresponding registers on execution.

4.3.2 Pre-defined Macros

The file sfr.h, contained in the SOURCES directory contains useful definitions for assembler pro-
gramming. In particular it contains an assembler macro called loadfsr, which can be used when
you require any of the FSR registers to be loaded. The two arguments to this macro are the FSR
register number and the value to be loaded. For example:

loadfsr 2,1FFh

which will load FSR2 with the value 1FFh. This macro should be used in preference to the lfsr
instruction.

4.3.3 Statement Formats

Legal statement formats are shown in Table 4.2.
The label field is optional and, if present, should contain one identifier. A label may appear
on a line of its own, or precede a mnemonic as shown in the second format.
The third format is only legal with certain assembler directives, such as MACRO, SET and EQU. The
name field is mandatory and should also contain one identifier.
If the assembly file is first processed by the C preprocessor, see Section 2.6.12, then it may also
contain lines that form valid preprocessor directives. See Section 3.11.2 for more information on the
format for these directives.
There is no limitation on what column or part of the line in which any part of the statement
should appear.

4.3.4 Characters
The character set used is standard 7 bit ASCII. Alphabetic case is significant for identifiers, but not
mnemonics and reserved words. Tabs are treated as equivalent to spaces.

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

4.3.4.1 Delimiters
All numbers and identifiers must be delimited by white space, non-alphanumeric characters or the
end of a line.

4.3.4.2 Special Characters

There are a few characters that are special in certain contexts. Within a macro body, the character & is
used for token concatenation. To use the bitwise & operator within a macro body, escape it by using
&& instead. In a macro argument list, the angle brackets < and > are used to quote macro arguments.

4.3.5 Comments
An assembly comment is initiated with a semicolon that is not part of a string or character constant.
If the assembly file is first processed by the C preprocessor, see Section 2.6.12, then it may also
contain C or C++ style comments using the standard /* ... */ and // syntax.

4.3.5.1 Special Comment Strings

Several comment strings are appended to assembler instructions by the code generator. These are
typically used by the assembler optimizer.
The comment string ;volatile is used to indicate that the memory location being accessed in
the commented instruction is associated with a variable that was declared as volatile in the C
source code. Accesses to this location which appear to be redundant will not be removed by the
assembler optimizer if this string is present.
This comment string may also be used in assembler source to achive the same effect for locations
defined and accessed in assembly code.
The comment string ;wreg free is placed on some CALL instructions. The string indicates that
the WREG was not loaded with a function parameter, i.e. it is not in use. If this string is present,
optimizations may be made to assembler instructions before the function call which load the WREG
redundantly.

4.3.6 Constants
4.3.6.1 Numeric Constants
The assembler performs all arithmetic with signed 32-bit precision.
The default radix for all numbers is 10. Other radices may be specified by a trailing base specifier
as given in Table 4.3.

133
HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

Table 4.3: ASPIC18 numbers and bases

Radix Format
Binary digits 0 and 1 followed by B
Octal digits 0 to 7 followed by O, Q, o or q
Decimal digits 0 to 9 followed by D, d or nothing
Hexadecimal digits 0 to 9, A to F preceded by Ox or followed by H or h

Hexadecimal numbers must have a leading digit (e.g. 0ffffh) to differentiate them from identi-
fiers. Hexadecimal digits are accepted in either upper or lower case.
Note that a binary constant must have an upper case B following it, as a lower case b is used for
temporary (numeric) label backward references.
In expressions, real numbers are accepted in the usual format, and are interpreted as IEEE 32-bit
format.

4.3.6.2 Character Constants and Strings

A character constant is a single character enclosed in single quotes ’.
Multi-character constants, or strings, are a sequence of characters, not including carriage return
or newline characters, enclosed within matching quotes. Either single quotes ’ or double quotes "
maybe used, but the opening and closing quotes must be the same.

4.3.7 Identifiers
Assembly identifiers are user-defined symbols representing memory locations or numbers. A sym-
bol may contain any number of characters drawn from the alphabetics, numerics and the special
characters dollar, $, question mark, ? and underscore, _.
The first character of an identifier may not be numeric. The case of alphabetics is significant,
e.g. Fred is not the same symbol as fred. Some examples of identifiers are shown here:

An_identifier
an_identifier
an_identifier1
$
?$_12345

4.3.7.1 Significance of Identifiers

Users of other assemblers that attempt to implement forms of data typing for identifiers should note
that this assembler attaches no significance to any symbol, and places no restrictions or expectations

134
Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

on the usage of a symbol.

The names of psects (program sections) and ordinary symbols occupy separate, overlapping
name spaces, but other than this, the assembler does not care whether a symbol is used to represent
bytes, words or sports cars. No special syntax is needed or provided to define the addresses of bits
or any other data type, nor will the assembler issue any warnings if a symbol is used in more than
one context. The instruction and addressing mode syntax provide all the information necessary for
the assembler to generate correct code.

4.3.7.2 Assembler-Generated Identifiers

Where a LOCAL directive is used in a macro block, the assembler will generate a unique symbol to
replace each specified identifier in each expansion of that macro. These unique symbols will have
the form ??nnnn where nnnn is a 4 digit number. The user should avoid defining symbols with the
same form.

4.3.7.3 Location Counter

The current location within the active program section is accessible via the symbol $. This symbol
expands to the address of the currently executing instruction. Thus:

goto $

will represent code that will jump to itself and form an endless loop. By using this symbol and an
offset, a relative jump destination to be specified.
The address represented by $ is a word address and thus any offset to this symbol represents a
number of instructions. For example:

goto $+1
movlw 8
movwf _foo

will skip one instruction.

4.3.7.4 Register Symbols

Code in assembly modules may gain access to the special function registers by including pre-defined
assembly header files. The appropriate file can be included by add the line:

#include <aspic18.h>

135
HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

to the assembler source file. Note that the file must be included using a C pre-processor directive and
hence the option to pre-process assembly files must be enabled when compiling, see Section 2.6.12.
This header file contains appropriate commands to ensure that the header file specific for the target
device is included into the souce file.
These header files contain EQU declarations for all byte or multi-byte sized registers and #define
macros for named bits within byte registers.

4.3.7.5 Symbolic Labels

A label is symbolic alias which is assigned a value equal to its offset within the current psect.
A label definition consists of any valid assembly identifier followed by a colon, :. The defini-
tion may appear on a line by itself or be positioned before a statement. Here are two examples of
legitimate labels interspersed with assembly code.

frank:
movlw 1
goto fin
simon44: clrf _input

Here, the label frank will ultimately be assigned the address of the mov instruction, and simon44 the
address of the clrf instruction. Regardless of how they are defined, the assembler list file produced
by the assembler will always show labels on a line by themselves.
Labels may be used (and are prefered) in assembly code rather than using an absolute address.
Thus they can be used as the target location for jump-type instructions or to load an address into a
register.
Like variables, labels have scope. By default, they may be used anywhere in the module in which
they are defined. They may be used by code above their definition. To make a label accessable in
other modules, use the GLOBAL directive. See Section 4.3.10.1 for more information.

4.3.8 Expressions
The operands to instructions and directives are comprised of expressions. Expressions can be made
up of numbers, identifiers, strings and operators.
Operators can be unary (one operand, e.g. not) or binary (two operands, e.g. +). The operators
allowable in expressions are listed in Table 4.4. The usual rules governing the syntax of expressions
apply.
The operators listed may all be freely combined in both constant and relocatable expressions. The
HI-TECH linker permits relocation of complex expressions, so the results of expressions involving
relocatable identifiers may not be resolved until link time.

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

Table 4.4: ASPIC18 operators

Operator Purpose Example
* Multiplication movlw 4*33
+ Addition bra $+1
- Subtraction DB 5-2
/ Division movlw 100/4
= or eq Equality IF inp eq 66
> or gt Signed greater than IF inp > 40
>= or ge Signed greater than or equal to IF inp ge 66
< or lt Signed less than IF inp < 40
<= or le Signed less than or equal to IF inp le 66
<> or ne Signed not equal to IF inp <> 40
low Low byte of operand movlw low(inp)
high High byte of operand movlw high(1008h)
highword High 16 bits of operand DW highword(inp)
mod Modulus movlw 77 mod 4
& Bitwise AND clrf inp&0ffh
^ Bitwise XOR (exclusive or) movlw inp^80
| Bitwise OR movlw inp|1
not Bitwise complement movlw not 055h
< < or shl Shift left DB inp> >8
> > or shr Shift right movlw inp shr 2
rol Rotate left DB inp rol 1
ror Rotate right DB inp ror 1
float24 24-bit version of real operand DW float24(3.3)
nul Tests if macro argument is null

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HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

4.3.9 Program Sections

Program sections, or psects, are simply a section of code or data. They are a way of grouping together
parts of a program (via the psect’s name) even though the source code may not be physically adjacent
in the source file, or even where spread over several source files.
•
The concept of a program section is not a HI-TECH-only feature. Often referred to as
blocks or segments in other compilers, these grouping of code and data have long used
the names text, bss and data.

A psect is identified by a name and has several attributes. The PSECT assembler directive is used
to define a psect. It takes as arguments a name and an optional comma-separated list of flags. See
Section 4.3.10.3 for full information on psect definitions. Chapter 5 has more information on the
operation of the linker and on optins that can be used to control psect placement in memory.
The assembler associates no significance to the name of a psect and the linker is also not aware
of which are compiler-generated or user-defined psects. Unless defined as abs (absolute), psects are
relocatable.
The following is an example showing some executable instructions being placed in the text
psect, and some data being placed in the rbss psect.
PSECT text,class=CODE
adjust:
goto clear_fred
increment:
incf _fred
PSECT bss,class=BANK0,space=1
fred:
DS 2
PSECT text,class=CODE
clear_fred:
clrf _fred
return
Note that even though the two blocks of code in the text psect are separated by a block in the bss
psect, the two text psect blocks will be contiguous when loaded by the linker. In other words,
the incf _fred instruction will be followed by the clrf instruction in the final ouptut. The actual
location in memory of the text and bss psects will be determined by the linker.
Code or data that is not explicitly placed into a psect will become part of the default (unnamed)
psect.

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

4.3.10 Assembler Directives

Assembler directives, or pseudo-ops, are used in a similar way to instruction mnemonicss, but either
do not generate code, or generate non-executable code, i.e. data bytes. The directives are listed in
Table 4.5, and are detailed below.

4.3.10.1 GLOBAL
GLOBAL declares a list of symbols which, if defined within the current module, are made public. If
the symbols are not defined in the current module, it is a reference to symbols in external modules.
Example:

GLOBAL lab1,lab2,lab3

4.3.10.2 END
END is optional, but if present should be at the very end of the code defined in the module. It will
terminate the assembly process, and not even blank lines should follow this directive.
If an expression is supplied as an argument, that expression will be used to define the entry point
(address) of the program. Whether this is of any use will depend on the type of output debug file
being generated and the target platform. It is typically most useful for hosted systems, where an
application program may not be located at the reset vector.
For example, if start_label is defined at the reset vector:

END start_label

4.3.10.3 PSECT
The PSECT directive declares or resumes a program section. It takes as arguments a name and,
optionally, a comma-separated list of flags. The allowed flags are listed in Table 4.6, below.
Once a psect has been declared it may be resumed later by another PSECT directive, however the
flags need not be repeated.

• abs defines the current psect as being absolute, i.e. it is to start at location 0. This does
not mean that this module’s contribution to the psect will start at 0, since other modules may
contribute to the same psect.

• The bit flag specifies that a psect hold objects that are 1 bit long. Such psects have a scale
value of 8 to indicate that there are 8 addressable units to each byte of storage.

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HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

Table 4.5: ASPIC18 assembler directives

Directive Purpose
GLOBAL Make symbols accessible to other modules or allow reference to
other modules’ symbols
END End assembly
PSECT Declare or resume program section
ORG Set location counter
EQU Define symbol value
SET Define or re-define symbol value
DB Define constant byte(s)
DW Define constant word(s)
DS Reserve storage
DABS Define absolute storage
IF Conditional assembly
ELSIF Alternate conditional assembly
ELSE Alternate conditional assembly
ENDIF End conditional assembly
FNADDR Inform the linker that a function may be indirectly called
FNARG Inform the linker that evaluation of arguments for one function
requires calling another
FNBREAK Break call graph links
FNCALL Inform the linker that one function calls another
FNCONF Supply call graph configuration information for the linker
FNINDIR Inform the linker that all functions with a particular signature
may be indirectly called
FNROOT Inform the linker that a function is the “root” of a call grpah
FNSIZE Inform the linker of argument and local variable for a function
MACRO Macro definition
ENDM End macro definition
LOCAL Define local tabs
ALIGN Align output to the specified boundary
PAGESEL Generate set/reset instruction to set PCLATH for this page
PROCESSOR Define the particular chip for which this file is to be assembled.
REPT Repeat a block of code n times
IRP Repeat a block of code with a list
IRPC Repeat a block of code with a character list
SIGNAT Define function signature

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

Table 4.6: PSECT flags

Flag Meaning
abs Psect is absolute
bit Psect holds bit objects
class=name Specify class name for psect
delta=size Size of an addressing unit
global Psect is global (default)
limit=address Upper address limit of psect
local Psect is not global
ovrld Psect will overlap same psect in other modules
pure Psect is to be read-only
reloc=boundary Start psect on specified boundary
size=max Maximum size of psect
space=area Represents area in which psect will reside
with=psect Place psect in the same page as specified psect

• The class flag specifies a class name for this psect. Class names are used to allow local psects
to be referred to by a class name at link time, since they cannot be referred to by their own
name. Class names are also useful where psects need only be positioned anywhere within a
range of addresses rather than at one specific address.

• The delta flag defines the size of an addressing unit. In other words, the number of bytes
covered for an increment in the address.

• A psect defined as global will be combined with other global psects of the same name from
other modules at link time. This is the default behaviour for psects, unless the local flag is
used.

• The limit flag specifies a limit on the highest address to which a psect may extend.

• A psect defined as local will not be combined with other local psects at link time, even if
there are others with the same name. Where there are two local psects in the one module,
they reference the same psect. A local psect may not have the same name as any global
psect, even one in another module.

• A psect defined as ovrld will have the contribution from each module overlaid, rather than
concatenated at runtime. ovrld in combination with abs defines a truly absolute psect, i.e. a
psect within which any symbols defined are absolute.

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HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

• The pure flag instructs the linker that this psect will not be modified at runtime and may
therefore, for example, be placed in ROM. This flag is of limited usefulness since it depends
on the linker and target system enforcing it.

• The reloc flag allows specification of a requirement for alignment of the psect on a particular
boundary, e.g. reloc=100h would specify that this psect must start on an address that is a
multiple of 100h.

• The size flag allows a maximum size to be specified for the psect, e.g. size=100h. This will
be checked by the linker after psects have been combined from all modules.

• The space flag is used to differentiate areas of memory which have overlapping addresses,
but which are distinct. Psects which are positioned in program memory and data memory may
have a different space value to indicate that the program space address zero, for example,
is a different location to the data memory address zero. Devices which use banked RAM
data memory typically have the same space value as their full addresses (including bank
information) are unique.

• The with flag allows a psect to be placed in the same page with a specified psect. For example
with=text will specify that this psect should be placed in the same page as the text psect.

Some examples of the use of the PSECT directive follow:

PSECT fred
PSECT bill,size=100h,global
PSECT joh,abs,ovrld,class=CODE,delta=2

4.3.10.4 ORG
The ORG directive changes the value of the location counter within the current psect. This means that
the addresses set with ORG are relative to the base address of the psect, which is not determined
until link time.

•
The much-abused ORG directive does not necessarily move the location counter to the
absolute address you specify as the operand. This directive is rarely needed in programs.

The argument to ORG must be either an absolute value, or a value referencing the current psect. In
either case the current location counter is set to the value determined by the argument. It is not
possible to move the location counter backward. For example:

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

ORG 100h

will move the location counter to the beginning of the current psect plus 100h. The actual location
will not be known until link time.
In order to use the ORG directive to set the location counter to an absolute value, the directive
must be used from within an absolute, overlaid psect. For example:

PSECT absdata,abs,ovrld
ORG 50h

4.3.10.5 EQU
This pseudo-op defines a symbol and equates its value to an expression. For example

thomas EQU 123h

The identifier thomas will be given the value 123h. EQU is legal only when the symbol has not
previously been defined. See also Section 4.3.10.6.

4.3.10.6 SET
This pseudo-op is equivalent to EQU except that allows a symbol to be re-defined. For example

thomas SET 0h

4.3.10.7 DB
DB is used to initialize storage as bytes. The argument is a list of expressions, each of which will be
assembled into one byte. Each character of the string will be assembled into one memory location.
Examples:

alabel: DB ’X’,1,2,3,4,

Note that because the size of an address unit in ROM is 2 bytes, the DB pseudo-op will initialise a
word with the upper byte set to zero.

4.3.10.8 DW
DW operates in a similar fashion to DB, except that it assembles expressions into words. Example:

DW -1, 3664h, ‘A’, 3777Q

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HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

4.3.10.9 DS
This directive reserves, but does not initialize, memory locations. The single argument is the number
of bytes to be reserved. Examples:

alabel: DS 23 ;Reserve 23 bytes of memory

xlabel: DS 2+3 ;Reserve 5 bytes of memory

4.3.10.10 DABS
This directive allows one or more bytes of memory to be reserved at the specified address. The
general form of the directive is:

DABS memory_space,address,bytes

where memory_space is a number representing the memory space in which the reservation will
take place, address is the address at which the reservation will take place, and bytes is the
number of bytes that is to be reserved. This directive differs to the DS directive in that it does not
allocate space at the curernt location in the current psect, but instead can be used to reserve memory
at any location.
The memory space number is the same as the number specified with the space flag option to
psects. Devices with a single flat memory space will typically always use 0 as the space value;
devices with separate code and data spaces typically use 0 for the code space and 1 for the data
space.
The code generator issues a DABS directive for every user-defined absolute C variable, or for
variables that have been allocated an address by the code generator.

4.3.10.11 FNALIGN
This directive tells the linker that the specified functions may be called via a pointer and that their
function parameters blocks must be aligned. The argument to this directive is a comma-separated
list of function names that are all (or may be) called indirectly by the same pointer. For example:

FNALIGN _one,_two

tells the linker that a function pointer points to, and may call, the C functions one() and two().

4.3.10.12 FNADDR
This directive tells the linker that a function has its address taken, and thus could be called indirectly
through a function pointer. For example

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

FNADDR _func1

tells the linker that the C function func1() has had its address taken.

4.3.10.13 FNARG
The directive

FNARG fun1,fun2

tells the linker that evaluation of the arguments to function fun1 involves a call to fun2, thus the
memory argument memory allocated for the two functions should not overlap. For example, the C
function calls

fred(var1, bill(), 2);

will generate the assembler directive

FNARG _fred,_bill

thereby telling the linker that bill() is called while evaluating the arguments for a call to fred().

4.3.10.14 FNBREAK
This directive is used to break links in the call graph information. The form of this directive is as
follows:

FNBREAK fun1,fun2

and is automatically generated when the interrupt_level pragma is used. It states that any calls to
fun1 in trees other than the one rooted at fun2 should not be considered when checking for functions
that appear in multiple call graphs. Fun2() is typically intlevel0 or intlevel1 in compiler-generated
code when the interrupt_level pragma is used. Memory for the auto/parameter area for a fun1 will
only be assigned in the tree rooted at fun2.

4.3.10.15 FNCALL
This directive takes the form:

FNCALL fun1,fun2

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HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

FNCALL is usually used in compiler generated code. It tells the linker that function fun1 calls function
fun2. This information is used by the linker when performing call graph analysis. If you write
assembler code which calls a C function, use the FNCALL directive to ensure that your assembler
function is taken into account. For example, if you have an assembler routine called _fred which
calls a C routine called foo(), in your assembler code you should write:

FNCALL _fred,_foo

4.3.10.16 FNCONF
The FNCONF directive is used to supply the linker with configuration information for a call graph.
FNCONF is written as follows:

FNCONF psect,auto,args

where psect is the psect containing the call graph, auto is the prefix on all auto variable symbol names
and args is the prefix on all function argument symbol names. This directive normally appears in
only one place: the runtime startup code used by C compiler generated code. For the HI-TECH C
PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family the startup routine will include the directive:

FNCONF rbss,??,?

telling the linker that the call graph is in the rbss psect, auto variable blocks start with ?? and function
argument blocks start with ?.

4.3.10.17 FNINDIR
This directive tells the linker that a function performs an indirect call to another function with a
particular signature (see the SIGNAT directive). The linker must assume worst case that the function
could call any other function which has the same signature and has had its address taken (see the
FNADDR directive). For example, if a function called fred() performs an indirect call to a function
with signature 8249, the compiler will produce the directive:

FNINDIR _fred,8249

4.3.10.18 FNSIZE
The FNSIZE directive informs the linker of the size of the local variable and argument area associ-
ated with a function. These values are used by the linker when building the call graph and assigning
addresses to the variable and argument areas. This directive takes the form:

FNSIZE func,local,args

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

The named function has a local variable area and argument area as specified, for example

FNSIZE _fred, 10, 5

means the function fred() has 10 bytes of local variables and 5 bytes of arguments. The function
name arguments to any of the call graph associated directives may be local or global. Local functions
are of course defined in the current module, but most be used in the call graph construction in the
same manner as global names.

4.3.10.19 FNROOT

This directive tells the assembler that a function is a root function and thus forms the root of a call
graph. It could either be the C main() function or an interrupt function. For example, the C main
module produce the directive:

FNROOT _main

4.3.10.20 IF, ELSIF, ELSE and ENDIF

These directives implement conditional assembly. The argument to IF and ELSIF should be an
absolute expression. If it is non-zero, then the code following it up to the next matching ELSE,
ELSIF or ENDIF will be assembled. If the expression is zero then the code up to the next matching
ELSE or ENDIF will be skipped.
At an ELSE the sense of the conditional compilation will be inverted, while an ENDIF will termi-
nate the conditional assembly block. Example:

IF ABC
goto aardvark
ELSIF DEF
goto denver
ELSE
goto grapes
ENDIF

In this example, if ABC is non-zero, the first jmp instruction will be assembled but not the second or
third. If ABC is zero and DEF is non-zero, the second jmp will be assembled but the first and third
will not. If both ABC and DEF are zero, the third jmp will be assembled. Conditional assembly blocks
may be nested.

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HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

4.3.10.21 MACRO and ENDM

These directives provide for the definition of macros. The MACRO directive should be preceded by
the macro name and optionally followed by a comma-separated list of formal parameters. When the
macro is used, the macro name should be used in the same manner as a machine opcode, followed
by a list of arguments to be substituted for the formal parameters.
For example:

;macro: storem
;args: arg1 - the NAME of the source variable
; arg2 - the literal value to load
;descr: Loads two registers with the value in the variable:
ldtwo MACRO arg1,arg2
movlw &arg2
movwf &arg1
ENDM

When used, this macro will expand to the 2 instructions in the body of the macro, with the formal
parameters substituted by the arguments. Thus:

storem tempvar,2

expands to:

movlw 2
movwf tempvar

A point to note in the above example: the & character is used to permit the concatenation of macro
parameters with other text, but is removed in the actual expansion.
A comment may be suppressed within the expansion of a macro (thus saving space in the macro
storage) by opening the comment with a double semicolon, ;;.
When invoking a macro, the argument list must be comma-separated. If it is desired to include a
comma (or other delimiter such as a space) in an argument then angle brackets < and > may be used
to quote the argument. In addition the exclamation mark, ! may be used to quote a single character.
The character immediately following the exclamation mark will be passed into the macro argument
even if it is normally a comment indicator.
If an argument is preceded by a percent sign %, that argument will be evaluated as an expression
and passed as a decimal number, rather than as a string. This is useful if evaluation of the argument
inside the macro body would yield a different result.
The nul operator may be used within a macro to test a macro argument, for example:

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

IF nul arg3 ; argument was not supplied.

...
ELSE ; argument was supplied
...
ENDIF

By default, the assembly list file will show macro in an unexpanded format, i.e. as the macro was
invoked. Expansion of the macro in the listing file can be shown by using the EXPAND assembler
control, see Section 4.3.11.2,

4.3.10.22 LOCAL
The LOCAL directive allows unique labels to be defined for each expansion of a given macro. Any
symbols listed after the LOCAL directive will have a unique assembler generated symbol substituted
for them when the macro is expanded. For example:

down MACRO count

LOCAL more
more: decfsz count
goto more
ENDM

when expanded will include a unique assembler generated label in place of more. For example:

down foobar

expands to:

??0001 decfsz foobar

goto ??0001

if invoked a second time, the label more would expand to ??0002.

4.3.10.23 ALIGN
The ALIGN directive aligns whatever is following, data storage or code etc., to the specified boundary
in the psect in which the directive is found. The boundary is specified by a number following the
directive and it specifies a number of bytes. For example, to align output to a 2 byte (even) address
within a psect, the following could be used.

ALIGN 2

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HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

Note, however, that what follows will only begin on an even absolute address if the psect begins on
an even address. The ALIGN directive can also be used to ensure that a psect’s length is a multiple
of a certain number. For example, if the above ALIGN directive was placed at the end of a psect, the
psect would have a length that was always an even number of bytes long.

4.3.10.24 REPT
The REPT directive temporarily defines an unnamed macro, then expands it a number of times as
determined by its argument. For example:

REPT 3
addwf fred,w
ENDM

will expand to

addwf fred,w
addwf fred,w
addwf fred,w

4.3.10.25 IRP and IRPC

The IRP and IRPC directives operate similarly to REPT, however instead of repeating the block a
fixed number of times, it is repeated once for each member of an argument list. In the case of IRP
the list is a conventional macro argument list, in the case or IRPC it is each character in one argument.
For each repetition the argument is substituted for one formal parameter.
For example:

PSECT idata_0
IRP number,4865h,6C6Ch,6F00h
DW number
ENDM
PSECT text0

would expand to:

PSECT idata_0
DW 4865h
DW 6C6Ch
DW 6F00h
PSECT text0

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

Note that you can use local labels and angle brackets in the same manner as with conventional
macros.
The IRPC directive is similar, except it substitutes one character at a time from a string of non-
space characters.
For example:

PSECT romdata,class=CODE,delta=2
IRPC char,ABC
DB ’char’
ENDM
PSECT text

will expand to:

PSECT romdata,class=CODE,delta=2
DB ’A’
DB ’B’
DB ’C’
PSECT text

4.3.10.26 PROCESSOR
The output of the assembler may vary depending on the target device. The device name is typically
set using the --CHIP option to the command-line driver PICC18, see Section 2.6.21, or using the
assembler -P option, see Table 4.1, but can also be set with this directive, e.g.

PROCESSOR 16F877

4.3.10.27 SIGNAT
This directive is used to associate a 16-bit signature value with a label. At link time the linker checks
that all signatures defined for a particular label are the same and produces an error if they are not. The
SIGNAT directive is used by the HI-TECH C compiler to enforce link time checking of C function
prototypes and calling conventions.
Use the SIGNAT directive if you want to write assembly language routines which are called from
C. For example:

SIGNAT _fred,8192

will associate the signature value 8192 with the symbol _fred. If a different signature value for
_fred is present in any object file, the linker will report an error.

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HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

Table 4.7: PIC18 assembler controls

Control1 Meaning Format
COND* Include conditional code in the listing COND
EXPAND Expand macros in the listing output EXPAND
INCLUDE Textually include another source file INCLUDE <pathname>
LIST* Define options for listing output LIST [<listopt>, ...,
<listopt>]
NOCOND Leave conditional code out of the listing NOCOND
NOEXPAND* Disable macro expansion NOEXPAND
NOLIST Disable listing output NOLIST
PAGE Start a new page in the listing output PAGE
SUBTITLE Specify the subtitle of the program SUBTITLE “<subtitle>”
TITLE Specify the title of the program TITLE “<title>”

4.3.11 Assembler Controls

Assembler controls may be included in the assembler source to control assembler operation such as
listing format. These keywords have no significance anywhere else in the program. The control is
invoked by the directive OPT followed by the control name. Some keywords are followed by one or
more parameters. For example:

OPT EXPAND

A list of keywords is given in Table 4.7, and each is described further below.

4.3.11.1 COND
Any conditional code will be included in the listing output. See also the NOCOND control in Section
4.3.11.5.

4.3.11.2 EXPAND
When EXPAND is in effect, the code generated by macro expansions will appear in the listing output.
See also the NOEXPAND control in Section 4.3.11.6.

4.3.11.3 INCLUDE
This control causes the file specified by pathname to be textually included at that point in the
assembly file. The INCLUDE control must be the last control keyword on the line, for example:

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Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language

Table 4.8: LIST control options

List Option Default Description
c=nnn 80 Set the page (i.e. column) width.
n=nnn 59 Set the page length.
t=ON|OFF OFF Truncate listing output lines. The default wraps lines.
p=<processor> n/a Set the processor type.
r=<radix> hex Set the default radix to hex, dec or oct.
x=ON|OFF OFF Turn macro expansion on or off.

OPT INCLUDE "options.h"

The driver does not pass any search paths to the assembler, so if the include file is not located in the
working directory, the pathname must specify the exact location.
See also the driver option -P in Section 2.6.12 which forces the C preprocessor to preprocess
assembly file, thus allowing use of preprocessor directives, such as #include (see Section 3.11.2).

4.3.11.4 LIST
If the listing was previously turned off using the NOLIST control, the LIST control on its own will
turn the listing on.
Alternatively, the LIST control may includes options to control the assembly and the listing. The
options are listed in Table 4.8.
See also the NOLIST control in Section 4.3.11.7.

4.3.11.5 NOCOND
Using this control will prevent conditional code from being included in the listing output. See also
the COND control in Section 4.3.11.1.

4.3.11.6 NOEXPAND
NOEXPAND disables macro expansion in the listing file. The macro call will be listed instead. See
also the EXPAND control in Section 4.3.11.2. Assembly macro are discussed in Section 4.3.10.21.

4.3.11.7 NOLIST
This control turns the listing output off from this point onward. See also the LIST control in Section
4.3.11.4.

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HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler

4.3.11.8 NOXREF
NOXREF will disable generation of the raw cross reference file. See also the XREF control in Section
4.3.11.13.

4.3.11.9 PAGE
PAGE causes a new page to be started in the listing output. A Control-L (form feed) character will
also cause a new page when encountered in the source.

4.3.11.10 SPACE
The SPACE control will place a number of blank lines in the listing output as specified by its param-
eter.

4.3.11.11 SUBTITLE
SUBTITLE defines a subtitle to appear at the top of every listing page, but under the title. The string
should be enclosed in single or double quotes. See also the TITLE control in Section 4.3.11.12.

4.3.11.12 TITLE
This control keyword defines a title to appear at the top of every listing page. The string should be
enclosed in single or double quotes. See also the SUBTITLE control in Section 4.3.11.11.

4.3.11.13 XREF
XREF is equivalent to the driver command line option --CR (see Section 2.6.25). It causes the assem-
bler to produce a raw cross reference file. The utility CREF should be used to actually generate the
formatted cross-reference listing.

154
Chapter 5

Linker and Utilities

5.1 Introduction
HI-TECH C incorporates a relocating assembler and linker to permit separate compilation of C
source files. This means that a program may be divided into several source files, each of which
may be kept to a manageable size for ease of editing and compilation, then each source file may be
compiled separately and finally all the object files linked together into a single executable program.
This chapter describes the theory behind and the usage of the linker. Note however that in most
instances it will not be necessary to use the linker directly, as the compiler driver will automatically
invoke the linker with all necessary arguments. Using the linker directly is not simple, and should
be attempted only by those with a sound knowledge of the compiler and linking in general.
If it is absolutely necessary to use the linker directly, the best way to start is to copy the linker
arguments constructed by the compiler driver, and modify them as appropriate. This will ensure that
the necessary startup module and arguments are present.
Note also that the linker supplied with HI-TECH C is generic to a wide variety of compilers for
several different processors. Not all features described in this chapter are applicable to all compilers.

5.2 Relocation and Psects

The fundamental task of the linker is to combine several relocatable object files into one. The
object files are said to be relocatable since the files have sufficient information in them so that any
references to program or data addresses (e.g. the address of a function) within the file may be
adjusted according to where the file is ultimately located in memory after the linkage process. Thus
the file is said to be relocatable. Relocation may take two basic forms; relocation by name, i.e.

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relocation by the ultimate value of a global symbol, or relocation by psect, i.e. relocation by the
base address of a particular section of code, for example the section of code containing the actual
executable instructions.

5.3 Program Sections

Any object file may contain bytes to be stored in memory in one or more program sections, which
will be referred to as psects. These psects represent logical groupings of certain types of code bytes in
the program. In general the compiler will produce code in three basic types of psects, although there
will be several different types of each. The three basic kinds are text psects, containing executable
code, data psects, containing initialised data, and bss psects, containing uninitialised but reserved
data.
The difference between the data and bss psects may be illustrated by considering two external
variables; one is initialised to the value 1, and the other is not initialised. The first will be placed into
the data psect, and the second in the bss psect. The bss psect is always cleared to zeros on startup of
the program, thus the second variable will be initialised at run time to zero. The first will however
occupy space in the program file, and will maintain its initialised value of 1 at startup. It is quite
possible to modify the value of a variable in the data psect during execution, however it is better
practice not to do so, since this leads to more consistent use of variables, and allows for restartable
and ROMable programs.
For more information on the particular psects used in a specific compiler, refer to the appropriate
machine-specific chapter.

5.4 Local Psects

Most psects are global, i.e. they are referred to by the same name in all modules, and any reference
in any module to a global psect will refer to the same psect as any other reference. Some psects
are local, which means that they are local to only one module, and will be considered as separate
from any other psect even of the same name in another module. Local psects can only be referred
to at link time by a class name, which is a name associated with one or more psects via the PSECT
directive class= in assembler code. See Section 4.3.10.3 for more information on PSECT options.

5.5 Global Symbols

The linker handles only symbols which have been declared as GLOBAL to the assembler. The code
generator generates these assembler directives whenever it encounters global C objects. At the C
source level, this means all names which have storage class external and which are not declared

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as static. These symbols may be referred to by modules other than the one in which they are
defined. It is the linker’s job to match up the definition of a global symbol with the references to it.
Other symbols (local symbols) are passed through the linker to the symbol file, but are not otherwise
processed by the linker.

5.6 Link and load addresses

The linker deals with two kinds of addresses; link and load addresses. Generally speaking the link
address of a psect is the address by which it will be accessed at run time. The load address, which
may or may not be the same as the link address, is the address at which the psect will start within the
output file (HEX or binary file etc.). In the case of the 8086 processor, the link address roughly cor-
responds to the offset within a segment, while the load address corresponds to the physical address
of a segment. The segment address is the load address divided by 16.
Other examples of link and load addresses being different are; an initialised data psect that is
copied from ROM to RAM at startup, so that it may be modified at run time; a banked text psect that
is mapped from a physical (== load) address to a virtual (== link) address at run time.
The exact manner in which link and load addresses are used depends very much on the particular
compiler and memory model being used.

5.7 Operation
A command to the linker takes the following form:

hlink1 options files ...

Options is zero or more linker options, each of which modifies the behaviour of the linker in some
way. Files is one or more object files, and zero or more library names. The options recognised by
the linker are listed in Table 5.1 and discussed in the following paragraphs.

Table 5.1: Linker command-line options

Option Effect
-8 Use 8086 style segment:offset address form
-Aclass=low-high,... Specify address ranges for a class
-Cx Call graph options
continued. . .

1 In earlier versions of HI-TECH C the linker was called LINK.EXE

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Table 5.1: Linker command-line options

Option Effect
-Cpsect=class Specify a class name for a global psect
-Cbaseaddr Produce binary output file based at baseaddr
-Dclass=delta Specify a class delta value
-Dsymfile Produce old-style symbol file
-Eerrfile Write error messages to errfile
-F Produce .obj file with only symbol records
-Gspec Specify calculation for segment selectors
-Hsymfile Generate symbol file
-H+symfile Generate enhanced symbol file
-I Ignore undefined symbols
-Jnum Set maximum number of errors before aborting
-K Prevent overlaying function parameter and auto areas
-L Preserve relocation items in .obj file
-LM Preserve segment relocation items in .obj file
-N Sort symbol table in map file by address order
-Nc Sort symbol table in map file by class address order
-Ns Sort symbol table in map file by space address order
-Mmapfile Generate a link map in the named file
-Ooutfile Specify name of output file
-Pspec Specify psect addresses and ordering
-Qprocessor Specify the processor type (for cosmetic reasons only)
-S Inhibit listing of symbols in symbol file
-Sclass=limit[,bound] Specify address limit, and start boundary for a class of psects
-Usymbol Pre-enter symbol in table as undefined
-Vavmap Use file avmap to generate an Avocet format symbol file
-Wwarnlev Set warning level (-9 to 9)
-Wwidth Set map file width (>=10)
-X Remove any local symbols from the symbol file
-Z Remove trivial local symbols from the symbol file

5.7.1 Numbers in linker options

Several linker options require memory addresses or sizes to be specified. The syntax for all these is
similar. By default, the number will be interpreted as a decimal value. To force interpretation as a
hex number, a trailing H should be added, e.g. 765FH will be treated as a hex number.

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5.7.2 -Aclass=low-high,...
Normally psects are linked according to the information given to a -P option (see below) but some-
times it is desired to have a class of psects linked into more than one non-contiguous address range.
This option allows a number of address ranges to be specified for a class. For example:

-ACODE=1020h-7FFEh,8000h-BFFEh

specifies that the class CODE is to be linked into the given address ranges. Note that a contribution
to a psect from one module cannot be split, but the linker will attempt to pack each block from each
module into the address ranges, starting with the first specified.
Where there are a number of identical, contiguous address ranges, they may be specified with a
repeat count, e.g.

-ACODE=0-FFFFhx16

specifies that there are 16 contiguous ranges each 64k bytes in size, starting from zero. Even though
the ranges are contiguous, no code will straddle a 64k boundary. The repeat count is specified as the
character x or * after a range, followed by a count.

5.7.3 -Cx
These options allow control over the call graph information which may be included in the map file
produced by the linker. There are four varients of this option:

Fully expanded callgraph The -Cf option displays the full callgraph information.

Short form callgraph The -Cs option is the default callgraph option which removes some redun-
dant information from the callgraph display. In the case where there are parameters to a func-
tion that involve function calls, the callgraph information associated with the “ARG function”
is only shown the first time it is encountered in the callgraph. See Sections 5.9.1 and 5.10.2.2
for more information on these functions.

Critical path callgraph The -Cc option only include the critical paths of the call graph. A function
call that is marked with a * in a full call graph is on a critical path and only these calls are
included when the -Cc option is used. See Section 5.10.2.2 for more information on critical
paths.

No callgraph The -Cn option removes the call graph information from the map file.

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5.7.4 -Cpsect=class
This option will allow a psect to be associated with a specific class. Normally this is not required on
the command line since classes are specified in object files.

5.7.5 -Dclass=delta
This option allows the delta value for psects that are members of the specified class to be defined.
The delta value should be a number and represents the number of bytes per addressable unit of
objects within the psects. Most psects do not need this option as they are defined with a delta value.

5.7.6 -Dsymfile
Use this option to produce an old-style symbol file. An old-style symbol file is an ASCII file, where
each line has the link address of the symbol followed by the symbol name.

5.7.7 -Eerrfile
Error messages from the linker are written to standard error (file handle 2). Under DOS there is no
convenient way to redirect this to a file (the compiler drivers will redirect standard error if standard
output is redirected). This option will make the linker write all error messages to the specified file
instead of the screen, which is the default standard error destination.

5.7.8 -F
Normally the linker will produce an object file that contains both program code and data bytes, and
symbol information. Sometimes it is desired to produce a symbol-only object file that can be used
again in a subsequent linker run to supply symbol values. The -F option will suppress data and code
bytes from the output file, leaving only the symbol records.
This option can be used when producing more than one hex file for situations where the program
is contained in different memory devices located at different addresses. The files for one device are
compiled using this linker option to produce a symbol-only object file; this is then linked with the
files for the other device. The process can then be repeated for the other files and device.

5.7.9 -Gspec
When linking programs using segmented, or bank-switched psects, there are two ways the linker
can assign segment addresses, or selectors, to each segment. A segment is defined as a contiguous
group of psects where each psect in sequence has both its link and load address concatenated with

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the previous psect in the group. The segment address or selector for the segment is the value derived
when a segment type relocation is processed by the linker.
By default the segment selector will be generated by dividing the base load address of the seg-
ment by the relocation quantum of the segment, which is based on the reloc= flag value given to
psects at the assembler level. This is appropriate for 8086 real mode code, but not for protected mode
or some bank-switched arrangements. In this instance the -G option is used to specify a method for
calculating the segment selector. The argument to -G is a string similar to:

A/10h-4h

where A represents the load address of the segment and / represents division. This means "Take the
load address of the psect, divide by 10 hex, then subtract 4". This form can be modified by substi-
tuting N for A, * for / (to represent multiplication), and adding rather than subtracting a constant.
The token N is replaced by the ordinal number of the segment, which is allocated by the linker. For
example:

N*8+4

means "take the segment number, multiply by 8 then add 4". The result is the segment selector. This
particular example would allocate segment selectors in the sequence 4, 12, 20, ... for the number
of segments defined. This would be appropriate when compiling for 80286 protected mode, where
these selectors would represent LDT entries.

5.7.10 -Hsymfile
This option will instruct the linker to generate a symbol file. The optional argument symfile
specifies a file to receive the symbol file. The default file name is l.sym.

5.7.11 -H+symfile
This option will instruct the linker to generate an enhanced symbol file, which provides, in addition
to the standard symbol file, class names associated with each symbol and a segments section which
lists each class name and the range of memory it occupies. This format is recommended if the code
is to be run in conjunction with a debugger. The optional argument symfile specifies a file to
receive the symbol file. The default file name is l.sym.

5.7.12 -Jerrcount
The linker will stop processing object files after a certain number of errors (other than warnings).
The default number is 10, but the -J option allows this to be altered.

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5.7.13 -K
For compilers that use a compiled stack, the linker will try and overlay function auto and parameter
areas in an attempt to reduce the total amount of RAM required. For debugging purposes, this feature
can be disabled with this option.

5.7.14 -I
Usually failure to resolve a reference to an undefined symbol is a fatal error. Use of this option will
cause undefined symbols to be treated as warnings instead.

5.7.15 -L
When the linker produces an output file it does not usually preserve any relocation information, since
the file is now absolute. In some circumstances a further "relocation" of the program will be done at
load time, e.g. when running a .exe file under DOS or a .prg file under TOS. This requires that some
information about what addresses require relocation is preserved in the object (and subsequently the
executable) file. The -L option will generate in the output file one null relocation record for each
relocation record in the input.

5.7.16 -LM
Similar to the above option, this preserves relocation records in the output file, but only segment
relocations. This is used particularly for generating .exe files to run under DOS.

5.7.17 -Mmapfile
This option causes the linker to generate a link map in the named file, or on the standard output if
the file name is omitted. The format of the map file is illustrated in Section 5.10.

5.7.18 -N, -Ns and-Nc

By default the symbol table in the link map will be sorted by name. The -N option will cause it to
be sorted numerically, based on the value of the symbol. The -Ns and -Nc options work similarly
except that the symbols are grouped by either their space value, or class.

5.7.19 -Ooutfile
This option allows specification of an output file name for the linker. The default output file name is
l.obj. Use of this option will override the default.

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5.7.20 -Pspec
Psects are linked together and assigned addresses based on information supplied to the linker via -P
options. The argument to the -P option consists basically of comma-separated sequences thus:

-Ppsect=lnkaddr+min/ldaddr+min,psect=lnkaddr/ldaddr, ...

There are several variations, but essentially each psect is listed with its desired link and load ad-
dresses, and a minimum value. All values may be omitted, in which case a default will apply,
depending on previous values.
The minimum value, min, is preceded by a + sign, if present. It sets a minimum value for the
link or load address. The address will be calculated as described below, but if it is less than the
minimum then it will be set equal to the minimum.
The link and load addresses are either numbers as described above, or the names of other psects
or classes, or special tokens. If the link address is a negative number, the psect is linked in reverse
order with the top of the psect appearing at the specified address minus one. Psects following a
negative address will be placed before the first psect in memory. If a link address is omitted, the
psect’s link address will be derived from the top of the previous psect, e.g.

-Ptext=100h,data,bss

In this example the text psect is linked at 100 hex (its load address defaults to the same). The data
psect will be linked (and loaded) at an address which is 100 hex plus the length of the text psect,
rounded up as necessary if the data psect has a reloc= value associated with it. Similarly, the bss
psect will concatenate with the data psect. Again:

-Ptext=-100h,data,bss

will link in ascending order bss, data then text with the top of text appearing at address 0ffh.
If the load address is omitted entirely, it defaults to the same as the link address. If the slash /
character is supplied, but no address is supplied after it, the load address will concatenate with the
previous psect, e.g.

-Ptext=0,data=0/,bss

will cause both text and data to have a link address of zero, text will have a load address of 0, and
data will have a load address starting after the end of text. The bss psect will concatenate with data
for both link and load addresses.
The load address may be replaced with a dot . character. This tells the linker to set the load
address of this psect to the same as its link address. The link or load address may also be the name of
another (already linked) psect. This will explicitly concatenate the current psect with the previously
specified psect, e.g.

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Operation Linker and Utilities

-Ptext=0,data=8000h/,bss/. -Pnvram=bss,heap

This example shows text at zero, data linked at 8000h but loaded after text, bss is linked and
loaded at 8000h plus the size of data, and nvram and heap are concatenated with bss. Note here
the use of two -P options. Multiple -P options are processed in order.
If -A options have been used to specify address ranges for a class then this class name may be
used in place of a link or load address, and space will be found in one of the address ranges. For
example:

-ACODE=8000h-BFFEh,E000h-FFFEh
-Pdata=C000h/CODE

This will link data at C000h, but find space to load it in the address ranges associated with CODE.
If no sufficiently large space is available, an error will result. Note that in this case the data psect
will still be assembled into one contiguous block, whereas other psects in the class CODE will be
distributed into the address ranges wherever they will fit. This means that if there are two or more
psects in class CODE, they may be intermixed in the address ranges.
Any psects allocated by a -P option will have their load address range subtracted from any
address ranges specified with the -A option. This allows a range to be specified with the -A option
without knowing in advance how much of the lower part of the range, for example, will be required
for other psects.

5.7.21 -Qprocessor
This option allows a processor type to be specified. This is purely for information placed in the map
file. The argument to this option is a string describing the processor.

5.7.22 -S
This option prevents symbol information relating from being included in the symbol file produced
by the linker. Segment information is still included.

5.7.23 -Sclass=limit[, bound]

A class of psects may have an upper address limit associated with it. The following example places
a limit on the maximum address of the CODE class of psects to one less than 400h.

-SCODE=400h

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Note that to set an upper limit to a psect, this must be set in assembler code (with a limit= flag on
a PSECT directive).
If the bound (boundary) argument is used, the class of psects will start on a multiple of the bound
address. This example places the FARCODE class of psects at a multiple of 1000h, but with an upper
address limit of 6000h:

-SFARCODE=6000h,1000h

5.7.24 -Usymbol
This option will enter the specified symbol into the linker’s symbol table as an undefined symbol.
This is useful for linking entirely from libraries, or for linking a module from a library where the
ordering has been arranged so that by default a later module will be linked.

5.7.25 -Vavmap
To produce an Avocet format symbol file, the linker needs to be given a map file to allow it to
map psect names to Avocet memory identifiers. The avmap file will normally be supplied with the
compiler, or created automatically by the compiler driver as required.

5.7.26 -Wnum
The -W option can be used to set the warning level, in the range -9 to 9, or the width of the map file,
for values of num >= 10.
-W9 will suppress all warning messages. -W0 is the default. Setting the warning level to -9 (-W-9)
will give the most comprehensive warning messages.

5.7.27 -X
Local symbols can be suppressed from a symbol file with this option. Global symbols will always
appear in the symbol file.

5.7.28 -Z
Some local symbols are compiler generated and not of interest in debugging. This option will
suppress from the symbol file all local symbols that have the form of a single alphabetic character,
followed by a digit string. The set of letters that can start a trivial symbol is currently "klfLSu".
The -Z option will strip any local symbols starting with one of these letters, and followed by a digit
string.

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5.8 Invoking the Linker

The linker is called HLINK, and normally resides in the BIN subdirectory of the compiler installation
directory. It may be invoked with no arguments, in which case it will prompt for input from standard
input. If the standard input is a file, no prompts will be printed. This manner of invocation is
generally useful if the number of arguments to HLINK is large. Even if the list of files is too long
to fit on one line, continuation lines may be included by leaving a backslash \ at the end of the
preceding line. In this fashion, HLINK commands of almost unlimited length may be issued. For
example a link command file called x.lnk and containing the following text:

-Z -OX.OBJ -MX.MAP \
-Ptext=0,data=0/,bss,nvram=bss/. \
X.OBJ Y.OBJ Z.OBJ C:\HT-Z80\LIB\Z80-SC.LIB

may be passed to the linker by one of the following:

hlink @x.lnk
hlink < x.lnk

5.9 Compiled Stack Operation

A compiler can either take advantage of the hardware stack contained on a device, or produce code
which uses a compiled stack for parameter passing between functions and auto variables. Temporary
variables used by a function may also be allocated space in the auto area. (Temporary variables with
names like btemp, wtemp or ltemp are not examples of such variables. These variables are treated
more like registers, although they may be allocated memory.) A compiled stack consists of fixed
memory areas that are usable by each function’s auto and parameter variables. When a compiled
stack is used, functions are not re-entrant since local variables in each function will use the same
fixed area of memory every time the function is invoked.
Fundamental to the compiled stack is the call graph which defines a tree-like hierarchy indicating
the structure of function calls. The call graph consists of one or more call trees which are defined
by the program. Each tree has a root function, which is typically not called by the program, but
which is executed via other means. The function main is an example of a root function. Interrupt
functions are another. The term main-line code means any code that is executed, or may be executed,
by a function that appears under the main root in the call graph. See Section 5.10.2.2 for detailed
information on the call graph which is displayed in the map file.
Each function in the call graph is allocated an auto/parameter block (APB) for its parameter,
auto and temporary variables. Temporary variables act just like auto variables. Local variables
which are qualified static are not part of this block. For situations where a compiled stack is used,

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the linker performs additional operations to minimise the memory consumed by the program by
overlaying each function’s APB where possible.
In assembly code variables within a function’s APB are referenced via special symbols, which
marks the start of the auto or parameter area in the block, and an offset. The symbol used to represent
the base address of the parameter area within the function’s APB is the concatenation of ? and the
assembler name of the function. The symbol used to represent the base address of the auto area
within the function’s APB is the concatenation of ?a, in the case of Standard version compilers, or
??, in the case of PRO version compilers, and the assembler name of the function.
For example, a function called foo, for example, will use the assembly symbol ?_foo as the
base address for all its parameters variables that have been allocated memory, and either ?a_foo
(Standard) or ??_foo (PRO) as the base address for auto variables which the function defines. So
the first two-byte auto variable might be referenced in PRO version compiler assembly code as
??_foo; the second auto variable as ??_foo+2, etc. Note that some parameters may be passed in
registers, and may not have memory allocated to them in the parameter area of the APB.
The linker allocates memory for each function’s APB, based on how that function is used in a
program. In particular, the linker determines which functions are, or may be, active at the same
time. If one function calls another, then both are active at the same time. To this end, a call graph
is created from information in the object files being linker. See Section 5.10.2.2 for information on
reading the call graph displayed in the map file. This information is directly related to the FNCALL
assembler directive (see Section 4.3.10.15 for more information) which the code generator places in
the assembler output whenever a C function calls another. Hand-written assembler code should also
contain these directives, if required. Information regarding the size of the auto and parameter areas
within in function’s APB is specified by the FNSIZE assembler directive (see Section 4.3.10.18).

5.9.1 Parameters involving Function Calls

The linker must take special note of the results of function calls used in expressions that are them-
selves parameters to another function. For example, if input and output are both functions that
accept two int parameters and and both return an int, the following:

result = output(out_selector, input(int_selector, 10));

shows that the function input is called to determine the second parameter to the function output.
This information is very important as it indicates areas of the code that must be considered carefully,
lest the code fail due to re-entrancy related issues.
A re-entrant call is typically considered to be the situation in which a function is called and
executed while another instance of the same function is also actively executing. For a compiled
stack program, a function must be considered active as soon as its parameter area has been modified
in preparation for a call, even though code in that function is not yet being executed and a call to
that function has not been made. This is particularly import with functions that accept more than

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one parameter as the ANSI standard does not dictate the order in which function parameters must be
evaluated.
Such a condition is best illustrated by an example, which is shown in the following tutorial.

T UT•RIAL

PARAMETERS IMPLEMENTED AS FUNCTION CALLS Consider the following code.

int B(int x, int y) {

return x - y;
}
int A(int a, int b) {
return a+B(9, b);
}
void main(void) {
B(5, A(6, 7)); // consider this statement
}

For the highlighted statement, the compiler might evaluate and load the first parameter
to the function B, which is the literal, 5. To do this, the value of 5 is loaded to the loca-
tions ?_B and ?_B+1. Now to evaluate the second parameter value to the function B, the
compiler must first call the function A. So A’s parameters are loaded and the call to func-
tion A is made. Code inside the function A, calls the function B. This involves loading
the parameters to B: the contents of the variable b are loaded to ?_B+2 and ?_B+3, and
the value 9 is loaded to ?_B and ?_B+1, which corrupts the contents of these locations
which were loaded earlier for the still pending call to function B. Function A eventually
returns normally and the the return value is the loaded to the second parameter locations
for the still pending call to function B, back at the highlighted line of source. However,
the value of 5 previously loaded as the first parameter to B has been lost. When the call
to function B is now made, the parameters will not be correct.
Note that the function B is not actively executing code in more than one instance of the
function at the same time, however the code that loads the parameters to function B is.

The linker indicates in the call graph those functions that may have been called to determine param-
eter values to other functions. See Section 5.10.2.2 for information on how this is displayed in the
map file.

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5.10 Map Files

The map file contains information relating to the relocation of psects and the addresses assigned to
symbols within those psects.

5.10.1 Generation
TM
If compilation is being performed via HI-TIDE a map file is generated by default without you
having to adjust the compiler options. If you are using the driver from the command line then you’ll
need to use the -M option, see Section 2.6.9.
Map files are produced by the linker. If the compilation process is stopped before the linker is
executed, then no map file is produced. The linker will still produce a map file even if it encounters
errors, which will allow you to use this file to track down the cause of the errors. However, if the
linker ultimately reports too many errors then it did not run to completion, and the map file will
be either not created or not complete. You can use the --ERRORS option on the command line, or as
an alternate MPLAB IDE setting, to increase the number of errors before the compiler applications
give up. See Section 2.6.32 for more information on this option.

5.10.2 Contents
The sections in the map file, in order of appearance, are as follows:
• The compiler name and version number;
• A copy of the command line used to invoke the linker;
• The version number of the object code in the first file linked;
• The machine type;
• Optionally (dependent on the processor and compiler options selected), the call graph infor-
mation;
• A psect summary sorted by the psect’s parent object file;
• A psect summary sorted by the psect’s CLASS;
• A segment summary;
• Unused address ranges summary; and
• The symbol table
Portions of an example map file, along with explanatory text, are shown in the following sections.

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5.10.2.1 General Information

At the top of the map file is general information relating to the execution of the linker.
When analysing a program, always confirm the compiler version number shown in the map file if
you have more than one compiler version installed to ensure the desired compiler is being executed.
The chip selected with the --CHIP option should appear after the Machine type entry.
The Object code version relates to the file format used by relocatable object files produced by
the assembler. Unless either the assembler or linker have been updated independently, this should
not be of concern.
A typical map file may begin something like the following. This example has been cut down for
clarity and brevity, and should not be used for reference.
HI-TECH Software PICC Compiler std#V9.60
Linker command line:
--edf=C:\Program\HI-TECH Software\pic\std\9.60\dat\en_msgs.txt \
-h+conv.sym -z -Q16F73 -ol.obj -Mconv.map -ver=PICC#std#V9.60 \
-ACODE=00h-07FFhx2 -ACONST=00h-0FFhx16 -ASTRING=00h-0FFhx16 \
-ABANK0=020h-07Fh -ABANK1=0A0h-0FFh \
-preset_vec=00h,intentry,intcode \
-pintsave_0=07Fh -ppowerup=CODE \
-prbit_0=BANK0,rbss_0=BANK0,rdata_0=BANK0,idata_0=CODE \
C:\DOCUME~1\user\LOCALS~1\Temp\cgta5eHNF.obj conv.obj \
C:\Program\HI-TECH Software\pic\std\9.60\lib\pic412-c.lib \
C:\Program\HI-TECH Software\pic\std\9.60\lib\pic20--u.lib
Object code version is 3.9
Machine type is 16F73
The Linker command line shown is the entire list of options and files that were passed to the linker
for the build recorded by this map file. Remember, these are linker options and not command-line
driver options. Typically the first options relate to general execution of the linker: path and file
names for various input and output support files; and the chip type etc. These are followed by the
memory allocation options, e.g. -A and -p. Last are the input object and library files that will be
linked to form the output.
The linker command line should be used to confirm that driver options that control the link step
have been specified correctly, and at the correct time. It is particularly useful when using the driver
-L- option, see Section 2.6.8.
T UT•RIAL

C ONFIRMING LINKER OPERATION A project requires that a number of memory lo-

cations be reserved. For the compiler and target device used by the project, the --ROM
driver option is suitable for this task. How can the operation of this option be confirmed?

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First the program is compiled without using this option and the following linker class
definition is noted in the linker command line:
-ACODE=0-03FFFhx2
The class name may vary between compilers and the selected target device, however
there is typically a class that is defined to cover the entire memory space used by the
device.
The driver option --ROM=default,-4000-400F is then used and the map file resulting
from the subsequent build shows the following change:
-ACODE=0-03FFFh,04010h-07FFFh
which confirms that the memory option was seen by the linker and that the memory
requested was reserved.

5.10.2.2 Call Graph Information

A call graph is produced and displayed in the map file for target devices and memory models that use
a compiled stack to facilitate parameter passing between functions and auto variables. See Section
5.9 for more detailed information on compiled stack operation.
The call graph in the map file shows the information collated and interpreted by the linker,
which is primarily used to allow overlapping of functions’ APBs. The following information can be
obtained from studying the call graph:

• The functions in the program that are “root” nodes marking the top of a call tree, and which
are not directly called;
• The functions that the linker deemed were called, or may have been called, during program
execution;
• The program’s hierarchy of function calls;
• The size of the auto and parameter areas within each function’s APB;
• The offset of each function’s APB within the program’s auto/parameter psect;
• Which functions’ APBs are consuming memory not overlapped by the APB of any other
function (on the critical path);
• Which functions are called indirectly;
• Which functions are called as part of a parameter expression for another function; and

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• The estimated call tree depth.

These features are discussed below.

The call graph produced by PRO versions compilers is very similar to that produced by Standard
version compilers, however there are differences. A typical PRO compiler call graph may look
something like:

Call graph:
*_main size 0,4 offset 0
* _byteconv size 0,17 offset 4
float size 3,7 offset 21
ldiv size 8,6 offset 21
_crv ARG size 0 offset 21
_crv size 1 offset 21
ldiv size 8,6 offset 21
_convert size 4,0 offset 33
_srv size 2,10 offset 21
_convert size 4,0 offset 33
* _srv size 2,10 offset 21
* _convert size 4,0 offset 33
_init size 0,4 offset 4
indir_func size 0,0 offset 4
Estimated maximum call depth: 3
*intlevel1 size 0,0 offset 37
* _isr size 0,2 offset 37
* i1ldiv size 8,6 offset 44
Estimated maximum call depth: 2

Each line basically consists of the name of the function in question, and its APB size and offset. The
general form of most entries look like:

name size p,a offset n

Note that the function name will always be the assembly name, thus the function main appears as
_main.
A function printed with no indent is a root function in a call tree. These functions are typically
not called by the C program. Examples include the function main, any any interrupt functions
the program defines. The programmer may also define additional functions that are root functions
in the call tree by using the FNROOT assembler directive, see Section 4.3.10.19 for more information.
The code generator issues an FNROOT directive for each interrupt function encountered, and the
runtime startup code contains the FNROOT directive for the function main.

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The functions that the root function calls, or may call, are indented one level and listed below
the root node. If any of these functions call (or might call) other functions, these called functions
are indented and listed below the calling functions. And so the process continues for entire program.
A function’s inclusion into the call graph does not imply the function was called, but there is a
possibility that the function was called. For example, code such as:

int test(int a) {
if(a)
foo();
else
bar();
}

will list foo and bar under test, as either may be called. If a is always true, then clearly the function
bar will never be called. If a function does not appear in the call graph, the linker has determined
that the function cannot possibly be called, and that it is not a root function. For code like:

int test(void) {
int a = 0;
if(a)
foo();
else
bar();
}

the function foo will never appear in the call graph.

The inclusion of a function into the call graph is controlled by the FNCALL assembler directive,
see Section 4.3.10.15 for more information. These directives are placed in the assembler output by
the code generator. For the above code, the code generator optimiser will remove the redundant call
to bar before the C source code conversion is performed, as so the FNCALL directive will not be
present in the output file, hence not detectable by the linker. When writing assembler source code,
the FNCALL assembler directive should always be used, particularly if the assembler routines define
local auto-like variables using the FNSIZE directive, see below, and also Section 4.3.10.18 for more
information.
If printed, the two components to the size are the size of that function’s parameter area, and
the size of the function’s auto area, respectively. The parameter size only includes those parameters
which are allocated memory locations, and which are not passed via a register. The auto size does not
include any auto variables which are allocated registers by the code generator’s (global) optimizer
for the entire duration of the function. The auto size does, however, include any values which must
be stored temporarily in the functions scratch area. Variables which are passed via a register may

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need to be saved into the function’s temporary variable if that register is required for code generation
purposes, in which case they do not contribute to the function’s parameter size, but increase the size
of the auto area.
The total parameter and auto area for each function is grouped to form an APB. This is then
allocated an address within the program’s auto/parameter psect. The offset value indicates the offset
within the psect for that block. Thus, two APBs with the same offset are mapped over one another.
If a star, *, appears on the very left line of a call tree, this implies that the memory consumed
by the function represented by that line does not fully overlap with that of other functions, and thus
this functions APB directly influences the size of the auto/parameter psect, and hence the total RAM
usage of the program. Such functions are said to be on the critical path. If the RAM usage of a
program needs to be reduced and the number or size of the parameters or auto variables defined by
the starred functions can be reduced, the program’s RAM usage will also be reduced. Reducing the
number or size of the parameters or auto variables defined by the functions that are not starred will
have no effect on the program’s total RAM usage.
PRO compilers track the values assigned to function pointers and maintains a list of all functions
that could be called via the function pointer. Functions called indirectly are listed in the call graph
along with those functions which are directly called.
If the ARG flag appears after a function’s name, this implies that the call to this “ARG function”
involves other function calls to determine the parameter values for this function. For example, if
input and output are both functions that take two int parameters and and both return an int, the
following:

result = output(out_selector, input(in_selector, 10));

shows that the function input is called to determine the second parameter to the function output.
The ARG function’s name is listed again under the line which actually shows the ARG flag, and
any functions this function calls appear here, indented in the usual way. Under this is listed every
function (regardless of its depth in the call tree) that could be called to determine a parameter value
to the ARG function throughout the program. If any of these functions call other functions, they
also list called functions below, indented in the usual way. For example the following annotated call
graph snippet illustrates the ARG function one.

_one ARG size 0 offset 21 ; _one is the ARG function

_one size 0 offset 21 ; ** here is _one’s call tree:
_two size 2,2 offset 21 ; ** _one may call _two
_prep1 size 1,1 offset 45 ; # _prep1, _get & _prep2 may
_get size 0,0 offset 47 ; # ultimately be called to
_prep2 size 1,1 offset 47 ; # obtain parameters for _one
_get size 0,0 offset 47 ; _prep2 may call by _get

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After each tree in call tree, there is an indication of the maximum call depth that might be realised
by that tree. This may be used as a guide to the stack usage of the program. No definitive value can
be given for the program’s total stack usage for several reasons:

• Certain parts of the call tree may never be reached, reducing that tree’s stack usage;

• The contribution of interrupt (or other) trees to the tree associated with the main function
cannot be determined as the point in main’s call tree at which the interrupt (or other function
invocation) will occur cannot be known;

• Any additional stack usage by functions, particularly interrupt functions, cannot be known;
and

• The assembler optimizer may have replaced function calls with jumps to functions, reducing
that tree’s stack usage.

The code generator also produces a warning if the maximum stack depth appears to have been
exceeded. For the above reasons, this warning, too, is intended to be a guide to potential stack
problems.
The above call graph example is analysed in the following tutorial.

T UT•RIAL

I NTERPRETING A PRO COMPILER CALL GRAPH The graph graph shown above
indicates that the program compiled consists of two call trees, rooted at the functions
main, which can have up 3 levels of stack used, and intlevel1, which can use up to two
levels of stack. In the example above, the symbol _main is associated with the function
main, and intlevel1 associated with an interrupt function (with an interrupt level
of 1).
Here, the function main takes no parameters and defines 4 bytes of auto variables. The
total size of the APB for main is 4, and this was placed at an offset of 0 in the program’s
auto/parameter psect. The function main may call a function called init. This function
also uses a total of 4 bytes of auto variables. The function main is still active when init
is active so their APBs must occupy distinct memory. (NB main will always be active
during program execution, by definition.) The block for init follows immediately after
that of main’s at address offset 4. The function init does not call any other functions.
The main function may also call the function byteconv. This function defines a total of
17 bytes of auto variables. It is called when main is still active, but it is never active at
the same time as init is active, so its APB can overlap with that of init and is placed
at offset 4 within the auto/parameter psect.

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The function byteconv may call several functions: float, ldiv, crv and srv. (Any
function name that does not start with an underscore must be an assembly routine.
The routine float and ldiv in this case relating to floating point and long division
library routines.) All these functions have their APB placed at the same offset in the
auto/parameter psect. Of these functions, srv also may call convert.
The call to crv from byteconv indicates that other functions might be called to obtain
crv’s parameter values. Those other functions are listed in a “flattened” call list below
the ARG function line which shows every possible function that might be called,
regardless of call depth. The functions which might be called are: ldiv, convert and
srv. The function srv, which also calls convert still indicates this fact by also listing
convert below and indented in the more conventional call graph format. The two lines
of C code that produced this outcome were:
if(crv((my_long%10)) != 5) // ...
if(crv(srv(8)) != 6) // ...
where crv accepts one char parameter and returns a char. The call to srv is obvious;
the other call come from the modulus operator, calling ldiv.
The other call tree rooted at intlevel1 relates to the interrupt function. intlevel1
is not a real function, but is used to represent the interrupt level associated with the
interrupt function. There is no call from intlevel1 to the function isr and no stack
usage. Note that an additional level of call depth is indicated for interrupt functions.
This is used to mark the place of the return address of the stack. The selected device
may use a differing number of stack locations when interrupts occur and this needs to
be factored into any stack calculations.
Notice that the interrupt function isr calls a function called i1ldiv. This is a du-
plicate of the ldiv routine that is callable by functions under the intlevel1 call tree.
Having duplicate routines means that these implicitly called assembly library routines
can safely be called from both code under the main call tree and code under the interrupt
tree. PRO compilers will have as many duplicates of these routines as there are interrupt
levels.
The call graph shows that the functions: main, byteconv, srv, convert, isr and
i1ldiv are all consuming APB memory that does not fully overlap with that of other
functions. Reducing the auto/parameter memory requirements for these functions will
reduce the program’s memory requirements. The call graph reveals that 82 bytes of
memory are required by the program for autos and parameters, but that only 58 are re-
served and used by the program. The difference shows the amount of memory saved by
overlapping of these blocks by the linker.

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5.10.2.3 Psect Information listed by Module

The next section in the map file lists those modules that made a contribution to the output, and
information regarding the psects these modules defined.
This section is heralded by the line that contains the headings:

Name Link Load Length Selector Space Scale

Under this on the far left is a list of object files. These object files include both files generated from
source modules and those that were extracted from object library files. In the case of those from
library files, the name of the library file is printed before the object file list.
This section shows all the psects (under the Name column) that were linked into the program
from each object file, and information regarding that psect. This only deals with object files linked
by the linker. P-code modules derived from p-code library files are handled by the code generator,
and do not appear in the map file.
The Link address indicates the address at which this psect will be located when the program
is running. (The Load address is also shown for those psects that may reside in the HEX file at
a different location and which are mapped before program execution.) The Length of the psect is
shown (in units suitable for that psect). The Selector is less commonly used, but the Space field is
important as it indicates the memory space in which the psect was placed. For Harvard architecture
machines, with separate memory spaces, this field must be used in conjunction with the address to
specify an exact storage location. The Scale of a psect indicates the number of address units per byte
— this is left blank if the scale is 1 — and typically this will show 8 for psects that hold bit objects.
The Load address of psects that hold bits is used to display the link address converted into units of
bytes, rather than the load address.

T UT•RIAL

I NTERPRETING THE PSECT LIST The following appears in a map file.

Name Link Load Length Selector Space Scale

ext.obj text 3A 3A 22 30 0
bss 4B 4B 10 4B 1
rbit 50 A 2 0 1 8

This indicates that one of the files that the linker processed was called ext.obj. (This
may have been derived from ext.c or ext.as.) This object file contained a text psect,
as well as psects called bss and rbit. The psect text was linked at address 3A and
bss at address 4B. At first glance, this seems to be a problem given that text is 22 words
long, however note that they are in different memory areas, as indicated by the Space
flag (0 for text and 1 for bss), and so do not occupy the same memory. The psect

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rbit contains bit objects, as indicated by its Scale value (its name is a bit of a giveaway
too). Again, at first glance there seems there could be an issue with rbit linked over
the top of bss. Their Space flags are the same, but since rbit contains bit objects, all
the addresses shown are bit addresses, as indicated by the Scale value of 8. Note that
the Load address field of rbit psect displays the Link address converted to byte units,
i.e. 50h/8 => Ah.

The list of files, that make up the program, indicated in this section of the map file will typically
consist of one or more object files derived from input source code. The map file produced by PRO
compilers will show one object file derived from all C source modules, however Standard version
compilers will show one object file per C source module.
In addition, there will typically be the runtime startup module. The runtime startup code is
precompiled into an object file, in the case of Standard version compilers, or is a compiler-written
assembler source file, which is then compiled along with the remainder of the program. In either
case, an object file module will be listed in this section, along with those psects which it defines.
If the startup module is not being deleted after compilation (see the --RUNTIME option in Section
2.6.52) then the module name will be startup.obj, otherwise this module will have a system-
dependent temporary file name, stored in a system-dependent location.
Modules derived from library files area also shown in this list. The name of the library file is
printed as a header, followed by a list of the modules that contributed to the output. Only mod-
ules that define symbols that are referenced are included in the program output. For example, the
following:

C:\program files\HI-TECH Software\PICC-18\9.50\lib\pic86l-c.lib

i1aldiv.obj text 174 174 3C C 0
aldiv.obj text 90 90 3C C 0

indicates that both the i1aldiv.obj and aldiv.obj modules were linked in from the library file
pic86l-c.lib.
Underneath the library file contributions, there may be a label COMMON. This shows the con-
tribution to the program from program-wide psects, in particular that used by the compiled stack
auto/parameter area.
This information in this section of the map file can be used to observe several details;

• To confirm that a module is making a contribution to the output file by ensuring that the
module appears in the module list;

• To determine the exact psects that each module defines;

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Linker and Utilities Map Files

• For cases where a user-defined routine, with the same name as a library routine, is present in
the programs source file list, to confirm that the user-defined routine was linked in preference
to the library routine.

5.10.2.4 Psect Information listed by Class

The next section in the map file is the same psect information listed by module, but this time grouped
into the psects’ class.
This section is heralded by the line that contains the headings:

TOTAL Name Link Load Length

Under this are the class names followed by those psects which belong to this class. These psects are
the same as those listed by module in the above section; there is no new information contained in
this section.

5.10.2.5 Segment Listing

The class listing in the map file is followed by a listing of segments. A segment is conceptual
grouping of contiguous psects, and are used by the linker as an aid in psect placement. There is no
segment assembler directive and segments cannot be controlled in any way.
This section is heralded by the line that contains the headings:

SEGMENTS Name Load Length Top Selector Space Class

The name of a segment is derived from the psect in the contiguous group with the lowest link address.
This can lead to confusion with the psect with the same name. Do not read psect information from
this section of the map file.
Typically this section of the map file can be ignored by the user.

5.10.2.6 Unused Address Ranges

The last of the memory summaries Just before the symbol table in the map file is a list of memory
which was not allocated by the linker. This memory is thus unused. The linker is aware of any
memory allocated by the code generator (for absolute variables), and so this free space is accurate.
This section follows the heading:

UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES

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and is followed by a list of classes and the memory still available in each class defined in the program.
If there is more than one range in a class, each range is printed on a separate line. Any paging
boundaries within a class are ignored and not displayed in any way.
Note that classes often define memory that is also covered by other classes, thus the total free
space in a memory area is not simply the addition of the size of all the ranges indicated. For example
if there are two classes the cover the RAM memory — RAM and BANKRAM — and the first 100h
out of 500h bytes are used, then both will indicate 000100-0004FF as the unused memory.

5.10.2.7 Symbol Table

The final section in the map file list global symbols that the program defines. This section has a
heading:

Symbol Table

and is followed by two columns in which the symbols are alphabetically listed. As always with the
linker, any C derived symbol is shown with its assembler equivalent symbol name. The symbols
listed in this table are:

• Global assembly labels;

• Global EQU/SET assembler directive labels; and

• Linker-defined symbols.

Assembly symbols are made global via the GLOBAL assembler directive, see Section 4.3.10.1 for
more information. linker-defined symbols act like EQU directives, however they are defined by the
linker during the link process, and no definition for them will appear in any source or intermediate
file.
Non-static C functions, and non-auto and non-static C variables directly map to assembly
labels. The name of the label will be the C identifier with a leading underscore character. The
linker-defined symbols include symbols used to mark the bounds of psects. See Section 3.12.3. The
symbols used to mark the base address of each functions’ auto and parameter block are also shown.
Although these symbols are used to represent the local autos and parameters of a function, they
themselves must be globally accessible to allow each calling function to load their contents. The
C auto and parameter variable identifiers are local symbols that only have scope in the function in
which they are defined.
Each symbol is shown with the psect in which they are placed, and the address which the symbol
has been assigned. There is no information encoded into a symbol to indicate whether it represents
code or variables, nor in which memory space it resides.

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If the psect of a symbol is shown as (abs), this implies that the symbol is not directly associated
with a psect as is the case with absolute C variables. Linker-defined symbols showing this as the
psect name may be symbols that have never been used throughout the program, or relate to symbols
that are not directly associated with a psect.
Note that a symbol table is also shown in each assembler list file. (See Section 2.6.18 for in-
formation on generating these files.) These differ to that shown in the map file in that they list
all symbols, whether they be of global or local scope, and they only list the symbols used in the
module(s) associated with that list file.

5.11 Librarian
The librarian program, LIBR, has the function of combining several object files into a single file
known as a library. The purposes of combining several such object modules are several.

• fewer files to link

• faster access

• uses less disk space

In order to make the library concept useful, it is necessary for the linker to treat modules in a library
differently from object files. If an object file is specified to the linker, it will be linked into the final
linked module. A module in a library, however, will only be linked in if it defines one or more
symbols previously known, but not defined, to the linker. Thus modules in a library will be linked
only if required. Since the choice of modules to link is made on the first pass of the linker, and
the library is searched in a linear fashion, it is possible to order the modules in a library to produce
special effects when linking. More will be said about this later.

5.11.1 The Library Format

The modules in a library are basically just concatenated, but at the beginning of a library is main-
tained a directory of the modules and symbols in the library. Since this directory is smaller than the
sum of the modules, the linker can perform faster searches since it need read only the directory, and
not all the modules, on the first pass. On the second pass it need read only those modules which are
required, seeking over the others. This all minimises disk I/O when linking.
It should be noted that the library format is geared exclusively toward object modules, and is not
a general purpose archiving mechanism as is used by some other compiler systems. This has the
advantage that the format may be optimized toward speeding up the linkage process.

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Table 5.2: Librarian command-line options

Option Effect
-Pwidth specify page width
-W Suppress non-fatal errors

Table 5.3: Librarian key letter commands

Key Meaning
r Replace modules
d Delete modules
x Extract modules
m List modules
s List modules with symbols
o Re-order modules

5.11.2 Using the Librarian

The librarian program is called LIBR, and the format of commands to it is as follows:

LIBR options k file.lib file.obj ...

Interpreting this, LIBR is the name of the program, options is zero or more librarian options which
affect the output of the program. k is a key letter denoting the function requested of the librarian
(replacing, extracting or deleting modules, listing modules or symbols), file.lib is the name of
the library file to be operated on, and file.obj is zero or more object file names.
The librarian options are listed in Table 5.2.
The key letters are listed in Table 5.3.
When replacing or extracting modules, the file.obj arguments are the names of the modules
to be replaced or extracted. If no such arguments are supplied, all the modules in the library will be
replaced or extracted respectively. Adding a file to a library is performed by requesting the librarian
to replace it in the library. Since it is not present, the module will be appended to the library. If the
r key is used and the library does not exist, it will be created.
Under the d key letter, the named object files will be deleted from the library. In this instance, it
is an error not to give any object file names.
The m and s key letters will list the named modules and, in the case of the s keyletter, the symbols
defined or referenced within (global symbols only are handled by the librarian). As with the r and x
key letters, an empty list of modules means all the modules in the library.
The o key takes a list of module names and re-orders the matching modules in the library file so
they have the same order as that listed on the command line. Modules which are not listed are left

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in their existing order, and will appear after the re-ordered modules.

5.11.3 Examples
Here are some examples of usage of the librarian. The following lists the global symbols in the
modules a.obj, b.obj and c.obj:

LIBR s file.lib a.obj b.obj c.obj

This command deletes the object modules a.obj, b.obj and c.obj from the library file.lib:

LIBR d file.lib a.obj b.obj c.obj

5.11.4 Supplying Arguments

Since it is often necessary to supply many object file arguments to LIBR, and command lines are
restricted to 127 characters by CP/M and MS-DOS, LIBR will accept commands from standard input
if no command line arguments are given. If the standard input is attached to the console, LIBR will
prompt for input. Multiple line input may be given by using a backslash as a continuation character
on the end of a line. If standard input is redirected from a file, LIBR will take input from the file,
without prompting. For example:

libr
libr> r file.lib 1.obj 2.obj 3.obj \
libr> 4.obj 5.obj 6.obj

will perform much the same as if the object files had been typed on the command line. The libr>
prompts were printed by LIBR itself, the remainder of the text was typed as input.

libr <lib.cmd

LIBR will read input from lib.cmd, and execute the command found therein. This allows a virtually
unlimited length command to be given to LIBR.

5.11.5 Listing Format

A request to LIBR to list module names will simply produce a list of names, one per line, on standard
output. The s keyletter will produce the same, with a list of symbols after each module name. Each
symbol will be preceded by the letter D or U, representing a definition or reference to the symbol
respectively. The -P option may be used to determine the width of the paper for this operation. For
example:

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LIBR -P80 s file.lib

will list all modules in file.lib with their global symbols, with the output formatted for an 80
column printer or display.

5.11.6 Ordering of Libraries

The librarian creates libraries with the modules in the order in which they were given on the com-
mand line. When updating a library the order of the modules is preserved. Any new modules added
to a library after it has been created will be appended to the end.
The ordering of the modules in a library is significant to the linker. If a library contains a module
which references a symbol defined in another module in the same library, the module defining the
symbol should come after the module referencing the symbol.

5.11.7 Error Messages

LIBR issues various error messages, most of which represent a fatal error, while some represent a
harmless occurrence which will nonetheless be reported unless the -W option was used. In this case
all warning messages will be suppressed.

5.12 Objtohex
The HI-TECH linker is capable of producing simple binary files, or object files as output. Any other
format required must be produced by running the utility program OBJTOHEX. This allows conversion
of object files as produced by the linker into a variety of different formats, including various hex
formats. The program is invoked thus:
OBJTOHEX options inputfile outputfile
All of the arguments are optional. If outputfile is omitted it defaults to l.hex or l.bin depend-
ing on whether the -b option is used. The inputfile defaults to l.obj.
The options for OBJTOHEX are listed in Table 5.4. Where an address is required, the format is the
same as for HLINK.

5.12.1 Checksum Specifications

If you are generating a HEX file output, please refer to the hexmate section 5.15 for calculating
checksums. For OBJTOHEX, the checksum specification allows automated checksum calculation and
takes the form of several lines, each line describing one checksum. The syntax of a checksum line
is:

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Table 5.4: OBJTOHEX command-line options

Option Meaning
-8 Produce a CP/M-86 output file
-A Produce an ATDOS .atx output file
-Bbase Produce a binary file with offset of base. Default file name is
l.obj
-Cckfile Read a list of checksum specifications from ckfile or standard
input
-D Produce a COD file
-E Produce an MS-DOS .exe file
-Ffill Fill unused memory with words of value fill - default value is
0FFh
-I Produce an Intel HEX file with linear addressed extended
records.
-L Pass relocation information into the output file (used with .exe
files)
-M Produce a Motorola HEX file (S19, S28 or S37 format)
-N Produce an output file for Minix
-Pstk Produce an output file for an Atari ST, with optional stack size
-R Include relocation information in the output file
-Sfile Write a symbol file into file
-T Produce a Tektronix HEX file.
-TE Produce an extended TekHEX file.
-U Produce a COFF output file
-UB Produce a UBROF format file
-V Reverse the order of words and long words in the output file
-n,m Format either Motorola or Intel HEX file, where n is the maxi-
mum number of bytes per record and m specifies the record size
rounding. Non-rounded records are zero padded to a multiple of
m. m itself must be a multiple of 2.

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addr1-addr2 where1-where2 +offset

All of addr1, addr2, where1, where2 and offset are hex numbers, without the usual H suffix.
Such a specification says that the bytes at addr1 through to addr2 inclusive should be summed
and the sum placed in the locations where1 through where2 inclusive. For an 8 bit checksum
these two addresses should be the same. For a checksum stored low byte first, where1 should be less
than where2, and vice versa. The +offset is optional, but if supplied, the value offset will be used
to initialise the checksum. Otherwise it is initialised to zero. For example:

0005-1FFF 3-4 +1FFF

This will sum the bytes in 5 through 1FFFH inclusive, then add 1FFFH to the sum. The 16 bit
checksum will be placed in locations 3 and 4, low byte in 3. The checksum is initialised with 1FFFH
to provide protection against an all zero ROM, or a ROM misplaced in memory. A run time check of
this checksum would add the last address of the ROM being checksummed into the checksum. For
the ROM in question, this should be 1FFFH. The initialization value may, however, be used in any
desired fashion.

5.13 Cref
The cross reference list utility CREF is used to format raw cross-reference information produced by
the compiler or the assembler into a sorted listing. A raw cross-reference file is produced with the
--CR option to the compiler. The assembler will generate a raw cross-reference file with a -C option
(most assemblers) or by using an OPT CRE directive (6800 series assemblers) or a XREF control line
(PIC assembler). The general form of the CREF command is:

cref options files

where options is zero or more options as described below and files is one or more raw cross-
reference files. CREF takes the options listed in Table 5.5.
Each option is described in more detail in the following paragraphs.

5.13.1 -Fprefix
It is often desired to exclude from the cross-reference listing any symbols defined in a system header
file, e.g. <stdio.h>. The -F option allows specification of a path name prefix that will be used to
exclude any symbols defined in a file whose path name begins with that prefix. For example, -F\
will exclude any symbols from all files with a path name starting with \.

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Table 5.5: CREF command-line options

Option Meaning
-Fprefix Exclude symbols from files with a pathname or
filename starting with prefix
-Hheading Specify a heading for the listing file
-Llen Specify the page length for the listing file
-Ooutfile Specify the name of the listing file
-Pwidth Set the listing width
-Sstoplist Read file stoplist and ignore any symbols
listed.
-Xprefix Exclude and symbols starting with prefix

5.13.2 -Hheading
The -H option takes a string as an argument which will be used as a header in the listing. The default
heading is the name of the first raw cross-ref information file specified.

5.13.3 -Llen
Specify the length of the paper on which the listing is to be produced, e.g. if the listing is to be
printed on 55 line paper you would use a -L55 option. The default is 66 lines.

5.13.4 -Ooutfile
Allows specification of the output file name. By default the listing will be written to the standard
output and may be redirected in the usual manner. Alternatively outfile may be specified as the
output file name.

5.13.5 -Pwidth
This option allows the specification of the width to which the listing is to be formatted, e.g. -P132
will format the listing for a 132 column printer. The default is 80 columns.

5.13.6 -Sstoplist
The -S option should have as its argument the name of a file containing a list of symbols not to be
listed in the cross-reference. Multiple stoplists may be supplied with multiple -S options.

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Table 5.6: CROMWELL format types

Key Format
cod Bytecraft COD file
coff COFF file format
elf ELF/DWARF file
eomf51 Extended OMF-51 format
hitech HI-TECH Software format
icoff ICOFF file format
ihex Intel HEX file format
mcoff Microchip COFF file format
omf51 OMF-51 file format
pe P&E file format
s19 Motorola HEX file format

5.13.7 -Xprefix
The -X option allows the exclusion of symbols from the listing, based on a prefix given as argument
to -X. For example if it was desired to exclude all symbols starting with the character sequence xyz
then the option -Xxyz would be used. If a digit appears in the character sequence then this will match
any digit in the symbol, e.g. -XX0 would exclude any symbols starting with the letter X followed by
a digit.
CREF will accept wildcard filenames and I/O redirection. Long command lines may be supplied
by invoking CREF with no arguments and typing the command line in response to the cref> prompt.
A backslash at the end of the line will be interpreted to mean that more command lines follow.

5.14 Cromwell
The CROMWELL utility converts code and symbol files into different formats. The formats available
are shown in Table 5.6.
The general form of the CROMWELL command is:

CROMWELL options input_files -okey output_file

where options can be any of the options shown in Table 5.7. Output_file (optional) is the
name of the output file. The input_files are typically the HEX and SYM file. CROMWELL
automatically searches for the SDB files and reads those if they are found. The options are further
described in the following paragraphs.

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Linker and Utilities Cromwell

Table 5.7: CROMWELL command-line options

Option Description
-Pname[,architecture] Processor name and architecture
-N Identify code classes
-D Dump input file
-C Identify input files only
-F Fake local symbols as global
-Okey Set the output format
-Ikey Set the input format
-L List the available formats
-E Strip file extensions
-B Specify big-endian byte ordering
-M Strip underscore character
-V Verbose mode

5.14.1 -Pname[,architecture]
The -P options takes a string which is the name of the processor used. CROMWELL may use this in the
generation of the output format selected. Note that to produce output in COFF format an additional
argument to this option which also specifies the processor architecture is required. Hence for this
format the usage of this option must take the form: -Pname,architecture. Table 5.8 enumerates
the architectures supported for producing COFF files.

5.14.2 -N
To produce some output file formats (e.g. COFF), Cromwell requires that the names of the program
memory space psect classes be provided. The names of the classes are given as a comma separated
list. For example, in the DSPIC C compiler these classes are typically “CODE” and “NEARCODE”,
i.e. -NCODE,NEARCODE.

5.14.3 -D
The -D option is used to display to the screen details about the named input file in a readable format.
The input file can be one of the file types as shown in Table 5.6.

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Table 5.8: -P option architecture arguments for COFF file output.

Architecture Description
68K Motorola 68000 series chips
H8/300 Hitachi 8 bit H8/300 chips
H8/300H Hitachi 16 bit H8/300H chips
SH Hitachi 32 bit SuperH RISC chips
PIC12 Microchip base-line PIC chips
PIC14 Microchip mid-range PIC chips
PIC16 Microchip high-end (17Cxxx) PIC chips
PIC18 Microchip PIC18 chips
PIC24 Microchip PIC24F and PIC24H chips
PIC30 Microchip dsPIC30 and dsPIC33 chips

5.14.4 -C
This option will attempt to identify if the specified input files are one of the formats as shown in
Table 5.6. If the file is recognised, a confirmation of its type will be displayed.

5.14.5 -F
When generating a COD file, this option can be used to force all local symbols to be represented as
global symbols. The may be useful where an emulator cannot read local symbol information from
the COD file.

5.14.6 -Okey
This option specifies the format of the output file. The key can be any of the types listed in Table
5.6.

5.14.7 -Ikey
This option can be used to specify the default input file format. The key can be any of the types
listed in Table 5.6.

5.14.8 -L
Use this option to show what file format types are supported. A list similar to that given in Table 5.6
will be shown.

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5.14.9 -E
Use this option to tell CROMWELL to ignore any filename extensions that were given. The default
extension will be used instead.

5.14.10 -B
In formats that support different endian types, use this option to specify big-endian byte ordering.

5.14.11 -M
When generating COD files this option will remove the preceding underscore character from sym-
bols.

5.14.12 -V
Turns on verbose mode which will display information about operations CROMWELL is performing.

5.15 Hexmate
The Hexmate utility is a program designed to manipulate Intel HEX files. Hexmate is a post-link
stage utility that provides the facility to:

• Calculate and store variable-length checksum values

• Fill unused memory locations with known data sequences

• Merge multiple Intel hex files into one output file

• Convert INHX32 files to other INHX formats (e.g. INHX8M)

• Detect specific or partial opcode sequences within a hex file

• Find/replace specific or partial opcode sequences

• Provide a map of addresses used in a hex file

• Change or fix the length of data records in a hex file.

• Validate checksums within Intel hex files.

Typical applications for hexmate might include:

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Hexmate Linker and Utilities

• Merging a bootloader or debug module into a main application at build time

• Calculating a checksum over a range of program memory and storing its value in program
memory or EEPROM
• Filling unused memory locations with an instruction to send the PC to a known location if it
gets lost.
• Storage of a serial number at a fixed address.
• Storage of a string (e.g. time stamp) at a fixed address.
• Store initial values at a particular memory address (e.g. initialise EEPROM)
• Detecting usage of a buggy/restricted instruction
• Adjusting hex file to meet requirements of particular bootloaders

5.15.1 Hexmate Command Line Options

Some of these hexmate operations may be possible from the compiler’s command line driver. How-
ever, if hexmate is to be run directly, its usage is:

hexmate <file1.hex ... fileN.hex> <options>

Where file1.hex through to fileN.hex are a list of input Intel hex files to merge using hexmate. Ad-
ditional options can be provided to further customize this process. Table 5.9 lists the command line
options that hexmate accepts.
The input parameters to hexmate are now discussed in greater detail. Note that any integral
values supplied to the hexmate options should be entered as hexadecimal values without leading 0x
or trailing h characters. Note also that any address fields specified in these options are to be entered
as byte addresses, unless specified otherwise in the -ADDRESSING option.

5.15.1.1 specifications,filename.hex
Intel hex files that can be processed by hexmate should be in either INHX32 or INHX8M format.
Additional specifications can be applied to each hex file to put restrictions or conditions on how this
file should be processed. If any specifications are used they must precede the filename. The list of
specifications will then be separated from the filename by a comma.
A range restriction can be applied with the specification rStart-End. A range restriction will
cause only the address data falling within this range to be used. For example:

r100-1FF,myfile.hex

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Table 5.9: Hexmate command-line options

Option Effect
-ADDRESSING Set address fields in all hexmate options to use word addressing
or other
-BREAK Break continuous data so that a new record begins at a set
address
-CK Calculate and store a checksum value
-FILL Program unused locations with a known value
-FIND Search and notify if a particular code sequence is detected
-FIND...,DELETE Remove the code sequence if it is detected (use with caution)
-FIND...,REPLACE Replace the code sequence with a new code sequence
-FORMAT Specify maximum data record length or select INHX variant
-HELP Show all options or display help message for specific option
-LOGFILE Save hexmate analysis of output and various results to a file
-Ofile Specify the name of the output file
-SERIAL Store a serial number or code sequence at a fixed address
-SIZE Report the number of bytes of data contained in the resultant
hex image.
-STRING Store an ASCII string at a fixed address
-STRPACK Store an ASCII string at a fixed address using string packing
-W Adjust warning sensitivity
+ Prefix to any option to overwrite other data in its address range
if necessary

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will use myfile.hex as input, but only process data which is addressed within the range 100h-1FFh
(inclusive) to be read from myfile.hex.
An address shift can be applied with the specification sOffset . If an address shift is used, data
read from this hex file will be shifted (by the Offset) to a new address when generating the output.
The offset can be either positive or negative. For example:

r100-1FFs2000,myfile.hex

will shift the block of data from 100h-1FFh to the new address range 2100h-21FFh.
Be careful when shifting sections of executable code. Program code shouldn’t be shifted unless it
can be guaranteed that no part of the program relies upon the absolute location of this code segment.

5.15.1.2 + Prefix

When the + operator precedes a parameter or input file, the data obtained from that parameter will
be forced into the output file and will overwrite other data existing within its address range. For
example:

+input.hex +-STRING@1000="My string"

Ordinarily, hexmate will issue an error if two sources try to store differing data at the same location.
Using the + operator informs hexmate that if more than one data source tries to store data to the same
address, the one specified with a ’+’ will take priority.

5.15.1.3 -ADDRESSING

By default, all address parameters in hexmate options expect that values will be entered as byte
addresses. In some device architectures the native addressing format may be something other than
byte addressing. In these cases it would be much simpler to be able to enter address-components
in the device’s native format. To facilitate this, the -ADDRESSING option is used. This option takes
exactly one parameter which configures the number of bytes contained per address location. If for
example a device’s program memory naturally used a 16-bit (2 byte) word-addressing format, the
option -ADDRESSING=2 will configure hexmate to interpret all command line address fields as word
addresses. The affect of this setting is global and all hexmate options will now interpret addresses
according to this setting. This option will allow specification of addressing modes from one byte-
per-address to four bytes-per-address.

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5.15.1.4 -BREAK

This option takes a comma separated list of addresses. If any of these addresses are encountered
in the hex file, the current data record will conclude and a new data record will recommence from
the nominated address. This can be useful to use new data records to force a distinction between
functionally different areas of program space. Some hex file readers depend on this.

5.15.1.5 -CK

The -CK option is for calculating a checksum. The usage of this option is:

-CK=start-end@destination[+offset][wWidth][tCode][aAlgorithm]

where:

• Start and End specify the address range that the checksum will be calculated over.

• Destination is the address where to store the checksum result. This value cannot be within the
range of calculation.

• Offset is an optional initial value to add to the checksum result. Width is optional and specifies
the byte-width of the checksum result. Results can be calculated for byte-widths of 1 to 4
bytes. If a positive width is requested, the result will be stored in big-endian byte order. A
negative width will cause the result to be stored in little-endian byte order. If the width is left
unspecified, the result will be 2 bytes wide and stored in little-endian byte order.

• Code is a hexadecimal code that will trail each byte in the checksum result. This can allow
each byte of the checksum result to be embedded within an instruction.

• Algorithm is an integer to select which hexmate algorithm to use to calculate the checksum
result. A list of selectable algorithms are given in Table 5.10. If unspecified, the default
checksum algorithm used is 8 bit addition.

A typical example of the use of the checksum option is:

-CK=0-1FFF@2FFE+2100w2

This will calculate a checksum over the range 0-1FFFh and program the checksum result at address
2FFEh, checksum value will apply an initial offset of 2100h. The result will be two bytes wide.

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Table 5.10: Hexmate Checksum Algorithm Selection

Selector Algorithm description
-4 Subtraction of 32 bit values from initial value
-3 Subtraction of 24 bit values from initial value
-2 Subtraction of 16 bit values from initial value
-1 Subtraction of 8 bit values from initial value
1 Addition of 8 bit values from initial value
2 Addition of 16 bit values from initial value
3 Addition of 24 bit values from initial value
4 Addition of 32 bit values from initial value
7 Fletcher’s checksum (8 bit)
8 Fletcher’s checksum (16 bit)

5.15.1.6 -FILL
The -FILL option is used for filling unused memory locations with a known value. The usage of this
option is:

-FILL=Code@Start-End[,data]

where:

• Code is the opcode that will be programmed to unused locations in memory. Multi-byte codes
should be entered in little endian order.

• Start and End specify the address range that this fill will apply to.

For example:

-FILL=3412@0-1FFF,data

will program opcode 1234h in all unused addresses from program memory address 0 to 1FFFh (Note
the endianism). -FILL accepts whole bytes of hexadecimal data from 1 to 8 bytes in length.
Adding the ,data flag to this option is not required. If the data flag has been specified, hexmate
will only perform ROM filling to records that actually contain data. This means that these records
will be padded out to the default data record length or the width specified in the -FORMAT option.
Records will also begin on addresses which are multiples of the data record length used. The default
data record length is 16 bytes. This facility is particularly useful or is a requirement for some
bootloaders that expect that all data records will be of a particular length and address alignment.

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5.15.1.7 -FIND

This option is used to detect and log occurrences of an opcode or partial code sequence. The usage
of this option is:

-FIND=Findcode[mMask]@Start-End[/Align][w][t”Title”]

where:

• Findcode is the hexadecimal code sequence to search for and is entered in little endian byte
order.

• Mask is optional. It allows a bit mask over the Findcode value and is entered in little endian
byte order.

• Start and End limit the address range to search through.

• Align is optional. It specifies that a code sequence can only match if it begins on an address
which is a multiple of this value. w, if present will cause hexmate to issue a warning whenever
the code sequence is detected.

• Title is optional. It allows a title to be given to this code sequence. Defining a title will make
log-reports and messages more descriptive and more readable. A title will not affect the actual
search results.

T UT•RIAL

Let’s look at some examples. The option -FIND=3412@0-7FFF/2w will detect the code
sequence 1234h when aligned on a 2 (two) byte address boundary, between 0h and
7FFFh. w indicates that a warning will be issued each time this sequence is found.
Another example, -FIND=3412M0F00@0-7FFF/2wt"ADDXY" is same as last example
but the code sequence being matched is masked with 000Fh, so hexmate will search for
123xh. If a byte-mask is used, is must be of equal byte-width to the opcode it is applied
to. Any messaging or reports generated by hexmate will refer to this opcode by the
name, ADDXY as this was the title defined for this search.

If hexmate is generating a log file, it will contain the results of all searches. -FIND accepts whole
bytes of hex data from 1 to 8 bytes in length. Optionally, -FIND can be used in conjunction with
,REPLACE or ,DELETE (as described below).

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5.15.1.8 -FIND...,DELETE
If DELETE is used in conjunction with a -FIND option and a sequence is found that matches the
-FIND criteria, it will be removed. This function should be used with extreme caution and is not
recommended for removal of executable code.

5.15.1.9 -FIND...,REPLACE
REPLACE Can only be used in conjunction with a -FIND option. Code sequences that matched the
-FIND criteria can be replaced or partially replaced with new codes. The usage for this sub-option
is:

-FIND...,REPLACE=Code[mMask]

where:

• Code is a little endian hexadecimal code to replace the sequences that match the -FIND crite-
ria.
• Mask is an optional bit mask to specify which bits within Code will replace the code sequence
that has been matched. This may be useful if, for example, it is only necessary to modify 4
bits within a 16-bit instruction. The remaining 12 bits can masked and be left unchanged.

5.15.1.10 -FORMAT
The -FORMAT option can be used to specify a particular variant of INHX format or adjust maximum
record length. The usage of this option is:

-FORMAT=Type[,Length]

where:

• Type specifies a particular INHX format to generate.

• Length is optional and sets the maximum number of bytes per data record. A valid length is
between 1 and 128, with 16 being the default.

T UT•RIAL

Consider this case. A bootloader trying to download an INHX32 file fails because it
cannot process the extended address records which are part of the INHX32 standard.
You know that this bootloader can only program data addressed within the range 0 to
64k, and that any data in the hex file outside of this range can be safely disregarded. In

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Table 5.11: INHX types used in -FORMAT option

Type Description
INHX8M Cannot program addresses beyond 64K.
INHX32 Can program addresses beyond 64K with extended linear address records.
INHX032 INHX32 with initialization of upper address to zero.

this case, by generating the hex file in INHX8M format the operation might succeed.
The hexmate option to do this would be -FORMAT=INHX8M.
Now consider this. What if the same bootloader also required every data record to
contain eight bytes of data, no more, no less? This is possible by combining -FORMAT
with -FILL. Appropriate use of -FILL can ensure that there are no gaps in the data
for the address range being programmed. This will satisfy the minimum data length
requirement. To set the maximum length of data records to eight bytes, just modify the
previous option to become -FORMAT=INHX8M,8.

The possible types that are supported by this option are listed in Table 5.11. Note that INHX032 is
not an actual INHX format. Selection of this type generates an INHX32 file but will also initialize
the upper address information to zero. This is a requirement of some device programmers.

5.15.1.11 -HELP

Using -HELP will list all hexmate options. By entering another hexmate option as a parameter of
-HELP will show a detailed help message for the given option. For example:

-HELP=string

will show additional help for the -STRING hexmate option.

5.15.1.12 -LOGFILE

The -LOGFILE option saves hex file statistics to the named file. For example:

-LOGFILE=output.log

will analyse the hex file that hexmate is generating and save a report to a file named output.log.

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5.15.1.13 -MASK
Use this option to logically AND a memory range with a particular bitmask. This is used to ensure
that the unimplemented bits in program words (if any) are left blank. The usage of this option is as
follows:

-MASK=hexcode@start-end

Where hexcode is a hexadecimal value that will be ANDed with data within the start-end
address range. Multibyte mask values can be entered in little endian byte order.

5.15.1.14 -Ofile
The generated Intel hex output will be created in this file. For example:

-Oprogram.hex

will save the resultant output to program.hex. The output file can take the same name as one of its
input files, but by doing so, it will replace the input file entirely.

5.15.1.15 -SERIAL
This option will store a particular hex value at a fixed address. The usage of this option is:

-SERIAL=Code[+/-Increment]@Address[+/-Interval][rRepetitions]

where:

• Code is a hexadecimal value to store and is entered in little endian byte order.

• Increment is optional and allows the value of Code to change by this value with each repetition
(if requested).

• Address is the location to store this code, or the first repetition thereof.

• Interval is optional and specifies the address shift per repetition of this code.

• Repetitions is optional and specifies the number of times to repeat this code.

For example:

-SERIAL=000001@EFFE

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will store hex code 00001h to address EFFEh.

Another example:

-SERIAL=0000+2@1000+10r5

will store 5 codes, beginning with value 0000 at address 1000h. Subsequent codes will appear at
address intervals of +10h and the code value will change in increments of +2h.

5.15.1.16 -SIZE
Using the -SIZE option will report the number of bytes of data within the resultant hex image to
standard output. The size will also be recorded in the log file if one has been requested.

5.15.1.17 -STRING
The -STRING option will embed an ASCII string at a fixed address. The usage of this option is:

-STRING@Address[tCode]=”Text”

where:

• Address is the location to store this string.

• Code is optional and allows a byte sequence to trail each byte in the string. This can allow the
bytes of the string to be encoded within an instruction.

• Text is the string to convert to ASCII and embed.

For example:

-STRING@1000="My favourite string"

will store the ASCII data for the string, My favourite string (including null terminator) at ad-
dress 1000h.
Another example:

-STRING@1000t34="My favourite string"

will store the same string with every byte in the string being trailed with the hex code 34h.

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5.15.1.18 -STRPACK
This option performs the same function as -STRING but with two important differences. Firstly, only
the lower seven bits from each character are stored. Pairs of 7 bit characters are then concatenated
and stored as a 14 bit word rather than in separate bytes. This is usually only useful for devices where
program space is addressed as 14 bit words. The second difference is that -STRING’s t specifier is
not applicable with -STRPACK.

202
Appendix A

Library Functions

The functions within the standard compiler library are listed in this chapter. Each entry begins with
the name of the function. This is followed by information decomposed into the following categories.

Synopsis the C declaration of the function, and the header file in which it is declared.

Description a narrative description of the function and its purpose.

Example an example of the use of the function. It is usually a complete small program that illus-
trates the function.

Data types any special data types (structures etc.) defined for use with the function. These data
types will be defined in the header file named under Synopsis.

See also any allied functions.

Return value the type and nature of the return value of the function, if any. Information on error
returns is also included

Only those categories which are relevant to each function are used.

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Library Functions

__CONFIG
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

__CONFIG(n, data)

Description
This macro is used to program the configuration fuses that set the device into various modes of
operation.
The macro accepts the number corresponding to the configuration register it is to program, then
the 16-Bit value it is to update it with.
16-Bit masks have been defined to describe each programmable attribute available on each de-
vice. These attribute masks can be found tabulated in this manual in the Features and Runtime
Environment section.
Multiple attributes can be selected by ANDing them together.

Example
#include <htc.h>

__CONFIG(1,RC & OSCEN)

__CONFIG(2,WDTPS16 & BORV45)
__CONFIG(4, DEBUGEN)

void
main (void)
{
}

See also
__EEPROM_DATA(), __IDLOC()

204
Library Functions

__EEPROM_DATA
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

__EEPROM_DATA(a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h)

Description
This macro is used to store initial values into the device’s EEPROM registers at the time of program-
ming.
The macro must be given blocks of 8 bytes to write each time it is called, and can be called
repeatedly to store multiple blocks.
__EEPROM_DATA() will begin writing to EEPROM address zero, and will auto-increment the
address written to by 8, each time it is used.

Example
#include <htc.h>

__EEPROM_DATA(0x00,0x01,0x02,0x03,0x04,0x05,0x06,0x07)
__EEPROM_DATA(0x08,0x09,0x0A,0x0B,0x0C,0x0D,0x0E,0x0F)

void
main (void)
{
}

See also
__CONFIG()

205
Library Functions

__IDLOC
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

__IDLOC(x)

Description
This macro places data into the device’s special locations outside of addressable memory reserved
for ID. This would be useful for storage of serial numbers etc.
The macro will attempt to write 5 nibbles of data to the 5 locations reserved for ID purposes.

Example
#include <htc.h>

__IDLOC(15F01);
/* will store 1, 5, F, 0 and 1 in the ID registers*/

void
main (void)
{
}

See also
__EEPROM_DATA(), __CONFIG()

206
Library Functions

_DELAY()
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

void _delay(unsigned long cycles);

Description
This is an inline function that is expanded by the code generator. When called, this routine expands
to an inline assembly delay sequence. The sequence will consist of code that delays for the number
of cycles that is specified as argument. The argument must be a literal constant.

Example
#include <htc.h>

void
main (void)
{
control |= 0x80;
_delay(10); // delay for 10 cycles
control &= 0x7F;
}

See Also
_delay3()

207
Library Functions

_DELAY3()
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

void _delay3(unsigned char cycles);

Description
This is an inline function that is expanded by the code generator. When called, this routine expands
to an inline assembly delay sequence. The sequence will consist of code that delays for 3 times the
number of cycles that is specified as argument. The argument can be any expression.

Example
#include <htc.h>

void
main (void)
{
control |= 0x80;
_delay3(10); // delay for 30 cycles
control &= 0x7F;
}

See Also
_delay()

208
Library Functions

ABS
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

int abs (int j)

Description
The abs() function returns the absolute value of j.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

void
main (void)
{
int a = -5;

printf("The absolute value of %d is %d\n", a, abs(a));

}

See Also
labs(), fabs()

Return Value
The absolute value of j.

209
Library Functions

ACOS
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double acos (double f)

Description
The acos() function implements the inverse of cos(), i.e. it is passed a value in the range -1 to +1,
and returns an angle in radians whose cosine is equal to that value.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

/* Print acos() values for -1 to 1 in degrees. */

void
main (void)
{
float i, a;

for(i = -1.0; i < 1.0 ; i += 0.1) {

a = acos(i)*180.0/3.141592;
printf("acos(%f) = %f degrees\n", i, a);
}
}

See Also
sin(), cos(), tan(), asin(), atan(), atan2()

Return Value
An angle in radians, in the range 0 to π

210
Library Functions

ASCTIME
Synopsis

#include <time.h>

char * asctime (struct tm * t)

Description

The asctime() function takes the time broken down into the struct tm structure, pointed to by its
argument, and returns a 26 character string describing the current date and time in the format:
Sun Sep 16 01:03:52 1973\n\0
Note the newline at the end of the string. The width of each field in the string is fixed. The
example gets the current time, converts it to a struct tm pointer with localtime(), it then converts
this to ASCII and prints it. The time() function will need to be provided by the user (see time() for
details).

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>

void
main (void)
{
time_t clock;
struct tm * tp;

time(&clock);
tp = localtime(&clock);
printf("%s", asctime(tp));
}

See Also

ctime(), gmtime(), localtime(), time()

211
Library Functions

Return Value
A pointer to the string.

Note
The example will require the user to provide the time() routine as it cannot be supplied with the
compiler.. See time() for more details.

212
Library Functions

ASIN
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double asin (double f)

Description
The asin() function implements the converse of sin(), i.e. it is passed a value in the range -1 to +1,
and returns an angle in radians whose sine is equal to that value.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
float i, a;

for(i = -1.0; i < 1.0 ; i += 0.1) {

a = asin(i)*180.0/3.141592;
printf("asin(%f) = %f degrees\n", i, a);
}
}

See Also
sin(), cos(), tan(), acos(), atan(), atan2()

Return Value
An angle in radians, in the range - π

213
Library Functions

ASSERT
Synopsis

#include <assert.h>

void assert (int e)

Description
This macro is used for debugging purposes; the basic method of usage is to place assertions liberally
throughout your code at points where correct operation of the code depends upon certain conditions
being true initially. An assert() routine may be used to ensure at run time that an assumption holds
true. For example, the following statement asserts that the pointer tp is not equal to NULL:
assert(tp);
If at run time the expression evaluates to false, the program will abort with a message identifying
the source file and line number of the assertion, and the expression used as an argument to it. A fuller
discussion of the uses of assert() is impossible in limited space, but it is closely linked to methods
of proving program correctness.

Example
void
ptrfunc (struct xyz * tp)
{
assert(tp != 0);
}

Note
When required for ROM based systems, the underlying routine _fassert(...) will need to be imple-
mented by the user.

214
Library Functions

ATAN
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double atan (double x)

Description
This function returns the arc tangent of its argument, i.e. it returns an angle e in the range - π

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

void
main (void)
{
printf("%f\n", atan(1.5));
}

See Also
sin(), cos(), tan(), asin(), acos(), atan2()

Return Value
The arc tangent of its argument.

215
Library Functions

ATAN2
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double atan2 (double x, double x)

Description
This function returns the arc tangent of y/x.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

void
main (void)
{
printf("%f\n", atan2(10.0, -10.0));
}

See Also
sin(), cos(), tan(), asin(), acos(), atan()

Return Value
The arc tangent of y/x.

216
Library Functions

ATOF
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

double atof (const char * s)

Description
The atof() function scans the character string passed to it, skipping leading blanks. It then converts
an ASCII representation of a number to a double. The number may be in decimal, normal floating
point or scientific notation.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[80];
double i;

gets(buf);
i = atof(buf);
printf("Read %s: converted to %f\n", buf, i);
}

See Also
atoi(), atol(), strtod()

Return Value
A double precision floating point number. If no number is found in the string, 0.0 will be returned.

217
Library Functions

ATOI
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

int atoi (const char * s)

Description
The atoi() function scans the character string passed to it, skipping leading blanks and reading an
optional sign. It then converts an ASCII representation of a decimal number to an integer.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[80];
int i;

gets(buf);
i = atoi(buf);
printf("Read %s: converted to %d\n", buf, i);
}

See Also
xtoi(), atof(), atol()

Return Value
A signed integer. If no number is found in the string, 0 will be returned.

218
Library Functions

ATOL
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

long atol (const char * s)

Description
The atol() function scans the character string passed to it, skipping leading blanks. It then converts
an ASCII representation of a decimal number to a long integer.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[80];
long i;

gets(buf);
i = atol(buf);
printf("Read %s: converted to %ld\n", buf, i);
}

See Also
atoi(), atof()

Return Value
A long integer. If no number is found in the string, 0 will be returned.

219
Library Functions

BSEARCH
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

void * bsearch (const void * key, void * base, size_t n_memb,

size_t size, int (*compar)(const void *, const void *))

Description
The bsearch() function searches a sorted array for an element matching a particular key. It uses a
binary search algorithm, calling the function pointed to by compar to compare elements in the array.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

struct value {
char name[40];
int value;
} values[100];

int
val_cmp (const void * p1, const void * p2)
{
return strcmp(((const struct value *)p1)->name,
((const struct value *)p2)->name);
}

void
main (void)
{
char inbuf[80];
int i;
struct value * vp;

220
Library Functions

i = 0;
while(gets(inbuf)) {
sscanf(inbuf,"%s %d", values[i].name, &values[i].value);
i++;
}
qsort(values, i, sizeof values[0], val_cmp);
vp = bsearch("fred", values, i, sizeof values[0], val_cmp);
if(!vp)
printf("Item ’fred’ was not found\n");
else
printf("Item ’fred’ has value %d\n", vp->value);
}

See Also
qsort()

Return Value
A pointer to the matched array element (if there is more than one matching element, any of these
may be returned). If no match is found, a null pointer is returned.

Note
The comparison function must have the correct prototype.

221
Library Functions

CEIL
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double ceil (double f)

Description
This routine returns the smallest whole number not less than f.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

void
main (void)
{
double j;

scanf("%lf", &j);
printf("The ceiling of %lf is %lf\n", j, ceil(j));
}

222
Library Functions

CGETS
Synopsis

#include <conio.h>

char * cgets (char * s)

Description

The cgets() function will read one line of input from the console into the buffer passed as an ar-
gument. It does so by repeated calls to getche(). As characters are read, they are buffered, with
backspace deleting the previously typed character, and ctrl-U deleting the entire line typed so far.
Other characters are placed in the buffer, with a carriage return or line feed (newline) terminating
the function. The collected string is null terminated.

Example
#include <conio.h>
#include <string.h>

char buffer[80];

void
main (void)
{
for(;;) {
cgets(buffer);
if(strcmp(buffer, "exit") == 0)
break;
cputs("Type ’exit’ to finish\n");
}
}

See Also

getch(), getche(), putch(), cputs()

223
Library Functions

Return Value
The return value is the character pointer passed as the sole argument.

224
Library Functions

CLRWDT
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

CLRWDT();

Description
This macro is used to clear the device’s internal watchdog timer.

Example
#include <htc.h>

void
main (void)
{
WDTCON=1;
/* enable the WDT */

CLRWDT();
}

225
Library Functions

CONFIG_READ(), CONFIG_WRITE()
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

unsigned int config_read(void);

void config_write(unsigned char, unsigned int);

Description

These functions allow access to the device configuration registers which determine many of the
behavioural aspects of the device itself.
config_read() accepts a single parameter to determine which config word will be read. The 16-Bit
value contained in the register is returned.
config_write() doesn’t return any value. It accepts a second parameter which is a 16-Bit value to
be written to the selected register.

Example
#include <htc.h>

void
main (void)
{
unsigned int value;

value = config_read(2); // read register 2

value |= WDTEN; // modify value
config_write(2, value); // update config register

See Also

device_id_read(),idloc_read(),idloc_write()

226
Library Functions

Return Value
config_read() returns the 16-Bit value contained in the nominated configuration register.

Note
The functions config_read() config_write() are only applicable to such devices that support this
feature.

227
Library Functions

COS
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double cos (double f)

Description
This function yields the cosine of its argument, which is an angle in radians. The cosine is calculated
by expansion of a polynomial series approximation.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

#define C 3.141592/180.0

void
main (void)
{
double i;

for(i = 0 ; i <= 180.0 ; i += 10)

printf("sin(%3.0f) = %f, cos = %f\n", i, sin(i*C), cos(i*C));
}

See Also
sin(), tan(), asin(), acos(), atan(), atan2()

Return Value
A double in the range -1 to +1.

228
Library Functions

COSH, SINH, TANH

Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double cosh (double f)

double sinh (double f)
double tanh (double f)

Description
These functions are the implement hyperbolic equivalents of the trigonometric functions; cos(), sin()
and tan().

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

void
main (void)
{
printf("%f\n", cosh(1.5));
printf("%f\n", sinh(1.5));
printf("%f\n", tanh(1.5));
}

Return Value
The function cosh() returns the hyperbolic cosine value.
The function sinh() returns the hyperbolic sine value.
The function tanh() returns the hyperbolic tangent value.

229
Library Functions

CPUTS
Synopsis

#include <conio.h>

void cputs (const char * s)

Description
The cputs() function writes its argument string to the console, outputting carriage returns before
each newline in the string. It calls putch() repeatedly. On a hosted system cputs() differs from puts()
in that it writes to the console directly, rather than using file I/O. In an embedded system cputs() and
puts() are equivalent.

Example
#include <conio.h>
#include <string.h>

char buffer[80];

void
main (void)
{
for(;;) {
cgets(buffer);
if(strcmp(buffer, "exit") == 0)
break;
cputs("Type ’exit’ to finish\n");
}
}

See Also
cputs(), puts(), putch()

230
Library Functions

CTIME
Synopsis

#include <time.h>

char * ctime (time_t * t)

Description
The ctime() function converts the time in seconds pointed to by its argument to a string of the same
form as described for asctime(). Thus the example program prints the current time and date.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>

void
main (void)
{
time_t clock;

time(&clock);
printf("%s", ctime(&clock));
}

See Also
gmtime(), localtime(), asctime(), time()

Return Value
A pointer to the string.

Note
The example will require the user to provide the time() routine as one cannot be supplied with the
compiler. See time() for more detail.

231
Library Functions

device_id_read()
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

unsigned int device_id_read(void);

Description

This function returns the device ID code that is factory-programmed into the chip. This code can be
used to identify the device and its revision number.

Example

#include <htc.h>

void
main (void)
{
unsigned int id_value;
unsigned int device_code;
unsigned char revision_no;

id_value = device_id_read();
/* lower 5 bits represent revision number
* upper 11 bits identify device */
device_code = (id_value > > 5);
revision_no = (unsigned char)(id_value & 0x1F);

See Also

flash_read(), config_read()

232
Library Functions

Return Value
device_id_read() returns the 16-Bit factory-programmed device id code used to identify the device
type and its revision number.

Note
The device_id_read() is applicable only to those devices which are capable of reading their own
program memory.

233
Library Functions

DI, EI
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

void ei (void)
void di (void)

Description
The di() macro disables all interrupts globally (regardless of priority settings), ei() re-enables inter-
rupts globally. These are implemented as macros defined in PIC18.h. The example shows the use
of ei() and di() around access to a long variable that is modified during an interrupt. If this was not
done, it would be possible to return an incorrect value, if the interrupt occurred between accesses to
successive words of the count value.

Example
#include <htc.h>

long count;

void
interrupt tick (void)
{
count++;
}

long
getticks (void)
{
long val; /* Disable interrupts around access
to count, to ensure consistency.*/
di();
val = count;
ei();
return val;

234
Library Functions

Note
As these macros act on the global interrupt enable bit of the PIC18 processor, ei() will only restore
those interrupt sources that were previously enabled.

235
Library Functions

DIV
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

div_t div (int numer, int demon)

Description
The div() function computes the quotient and remainder of the numerator divided by the denomina-
tor.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
div_t x;

x = div(12345, 66);
printf("quotient = %d, remainder = %d\n", x.quot, x.rem);
}

See Also
udiv(), ldiv(), uldiv()

Return Value
Returns the quotient and remainder into the div_t structure.

236
Library Functions

EEPROM_READ, EEPROM_WRITE
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

unsigned char eeprom_read (unsigned int address);

void eeprom_write (unsigned int address, unsigned char value);

Description

These functions allow access to the on-chip eeprom (when present). The eeprom is not in the
directly-accessible memory space and a special byte sequence is loaded to the eeprom control regis-
ters to access this memory. Writing a value to the eeprom is a slow process and the eeprom_write()
function polls the appropriate registers to ensure that any previous writes have completed before
writing the next datum.
Reading data is completed in the one cycle and no polling is necessary to check for a read
completion.

Example
#include <htc.h>

void
main (void)
{
unsigned char data;
unsigned int address = 0x0010;

data=eeprom_read(address);
eeprom_write(address, data);
}

See Also

flash_erase, flash_read, flash_write

237
Library Functions

Note
The high and low priority interrupt are disabled during sensitive sequences required to access EEP-
ROM. Interrupts are restored after the sequence has completed. eeprom_write() will clear the EEIF
hardware flag before returning.
Both eeprom_read() and eeprom_write() are available in a similar macro form. The essential
difference between the macro and function implementations is that EEPROM_READ(), the macro,
does not test nor wait for any prior write operations to complete.

238
Library Functions

EVAL_POLY
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double eval_poly (double x, const double * d, int n)

Description
The eval_poly() function evaluates a polynomial, whose coefficients are contained in the array d, at
x, for example:

y = x*x*d2 + x*d1 + d0.

The order of the polynomial is passed in n.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

void
main (void)
{
double x, y;
double d[3] = {1.1, 3.5, 2.7};

x = 2.2;
y = eval_poly(x, d, 2);
printf("The polynomial evaluated at %f is %f\n", x, y);
}

Return Value
A double value, being the polynomial evaluated at x.

239
Library Functions

EXP
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double exp (double f)

Description
The exp() routine returns the exponential function of its argument, i.e. e to the power of f.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
double f;

for(f = 0.0 ; f <= 5 ; f += 1.0)

printf("e to %1.0f = %f\n", f, exp(f));
}

See Also
log(), log10(), pow()

240
Library Functions

FABS
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double fabs (double f)

Description
This routine returns the absolute value of its double argument.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

void
main (void)
{
printf("%f %f\n", fabs(1.5), fabs(-1.5));
}

See Also
abs(), labs()

241
Library Functions

FLASH_ERASE, FLASH_READ, FLASH_WRITE

Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

void flash_erase (unsigned long addr);

unsigned char flash_read (unsigned long addr);
void flash_write(const unsigned char * source, unsigned int length,
far unsigned char * dest_addr);

Description
These functions allow access to the flash memory of the microcontroller (when present).
Reading from the flash memory can be done one byte at a time with use of the flash_read()
function. flash_read returns the data value found at the specified address in flash memory.
Entire sectors of flash memory can be restored to an unprogrammed state (value=FFFFh) with
use of the flash_erase() function. The number of bytes erased per flash erase action is specific to
each device’s flash-erase block size. Specifying an address to the flash_erase function, will erase
the entire block that contains the given address.
flash_write() copies blocks of data/code from RAM/flash to a new destination in flash memory.
flash_write requires a pointer to the data that will be copied, the length of data to copy (in bytes)
and a pointer to the destination address in flash memory. This function can be used to update values
of variables declared as const. Any erasures of flash memory required in order write to the flash are
performed within flash_write and pre-erasure is not required.

Example
#include <htc.h>
const unsigned char old_text[]="insert text here";
unsigned char new_text[]="HI-TECH Software";
void
main (void)
{
const unsigned char * source = new_text;
far unsigned char * dest = (far unsigned char *) old_text;
unsigned char data;
unsigned int length = sizeof(new_text);

242
Library Functions

// Read a byte of data from flash address 1000h

data = flash_read(0x1000);

// Copy data from source to destination in flash.

// source does not have be in flash.
// Any required flash erasures done internally.
flash_write(source, length, dest);

// Erase block containing the address 4000h

flash_erase(0x4000);
}

Return Value
flash_read() returns the data found at the given address, as an unsigned char.

Note
The flash_write() function can be used to update anywhere from 1 to 65535 bytes of data at a time,
however it is more efficient to write in data lengths that are multiples of that device’s erase block
size.
Ensure that the function does not attempt to overwrite the section of program memory from which
it is currently executing and extreme caution must be exercised if modifying code at the device’s
reset or interrupt vectors. A reset or interrupt must not be triggered while this sector is in erasure.
For PIC18FxxJxx parts, care must also be taken to ensure that a reset does not occur during a write
targetting the last 1024 bytes of program space as this region also contains the device’s configuration
values.

243
Library Functions

FMOD
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double fmod (double x, double y)

Description
The function fmod returns the remainder of x/y as a floating point quantity.

Example
#include <math.h>

void
main (void)
{
double rem, x;

x = 12.34;
rem = fmod(x, 2.1);
}

Return Value
The floating-point remainder of x/y.

244
Library Functions

FLOOR
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double floor (double f)

Description
This routine returns the largest whole number not greater than f.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

void
main (void)
{
printf("%f\n", floor( 1.5 ));
printf("%f\n", floor( -1.5));
}

245
Library Functions

FREXP
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double frexp (double f, int * p)

Description
The frexp() function breaks a floating point number into a normalized fraction and an integral power
of 2. The integer is stored into the int object pointed to by p. Its return value x is in the interval (0.5,
1.0) or zero, and f equals x times 2 raised to the power stored in *p. If f is zero, both parts of the
result are zero.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
double f;
int i;

f = frexp(23456.34, &i);
printf("23456.34 = %f * 2^%d\n", f, i);
}

See Also
ldexp()

246
Library Functions

FTOA
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>

char * ftoa (float f, int * status)

Description
The function ftoa converts the contents of f into a string which is stored into a buffer which is then
return.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char * buf;
float input = 12.34;
int status;
buf = ftoa(input, &status);
printf("The buffer holds %s\n", buf);
}

See Also
strtol(), itoa(), utoa(), ultoa()

Return Value
This routine returns a reference to the buffer into which the result is written.

247
Library Functions

GETCH, GETCHE
Synopsis

#include <conio.h>

char getch (void)

char getche (void)

Description
The getch() function reads a single character from the console keyboard and returns it without echo-
ing. The getche() function is similar but does echo the character typed.
In an embedded system, the source of characters is defined by the particular routines supplied.
By default, the library contains a version of getch() that will interface to the Lucifer Debugger. The
user should supply an appropriate routine if another source is desired, e.g. a serial port.
The module getch.c in the SOURCES directory contains model versions of all the console I/O
routines. Other modules may also be supplied, e.g. ser180.c has routines for the serial port in a
Z180.

Example
#include <conio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char c;

while((c = getche()) != ’\n’)

continue;
}

See Also
cgets(), cputs(), ungetch()

248
Library Functions

GETCHAR
Synopsis

#include <stdio.h>

int getchar (void)

Description
The getchar() routine is a getc(stdin) operation. It is a macro defined in stdio.h. Note that under
normal circumstances getchar() will NOT return unless a carriage return has been typed on the
console. To get a single character immediately from the console, use the function getch().

Example
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
int c;

while((c = getchar()) != EOF)

putchar(c);
}

See Also
getc(), fgetc(), freopen(), fclose()

Note
This routine is not usable in a ROM based system.

249
Library Functions

GETS
Synopsis

#include <stdio.h>

char * gets (char * s)

Description
The gets() function reads a line from standard input into the buffer at s, deleting the newline (cf.
fgets()). The buffer is null terminated. In an embedded system, gets() is equivalent to cgets(), and
results in getche() being called repeatedly to get characters. Editing (with backspace) is available.

Example
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[80];

printf("Type a line: ");

if(gets(buf))
puts(buf);
}

See Also
fgets(), freopen(), puts()

Return Value
It returns its argument, or NULL on end-of-file.

250
Library Functions

GMTIME
Synopsis

#include <time.h>

struct tm * gmtime (time_t * t)

Description

This function converts the time pointed to by t which is in seconds since 00:00:00 on Jan 1, 1970,
into a broken down time stored in a structure as defined in time.h. The structure is defined in the
’Data Types’ section.

Example

#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>

void
main (void)
{
time_t clock;
struct tm * tp;

time(&clock);
tp = gmtime(&clock);
printf("It’s %d in London\n", tp->tm_year+1900);
}

See Also

ctime(), asctime(), time(), localtime()

251
Library Functions

Return Value
Returns a structure of type tm.

Note
The example will require the user to provide the time() routine as one cannot be supplied with the
compiler. See time() for more detail.

252
Library Functions

IDLOC_READ(), IDLOC_WRITE()
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

unsigned char idloc_read(void);

void idloc_write(unsigned char, unsigned char);

Description
These functions allow access to the user ID register which can be used to store small amounts of
information such as serial numbers, checksums etc.
idloc_read() accepts a single parameter to determine which user ID register to read. The value
contained in the register is returned.
idloc_write() doesn’t return any value. It accepts a second parameter which is a value to be
written to the selected register. Note that only the lower nibble is significant. The upper nibble of
the value written will always be 0xF as per Microchip’s documentation.

Example
#include <htc.h>

void
main (void)
{
unsigned char value;

value = idloc_read(2); // read register 2

value++; // modify value
idloc_write(2, value); // update user ID register

See Also
device_id_read(),config_read(),config_write()

253
Library Functions

Return Value
idloc_read() returns the value contained in the nominated user ID register.

Note
The functions idloc_read() idloc_write() are only applicable to such devices that support this fea-
ture.
Note also that ICD2 breakpoints should not be set within the idloc_write() function. Doing so
can result in disrupting the operation of the debugger.

254
Library Functions

ISALNUM, ISALPHA, ISDIGIT, ISLOWER et. al.

Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>

int isalnum (char c)

int isalpha (char c)
int isascii (char c)
int iscntrl (char c)
int isdigit (char c)
int islower (char c)
int isprint (char c)
int isgraph (char c)
int ispunct (char c)
int isspace (char c)
int isupper (char c)
int isxdigit(char c)

Description
These macros, defined in ctype.h, test the supplied character for membership in one of several over-
lapping groups of characters. Note that all except isascii() are defined for c, if isascii(c) is true or if
c = EOF.

isalnum(c) c is in 0-9 or a-z or A-Z

isalpha(c) c is in A-Z or a-z
isascii(c) c is a 7 bit ascii character
iscntrl(c) c is a control character
isdigit(c) c is a decimal digit
islower(c) c is in a-z
isprint(c) c is a printing char
isgraph(c) c is a non-space printable character
ispunct(c) c is not alphanumeric
isspace(c) c is a space, tab or newline
isupper(c) c is in A-Z
isxdigit(c) c is in 0-9 or a-f or A-F

255
Library Functions

Example

#include <ctype.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[80];
int i;

gets(buf);
i = 0;
while(isalnum(buf[i]))
i++;
buf[i] = 0;
printf("’%s’ is the word\n", buf);
}

See Also
toupper(), tolower(), toascii()

256
Library Functions

ISDIG
Synopsis

#include <ctype.h>

int isdig (int c)

Description
The isdig() function tests the input character c to see if is a decimal digit (0 – 9) and returns true is
this is the case; false otherwise.

Example
#include <ctype.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[] = "1998a";
if(isdig(buf[0]))
printf("valid type detected\n");
}

See Also
isdigit() (listed un isalnum())

Return Value
Zero if the character is a decimal digit; a non-zero value otherwise.

257
Library Functions

ITOA
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>

char * itoa (char * buf, int val, int base)

Description
The function itoa converts the contents of val into a string which is stored into buf. The conversion
is performed according to the radix specified in base. buf is assumed to reference a buffer which has
sufficent space allocated to it.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[10];
itoa(buf, 1234, 16);
printf("The buffer holds %s\n", buf);
}

See Also
strtol(), utoa(), ltoa(), ultoa()

Return Value
This routine returns a copy of the buffer into which the result is written.

258
Library Functions

LABS
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

int labs (long int j)

Description
The labs() function returns the absolute value of long value j.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

void
main (void)
{
long int a = -5;

printf("The absolute value of %ld is %ld\n", a, labs(a));

}

See Also
abs()

Return Value
The absolute value of j.

259
Library Functions

LDEXP
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double ldexp (double f, int i)

Description
The ldexp() function performs the inverse of frexp() operation; the integer i is added to the exponent
of the floating point f and the resultant returned.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
double f;

f = ldexp(1.0, 10);
printf("1.0 * 2^10 = %f\n", f);
}

See Also
frexp()

Return Value
The return value is the integer i added to the exponent of the floating point value f.

260
Library Functions

LDIV
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

ldiv_t ldiv (long number, long denom)

Description
The ldiv() routine divides the numerator by the denominator, computing the quotient and the remain-
der. The sign of the quotient is the same as that of the mathematical quotient. Its absolute value is
the largest integer which is less than the absolute value of the mathematical quotient.
The ldiv() function is similar to the div() function, the difference being that the arguments and
the members of the returned structure are all of type long int.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
ldiv_t lt;

lt = ldiv(1234567, 12345);
printf("Quotient = %ld, remainder = %ld\n", lt.quot, lt.rem);
}

See Also
div(), uldiv(), udiv()

Return Value
Returns a structure of type ldiv_t

261
Library Functions

LOCALTIME
Synopsis

#include <time.h>

struct tm * localtime (time_t * t)

Description

The localtime() function converts the time pointed to by t which is in seconds since 00:00:00 on Jan
1, 1970, into a broken down time stored in a structure as defined in time.h. The routine localtime()
takes into account the contents of the global integer time_zone. This should contain the number of
minutes that the local time zone is westward of Greenwich. On systems where it is not possible to
predetermine this value, localtime() will return the same result as gmtime().

Example

#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>

char * wday[] = {
"Sunday", "Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday",
"Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday"
};

void
main (void)
{
time_t clock;
struct tm * tp;

time(&clock);
tp = localtime(&clock);
printf("Today is %s\n", wday[tp->tm_wday]);
}

262
Library Functions

See Also
ctime(), asctime(), time()

Return Value
Returns a structure of type tm.

Note
The example will require the user to provide the time() routine as one cannot be supplied with the
compiler. See time() for more detail.

263
Library Functions

LOG, LOG10
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double log (double f)

double log10 (double f)

Description
The log() function returns the natural logarithm of f. The function log10() returns the logarithm to
base 10 of f.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
double f;

for(f = 1.0 ; f <= 10.0 ; f += 1.0)

printf("log(%1.0f) = %f\n", f, log(f));
}

See Also
exp(), pow()

Return Value
Zero if the argument is negative.

264
Library Functions

LONGJMP
Synopsis

#include <setjmp.h>

void longjmp (jmp_buf buf, int val)

Description
The longjmp() function, in conjunction with setjmp(), provides a mechanism for non-local goto’s.
To use this facility, setjmp() should be called with a jmp_buf argument in some outer level function.
The call from setjmp() will return 0.
To return to this level of execution, longjmp() may be called with the same jmp_buf argument
from an inner level of execution. Note however that the function which called setjmp() must still be
active when longjmp() is called. Breach of this rule will cause disaster, due to the use of a stack
containing invalid data. The val argument to longjmp() will be the value apparently returned from
the setjmp(). This should normally be non-zero, to distinguish it from the genuine setjmp() call.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <setjmp.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

jmp_buf jb;

void
inner (void)
{
longjmp(jb, 5);
}

void
main (void)
{
int i;

265
Library Functions

if(i = setjmp(jb)) {
printf("setjmp returned %d\n", i);
exit(0);
}
printf("setjmp returned 0 - good\n");
printf("calling inner...\n");
inner();
printf("inner returned - bad!\n");
}

See Also
setjmp()

Return Value
The longjmp() routine never returns.

Note
The function which called setjmp() must still be active when longjmp() is called. Breach of this rule
will cause disaster, due to the use of a stack containing invalid data.

266
Library Functions

LTOA
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>

char * ltoa (char * buf, long val, int base)

Description
The function itoa converts the contents of val into a string which is stored into buf. The conversion
is performed according to the radix specified in base. buf is assumed to reference a buffer which has
sufficent space allocated to it.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[10];
utoi(buf, 12345678L, 16);
printf("The buffer holds %s\n", buf);
}

See Also
strtol(), itoa(), utoa(), ultoa()

Return Value
This routine returns a copy of the buffer into which the result is written.

267
Library Functions

MEMCMP
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

int memcmp (const void * s1, const void * s2, size_t n)

Description

The memcmp() function compares two blocks of memory, of length n, and returns a signed value
similar to strncmp(). Unlike strncmp() the comparison does not stop on a null character.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void
main (void)
{
int buf[10], cow[10], i;

buf[0] = 1;
buf[2] = 4;
cow[0] = 1;
cow[2] = 5;
buf[1] = 3;
cow[1] = 3;
i = memcmp(buf, cow, 3*sizeof(int));
if(i < 0)
printf("less than\n");
else if(i > 0)
printf("Greater than\n");
else
printf("Equal\n");
}

268
Library Functions

See Also
strncpy(), strncmp(), strchr(), memset(), memchr()

Return Value
Returns negative one, zero or one, depending on whether s1 points to string which is less than, equal
to or greater than the string pointed to by s2 in the collating sequence.

269
Library Functions

MEMMOVE
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

void * memmove (void * s1, const void * s2, size_t n)

Description
The memmove() function is similar to the function memcpy() except copying of overlapping blocks
is handled correctly. That is, it will copy forwards or backwards as appropriate to correctly copy one
block to another that overlaps it.

See Also
strncpy(), strncmp(), strchr(), memcpy()

Return Value
The function memmove() returns its first argument.

270
Library Functions

MKTIME
Synopsis

#include <time.h>

time_t mktime (struct tm * tmptr)

Description

The mktime() function converts the local calendar time referenced by the tm structure pointer tmptr
into a time being the number of seconds passed since Jan 1st 1970, or -1 if the time cannot be
represented.

Example

#include <time.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
struct tm birthday;

birthday.tm_year = 1955;
birthday.tm_mon = 2;
birthday.tm_mday = 24;
birthday.tm_hour = birthday.tm_min = birthday.tm_sec = 0;
printf("you have been alive approximately %ld seconds\n",
mktime(&birthday));
}

See Also

ctime(), asctime()

271
Library Functions

Return Value
The time contained in the tm structure represented as the number of seconds since the 1970 Epoch,
or -1 if this time cannot be represented.

272
Library Functions

MODF
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double modf (double value, double * iptr)

Description
The modf() function splits the argument value into integral and fractional parts, each having the
same sign as value. For example, -3.17 would be split into the integral part (-3) and the fractional
part (-0.17).
The integral part is stored as a double in the object pointed to by iptr.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
double i_val, f_val;

f_val = modf( -3.17, &i_val);

}

Return Value
The signed fractional part of value.

273
Library Functions

NOP
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

NOP();

Description
Execute NOP instruction here. This is often useful to finetune delays or create a handle for break-
points. The NOP instruction is sometimes required during some sensitive sequences in hardware.

Example
#include <htc.h>

void
crude_delay(unsigned char x) {
while(x--){
NOP(); /* Do nothing for 3 cycles */
NOP();
NOP();
}
}

274
Library Functions

OS_TSLEEP
Synopsis

#include <task.h>

void os_tsleep(unsigned short tcks)

Description
This routine causes the current task to be removed from the run queue for tcks clock ticks.

Example
#include <task.h>

void
task(void)
{
while(1) {
/* sleep for 100 ticks */
os_tsleep(100);
}
}

275
Library Functions

PERSIST_CHECK, PERSIST_VALIDATE
Synopsis

#include <sys.h>

int persist_check (int flag)

void persist_validate (void)

Description
The persist_check() function is used with non-volatile RAM variables, declared with the persistent
qualifier. It tests the nvram area, using a magic number stored in a hidden variable by a previous call
to persist_validate() and a checksum also calculated by persist_validate(). If the magic number and
checksum are correct, it returns true (non-zero). If either are incorrect, it returns zero. In this case it
will optionally zero out and re-validate the non-volatile RAM area (by calling persist_validate()).
This is done if the flag argument is true.
The persist_validate() routine should be called after each change to a persistent variable. It will
set up the magic number and recalculate the checksum.

Example
#include <sys.h>
#include <stdio.h>

persistent long reset_count;

void
main (void)
{
if(!persist_check(1))
printf("Reset count invalid - zeroed\n");
else
printf("Reset number %ld\n", reset_count);
reset_count++; /* update count */
persist_validate(); /* and checksum */
for(;;)
continue; /* sleep until next reset */

276
Library Functions

Return Value
FALSE (zero) if the NVRAM area is invalid; TRUE (non-zero) if the NVRAM area is valid.

277
Library Functions

POW
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double pow (double f, double p)

Description
The pow() function raises its first argument, f, to the power p.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
double f;

for(f = 1.0 ; f <= 10.0 ; f += 1.0)

printf("pow(2, %1.0f) = %f\n", f, pow(2, f));
}

See Also
log(), log10(), exp()

Return Value
f to the power of p.

278
Library Functions

PRINTF
Synopsis

#include <stdio.h>

unsigned int printf (const char * fmt, ...)

Description
The printf() function is a formatted output routine, operating on stdout. There are corresponding
routines operating into a string buffer (sprintf()). The printf() routine is passed a format string,
followed by a list of zero or more arguments. In the format string are conversion specifications, each
of which is used to print out one of the argument list values.
Each conversion specification is of the form %m.nc where the percent symbol % introduces
a conversion, followed by an optional width specification m. The n specification is an optional
precision specification (introduced by the dot) and c is a letter specifying the type of the conversion.
If the character * is used in place of a decimal constant, e.g. in the format %*d, then one integer
argument will be taken from the list to provide that value. The types of conversion are:
oxXud
Integer conversion - in radices 8, 16, 16, 10 and 10 respectively. The conversion is signed in the case
of d, unsigned otherwise. The precision value is the total number of digits to print, and may be used
to force leading zeroes. E.g. %8.4x will print at least 4 hex digits in an 8 wide field. The letter X
prints out hexadecimal numbers using the upper case letters A-F rather than a-f as would be printed
when using x. When the alternate format is specified, a leading zero will be supplied for the octal
format, and a leading 0x or 0X for the hex format.
s
Print a string - the value argument is assumed to be a character pointer. At most n characters from
the string will be printed, in a field m characters wide.
c
The argument is assumed to be a single character and is printed literally.
Any other characters used as conversion specifications will be printed. Thus % will produce a
single percent sign.
l
Long integer conversion - Preceding the integer conversion key letter with an l indicates that the
argument list is long.
f
Floating point - m is the total width and n is the number of digits after the decimal point. If n is

279
Library Functions

omitted it defaults to 6. If the precision is zero, the decimal point will be omitted unless the alternate
format is specified.

Example
printf("Total = %4d%", 23)
yields ’Total = 23%’

printf("Size is %lx" , size)

where size is a long, prints size
as hexadecimal.

printf("Name = %.8s", "a1234567890")

yields ’Name = a1234567’

printf("xx%*d", 3, 4)
yields ’xx 4’

/* vprintf example */

#include <stdio.h>

int
error (char * s, ...)
{
va_list ap;

va_start(ap, s);
printf("Error: ");
vprintf(s, ap);
putchar(’\n’);
va_end(ap);
}

void
main (void)
{
int i;

280
Library Functions

i = 3;
error("testing 1 2 %d", i);
}

See Also
sprintf()

Return Value
The printf() routine returns the number of characters written to stdout.

Note
Certain features of printf are only available when linking in alternative libraries. Printing floating
point numbers requires that the float to be printed be no larger than the largest possible long integer.
In order to use long or float formats, the appropriate supplemental library must be included. See the
description on the PICC18 -L library scan option for more details.

281
Library Functions

PRINTF, VPRINTF
Synopsis

#include <stdio.h>

int printf (const char * fmt, ...)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>

int vprintf (const char * fmt, va_list va_arg)

Description
The printf() function is a formatted output routine, operating on stdout. There are corresponding
routines operating on a given stream (fprintf()) or into a string buffer (sprintf()). The printf() routine
is passed a format string, followed by a list of zero or more arguments. In the format string are
conversion specifications, each of which is used to print out one of the argument list values.
Each conversion specification is of the form %m.nc where the percent symbol % introduces
a conversion, followed by an optional width specification m. The n specification is an optional
precision specification (introduced by the dot) and c is a letter specifying the type of the conversion.
A minus sign (’-’) preceding m indicates left rather than right adjustment of the converted value
in the field. Where the field width is larger than required for the conversion, blank padding is per-
formed at the left or right as specified. Where right adjustment of a numeric conversion is specified,
and the first digit of m is 0, then padding will be performed with zeroes rather than blanks. For
integer formats, the precision indicates a minimum number of digits to be output, with leading zeros
inserted to make up this number if required.
A hash character (#) preceding the width indicates that an alternate format is to be used. The
nature of the alternate format is discussed below. Not all formats have alternates. In those cases, the
presence of the hash character has no effect.
The floating point formats require that the appropriate floating point library is linked. From
within HPD this can be forced by selecting the "Float formats in printf" selection in the options
menu. From the command line driver, use the option -LF.
If the character * is used in place of a decimal constant, e.g. in the format %*d, then one integer
argument will be taken from the list to provide that value. The types of conversion are:
f
Floating point - m is the total width and n is the number of digits after the decimal point. If n is

282
Library Functions

omitted it defaults to 6. If the precision is zero, the decimal point will be omitted unless the alternate
format is specified.
e
Print the corresponding argument in scientific notation. Otherwise similar to f.
g
Use e or f format, whichever gives maximum precision in minimum width. Any trailing zeros after
the decimal point will be removed, and if no digits remain after the decimal point, it will also be
removed.
oxXud
Integer conversion - in radices 8, 16, 16, 10 and 10 respectively. The conversion is signed in the
case of d, unsigned otherwise. The precision value is the total number of digits to print, and may be
used to force leading zeroes. E.g. %8.4x will print at least 4 hex digits in an 8 wide field. Preceding
the key letter with an l indicates that the value argument is a long integer. The letter X prints out
hexadecimal numbers using the upper case letters A-F rather than a-f as would be printed when using
x. When the alternate format is specified, a leading zero will be supplied for the octal format, and a
leading 0x or 0X for the hex format.
s
Print a string - the value argument is assumed to be a character pointer. At most n characters from
the string will be printed, in a field m characters wide.
c
The argument is assumed to be a single character and is printed literally.
Any other characters used as conversion specifications will be printed. Thus % will produce a
single percent sign.
The vprintf() function is similar to printf() but takes a variable argument list pointer rather than
a list of arguments. See the description of va_start() for more information on variable argument lists.
An example of using vprintf() is given below.

Example

printf("Total = %4d%", 23)

yields ’Total = 23%’

printf("Size is %lx" , size)

where size is a long, prints size
as hexadecimal.

printf("Name = %.8s", "a1234567890")

yields ’Name = a1234567’

283
Library Functions

printf("xx%*d", 3, 4)
yields ’xx 4’

/* vprintf example */

#include <stdio.h>

int
error (char * s, ...)
{
va_list ap;

va_start(ap, s);
printf("Error: ");
vprintf(s, ap);
putchar(’\n’);
va_end(ap);
}

void
main (void)
{
int i;

i = 3;
error("testing 1 2 %d", i);
}

See Also
fprintf(), sprintf()

Return Value
The printf() and vprintf() functions return the number of characters written to stdout.

284
Library Functions

PUTCH
Synopsis

#include <conio.h>

void putch (char c)

Description
The putch() function outputs the character c to the console screen, prepending a carriage return if
the character is a newline. In a CP/M or MS-DOS system this will use one of the system I/O calls.
In an embedded system this routine, and associated others, will be defined in a hardware dependent
way. The standard putch() routines in the embedded library interface either to a serial port or to the
Lucifer Debugger.

Example
#include <conio.h>

char * x = "This is a string";

void
main (void)
{
char * cp;

cp = x;
while(*x)
putch(*x++);
putch(’\n’);
}

See Also
cgets(), cputs(), getch(), getche()

285
Library Functions

PUTCHAR
Synopsis

#include <stdio.h>

int putchar (int c)

Description

The putchar() function is a putc() operation on stdout, defined in stdio.h.

Example
#include <stdio.h>

char * x = "This is a string";

void
main (void)
{
char * cp;

cp = x;
while(*x)
putchar(*x++);
putchar(’\n’);
}

See Also

putc(), getc(), freopen(), fclose()

Return Value

The character passed as argument, or EOF if an error occurred.

286
Library Functions

Note
This routine is not usable in a ROM based system.

287
Library Functions

PUTS
Synopsis

#include <stdio.h>

int puts (const char * s)

Description
The puts() function writes the string s to the stdout stream, appending a newline. The null character
terminating the string is not copied.

Example
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
puts("Hello, world!");
}

See Also
fputs(), gets(), freopen(), fclose()

Return Value
EOF is returned on error; zero otherwise.

288
Library Functions

QSORT
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

void qsort (void * base, size_t nel, size_t width,

int (*func)(const void *, const void *))

Description
The qsort() function is an implementation of the quicksort algorithm. It sorts an array of nel items,
each of length width bytes, located contiguously in memory at base. The argument func is a pointer
to a function used by qsort() to compare items. It calls func with pointers to two items to be com-
pared. If the first item is considered to be greater than, equal to or less than the second then func
should return a value greater than zero, equal to zero or less than zero respectively.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int aray[] = {
567, 23, 456, 1024, 17, 567, 66
};

int
sortem (const void * p1, const void * p2)
{
return *(int *)p1 - *(int *)p2;
}

void
main (void)
{
register int i;

289
Library Functions

qsort(aray, sizeof aray/sizeof aray[0],

sizeof aray[0], sortem);
for(i = 0 ; i != sizeof aray/sizeof aray[0] ; i++)
printf("%d\t", aray[i]);
putchar(’\n’);
}

Note
The function parameter must be a pointer to a function of type similar to:

int func (const void *, const void *)

i.e. it must accept two const void * parameters, and must be prototyped.

290
Library Functions

RAND
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

int rand (void)

Description
The rand() function is a pseudo-random number generator. It returns an integer in the range 0
to 32767, which changes in a pseudo-random fashion on each call. The algorithm will produce a
deterministic sequence if started from the same point. The starting point is set using the srand() call.
The example shows use of the time() function to generate a different starting point for the sequence
each time.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>

void
main (void)
{
time_t toc;
int i;

time(&toc);
srand((int)toc);
for(i = 0 ; i != 10 ; i++)
printf("%d\t", rand());
putchar(’\n’);
}

See Also
srand()

291
Library Functions

Note
The example will require the user to provide the time() routine as one cannot be supplied with the
compiler. See time() for more detail.

292
Library Functions

READTIMERx
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

READTIMER0();
READTIMER1();
READTIMER2();

Description
The macros READTIMER0(), READTIMER1() and READTIMER2() will return the 16-Bit
value presently held in the device’s corresponding TMRxL and TMRxH register pair. Use of this
macro ensures that the registers are read in the correct order.

Example
#include <htc.h>

void
main (void)
{
unsigned int timer1value;

timer1value = READTIMER1();
}

See Also
WRITETIMERx()

Return Value
An unsigned integer which is the value held in a 16-Bit timer.

293
Library Functions

RESET
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

RESET();

Description
Execute RESET instruction here.

Example
#include <htc.h>

void
test_result(unsigned int error_count) {
if(error_count != 0){
printf(“An error has been detected - Rebooting...\n”);
RESET(); /* Perform software reset */
}
}

294
Library Functions

ROUND
Synopsis
#include <math.h>

double round (double x)

Description
The round function round the argument to the nearest integer value, but in floating-point format.
Values midway between integer values are rounded up.

Example
#include <math.h>

void
main (void)
{
double input, rounded;
input = 1234.5678;
rounded = round(input);
}

See Also
trunc()

295
Library Functions

SCANF, VSCANF
Synopsis

#include <stdio.h>

int scanf (const char * fmt, ...)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>

int vscanf (const char *, va_list ap)

Description
The scanf() function performs formatted input ("de-editing") from the stdin stream. Similar func-
tions are available for streams in general, and for strings. The function vscanf() is similar, but takes
a pointer to an argument list rather than a series of additional arguments. This pointer should have
been initialised with va_start().
The input conversions are performed according to the fmt string; in general a character in the
format string must match a character in the input; however a space character in the format string will
match zero or more "white space" characters in the input, i.e. spaces, tabs or newlines.
A conversion specification takes the form of the character %, optionally followed by an assign-
ment suppression character (’*’), optionally followed by a numerical maximum field width, followed
by a conversion specification character. Each conversion specification, unless it incorporates the as-
signment suppression character, will assign a value to the variable pointed at by the next argument.
Thus if there are two conversion specifications in the fmt string, there should be two additional
pointer arguments.
The conversion characters are as follows:
oxd
Skip white space, then convert a number in base 8, 16 or 10 radix respectively. If a field width was
supplied, take at most that many characters from the input. A leading minus sign will be recognized.
s
Skip white space, then copy a maximal length sequence of non-white-space characters. The pointer
argument must be a pointer to char. The field width will limit the number of characters copied. The
resultant string will be null terminated.
c
Copy the next character from the input. The pointer argument is assumed to be a pointer to char. If a

296
Library Functions

field width is specified, then copy that many characters. This differs from the s format in that white
space does not terminate the character sequence.
The conversion characters o, x, u, and d may be preceded by an l to indicate that the correspond-
ing pointer argument is a pointer to long as appropriate. A preceding h will indicate that the pointer
argument is a pointer to short rather than int.

Example
scanf("%d %s", &a, &c)
with input " 12s"
will assign 12 to a, and "s" to s.

See Also
fscanf(), sscanf(), printf(), va_arg()

Return Value
The scanf() function returns the number of successful conversions; EOF is returned if end-of-file
was seen before any conversions were performed.

297
Library Functions

SETJMP
Synopsis

#include <setjmp.h>

int setjmp (jmp_buf buf)

Description
The setjmp() function is used with longjmp() for non-local goto’s. See longjmp() for further infor-
mation.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <setjmp.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

jmp_buf jb;

void
inner (void)
{
longjmp(jb, 5);
}

void
main (void)
{
int i;

if(i = setjmp(jb)) {
printf("setjmp returned %d\n", i);
exit(0);
}
printf("setjmp returned 0 - good\n");
printf("calling inner...\n");

298
Library Functions

inner();
printf("inner returned - bad!\n");
}

See Also
longjmp()

Return Value
The setjmp() function returns zero after the real call, and non-zero if it apparently returns after a call
to longjmp().

299
Library Functions

SIN
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double sin (double f)

Description
This function returns the sine function of its argument.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

#define C 3.141592/180.0

void
main (void)
{
double i;

for(i = 0 ; i <= 180.0 ; i += 10)

printf("sin(%3.0f) = %f\n", i, sin(i*C));
printf("cos(%3.0f) = %f\n", i, cos(i*C));
}

See Also
cos(), tan(), asin(), acos(), atan(), atan2()

Return Value
Sine vale of f.

300
Library Functions

SLEEP
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

SLEEP();

Description
This macro is used to put the device into a low-power standby mode.

Example
#include <htc.h>
extern void init(void);

void
main (void)
{
init(); /* enable peripherals/interrupts */

while(1)
SLEEP(); /* save power while nothing happening */
}

301
Library Functions

SQRT
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double sqrt (double f)

Description
The function sqrt(), implements a square root routine using Newton’s approximation.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
double i;

for(i = 0 ; i <= 20.0 ; i += 1.0)

printf("square root of %.1f = %f\n", i, sqrt(i));
}

See Also
exp()

Return Value
Returns the value of the square root.

Note
A domain error occurs if the argument is negative.

302
Library Functions

SRAND
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

void srand (unsigned int seed)

Description
The srand() function initializes the random number generator accessed by rand() with the given
seed. This provides a mechanism for varying the starting point of the pseudo-random sequence
yielded by rand(). On the Z80, a good place to get a truly random seed is from the refresh register.
Otherwise timing a response from the console will do, or just using the system time.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>

void
main (void)
{
time_t toc;
int i;

time(&toc);
srand((int)toc);
for(i = 0 ; i != 10 ; i++)
printf("%d\t", rand());
putchar(’\n’);
}

See Also
rand()

303
Library Functions

STRCAT
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

char * strcat (char * s1, const char * s2)

Description
This function appends (concatenates) string s2 to the end of string s1. The result will be null termi-
nated. The argument s1 must point to a character array big enough to hold the resultant string.

Example
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buffer[256];
char * s1, * s2;

strcpy(buffer, "Start of line");

s1 = buffer;
s2 = " ... end of line";
strcat(s1, s2);
printf("Length = %d\n", strlen(buffer));
printf("string = \"%s\"\n", buffer);
}

See Also
strcpy(), strcmp(), strncat(), strlen()

Return Value
The value of s1 is returned.

304
Library Functions

STRCHR, STRICHR
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

char * strchr (const char * s, int c)

char * strichr (const char * s, int c)

Description
The strchr() function searches the string s for an occurrence of the character c. If one is found, a
pointer to that character is returned, otherwise NULL is returned.
The strichr() function is the case-insensitive version of this function.

Example
#include <strings.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
static char temp[] = "Here it is...";
char c = ’s’;

if(strchr(temp, c))
printf("Character %c was found in string\n", c);
else
printf("No character was found in string");
}

See Also
strrchr(), strlen(), strcmp()

Return Value
A pointer to the first match found, or NULL if the character does not exist in the string.

305
Library Functions

Note
Although the function takes an integer argument for the character, only the lower 8 bits of the value
are used.

306
Library Functions

STRCMP, STRICMP
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

int strcmp (const char * s1, const char * s2)

int stricmp (const char * s1, const char * s2)

Description

The strcmp() function compares its two, null terminated, string arguments and returns a signed
integer to indicate whether s1 is less than, equal to or greater than s2. The comparison is done with
the standard collating sequence, which is that of the ASCII character set.
The stricmp() function is the case-insensitive version of this function.

Example
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
int i;

if((i = strcmp("ABC", "ABc")) < 0)

printf("ABC is less than ABc\n");
else if(i > 0)
printf("ABC is greater than ABc\n");
else
printf("ABC is equal to ABc\n");
}

See Also

strlen(), strncmp(), strcpy(), strcat()

307
Library Functions

Return Value
A signed integer less than, equal to or greater than zero.

Note
Other C implementations may use a different collating sequence; the return value is negative, zero
or positive, i.e. do not test explicitly for negative one (-1) or one (1).

308
Library Functions

STRCPY
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

char * strcpy (char * s1, const char * s2)

Description
This function copies a null terminated string s2 to a character array pointed to by s1. The destination
array must be large enough to hold the entire string, including the null terminator.

Example
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buffer[256];
char * s1, * s2;

strcpy(buffer, "Start of line");

s1 = buffer;
s2 = " ... end of line";
strcat(s1, s2);
printf("Length = %d\n", strlen(buffer));
printf("string = \"%s\"\n", buffer);
}

See Also
strncpy(), strlen(), strcat(), strlen()

Return Value
The destination buffer pointer s1 is returned.

309
Library Functions

STRCSPN
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

size_t strcspn (const char * s1, const char * s2)

Description
The strcspn() function returns the length of the initial segment of the string pointed to by s1 which
consists of characters NOT from the string pointed to by s2.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void
main (void)
{
static char set[] = "xyz";

printf("%d\n", strcspn( "abcdevwxyz", set));

printf("%d\n", strcspn( "xxxbcadefs", set));
printf("%d\n", strcspn( "1234567890", set));
}

See Also
strspn()

Return Value
Returns the length of the segment.

310
Library Functions

STRLEN
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

size_t strlen (const char * s)

Description
The strlen() function returns the number of characters in the string s, not including the null termina-
tor.

Example
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buffer[256];
char * s1, * s2;

strcpy(buffer, "Start of line");

s1 = buffer;
s2 = " ... end of line";
strcat(s1, s2);
printf("Length = %d\n", strlen(buffer));
printf("string = \"%s\"\n", buffer);
}

Return Value
The number of characters preceding the null terminator.

311
Library Functions

STRNCAT
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

char * strncat (char * s1, const char * s2, size_t n)

Description

This function appends (concatenates) string s2 to the end of string s1. At most n characters will be
copied, and the result will be null terminated. s1 must point to a character array big enough to hold
the resultant string.

Example

#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buffer[256];
char * s1, * s2;

strcpy(buffer, "Start of line");

s1 = buffer;
s2 = " ... end of line";
strncat(s1, s2, 5);
printf("Length = %d\n", strlen(buffer));
printf("string = \"%s\"\n", buffer);
}

See Also

strcpy(), strcmp(), strcat(), strlen()

312
Library Functions

Return Value
The value of s1 is returned.

313
Library Functions

STRNCMP, STRNICMP
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

int strncmp (const char * s1, const char * s2, size_t n)

int strnicmp (const char * s1, const char * s2, size_t n)

Description
The strncmp() function compares its two, null terminated, string arguments, up to a maximum of n
characters, and returns a signed integer to indicate whether s1 is less than, equal to or greater than s2.
The comparison is done with the standard collating sequence, which is that of the ASCII character
set.
The strnicmp() function is the case-insensitive version of this function.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void
main (void)
{
int i;

i = strncmp("abcxyz", "abcxyz",6);
if(i == 0)
printf("Both strings are equal\n");
else if(i > 0)
printf("String 2 less than string 1\n");
else
printf("String 2 is greater than string 1\n");
}

See Also
strlen(), strcmp(), strcpy(), strcat()

314
Library Functions

Return Value
A signed integer less than, equal to or greater than zero.

Note
Other C implementations may use a different collating sequence; the return value is negative, zero
or positive, i.e. do not test explicitly for negative one (-1) or one (1).

315
Library Functions

STRNCPY
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

char * strncpy (char * s1, const char * s2, size_t n)

Description

This function copies a null terminated string s2 to a character array pointed to by s1. At most
n characters are copied. If string s2 is longer than n then the destination string will not be null
terminated. The destination array must be large enough to hold the entire string, including the null
terminator.

Example
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buffer[256];
char * s1, * s2;

strncpy(buffer, "Start of line", 6);

s1 = buffer;
s2 = " ... end of line";
strcat(s1, s2);
printf("Length = %d\n", strlen(buffer));
printf("string = \"%s\"\n", buffer);
}

See Also

strcpy(), strcat(), strlen(), strcmp()

316
Library Functions

Return Value
The destination buffer pointer s1 is returned.

317
Library Functions

STRPBRK
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

char * strpbrk (const char * s1, const char * s2)

Description
The strpbrk() function returns a pointer to the first occurrence in string s1 of any character from
string s2, or a null pointer if no character from s2 exists in s1.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void
main (void)
{
char * str = "This is a string.";

while(str != NULL) {
printf( "%s\n", str );
str = strpbrk( str+1, "aeiou" );
}
}

Return Value
Pointer to the first matching character, or NULL if no character found.

318
Library Functions

STRRCHR, STRRICHR
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

char * strrchr (char * s, int c)

char * strrichr (char * s, int c)

Description
The strrchr() function is similar to the strchr() function, but searches from the end of the string
rather than the beginning, i.e. it locates the last occurrence of the character c in the null terminated
string s. If successful it returns a pointer to that occurrence, otherwise it returns NULL.
The strrichr() function is the case-insensitive version of this function.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void
main (void)
{
char * str = "This is a string.";

while(str != NULL) {
printf( "%s\n", str );
str = strrchr( str+1, ’s’);
}
}

See Also
strchr(), strlen(), strcmp(), strcpy(), strcat()

Return Value
A pointer to the character, or NULL if none is found.

319
Library Functions

STRSPN
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

size_t strspn (const char * s1, const char * s2)

Description
The strspn() function returns the length of the initial segment of the string pointed to by s1 which
consists entirely of characters from the string pointed to by s2.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void
main (void)
{
printf("%d\n", strspn("This is a string", "This"));
printf("%d\n", strspn("This is a string", "this"));
}

See Also
strcspn()

Return Value
The length of the segment.

320
Library Functions

STRSTR, STRISTR
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

char * strstr (const char * s1, const char * s2)

char * stristr (const char * s1, const char * s2)

Description
The strstr() function locates the first occurrence of the sequence of characters in the string pointed
to by s2 in the string pointed to by s1.
The stristr() routine is the case-insensitive version of this function.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void
main (void)
{
printf("%d\n", strstr("This is a string", "str"));
}

Return Value
Pointer to the located string or a null pointer if the string was not found.

321
Library Functions

STRTOD
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

double strtok (const char * s, const char ** res)

Description

Parse the string s converting it to a double floating point type. This function converts the first
occurence of a substring of the input that is made up of characters of the expected form after skipping
leading white-space characters. If res is not NULL, it will be made to point to the first character after
the converted sub-string.

Example

#include <stdio.h>
#include <strlib.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[] = " 35.7 23.27 ";
char * end;
double in1, in2;

in1 = strtod(buf, &end);

in2 = strtod(end, NULL);
printf("in comps: %f, %f\n", in1, in2);
}

See Also

atof()

322
Library Functions

Return Value
Returns a double representing the floating-point value of the converted input string.

323
Library Functions

STRTOL
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

double strtol (const char * s, const char ** res, int base)

Description

Parse the string s converting it to a long integer type. This function converts the first occurence of
a substring of the input that is made up of characters of the expected form after skipping leading
white-space characters. The radix of the input is determined from base. If this is zero, then the
radix defaults to base 10. If res is not NULL, it will be made to point to the first character after the
converted sub-string.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <strlib.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[] = " 0X299 0x792 ";
char * end;
long in1, in2;

in1 = strtol(buf, &end, 16);

in2 = strtol(end, NULL, 16);
printf("in (decimal): %ld, %ld\n", in1, in2);
}

See Also

strtod()

324
Library Functions

Return Value
Returns a long int representing the value of the converted input string using the specified base.

325
Library Functions

STRTOK
Synopsis

#include <string.h>

char * strtok (char * s1, const char * s2)

Description
A number of calls to strtok() breaks the string s1 (which consists of a sequence of zero or more text
tokens separated by one or more characters from the separator string s2) into its separate tokens.
The first call must have the string s1. This call returns a pointer to the first character of the first
token, or NULL if no tokens were found. The inter-token separator character is overwritten by a null
character, which terminates the current token.
For subsequent calls to strtok(), s1 should be set to a null pointer. These calls start searching
from the end of the last token found, and again return a pointer to the first character of the next token,
or NULL if no further tokens were found.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

void
main (void)
{
char * ptr;
char buf[] = "This is a string of words.";
char * sep_tok = ".,?! ";

ptr = strtok(buf, sep_tok);

while(ptr != NULL) {
printf("%s\n", ptr);
ptr = strtok(NULL, sep_tok);
}
}

326
Library Functions

Return Value
Returns a pointer to the first character of a token, or a null pointer if no token was found.

Note
The separator string s2 may be different from call to call.

327
Library Functions

TAN
Synopsis

#include <math.h>

double tan (double f)

Description
The tan() function calculates the tangent of f.

Example
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>

#define C 3.141592/180.0

void
main (void)
{
double i;

for(i = 0 ; i <= 180.0 ; i += 10)

printf("tan(%3.0f) = %f\n", i, tan(i*C));
}

See Also
sin(), cos(), asin(), acos(), atan(), atan2()

Return Value
The tangent of f.

328
Library Functions

TIME
Synopsis

#include <time.h>

time_t time (time_t * t)

Description

This function is not provided as it is dependant on the target system supplying the current time. This
function will be user implemented. When implemented, this function should return the current time
in seconds since 00:00:00 on Jan 1, 1970. If the argument t is not equal to NULL, the same value is
stored into the object pointed to by t.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>

void
main (void)
{
time_t clock;

time(&clock);
printf("%s", ctime(&clock));
}

See Also

ctime(), gmtime(), localtime(), asctime()

Return Value

This routine when implemented will return the current time in seconds since 00:00:00 on Jan 1,
1970.

329
Library Functions

Note
The time() routine is not supplied, if required the user will have to implement this routine to the
specifications outlined above.

330
Library Functions

TOLOWER, TOUPPER, TOASCII

Synopsis

#include <ctype.h>

char toupper (int c)

char tolower (int c)
char toascii (int c)

Description
The toupper() function converts its lower case alphabetic argument to upper case, the tolower()
routine performs the reverse conversion and the toascii() macro returns a result that is guaranteed
in the range 0-0177. The functions toupper() and tolower() return their arguments if it is not an
alphabetic character.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#include <string.h>

void
main (void)
{
char * array1 = "aBcDE";
int i;

for(i=0;i < strlen(array1); ++i) {

printf("%c", tolower(array1[i]));
}
printf("\n");
}

See Also
islower(), isupper(), isascii(), et. al.

331
Library Functions

TRUNC
Synopsis
#include <math.h>

double trunc (double x)

Description
The trunc function rounds the argument to the nearest integer value, in floating-point format, that is
not larger in magniture than the argument.

Example
#include <math.h>

void
main (void)
{
double input, rounded;
input = 1234.5678;
rounded = trunc(input);
}

See Also
round()

332
Library Functions

UDIV
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

int udiv (unsigned num, unsigned demon)

Description
The udiv() function calculate the quotient and remainder of the division of number and denom,
storing the results into a udiv_t structure which is returned.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>

void
main (void)
{
udiv_t result;
unsigned num = 1234, den = 7;

result = udiv(num, den);

}

See Also
uldiv(), div(), ldiv()

Return Value
Returns the the quotient and remainder as a udiv_t structure.

333
Library Functions

ULDIV
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

int uldiv (unsigned long num, unsigned long demon)

Description
The uldiv() function calculate the quotient and remainder of the division of number and denom,
storing the results into a uldiv_t structure which is returned.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>

void
main (void)
{
uldiv_t result;
unsigned long num = 1234, den = 7;

result = uldiv(num, den);

}

See Also
ldiv(), udiv(), div()

Return Value
Returns the the quotient and remainder as a uldiv_t structure.

334
Library Functions

UNGETCH
Synopsis

#include <conio.h>

void ungetch (char c)

Description
The ungetch() function will push back the character c onto the console stream, such that a subse-
quent getch() operation will return the character. At most one level of push back will be allowed.

See Also
getch(), getche()

335
Library Functions

UTOA
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>

char * utoa (char * buf, unsigned val, int base)

Description
The function itoa converts the unsigned contents of val into a string which is stored into buf. The
conversion is performed according to the radix specified in base. buf is assumed to reference a
buffer which has sufficent space allocated to it.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[10];
utoi(buf, 1234, 16);
printf("The buffer holds %s\n", buf);
}

See Also
strtol(), itoa(), ltoa(), ultoa()

Return Value
This routine returns a copy of the buffer into which the result is written.

336
Library Functions

VA_START, VA_ARG, VA_END

Synopsis

#include <stdarg.h>

void va_start (va_list ap, parmN )

type va_arg (ap, type)
void va_end (va_list ap)

Description
These macros are provided to give access in a portable way to parameters to a function represented in
a prototype by the ellipsis symbol (...), where type and number of arguments supplied to the function
are not known at compile time.
The rightmost parameter to the function (shown as parmN) plays an important role in these
macros, as it is the starting point for access to further parameters. In a function taking variable num-
bers of arguments, a variable of type va_list should be declared, then the macro va_start() invoked
with that variable and the name of parmN. This will initialize the variable to allow subsequent calls
of the macro va_arg() to access successive parameters.
Each call to va_arg() requires two arguments; the variable previously defined and a type name
which is the type that the next parameter is expected to be. Note that any arguments thus accessed
will have been widened by the default conventions to int, unsigned int or double. For example if a
character argument has been passed, it should be accessed by va_arg(ap, int) since the char will
have been widened to int.
An example is given below of a function taking one integer parameter, followed by a number
of other parameters. In this example the function expects the subsequent parameters to be pointers
to char, but note that the compiler is not aware of this, and it is the programmers responsibility to
ensure that correct arguments are supplied.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>

void
pf (int a, ...)
{

337
Library Functions

va_list ap;

va_start(ap, a);
while(a--)
puts(va_arg(ap, char *));
va_end(ap);
}

void
main (void)
{
pf(3, "Line 1", "line 2", "line 3");
}

338
Library Functions

WRITETIMERx
Synopsis

#include <htc.h>

WRITETIMER0(unsigned int);
WRITETIMER1(unsigned int);
WRITETIMER2(unsigned int);

Description
The WRITETIMER0, WRITETIMER1() and WRITETIMER2() macros will assign a 16-Bit
value to the TMRxL and TMRxH register pair of the corresponding device timer. Using this macro
will ensure that the bytes are written in the correct order.

Example
#include <htc.h>

void
main (void)
{
WRITETIMER1(0xF500);
}

See Also
READTIMERx()

339
Library Functions

XTOI
Synopsis

#include <stdlib.h>

unsigned xtoi (const char * s)

Description
The xtoi() function scans the character string passed to it, skipping leading blanks reading an optional
sign, and converts an ASCII representation of a hexadecimal number to an integer.

Example
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void
main (void)
{
char buf[80];
int i;

gets(buf);
i = xtoi(buf);
printf("Read %s: converted to %x\n", buf, i);
}

See Also
atoi()

Return Value
An unsigned integer. If no number is found in the string, zero will be returned.

340
Appendix B

Error and Warning Messages

This chapter lists most error, warning and advisory messages from all HI-TECH C compilers, with
an explanation of each message. Most messages have been assigned a unique number which appears
in brackets before each message in this chapter, and which is also printed by the compiler when the
message is issued. The messages shown here are sorted by their number. Un-numbered messages
appear toward the end and are sorted alphabetically.
The name of the application(s) that could have produced the messages are listed in brackets
opposite the error message. In some cases examples of code or options that could trigger the error
are given. The use of * in the error message is used to represent a string that the compiler will
substitute that is specific to that particular error.
Note that one problem in your C or assembler source code may trigger more than one error
message.

(1) too many errors (*) (all applications)

The executing compiler application has encountered too many errors and will exit immediately.
Other uncompiled source files will be processed, but the compiler applications that would normally
be executed in due course will not be run. The number of errors that can be accepted can be con-
trolled using the --ERRORS option, See Section 2.6.32.

(2) error/warning (*) generated, but no description available (all applications)

The executing compiler application has emitted a message (advisory/warning/error), but there is no
description available in the message description file (MDF) to print. This may be because the MDF
is out of date, or the message issue has not been tranlated into the selected language.

341
Error and Warning Messages

(3) malformed error information on line *, in file * (all applications)

The compiler has attempted to load the messages for the selected language, but the message descrip-
tion file (MDF) was corrupted and could not be read correctly.

(100) unterminated #if[n][def] block from line * (Preprocessor)

A #if or similar block was not terminated with a matching #endif, e.g.:

#if INPUT /* error flagged here */

void main(void)
{
run();
} /* no #endif was found in this module */

(101) #* may not follow #else (Preprocessor)

A #else or #elif has been used in the same conditional block as a #else. These can only follow a
#if, e.g.:

#ifdef FOO
result = foo;
#else
result = bar;
#elif defined(NEXT) /* the #else above terminated the #if */
result = next(0);
#endif

(102) #* must be in an #if (Preprocessor)

The #elif, #else or #endif directive must be preceded by a matching #if line. If there is an
apparently corresponding #if line, check for things like extra #endif’s, or improperly terminated
comments, e.g.:

#ifdef FOO
result = foo;
#endif
result = bar;
#elif defined(NEXT) /* the #endif above terminated the #if */
result = next(0);
#endif

342
Error and Warning Messages

(103) #error: * (Preprocessor)

This is a programmer generated error; there is a directive causing a deliberate error. This is normally
used to check compile time defines etc. Remove the directive to remove the error, but first check as
to why the directive is there.

(104) preprocessor #assert failure (Preprocessor)

The argument to a preprocessor #assert directive has evaluated to zero. This is a programmer
induced error.

#assert SIZE == 4 /* size should never be 4 */

(105) no #asm before #endasm (Preprocessor)

A #endasm operator has been encountered, but there was no previous matching #asm, e.g.:

void cleardog(void)
{
clrwdt
#endasm /* in-line assembler ends here,
only where did it begin? */
}

(106) nested #asm directives (Preprocessor)

It is not legal to nest #asm directives. Check for a missing or misspelt #endasm directive, e.g.:

#asm
move r0, #0aah
#asm ; previous #asm must be closed before opening another
sleep
#endasm

(107) illegal # directive "*" (Preprocessor, Parser)

The compiler does not understand the # directive. It is probably a misspelling of a pre-processor #
directive, e.g.:

#indef DEBUG /* oops -- that should be #undef DEBUG */

343
Error and Warning Messages

(108) #if[n][def] without an argument (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor directives #if, #ifdef and #ifndef must have an argument. The argument to #if
should be an expression, while the argument to #ifdef or #ifndef should be a single name, e.g.:

#if /* oops -- no argument to check */

output = 10;
#else
output = 20;
#endif

(109) #include syntax error (Preprocessor)

The syntax of the filename argument to #include is invalid. The argument to #include must be
a valid file name, either enclosed in double quotes "" or angle brackets < >. Spaces should not be
included, and the closing quote or bracket must be present. There should be nothing else on the line
other than comments, e.g.:

#include stdio.h /* oops -- should be: #include <stdio.h> */

(110) too many file arguments; usage: cpp [input [output]] (Preprocessor)
CPP should be invoked with at most two file arguments. Contact HI-TECH Support if the preproces-
sor is being executed by a compiler driver.

(111) redefining preprocessor macro "*" (Preprocessor)

The macro specified is being redefined, to something different to the original definition. If you want
to deliberately redefine a macro, use #undef first to remove the original definition, e.g.:

#define ONE 1
/* elsewhere: */
/* Is this correct? It will overwrite the first definition. */
#define ONE one

(112) #define syntax error (Preprocessor)

A macro definition has a syntax error. This could be due to a macro or formal parameter name that
does not start with a letter or a missing closing parenthesis , ), e.g.:

#define FOO(a, 2b) bar(a, 2b) /* 2b is not to be! */

344
Error and Warning Messages

(113) unterminated string in preprocessor macro body (Preprocessor, Assembler)

A macro definition contains a string that lacks a closing quote.

(114) illegal #undef argument (Preprocessor)

The argument to #undef must be a valid name. It must start with a letter, e.g.:

#undef 6YYY /* this isn’t a valid symbol name */

(115) recursive preprocessor macro definition of "*" defined by "*" (Preprocessor)

The named macro has been defined in such a manner that expanding it causes a recursive expansion
of itself!

(116) end of file within preprocessor macro argument from line * (Preprocessor)
A macro argument has not been terminated. This probably means the closing parenthesis has been
omitted from a macro invocation. The line number given is the line where the macro argument
started, e.g.:

#define FUNC(a, b) func(a+b)

FUNC(5, 6; /* oops -- where is the closing bracket? */

(117) misplaced constant in #if (Preprocessor)

A constant in a #if expression should only occur in syntactically correct places. This error is most
probably caused by omission of an operator, e.g.:

#if FOO BAR /* oops -- did you mean: #if FOO == BAR ? */

(118) stack overflow processing #if expression (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor filled up its expression evaluation stack in a #if expression. Simplify the expres-
sion — it probably contains too many parenthesized subexpressions.

(119) invalid expression in #if line (Preprocessor)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

345
Error and Warning Messages

(120) operator "*" in incorrect context (Preprocessor)

An operator has been encountered in a #if expression that is incorrectly placed, e.g. two binary
operators are not separated by a value, e.g.:

#if FOO * % BAR == 4 /* what is “* %” ? */

#define BIG
#endif

(121) expression stack overflow at operator "*" (Preprocessor)

Expressions in #if lines are evaluated using a stack with a size of 128. It is possible for very complex
expressions to overflow this. Simplify the expression.

(122) unbalanced parenthesis at operator "*" (Preprocessor)

The evaluation of a #if expression found mismatched parentheses. Check the expression for correct
parenthesisation, e.g.:

#if ((A) + (B) /* oops -- a missing ), I think */

#define ADDED
#endif

(123) misplaced "?" or ":"; previous operator is "*" (Preprocessor)

A colon operator has been encountered in a #if expression that does not match up with a corre-
sponding ? operator, e.g.:

#if XXX : YYY /* did you mean: #if COND ? XXX : YYY */

(124) illegal character "*" in #if (Preprocessor)

There is a character in a #if expression that has no business being there. Valid characters are the
letters, digits and those comprising the acceptable operators, e.g.:

#if ‘YYY‘ /* what are these characters doing here? */

int m;
#endif

346
Error and Warning Messages

(125) illegal character (* decimal) in #if (Preprocessor)

There is a non-printable character in a #if expression that has no business being there. Valid char-
acters are the letters, digits and those comprising the acceptable operators, e.g.:

#if ^SYYY /* what is this control characters doing here? */

int m;
#endif

(126) strings can’t be used in #if (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor does not allow the use of strings in #if expressions, e.g.:

/* no string operations allowed by the preprocessor */

#if MESSAGE > “hello”
#define DEBUG
#endif

(127) bad syntax for defined() in #[el]if (Preprocessor)

The defined() pseudo-function in a preprocessor expression requires its argument to be a single
name. The name must start with a letter and should be enclosed in parentheses, e.g.:

/* oops -- defined expects a name, not an expression */

#if defined(a&b)
input = read();
#endif

(128) illegal operator in #if (Preprocessor)

A #if expression has an illegal operator. Check for correct syntax, e.g.:

#if FOO = 6 /* oops -- should that be: #if FOO == 5 ? */

(129) unexpected "\" in #if (Preprocessor)

The backslash is incorrect in the #if statement, e.g.:

#if FOO == \34

#define BIG
#endif

347
Error and Warning Messages

(130) unknown type "*" in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor)

An unknown type was used in a preprocessor sizeof(). The preprocessor can only evaluate
sizeof() with basic types, or pointers to basic types, e.g.:

#if sizeof(unt) == 2 /* should be: #if sizeof(int) == 2 */

i = 0xFFFF;
#endif

(131) illegal type combination in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor found an illegal type combination in the argument to sizeof() in a #if expres-
sion, e.g.

/* To sign, or not to sign, that is the error. */

#if sizeof(signed unsigned int) == 2
i = 0xFFFF;
#endif

(132) no type specified in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor)

Sizeof() was used in a preprocessor #if expression, but no type was specified. The argument to
sizeof() in a preprocessor expression must be a valid simple type, or pointer to a simple type, e.g.:

#if sizeof() /* oops -- size of what? */

i = 0;
#endif

(133) unknown type code (0x*) in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor has made an internal error in evaluating a sizeof() expression. Check for a
malformed type specifier. This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support
with details.

(134) syntax error in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor found a syntax error in the argument to sizeof, in a #if expression. Probable
causes are mismatched parentheses and similar things, e.g.:

#if sizeof(int == 2) // oops - should be: #if sizeof(int) == 2

i = 0xFFFF;
#endif

348
Error and Warning Messages

(135) unknown operator (*) in #if (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor has tried to evaluate an expression with an operator it does not understand. This is
an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(137) strange character "*" after ## (Preprocessor)

A character has been seen after the token catenation operator ## that is neither a letter nor a digit.
Since the result of this operator must be a legal token, the operands must be tokens containing only
letters and digits, e.g.:

/* the ’ character will not lead to a valid token */

#define cc(a, b) a ## ’b

(138) strange character (*) after ## (Preprocessor)

An unprintable character has been seen after the token catenation operator ## that is neither a letter
nor a digit. Since the result of this operator must be a legal token, the operands must be tokens
containing only letters and digits, e.g.:

/* the ’ character will not lead to a valid token */

#define cc(a, b) a ## ’b

(139) end of file in comment (Preprocessor)

End of file was encountered inside a comment. Check for a missing closing comment flag, e.g.:

/* Here the comment begins. I’m not sure where I end, though
}

(140) can’t open * file "*": * (Driver, Preprocessor, Code Generator, Assembler)
The command file specified could not be opened for reading. Confirm the spelling and path of the
file specified on the command line, e.g.:

picc @communds

should that be:

picc @commands

349
Error and Warning Messages

(141) can’t open * file "*": * (Any)

An output file could not be created. Confirm the spelling and path of the file specified on the com-
mand line.

(144) too many nested #if blocks (Preprocessor)

#if, #ifdef etc. blocks may only be nested to a maximum of 32.

(146) #include filename too long (Preprocessor)

A filename constructed while looking for an include file has exceeded the length of an internal buffer.
Since this buffer is 4096 bytes long, this is unlikely to happen.

(147) too many #include directories specified (Preprocessor)

A maximum of 7 directories may be specified for the preprocessor to search for include files. The
number of directories specified with the driver is too great.

(148) too many arguments for preprocessor macro (Preprocessor)

A macro may only have up to 31 parameters, as per the C Standard.

(149) preprocessor macro work area overflow (Preprocessor)

The total length of a macro expansion has exceeded the size of an internal table. This table is
normally 32768 bytes long. Thus any macro expansion must not expand into a total of more than
32K bytes.

(150) illegal "__" preprocessor macro "*" (Preprocessor)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(151) too many arguments in preprocessor macro expansion (Preprocessor)

There were too many arguments supplied in a macro invocation. The maximum number allowed is
31.

(152) bad dp/nargs in openpar(): c = * (Preprocessor)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

350
Error and Warning Messages

(153) out of space in preprocessor macro "*" argument expansion (Preprocessor)

A macro argument has exceeded the length of an internal buffer. This buffer is normally 4096 bytes
long.

(155) work buffer overflow conatenating "*" (Preprocessor)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(156) work buffer "*" overflow (Preprocessor)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(157) can’t allocate * bytes of memory (Code Generator, Assembler, Optimiser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(158) invalid disable in preprocessor macro "*" (Preprocessor)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(159) too many calls to unget() (Preprocessor)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(161) control line "*" within preprocessor macro expansion (Preprocessor)

A preprocessor control line (one starting with a #) has been encountered while expanding a macro.
This should not happen.

(162) #warning: * (Preprocessor, Driver)

This warning is either the result of user-defined #warning preprocessor directive or the driver en-
countered a problem reading the the map file. If the latter then please HI-TECH Software technical
support with details

(163) unexpected text in control line ignored (Preprocessor)

This warning occurs when extra characters appear on the end of a control line, e.g. The extra text
will be ignored, but a warning is issued. It is preferable (and in accordance with Standard C) to
enclose the text as a comment, e.g.:

351
Error and Warning Messages

#if defined(END)
#define NEXT
#endif END /* END would be better in a comment here */

(164) #include filename "*" was converted to lower case (Preprocessor)

The #include file name had to be converted to lowercase before it could be opened, e.g.:

#include <STDIO.H> /* oops -- should be: #include <stdio.h> */

(165) #include filename "*" does not match actual name (check upper/lower case) (Prepro-
cessor)

In Windows versions this means the file to be included actually exists and is spelt the same way as
the #include filename, however the case of each does not exactly match. For example, specifying
#include “code.c” will include Code.c if it is found. In Linux versions this warning could occur
if the file wasn’t found.

(166) too few values specified with option "*" (Preprocessor)

The list of values to the preprocessor (CPP) -S option is incomplete. This should not happen if the
preprocessor is being invoked by the compiler driver. The values passes to this option represent the
sizes of char, short, int, long, float and double types.

(167) too many values specified with -S option; "*" unused (Preprocessor)

There were too many values supplied to the -S preprocessor option. See the Error Message -s, too
few values specified in * on page ??.

(168) unknown option "*" (Any)

This option given to the component which caused the error is not recognized.

(169) strange character (*) after ## (Preprocessor)

There is an unexpected character after #.

352
Error and Warning Messages

(170) symbol "*" in undef was never defined (Preprocessor)

The symbol supplied as argument to #undef was not already defined. This warning may be disabled
with some compilers. This warning can be avoided with code like:

#ifdef SYM
#undef SYM /* only undefine if defined */
#endif

(171) wrong number of preprocessor macro arguments for "*" (* instead of *)(Preprocessor)

A macro has been invoked with the wrong number of arguments, e.g.:

#define ADD(a, b) (a+b)

ADD(1, 2, 3) /* oops -- only two arguments required */

(172) formal parameter expected after # (Preprocessor)

The stringization operator # (not to be confused with the leading # used for preprocessor control
lines) must be followed by a formal macro parameter, e.g.:

#define str(x) #y /* oops -- did you mean x instead of y? */

If you need to stringize a token, you will need to define a special macro to do it, e.g.

#define __mkstr__(x) #x

then use __mkstr__(token) wherever you need to convert a token into a string.

(173) undefined symbol "*" in #if, 0 used (Preprocessor)

A symbol on a #if expression was not a defined preprocessor macro. For the purposes of this
expression, its value has been taken as zero. This warning may be disabled with some compilers.
Example:

#if FOO+BAR /* e.g. FOO was never #defined */

#define GOOD
#endif

353
Error and Warning Messages

(174) multi-byte constant "*" isn’t portable (Preprocessor)

Multi-byte constants are not portable, and in fact will be rejected by later passes of the compiler,
e.g.:

#if CHAR == ’ab’

#define MULTI
#endif

(175) division by zero in #if; zero result assumed (Preprocessor)

Inside a #if expression, there is a division by zero which has been treated as yielding zero, e.g.:

#if foo/0 /* divide by 0: was this what you were intending? */

int a;
#endif

(176) missing newline (Preprocessor)

A new line is missing at the end of the line. Each line, including the last line, must have a new line
at the end. This problem is normally introduced by editors.

(177) symbol "*" in -U option was never defined (Preprocessor)

A macro name specified in a -U option to the preprocessor was not initially defined, and thus cannot
be undefined.

(179) nested comments (Preprocessor)

This warning is issued when nested comments are found. A nested comment may indicate that a
previous closing comment marker is missing or malformed, e.g.:

output = 0; /* a comment that was left unterminated

flag = TRUE; /* next comment:
hey, where did this line go? */

(180) unterminated comment in included file (Preprocessor)

Comments begun inside an included file must end inside the included file.

354
Error and Warning Messages

(181) non-scalar types can’t be converted to other types (Parser)

You can’t convert a structure, union or array to another type, e.g.:

struct TEST test;

struct TEST * sp;
sp = test; /* oops -- did you mean: sp = &test; ? */

(182) illegal conversion between types (Parser)

This expression implies a conversion between incompatible types, e.g. a conversion of a structure
type into an integer, e.g.:

struct LAYOUT layout;

int i;
layout = i; /* int cannot be converted to struct */

Note that even if a structure only contains an int, for example, it cannot be assigned to an int
variable, and vice versa.

(183) function or function pointer required (Parser)

Only a function or function pointer can be the subject of a function call, e.g.:

int a, b, c, d;
a = b(c+d); /* b is not a function --
did you mean a = b*(c+d) ? */

(184) calling an interrupt function is illegal (Parser)

A function qualified interrupt can’t be called from other functions. It can only be called by a
hardware (or software) interrupt. This is because an interrupt function has special function entry
and exit code that is appropriate only for calling from an interrupt. An interrupt function can call
other non-interrupt functions.

(185) function does not take arguments (Parser, Code Generator)

This function has no parameters, but it is called here with one or more arguments, e.g.:

355
Error and Warning Messages

int get_value(void);
void main(void)
{
int input;
input = get_value(6); /* oops --
parameter should not be here */
}

(186) too many function arguments (Parser)

This function does not accept as many arguments as there are here.

void add(int a, int b);

add(5, 7, input); /* call has too many arguments */

(187) too few function arguments (Parser)

This function requires more arguments than are provided in this call, e.g.:

void add(int a, int b);

add(5); /* this call needs more arguments */

(188) constant expression required (Parser)

In this context an expression is required that can be evaluated to a constant at compile time, e.g.:

int a;
switch(input) {
case a: /* oops!
can’t use variable as part of a case label */
input++;
}

(189) illegal type for array dimension (Parser)

An array dimension must be either an integral type or an enumerated value.

int array[12.5]; /* oops -- twelve and a half elements, eh? */

356
Error and Warning Messages

(190) illegal type for index expression (Parser)

An index expression must be either integral or an enumerated value, e.g.:

int i, array[10];
i = array[3.5]; /* oops --
exactly which element do you mean? */

(191) cast type must be scalar or void (Parser)

A typecast (an abstract type declarator enclosed in parentheses) must denote a type which is either
scalar (i.e. not an array or a structure) or the type void, e.g.:

lip = (long [])input; /* oops -- maybe: lip = (long *)input */

(192) undefined identifier "*" (Parser)

This symbol has been used in the program, but has not been defined or declared. Check for spelling
errors if you think it has been defined.

(193) not a variable identifier "*" (Parser)

This identifier is not a variable; it may be some other kind of object, e.g. a label.

(194) ")" expected (Parser)

A closing parenthesis, ), was expected here. This may indicate you have left out this character in an
expression, or you have some other syntax error. The error is flagged on the line at which the code
first starts to make no sense. This may be a statement following the incomplete expression, e.g.:

if(a == b /* the closing parenthesis is missing here */

b = 0; /* the error is flagged here */

(195) expression syntax (Parser)

This expression is badly formed and cannot be parsed by the compiler, e.g.:

a /=% b; /* oops -- maybe that should be: a /= b; */

357
Error and Warning Messages

(196) struct/union required (Parser)

A structure or union identifier is required before a dot ., e.g.:
int a;
a.b = 9; /* oops -- a is not a structure */

(197) struct/union member expected (Parser)

A structure or union member name must follow a dot (".") or arrow ("->").

(198) undefined struct/union "*" (Parser)

The specified structure or union tag is undefined, e.g.
struct WHAT what; /* a definition for WHAT was never seen */

(199) logical type required (Parser)

The expression used as an operand to if, while statements or to boolean operators like ! and &&
must be a scalar integral type, e.g.:
struct FORMAT format;
if(format) /* this operand must be a scaler type */
format.a = 0;

(200) taking the address of a register variable is illegal (Parser)

A variable declared register may not have storage allocated for it in memory, and thus it is illegal
to attempt to take the address of it by applying the & operator, e.g.:
int * proc(register int in)
{
int * ip = &in;
/* oops -- in may not have an address to take */
return ip;
}

(201) taking the address of this object is illegal (Parser)

The expression which was the operand of the & operator is not one that denotes memory storage ("an
lvalue") and therefore its address can not be defined, e.g.:
ip = &8; /* oops -- you can’t take the address of a literal */

358
Error and Warning Messages

(202) only lvalues may be assigned to or modified (Parser)

Only an lvalue (i.e. an identifier or expression directly denoting addressable storage) can be assigned
to or otherwise modified, e.g.:

int array[10];
int * ip;
char c;
array = ip; /* array isn’t a variable,
it can’t be written to */

A typecast does not yield an lvalue, e.g.:

/* the contents of c cast to int

is only a intermediate value */
(int)c = 1;

However you can write this using pointers:

*(int *)&c = 1

(203) illegal operation on bit variable (Parser)

Not all operations on bit variables are supported. This operation is one of those, e.g.:

bit b;
int * ip;
ip = &b; /* oops --
cannot take the address of a bit object */

(204) void function can’t return a value (Parser)

A void function cannot return a value. Any return statement should not be followed by an expres-
sion, e.g.:

void run(void)
{
step();
return 1;
/* either run should not be void, or remove the 1 */
}

359
Error and Warning Messages

(205) integral type required (Parser)

This operator requires operands that are of integral type only.

(206) illegal use of void expression (Parser)

A void expression has no value and therefore you can’t use it anywhere an expression with a value
is required, e.g. as an operand to an arithmetic operator.

(207) simple type required for "*" (Parser)

A simple type (i.e. not an array or structure) is required as an operand to this operator.

(208) operands of "*" not same type (Parser)

The operands of this operator are of different pointer, e.g.:

int * ip;
char * cp, * cp2;
cp = flag ? ip : cp2;
/* result of ? : will be int * or char * */

Maybe you meant something like:

cp = flag ? (char *)ip : cp2;

(209) type conflict (Parser)

The operands of this operator are of incompatible types.

(210) bad size list (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(211) taking sizeof bit is illegal (Parser)

It is illegal to use the sizeof operator with the HI-TECH C bit type. When used against a type the
sizeof operator gives the number of bytes required to store an object that type. Therefore its usage
with the bit type make no sense and is an illegal operation.

360
Error and Warning Messages

(212) missing number after pragma "pack" (Parser)

The pragma pack requires a decimal number as argument. This specifies the alignment of each
member within the structure. Use this with caution as some processors enforce alignment and will
not operate correctly if word fetches are made on odd boundaries, e.g.:
#pragma pack /* what is the alignment value */
Maybe you meant something like:
#pragma pack 2

(214) missing number after pragma "interrupt_level" (Parser)

The pragma interrupt_level requires an argument from 0 to 7.

(215) missing argument to pragma "switch" (Parser)

The pragma switch requires an argument of auto, direct or simple, e.g.:
#pragma switch /* oops -- this requires a switch mode */
maybe you meant something like:
#pragma switch simple

(216) missing argument to pragma "psect" (Parser)

The pragma psect requires an argument of the form oldname=newname where oldname is an
existing psect name known to the compiler, and newname is the desired new name, e.g.:
#pragma psect /* oops -- this requires an psect to redirect */
maybe you meant something like:
#pragma psect text=specialtext

(218) missing name after pragma "inline" (Parser)

The inline pragma expects the name of a function to follow. The function name must be recognized
by the code generator for it to be expanded; other functions are not altered, e.g.:
#pragma inline /* what is the function name? */
maybe you meant something like:
#pragma inline memcpy

361
Error and Warning Messages

(219) missing name after pragma "printf_check" (Parser)

The printf_check pragma expects the name of a function to follow. This specifies printf-style
format string checking for the function, e.g.

#pragma printf_check /* what function is to be checked? */

Maybe you meant something like:

#pragma printf_check sprintf

Pragmas for all the standard printf-like function are already contained in <stdio.h>.

(220) exponent expected (Parser)

A floating point constant must have at least one digit after the e or E., e.g.:

float f;
f = 1.234e; /* oops -- what is the exponent? */

(221) hexadecimal digit expected (Parser)

After 0x should follow at least one of the hex digits 0-9 and A-F or a-f, e.g.:

a = 0xg6; /* oops -- was that meant to be a = 0xf6 ? */

(222) binary digit expected (Parser)

A binary digit was expected following the 0b format specifier, e.g.

i = 0bf000; /* wooops -- f000 is not a base two value */

(223) digit out of range (Parser, Assembler, Optimiser)

A digit in this number is out of range of the radix for the number, e.g. using the digit 8 in an octal
number, or hex digits A-F in a decimal number. An octal number is denoted by the digit string
commencing with a zero, while a hex number starts with "0X" or "0x". For example:

int a = 058;
/* leading 0 implies octal which has digits 0 - 7 */

362
Error and Warning Messages

(224) illegal "#" directive (Parser)

An illegal # preprocessor has been detected. Likely a directive has been misspelt in your code
somewhere.

(225) missing character in character constant (Parser)

The character inside the single quotes is missing, e.g.:

char c = ”; /* the character value of what? */

(226) char const too long (Parser)

A character constant enclosed in single quotes may not contain more than one character, e.g.:

c = ’12’; /* oops -- only one character may be specified */

(227) "." expected after ".." (Parser)

The only context in which two successive dots may appear is as part of the ellipsis symbol, which
must have 3 dots. (An ellipsis is used in function prototypes to indicate a variable number of param-
eters.)
Either .. was meant to be an ellipsis symbol which would require you to add an extra dot, or it
was meant to be a structure member operator which would require you remove one dot.

(228) illegal character (0x*) (Parser)

This character is illegal in the C code. Valid characters are the letters, digits and those comprising
the acceptable operators, e.g.:

c = ‘a‘; /* oops -- did you mean c = ’a’; ? */

(229) unknown qualifier "*" given to -A (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(230) missing argument to -A (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

363
Error and Warning Messages

(231) unknown qualifier "*" given to -I (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(232) missing argument to -I (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(233) bad -Q option "*" (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(234) close error (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(236) simple integer expression required (Parser)

A simple integral expression is required after the operator @, used to associate an absolute address
with a variable, e.g.:

int address;
char LOCK @ address;

(237) function "*" redefined (Parser)

More than one definition for a function has been encountered in this module. Function overloading
is illegal, e.g.:

int twice(int a)
{
return a*2;
}
/* only one prototype & definition of rv can exist */
long twice(long a)
{
return a*2;
}

364
Error and Warning Messages

(238) illegal initialisation (Parser)

You can’t initialise a typedef declaration, because it does not reserve any storage that can be ini-
tialised, e.g.:
/* oops -- uint is a type, not a variable */
typedef unsigned int uint = 99;

(239) identifier "*" redefined (from line *) (Parser)

This identifier has already been defined in the same scope. It cannot be defined again, e.g.:
int a; /* a filescope variable called “a” */
int a; /* attempting to define another of the same name */
Note that variables with the same name, but defined with different scopes are legal, but not recom-
mended.

(240) too many initializers (Parser)

There are too many initializers for this object. Check the number of initializers against the object
definition (array or structure), e.g.:
/* three elements, but four initializers */
int ivals[3] = { 2, 4, 6, 8};

(241) initialization syntax (Parser)

The initialisation of this object is syntactically incorrect. Check for the correct placement and num-
ber of braces and commas, e.g.:
int iarray[10] = {{’a’, ’b’, ’c’};
/* oops -- one two many {s */

(242) illegal type for switch expression (Parser)

A switch operation must have an expression that is either an integral type or an enumerated value,
e.g:
double d;
switch(d) { /* oops -- this must be integral */
case ’1.0’:
d = 0;
}

365
Error and Warning Messages

(243) inappropriate break/continue (Parser)

A break or continue statement has been found that is not enclosed in an appropriate control struc-
ture. A continue can only be used inside a while, for or do while loop, while break can only be
used inside those loops or a switch statement, e.g.:

switch(input) {
case 0:
if(output == 0)
input = 0xff;
} /* oops! this shouldn’t be here and closed the switch */
break; /* this should be inside the switch */

(244) "default" case redefined (Parser)

There is only allowed to be one default label in a switch statement. You have more than one, e.g.:

switch(a) {
default: /* if this is the default case... */
b = 9;
break;
default: /* then what is this? */
b = 10;
break;

(245) "default" case not in switch (Parser)

A label has been encountered called default but it is not enclosed by a switch statement. A
default label is only legal inside the body of a switch statement.
If there is a switch statement before this default label, there may be one too many closing
braces in the switch code which would prematurely terminate the switch statement. See example
for Error Message ’case’ not in switch on page ??.

(246) case label not in switch (Parser)

A case label has been encountered, but there is no enclosing switch statement. A case label may
only appear inside the body of a switch statement.
If there is a switch statement before this case label, there may be one too many closing braces
in the switch code which would prematurely terminate the switch statement, e.g.:

366
Error and Warning Messages

switch(input) {
case ’0’:
count++;
break;
case ’1’:
if(count>MAX)
count= 0;
} /* oops -- this shouldn’t be here */
break;
case ’2’: /* error flagged here */

(247) duplicate label "*" (Parser)

The same name is used for a label more than once in this function. Note that the scope of labels is
the entire function, not just the block that encloses a label, e.g.:

start:
if(a > 256)
goto end;
start: /* error flagged here */
if(a == 0)
goto start; /* which start label do I jump to? */

(248) inappropriate "else" (Parser)

An else keyword has been encountered that cannot be associated with an if statement. This may
mean there is a missing brace or other syntactic error, e.g.:

/* here is a comment which I have forgotten to close...

if(a > b) {
c = 0;
/* ... that will be closed here, thus removing the “if” */
else /* my “if” has been lost */
c = 0xff;

(249) probable missing "}" in previous block (Parser)

The compiler has encountered what looks like a function or other declaration, but the preceding
function has not been ended with a closing brace. This probably means that a closing brace has been
omitted from somewhere in the previous function, although it may well not be the last one, e.g.:

367
Error and Warning Messages

void set(char a)
{
PORTA = a;
/* the closing brace was left out here */
void clear(void) /* error flagged here */
{
PORTA = 0;
}

(251) array dimension redeclared (Parser)

An array dimension has been declared as a different non-zero value from its previous declaration. It
is acceptable to redeclare the size of an array that was previously declared with a zero dimension,
but not otherwise, e.g.:

extern int array[5];

int array[10]; /* oops -- has it 5 or 10 elements? */

(252) argument * conflicts with prototype (Parser)

The argument specified (argument 0 is the left most argument) of this function definition does not
agree with a previous prototype for this function, e.g.:

/* this is supposedly calc’s prototype */

extern int calc(int, int);
int calc(int a, long int b) /* hmmm -- which is right? */
{ /* error flagged here */
return sin(b/a);
}

(253) argument list conflicts with prototype (Parser)

The argument list in a function definition is not the same as a previous prototype for that function.
Check that the number and types of the arguments are all the same.

extern int calc(int); /* this is supposedly calc’s prototype */

int calc(int a, int b) /* hmmm -- which is right? */
{ /* error flagged here */
return a + b;
}

368
Error and Warning Messages

(254) undefined *: "*" (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(255) not a member of the struct/union "*" (Parser)

This identifier is not a member of the structure or union type with which it used here, e.g.:

struct {
int a, b, c;
} data;
if(data.d) /* oops --
there is no member d in this structure */
return;

(256) too much indirection (Parser)

A pointer declaration may only have 16 levels of indirection.

(257) only "register" storage class allowed (Parser)

The only storage class allowed for a function parameter is register, e.g.:

void process(static int input)

(258) duplicate qualifier (Parser)

There are two occurrences of the same qualifier in this type specification. This can occur either
directly or through the use of a typedef. Remove the redundant qualifier. For example:

typedef volatile int vint;

/* oops -- this results in two volatile qualifiers */
volatile vint very_vol;

(259) can’t be qualifed both far and near (Parser)

It is illegal to qualify a type as both far and near, e.g.:

far near int spooky; /* oops -- choose far or near, not both */

369
Error and Warning Messages

(260) undefined enum tag "*" (Parser)

This enum tag has not been defined, e.g.:

enum WHAT what; /* a definition for WHAT was never seen */

(261) struct/union member "*" redefined (Parser)

This name of this member of the struct or union has already been used in this struct or union, e.g.:

struct {
int a;
int b;
int a; /* oops -- a different name is required here */
} input;

(262) struct/union "*" redefined (Parser)

A structure or union has been defined more than once, e.g.:

struct {
int a;
} ms;
struct {
int a;
} ms; /* was this meant to be the same name as above? */

(263) members can’t be functions (Parser)

A member of a structure or a union may not be a function. It may be a pointer to a function, e.g.:

struct {
int a;
int get(int); /* should be a pointer: int (*get)(int); */
} object;

(264) bad bitfield type (Parser)

A bitfield may only have a type of int (signed or unsigned), e.g.:

370
Error and Warning Messages

struct FREG {
char b0:1; /* these must be part of an int, not char */
char :6;
char b7:1;
} freg;

(265) integer constant expected (Parser)

A colon appearing after a member name in a structure declaration indicates that the member is a
bitfield. An integral constant must appear after the colon to define the number of bits in the bitfield,
e.g.:

struct {
unsigned first: /* oops -- should be: unsigned first; */
unsigned second;
} my_struct;

If this was meant to be a structure with bitfields, then the following illustrates an example:

struct {
unsigned first : 4; /* 4 bits wide */
unsigned second: 4; /* another 4 bits */
} my_struct;

(266) storage class illegal (Parser)

A structure or union member may not be given a storage class. Its storage class is determined by the
storage class of the structure, e.g.:

struct {
/* no additional qualifiers may be present with members */
static int first;
} ;

(267) bad storage class (Code Generator)

The code generator has encountered a variable definition whose storage class is invalid, e.g.:

auto int foo; /* auto not permitted with global variables */

int power(static int a) /* parameters may not be static */
{

371
Error and Warning Messages

return foo * a;
}

(268) inconsistent storage class (Parser)

A declaration has conflicting storage classes. Only one storage class should appear in a declaration,
e.g.:

extern static int where; /* so is it static or extern? */

(269) inconsistent type (Parser)

Only one basic type may appear in a declaration, e.g.:

int float if; /* is it int or float? */

(270) variable can’t have storage class "register" (Parser)

Only function parameters or auto variables may be declared using the register qualifier, e.g.:

register int gi; /* this cannot be qualified register */

int process(register int input) /* this is okay */
{
return input + gi;
}

(271) type can’t be long (Parser)

Only int and float can be qualified with long.

long char lc; /* what? */

(272) type can’t be short (Parser)

Only int can be modified with short, e.g.:

short float sf; /* what? */

372
Error and Warning Messages

(273) type can’t be both signed and unsigned (Parser)

The type modifiers signed and unsigned cannot be used together in the same declaration, as they
have opposite meaning, e.g.:

signed unsigned int confused; /* which is it? */

(274) type can’t be unsigned (Parser)

A floating point type cannot be made unsigned, e.g.:

unsigned float uf; /* what? */

(275) "..." illegal in non-prototype argument list (Parser)

The ellipsis symbol may only appear as the last item in a prototyped argument list. It may not
appear on its own, nor may it appear after argument names that do not have types, i.e. K&R-style
non-prototype function definitions. For example:

/* K&R-style non-prototyped function definition */

int kandr(a, b, ...)
int a, b;
{

(276) type specifier required for prototyped argument (Parser)

A type specifier is required for a prototyped argument. It is not acceptable to just have an identifier.

(277) can’t mix prototyped and non-prototyped arguments (Parser)

A function declaration can only have all prototyped arguments (i.e. with types inside the parentheses)
or all K&R style args (i.e. only names inside the parentheses and the argument types in a declaration
list before the start of the function body), e.g.:

int plus(int a, b) /* oops -- a is prototyped, b is not */

int b;
{
return a + b;
}

373
Error and Warning Messages

(278) argument "*" redeclared (Parser)

The specified argument is declared more than once in the same argument list, e.g.
/* can’t have two parameters called “a” */
int calc(int a, int a)

(279) initialization of function arguments is illegal (Parser)

A function argument can’t have an initialiser in a declaration. The initialisation of the argument
happens when the function is called and a value is provided for the argument by the calling function,
e.g.:
/* oops -- a is initialized when proc is called */
extern int proc(int a = 9);

(280) arrays of functions are illegal (Parser)

You can’t define an array of functions. You can however define an array of pointers to functions,
e.g.:
int * farray[](); /* oops -- should be: int (* farray[])(); */

(281) functions can’t return functions (Parser)

A function cannot return a function. It can return a function pointer. A function returning a pointer
to a function could be declared like this: int (* (name()))(). Note the many parentheses that are
necessary to make the parts of the declaration bind correctly.

(282) functions can’t return arrays (Parser)

A function can return only a scalar (simple) type or a structure. It cannot return an array.

(283) dimension required (Parser)

Only the most significant (i.e. the first) dimension in a multi-dimension array may not be assigned a
value. All succeeding dimensions must be present as a constant expression, e.g.:
/* This should be, e.g.: int arr[][7] */
int get_element(int arr[2][])
{
return array[1][6];
}

374
Error and Warning Messages

(284) invalid dimension (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(285) no identifier in declaration (Parser)

The identifier is missing in this declaration. This error can also occur where the compiler has been
confused by such things as missing closing braces, e.g.:

void interrupt(void) /* what is the name of this function? */

{
}

(286) declarator too complex (Parser)

This declarator is too complex for the compiler to handle. Examine the declaration and find a way
to simplify it. If the compiler finds it too complex, so will anybody maintaining the code.

(287) arrays of bits or pointers to bit are illegal (Parser)

It is not legal to have an array of bits, or a pointer to bit variable, e.g.:

bit barray[10]; /* wrong -- no bit arrays */

bit * bp; /* wrong -- no pointers to bit variables */

(288) only functions may be void (Parser)

A variable may not be void. Only a function can be void, e.g.:

int a;
void b; /* this makes no sense */

(289) only functions may be qualified "interrupt" (Parser)

The qualifier interrupt may not be applied to anything except a function, e.g.:

/* variables cannot be qualified interrupt */

interrupt int input;

375
Error and Warning Messages

(290) illegal function qualifier(s) (Parser)

A qualifier has been applied to a function which makes no sense in this context. Some qualifier
only make sense when used with an lvalue, e.g. const or volatile. This may indicate that you have
forgotten out a star * indicating that the function should return a pointer to a qualified object, e.g.
const char ccrv(void) /* const * char ccrv(void) perhaps? */
{ /* error flagged here */
return ccip;
}

(291) K&R identifier "*" not an argument (Parser)

This identifier that has appeared in a K&R style argument declarator is not listed inside the paren-
theses after the function name, e.g.:
int process(input)
int unput; /* oops -- that should be int input; */
{
}

(292) function parameter may not be a function (Parser)

A function parameter may not be a function. It may be a pointer to a function, so perhaps a "*" has
been omitted from the declaration.

(293) bad size in index_type() (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(294) can’t allocate * bytes of memory (Code Generator, Hexmate)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(295) expression too complex (Parser)

This expression has caused overflow of the compiler’s internal stack and should be re-arranged or
split into two expressions.

(296) out of memory (Objtohex)

This could be an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

376
Error and Warning Messages

(297) bad argument (*) to tysize() (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(298) end of file in #asm (Preprocessor)

An end of file has been encountered inside a #asm block. This probably means the #endasm is
missing or misspelt, e.g.:

#asm
mov r0, #55
mov [r1], r0
} /* oops -- where is the #endasm */

(300) unexpected end of file (Parser)

An end-of-file in a C module was encountered unexpectedly, e.g.:

void main(void)
{
init();
run(); /* is that it? What about the close brace */

(301) end of file on string file (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(302) can’t reopen "*": * (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(303) can’t allocate * bytes of memory (line *) (Parser)

The parser was unable to allocate memory for the longest string encountered, as it attempts to sort
and merge strings. Try reducing the number or length of strings in this module.

(306) can’t allocate * bytes of memory for * (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

377
Error and Warning Messages

(307) too many qualifier names (Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(308) too many case labels in switch (Code Generator)

There are too many case labels in this switch statement. The maximum allowable number of case
labels in any one switch statement is 511.

(309) too many symbols (Assembler)

There are too many symbols for the assembler’s symbol table. Reduce the number of symbols in
your program.

(310) "]" expected (Parser)

A closing square bracket was expected in an array declaration or an expression using an array index,
e.g.

process(carray[idx); /* oops --
should be: process(carray[idx]); */

(311) closing quote expected (Parser)

A closing quote was expected for the indicated string.

(312) "*" expected (Parser)

The indicated token was expected by the parser.

(313) function body expected (Parser)

Where a function declaration is encountered with K&R style arguments (i.e. argument names but no
types inside the parentheses) a function body is expected to follow, e.g.:

/* the function block must follow, not a semicolon */

int get_value(a, b);

378
Error and Warning Messages

(314) ";" expected (Parser)

A semicolon is missing from a statement. A close brace or keyword was found following a statement
with no terminating semicolon, e.g.:
while(a) {
b = a-- /* oops -- where is the semicolon? */
} /* error is flagged here */
Note: Omitting a semicolon from statements not preceding a close brace or keyword typically results
in some other error being issued for the following code which the parser assumes to be part of the
original statement.

(315) "{" expected (Parser)

An opening brace was expected here. This error may be the result of a function definition missing
the opening brace, e.g.:
/* oops! no opening brace after the prototype */
void process(char c)
return max(c, 10) * 2; /* error flagged here */
}

(316) "}" expected (Parser)

A closing brace was expected here. This error may be the result of a initialized array missing the
closing brace, e.g.:
char carray[4] = { 1, 2, 3, 4; /* oops -- no closing brace */

(317) "(" expected (Parser)

An opening parenthesis, (, was expected here. This must be the first token after a while, for, if,
do or asm keyword, e.g.:
if a == b /* should be: if(a == b) */
b = 0;

(318) string expected (Parser)

The operand to an asm statement must be a string enclosed in parentheses, e.g.:
asm(nop); /* that should be asm(“nop”);

379
Error and Warning Messages

(319) while expected (Parser)

The keyword while is expected at the end of a do statement, e.g.:

do {
func(i++);
} /* do the block while what condition is true? */
if(i > 5) /* error flagged here */
end();

(320) ":" expected (Parser)

A colon is missing after a case label, or after the keyword default. This often occurs when a
semicolon is accidentally typed instead of a colon, e.g.:

switch(input) {
case 0; /* oops -- that should have been: case 0: */
state = NEW;

(321) label identifier expected (Parser)

An identifier denoting a label must appear after goto, e.g.:

if(a)
goto 20;
/* this is not BASIC -- a valid C label must follow a goto */

(322) enum tag or "{" expected (Parser)

After the keyword enum must come either an identifier that is or will be defined as an enum tag, or
an opening brace, e.g.:

enum 1, 2; /* should be, e.g.: enum {one=1, two }; */

(323) struct/union tag or "{" expected (Parser)

An identifier denoting a structure or union or an opening brace must follow a struct or union
keyword, e.g.:

struct int a; /* this is not how you define a structure */

You might mean something like:

380
Error and Warning Messages

struct {
int a;
} my_struct;

(324) too many arguments for printf-style format string (Parser)

There are too many arguments for this format string. This is harmless, but may represent an incorrect
format string, e.g.:

/* oops -- missed a placeholder? */

printf(“%d - %d”, low, high, median);

(325) error in printf-style format string (Parser)

There is an error in the format string here. The string has been interpreted as a printf() style format
string, and it is not syntactically correct. If not corrected, this will cause unexpected behaviour at
run time, e.g.:

printf(“%l”, lll); /* oops -- maybe: printf(“%ld”, lll); */

(326) long int argument required in printf-style format string (Parser)

A long argument is required for this format specifier. Check the number and order of format speci-
fiers and corresponding arguments, e.g.:

printf(“%lx”, 2); // maybe you meant: printf(“%lx”, 2L);

(327) long long int argument required in printf-style format string (Parser)
A long long argument is required for this format specifier. Check the number and order of format
specifiers and corresponding arguments, e.g.:

printf(“%llx”, 2); // maybe you meant: printf(“%llx”, 2LL);

Note that not all HI-TECH C compilers provide support for a long long integer type.

(328) int argument required in printf-style format string (Parser)

An integral argument is required for this printf-style format specifier. Check the number and order
of format specifiers and corresponding arguments, e.g.:

printf(“%d”, 1.23); /* wrong number or wrong placeholder */

381
Error and Warning Messages

(329) double argument required in printf-style format string (Parser)

The printf format specifier corresponding to this argument is %f or similar, and requires a floating
point expression. Check for missing or extra format specifiers or arguments to printf.
printf(“%f”, 44); /* should be: printf(“%f”, 44.0); */

(330) pointer to * argument required in printf-style format string (Parser)

A pointer argument is required for this format specifier. Check the number and order of format
specifiers and corresponding arguments.

(331) too few arguments for printf-style format string (Parser)

There are too few arguments for this format string. This would result in a garbage value being printed
or converted at run time, e.g.:
printf(“%d - %d”, low);
/* oops! where is the other value to print? */

(332) "interrupt_level" should be 0 to 7 (Parser)

The pragma interrupt_level must have an argument from 0 to 7, e.g.:
#pragma interrupt_level /* oops -- what is the level */
void interrupt isr(void)
{
/* isr code goes here */
}

(333) unrecognized qualifier name after "strings" (Parser)

The pragma strings was passed a qualifier that was not identified, e.g.:
/* oops -- should that be #pragma strings const ? */
#pragma strings cinst

(334) unrecognized qualifier name after "printf_check" (Parser)

The #pragma printf_check was passed a qualifier that could not be identified, e.g.:
/* oops -- should that be const not cinst? */
#pragma printf_check(printf) cinst

382
Error and Warning Messages

(335) unknown pragma "*" (Parser)

An unknown pragma directive was encountered, e.g.:

#pragma rugsused w /* I think you meant regsused */

(336) string concatenation across lines (Parser)

Strings on two lines will be concatenated. Check that this is the desired result, e.g.:

char * cp = “hi”
“there”; /* this is okay,
but is it what you had intended? */

(337) line does not have a newline on the end (Parser)

The last line in the file is missing the newline (operating system dependent character) from the end.
Some editors will create such files, which can cause problems for include files. The ANSI C standard
requires all source files to consist of complete lines only.

(338) can’t create * file "*" (Any)

The application tried to create or open the named file, but it could not be created. Check that all file
pathnames are correct.

(339) initializer in extern declaration (Parser)

A declaration containing the keyword extern has an initialiser. This overrides the extern storage
class, since to initialise an object it is necessary to define (i.e. allocate storage for ) it, e.g.:

extern int other = 99; /* if it’s extern and not allocated

storage, how can it be initialized? */

(340) string not terminated by null character. (Parser)

A char array is being initialized with a string literal larger than the array. Hence there is insufficient
space in the array to safely append a null terminating character, e.g.:

char foo[5] = “12345”; /* the string stored in foo won’t have

a null terminating, i.e.
foo = [’1’, ’2’, ’3’, ’4’, ’5’] */

383
Error and Warning Messages

(343) implicit return at end of non-void function (Parser)

A function which has been declared to return a value has an execution path that will allow it to reach
the end of the function body, thus returning without a value. Either insert a return statement with a
value, or if the function is not to return a value, declare it void, e.g.:

int mydiv(double a, int b)

{
if(b != 0)
return a/b; /* what about when b is 0? */
} /* warning flagged here */

(344) non-void function returns no value (Parser)

A function that is declared as returning a value has a return statement that does not specify a return
value, e.g.:

int get_value(void)
{
if(flag)
return val++;
return;
/* what is the return value in this instance? */
}

(345) unreachable code (Parser)

This section of code will never be executed, because there is no execution path by which it could be
reached, e.g.:

while(1) /* how does this loop finish? */

process();
flag = FINISHED; /* how do we get here? */

(346) declaration of "*" hides outer declaration (Parser)

An object has been declared that has the same name as an outer declaration (i.e. one outside and
preceding the current function or block). This is legal, but can lead to accidental use of one variable
when the outer one was intended, e.g.:

384
Error and Warning Messages

int input; /* input has filescope */

void process(int a)
{
int input; /* local blockscope input */
a = input; /* this will use the local variable.
Is this right? */

(347) external declaration inside function (Parser)

A function contains an extern declaration. This is legal but is invariably not desirable as it restricts
the scope of the function declaration to the function body. This means that if the compiler encounters
another declaration, use or definition of the extern object later in the same file, it will no longer have
the earlier declaration and thus will be unable to check that the declarations are consistent. This
can lead to strange behaviour of your program or signature errors at link time. It will also hide any
previous declarations of the same thing, again subverting the compiler’s type checking. As a general
rule, always declare extern variables and functions outside any other functions. For example:

int process(int a)
{
/* this would be better outside the function */
extern int away;
return away + a;
}

(348) auto variable "*" should not be qualified (Parser)

An auto variable should not have qualifiers such as near or far associated with it. Its storage class
is implicitly defined by the stack organization. An auto variable may be qualified with static, but
it is then no longer auto.

(349) non-prototyped function declaration for "*" (Parser)

A function has been declared using old-style (K&R) arguments. It is preferable to use prototype
declarations for all functions, e.g.:

int process(input)
int input; /* warning flagged here */
{
}

This would be better written:

385
Error and Warning Messages

int process(int input)

{
}

(350) unused * "*" (from line *) (Parser)

The indicated object was never used in the function or module being compiled. Either this object is
redundant, or the code that was meant to use it was excluded from compilation or misspelt the name
of the object. Note that the symbols rcsid and sccsid are never reported as being unused.

(352) float parameter coerced to double (Parser)

Where a non-prototyped function has a parameter declared as float, the compiler converts this into
a double float. This is because the default C type conversion conventions provide that when a
floating point number is passed to a non-prototyped function, it will be converted to double. It is
important that the function declaration be consistent with this convention, e.g.:
double inc_flt(f) /* f will be converted to double */
float f; /* warning flagged here */
{
return f * 2;
}

(353) sizeof external array "*" is zero (Parser)

The size of an external array evaluates to zero. This is probably due to the array not having an
explicit dimension in the extern declaration.

(354) possible pointer truncation (Parser)

A pointer qualified far has been assigned to a default pointer or a pointer qualified near, or a default
pointer has been assigned to a pointer qualified near. This may result in truncation of the pointer and
loss of information, depending on the memory model in use.

(355) implicit signed to unsigned conversion (Parser)

A signed number is being assigned or otherwise converted to a larger unsigned type. Under the
ANSI "value preserving" rules, this will result in the signed value being first sign-extended to a
signed number the size of the target type, then converted to unsigned (which involves no change
in bit pattern). Thus an unexpected sign extension can occur. To ensure this does not happen, first
convert the signed value to an unsigned equivalent, e.g.:

386
Error and Warning Messages

signed char sc;

unsigned int ui;
ui = sc; /* if sc contains 0xff,
ui will contain 0xffff for example */

will perform a sign extension of the char variable to the longer type. If you do not want this to take
place, use a cast, e.g.:

ui = (unsigned char)sc;

(356) implicit conversion of float to integer (Parser)

A floating point value has been assigned or otherwise converted to an integral type. This could result
in truncation of the floating point value. A typecast will make this warning go away.

double dd;
int i;
i = dd; /* is this really what you meant? */

If you do intend to use an expression like this, then indicate that this is so by a cast:

i = (int)dd;

(357) illegal conversion of integer to pointer (Parser)

An integer has been assigned to or otherwise converted to a pointer type. This will usually mean you
have used the wrong variable, but if this is genuinely what you want to do, use a typecast to inform
the compiler that you want the conversion and the warning will be suppressed. This may also mean
you have forgotten the & address operator, e.g.:

int * ip;
int i;
ip = i; /* oops -- did you mean ip = &i ? */

If you do intend to use an expression like this, then indicate that this is so by a cast:

ip = (int *)i;

387
Error and Warning Messages

(358) illegal conversion of pointer to integer (Parser)

A pointer has been assigned to or otherwise converted to a integral type. This will usually mean you
have used the wrong variable, but if this is genuinely what you want to do, use a typecast to inform
the compiler that you want the conversion and the warning will be suppressed. This may also mean
you have forgotten the * dereference operator, e.g.:
int * ip;
int i;
i = ip; /* oops -- did you mean i = *ip ? */
If you do intend to use an expression like this, then indicate that this is so by a cast:
i = (int)ip;

(359) illegal conversion between pointer types (Parser)

A pointer of one type (i.e. pointing to a particular kind of object) has been converted into a pointer
of a different type. This will usually mean you have used the wrong variable, but if this is genuinely
what you want to do, use a typecast to inform the compiler that you want the conversion and the
warning will be suppressed, e.g.:
long input;
char * cp;
cp = &input; /* is this correct? */
This is common way of accessing bytes within a multi-byte variable. To indicate that this is the
intended operation of the program, use a cast:
cp = (char *)&input; /* that’s better */
This warning may also occur when converting between pointers to objects which have the same type,
but which have different qualifiers, e.g.:
char * cp;
/* yes, but what sort of characters? */
cp = “I am a string of characters”;
If the default type for string literals is const char *, then this warning is quite valid. This should
be written:
const char * cp;
cp = “I am a string of characters”; /* that’s better */
Omitting a qualifier from a pointer type is often disastrous, but almost certainly not what you intend.

388
Error and Warning Messages

(360) array index out of bounds (Parser)

An array is being indexed with a constant value that is less than zero, or greater than or equal to the
number of elements in the array. This warning will not be issued when accessing an array element
via a pointer variable, e.g.:

int i, * ip, input[10];

i = input[-2]; /* oops -- this element doesn’t exist */
ip = &input[5];
i = ip[-2]; /* this is okay */

(361) function declared implicit int (Parser)

Where the compiler encounters a function call of a function whose name is presently undefined, the
compiler will automatically declare the function to be of type int, with unspecified (K&R style)
parameters. If a definition of the function is subsequently encountered, it is possible that its type
and arguments will be different from the earlier implicit declaration, causing a compiler error. The
solution is to ensure that all functions are defined or at least declared before use, preferably with
prototyped parameters. If it is necessary to make a forward declaration of a function, it should be
preceded with the keywords extern or static as appropriate. For example:

/* I may prevent an error arising from calls below */

void set(long a, int b);
void main(void)
{
/* by here a prototype for set should have seen */
set(10L, 6);
}

(362) redundant "&" applied to array (Parser)

The address operator & has been applied to an array. Since using the name of an array gives its
address anyway, this is unnecessary and has been ignored, e.g.:

int array[5];
int * ip;
/* array is a constant, not a variable; the & is redundant. */
ip = &array;

389
Error and Warning Messages

(363) redundant "&" or "*" applied to function address (Parser)

The address operator "&" has been applied to a function. Since using the name of a function gives
its address anyway, this is unnecessary and has been ignored, e.g.:
extern void foo(void);
void main(void)
{
void(*bar)(void);
/* both assignments are equivalent */
bar = &foo;
bar = foo; /* the & is redundant */
}

(364) attempt to modify object qualified * (Parser)

Objects declared const or code may not be assigned to or modified in any other way by your
program. The effect of attempting to modify such an object is compiler-specific.
const int out = 1234; /* “out” is read only */
out = 0; /* oops --
writing to a read-only object */

(365) pointer to non-static object returned (Parser)

This function returns a pointer to a non-static (e.g. auto) variable. This is likely to be an error,
since the storage associated with automatic variables becomes invalid when the function returns,
e.g.:
char * get_addr(void)
{
char c;
/* returning this is dangerous;
the pointer could be dereferenced */
return &c;
}

(366) operands of "*" not same pointer type (Parser)

The operands of this operator are of different pointer types. This probably means you have used
the wrong pointer, but if the code is actually what you intended, use a typecast to suppress the error
message.

390
Error and Warning Messages

(367) identifier is already extern; can’t be static (Parser)

This function was already declared extern, possibly through an implicit declaration. It has now
been redeclared static, but this redeclaration is invalid.
void main(void)
{
/* at this point the compiler assumes set is extern... */
set(10L, 6);
}
/* now it finds out otherwise */
static void set(long a, int b)
{
PORTA = a + b;
}

(368) array dimension on "*[]" ignored (Preprocessor)

An array dimension on a function parameter has been ignored because the argument is actually
converted to a pointer when passed. Thus arrays of any size may be passed. Either remove the
dimension from the parameter, or define the parameter using pointer syntax, e.g.:
/* param should be: “int array[]” or “int *” */
int get_first(int array[10])
{ /* warning flagged here */
return array[0];
}

(369) signed bitfields not supported (Parser)

Only unsigned bitfields are supported. If a bitfield is declared to be type int, the compiler still
treats it as unsigned, e.g.:
struct {
signed int sign: 1; /* this must be unsigned */
signed int value: 15;
} ;

(370) illegal basic type; int assumed (Parser)

The basic type of a cast to a qualified basic type couldn’t not be recognised and the basic type was
assumed to be int, e.g.:

391
Error and Warning Messages

/* here ling is assumed to be int */

unsigned char bar = (unsigned ling) ’a’;

(371) missing basic type; int assumed (Parser)

This declaration does not include a basic type, so int has been assumed. This declaration is not
illegal, but it is preferable to include a basic type to make it clear what is intended, e.g.:

char c;
i; /* don’t let the compiler make assumptions, use : int i */
func(); /* ditto, use: extern int func(int); */

(372) "," expected (Parser)

A comma was expected here. This could mean you have left out the comma between two identifiers
in a declaration list. It may also mean that the immediately preceding type name is misspelled, and
has thus been interpreted as an identifier, e.g.:

unsigned char a;
/* thinks: chat & b are unsigned, but where is the comma? */
unsigned chat b;

(373) implicit signed to unsigned conversion (Parser)

An unsigned type was expected where a signed type was given and was implicitly cast to unsigned,
e.g.:

unsigned int foo = -1;

/* the above initialization is implicitly treated as:
unsigned int foo = (unsigned) -1; */

(374) missing basic type; int assumed (Parser)

The basic type of a cast to a qualified basic type was missing and assumed to be int., e.g.:

int i = (signed) 2; /* (signed) assumed to be (signed int) */

(375) unknown FNREC type "*" (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

392
Error and Warning Messages

(376) bad non-zero node in call graph (Linker)

The linker has encountered a top level node in the call graph that is referenced from lower down in
the call graph. This probably means the program has indirect recursion, which is not allowed when
using a compiled stack.

(378) can’t create * file "*" (Hexmate)

This type of file could not be created. Is the file or a file by this name already in use?

(379) bad record type "*" (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Ensure the object file is a valid HI-TECH object file. Contact
HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(380) unknown record type (*) (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(381) record "*" too long (*) (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(382) incomplete record: type = *, length = * (Dump, Xstrip)

This message is produced by the DUMP or XSTRIP utilities and indicates that the object file is not
a valid HI-TECH object file, or that it has been truncated. Contact HI-TECH Support with details.

(383) text record has length (*) too small (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(384) assertion failed: file *, line *, expression * (Linker, Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(387) illegal or too many -G options (Linker)

There has been more than one linker -g option, or the -g option did not have any arguments follow-
ing. The arguments specify how the segment addresses are calculated.

393
Error and Warning Messages

(388) duplicate -M option (Linker)

The map file name has been specified to the linker for a second time. This should not occur if you
are using a compiler driver. If invoking the linker manually, ensure that only one instance of this
option is present on the command line. See Section 5.7.9 for information on the correct syntax for
this option.

(389) illegal or too many -O options (Linker)

This linker -o flag is illegal, or another -o option has been encountered. A -o option to the linker
must be immediately followed by a filename with no intervening space.

(390) missing argument to -P (Linker)

There have been too many -p options passed to the linker, or a -p option was not followed by any
arguments. The arguments of separate -p options may be combined and separated by commas.

(391) missing argument to -Q (Linker)

The -Q linker option requires the machine type for an argument.

(392) missing argument to -U (Linker)

The -U (undefine) option needs an argument.

(393) missing argument to -W (Linker)

The -W option (listing width) needs a numeric argument.

(394) duplicate -D or -H option (Linker)

The symbol file name has been specified to the linker for a second time. This should not occur if you
are using a compiler driver. If invoking the linker manually, ensure that only one instance of either
of these options is present on the command line.

(395) missing argument to -J (Linker)

The maximum number of errors before aborting must be specified following the -j linker option.

394
Error and Warning Messages

(397) usage: hlink [-options] files.obj files.lib (Linker)

Improper usage of the command-line linker. If you are invoking the linker directly then please refer
to Section 5.7 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and you should
contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(398) output file can’t be also an input file (Linker)

The linker has detected an attempt to write its output file over one of its input files. This cannot be
done, because it needs to simultaneously read and write input and output files.

(400) bad object code format (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. The object code format of an object file is invalid. Ensure it is a
valid HI-TECH object file. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(402) bad argument to -F (Objtohex)

The -F option for objtohex has been supplied an invalid argument. If you are invoking this
command-line tool directly then please refer to Section 5.12 for more details. Otherwise this may be
an internal compiler error and you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(403) bad -E option: "*" (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(404) bad maximum length value to -<digits> (Objtohex)

The first value to the OBJTOHEX -n,m hex length/rounding option is invalid.

(405) bad record size rounding value to -<digits> (Objtohex)

The second value to the OBJTOHEX -n,m hex length/rounding option is invalid.

(406) bad argument to -A (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(407) bad argument to -U (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

395
Error and Warning Messages

(408) bad argument to -B (Objtohex)

This option requires an integer argument in either base 8, 10 or 16. If you are invoking objtohex
directly then see Section 5.12 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and
you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(409) bad argument to -P (Objtohex)

This option requires an integer argument in either base 8, 10 or 16. If you are invoking objtohex
directly then see Section 5.12 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and
you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(410) bad combination of options (Objtohex)

The combination of options supplied to OBJTOHEX is invalid.

(412) text does not start at 0 (Objtohex)

Code in some things must start at zero. Here it doesn’t.

(413) write error on "*" (Assembler, Linker, Cromwell)

A write error occurred on the named file. This probably means you have run out of disk space.

(414) read error on "*" (Linker)

The linker encountered an error trying to read this file.

(415) text offset too low in COFF file (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(416) bad character (*) in extended TEKHEX line (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(417) seek error in "*" (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

396
Error and Warning Messages

(418) image too big (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(419) object file is not absolute (Objtohex)

The object file passed to OBJTOHEX has relocation items in it. This may indicate it is the wrong object
file, or that the linker or OBJTOHEX have been given invalid options. The object output files from
the assembler are relocatable, not absolute. The object file output of the linker is absolute.

(420) too many relocation items (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(421) too many segments (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(422) no end record (Linker)

This object file has no end record. This probably means it is not an object file. Contact HI-TECH
Support if the object file was generated by the compiler.

(423) illegal record type (Linker)

There is an error in an object file. This is either an invalid object file, or an internal error in the linker.
Contact HI-TECH Support with details if the object file was created by the compiler.

(424) record too long (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(425) incomplete record (Objtohex, Libr)

The object file passed to OBJTOHEX or the librarian is corrupted. Contact HI-TECH Support with
details.

(427) syntax error in checksum list (Objtohex)

There is a syntax error in a checksum list read by OBJTOHEX. The checksum list is read from
standard input in response to an option.

397
Error and Warning Messages

(428) too many segment fixups (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(429) bad segment fixups (Objtohex)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(430) bad checksum specification (Objtohex)

A checksum list supplied to OBJTOHEX is syntactically incorrect.

(431) bad argument to -E (Objtoexe)

This option requires an integer argument in either base 8, 10 or 16. If you are invoking objtoexe
directly then check this argument. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and you should
contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(432) usage: objtohex [-ssymfile] [object-file [exe-file]] (Objtohex)

Improper usage of the command-line tool objtohex. If you are invoking objtohex directly then
please refer to Section 5.12 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and
you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(434) too many symbols (*) (Linker)

There are too many symbols in the symbol table, which has a limit of * symbols. Change some
global symbols to local symbols to reduce the number of symbols.

(435) bad segment selector "*" (Linker)

The segment specification option (-G) to the linker is invalid, e.g.:

-GA/f0+10

Did you forget the radix?

-GA/f0h+10

(436) psect "*" re-orged (Linker)

This psect has had its start address specified more than once.

398
Error and Warning Messages

(437) missing "=" in class spec (Linker)

A class spec needs an = sign, e.g. -Ctext=ROM See Section 5.7.9 for more information.

(438) bad size in -S option (Linker)

The address given in a -S specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in decimal, octal or
hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O, for octal, or H for hex. A leading 0x may
also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any number or radix. Decimal is the default,
e.g.:

-SCODE=f000

Did you forget the radix?

-SCODE=f000h

(439) bad -D spec: "*" (Linker)

The format of a -D specification, giving a delta value to a class, is invalid, e.g.:

-DCODE

What is the delta value for this class? Maybe you meant something like:

-DCODE=2

(440) bad delta value in -D spec (Linker)

The delta value supplied to a -D specification is invalid. This value should an integer of base 8, 10
or 16.

(441) bad -A spec: "*" (Linker)

The format of a -A specification, giving address ranges to the linker, is invalid, e.g.:

-ACODE

What is the range for this class? Maybe you meant:

-ACODE=0h-1fffh

399
Error and Warning Messages

(442) missing address in -A spec (Linker)

The format of a -A specification, giving address ranges to the linker, is invalid, e.g.:
-ACODE=
What is the range for this class? Maybe you meant:
-ACODE=0h-1fffh

(443) bad low address "*" in -A spec (Linker)

The low address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in decimal, octal
or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O (for octal) or H for hex. A leading
0x may also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any number or radix. Decimal is
default, e.g.:
-ACODE=1fff-3fffh
Did you forget the radix?
-ACODE=1fffh-3fffh

(444) expected "-" in -A spec (Linker)

There should be a minus sign, -, between the high and low addresses in a -A linker option, e.g.
-AROM=1000h
maybe you meant:
-AROM=1000h-1fffh

(445) bad high address "*" in -A spec (Linker)

The high address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in decimal, octal
or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O, for octal, or H for hex. A leading 0x may
also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any number or radix. Decimal is the default,
e.g.:
-ACODE=0h-ffff
Did you forget the radix?
-ACODE=0h-ffffh
See Section 5.7.20 for more information.

400
Error and Warning Messages

(446) bad overrun address "*" in -A spec (Linker)

The overrun address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in decimal,
octal or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O (for octal) or H for hex. A leading
0x may also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any number or radix. Decimal is
default, e.g.:

-AENTRY=0-0FFh-1FF

Did you forget the radix?

-AENTRY=0-0FFh-1FFh

(447) bad load address "*" in -A spec (Linker)

The load address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in decimal, octal
or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O (for octal) or H for hex. A leading 0x may
also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any number or radix. Decimal is default,
e.g.:

-ACODE=0h-3fffh/a000

Did you forget the radix?

-ACODE=0h-3fffh/a000h

(448) bad repeat count "*" in -A spec (Linker)

The repeat count given in a -A specification is invalid, e.g.:

-AENTRY=0-0FFhxf

Did you forget the radix?

-AENTRY=0-0FFhxfh

(449) syntax error in -A spec: * (Linker)

The -A spec is invalid. A valid -A spec should be something like:
-AROM=1000h-1FFFh

401
Error and Warning Messages

(450) psect "*" was never defined (Linker, Optimiser)

This psect has been listed in a -P option, but is not defined in any module within the program.

(451) bad psect origin format in -P option (Linker)

The origin format in a -p option is not a validly formed decimal, octal or hex number, nor is it the
name of an existing psect. A hex number must have a trailing H, e.g.:

-pbss=f000

Did you forget the radix?

-pbss=f000h

(452) bad "+" (minimum address) format in -P option (Linker)

The minimum address specification in the linker’s -p option is badly formatted, e.g.:

-pbss=data+f000

Did you forget the radix?

-pbss=data+f000h

(453) missing number after "%" in -P option (Linker)

The % operator in a -p option (for rounding boundaries) must have a number after it.

(454) link and load address can’t both be set to "." in -P option (Linker)
The link and load address of a psect have both been specified with a dot character. Only one of these
addresses may be specified in this manner, e.g.:

-Pmypsect=1000h/.
-Pmypsect=./1000h

Both of these options are valid and equivalent, however the following usage is ambiguous:

-Pmypsect=./.

What is the link or load address of this psect?

402
Error and Warning Messages

(455) psect "*" not relocated on 0x* byte boundary (Linker)

This psect is not relocated on the required boundary. Check the relocatability of the psect and correct
the -p option. if necessary.

(456) psect "*" not loaded on 0x* boundary (Linker)

This psect has a relocatability requirement that is not met by the load address given in a -p option.
For example if a psect must be on a 4K byte boundary, you could not start it at 100H.

(459) remove failed, error: *, * (xstrip)

The creation of the output file failed when removing an interemediate file.

(460) rename failed, error: *, * (xstrip)

The creation of the output file failed when renaming an interemediate file.

(461) can’t create * file "*" (Assembler, Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(464) missing key in avmap file (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(465) undefined symbol "*" in FNBREAK record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNBREAK record for a non-reentrant function. Con-
tact HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code.

(466) undefined symbol "*" in FNINDIR record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNINDIR record for a non-reentrant function. Con-
tact HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code.

(467) undefined symbol "*" in FNADDR record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNADDR record for a non-reentrant function.
Contact HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code.

403
Error and Warning Messages

(468) undefined symbol "*" in FNCALL record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNCALL record for a non-reentrant function. Contact
HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code.

(469) undefined symbol "*" in FNROOT record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNROOT record for a non-reentrant function. Contact
HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code.

(470) undefined symbol "*" in FNSIZE record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNSIZE record for a non-reentrant function. Contact
HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code.

(471) recursive function calls: (Linker)

These functions (or function) call each other recursively. One or more of these functions has stat-
ically allocated local variables (compiled stack). Either use the reentrant keyword (if supported
with this compiler) or recode to avoid recursion, e.g.:

int test(int a)
{
if(a == 5) {
/* recursion may not be supported by some compilers */
return test(a++);
}
return 0;
}

(472) non-reentrant function "*" appears in multiple call graphs: rooted at "*" and "*"
(Linker)
This function can be called from both main-line code and interrupt code. Use the reentrant key-
word, if this compiler supports it, or recode to avoid using local variables or parameters, or duplicate
the function, e.g.:

void interrupt my_isr(void)

{
scan(6); /* scan is called from an interrupt function */
}

404
Error and Warning Messages

void process(int a)
{
scan(a); /* scan is also called from main-line code */
}

(473) function "*" is not called from specified interrupt_level (Linker)

The indicated function is never called from an interrupt function of the same interrupt level, e.g.:
#pragma interrupt_level 1
void foo(void)
{
...
}
#pragma interrupt_level 1
void interrupt bar(void)
{
// this function never calls foo()
}

(474) no psect specified for function variable/argument allocation (Linker)

The FNCONF assembler directive which specifies to the linker information regarding the auto/parameter
block was never seen. This is supplied in the standard runtime files if necessary. This error may im-
ply that the correct run-time startup module was not linked. Ensure you have used the FNCONF
directive if the runtime startup module is hand-written.

(475) conflicting FNCONF records (Linker)

The linker has seen two conflicting FNCONF directives. This directive should only be specified once
and is included in the standard runtime startup code which is normally linked into every program.

(476) fixup overflow referencing * * (location 0x* (0x*+*), size *, value 0x*) (Linker)
The linker was asked to relocate (fixup) an item that would not fit back into the space after relocation.
See the following error message (477) for more information..

(477) fixup overflow in expression (location 0x* (0x*+*), size *, value 0x*) (Linker)
Fixup is the process conducted by the linker of replacing symbolic references to variables etc, in an
assembler instruction with an absolute value. This takes place after positioning the psects (program

405
Error and Warning Messages

sections or blocks) into the available memory on the target device. Fixup overflow is when the
value determined for a symbol is too large to fit within the allocated space within the assembler
instruction. For example, if an assembler instruction has an 8-bit field to hold an address and the
linker determines that the symbol that has been used to represent this address has the value 0x110,
then clearly this value cannot be inserted into the instruction.
The causes for this can be many, but hand-written assembler code is always the first suspect.
Badly written C code can also generate assembler that ultimately generates fixup overflow errors.
Consider the following error message.

main.obj: 8: Fixup overflow in expression (loc 0x1FD (0x1FC+1),

size 1, value 0x7FC)

This indicates that the file causing the problem was main.obj. This would be typically be the output
of compiling main.c or main.as. This tells you the file in which you should be looking. The next
number (8 in this example) is the record number in the object file that was causing the problem. If
you use the DUMP utility to examine the object file, you can identify the record, however you do not
normally need to do this.
The location (loc) of the instruction (0x1FD), the size (in bytes) of the field in the instruction
for the value (1) , and the value which is the actual value the symbol represents, is typically the only
information needed to track down the cause of this error. Note that a size which is not a multiple of
8 bits will be rounded up to the nearest byte size, i.e. a 7 bit space in an instruction will be shown as
1 byte.
Generate an assembler list file for the appropriate module. Look for the address specified in the
error message.

7 07FC 0E21 movlw 33

8 07FD 6FFC movwf _foo
9 07FE 0012 return

and to confirm, look for the symbol referenced in the assembler instruction at this address in the
symbol table at the bottom of the same file.

Symbol Table Fri Aug 12 13:17:37 2004

_foo 01FC _main 07FF

In this example, the instruction causing the problem takes an 8-bit offset into a bank of memory, but
clearly the address 0x1FC exceeds this size. Maybe the instruction should have been written as:

movwf (_foo&0ffh)

406
Error and Warning Messages

which masks out the top bits of the address containing the bank information.
If the assembler instruction that caused this error was generated by the compiler, in the assem-
bler list file look back up the file from the instruction at fault to determine which C statement has
generated this instruction. You will then need to examine the C code for possible errors. incorrectly
qualified pointers are an common trigger.

(478) * range check failed (location 0x* (0x*+*), value 0x* > limit 0x*) (Linker)
This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(479) circular indirect definition of symbol "*" (Linker)

The specified symbol has been equated to an external symbol which, in turn, has been equated to the
first symbol.

(480) function signatures do not match: * (*): 0x*/0x* (Linker)

The specified function has different signatures in different modules. This means it has been declared
differently, e.g. it may have been prototyped in one module and not another. Check what declarations
for the function are visible in the two modules specified and make sure they are compatible, e.g.:

extern int get_value(int in);

/* and in another module: */
/* this is different to the declaration */
int get_value(int in, char type)
{

(481) common symbol "*" psect conflict (Linker)

A common symbol has been defined to be in more than one psect.

(482) symbol "*" is defined more than once in "*" (Assembler)

This symbol has been defined in more than one place. The assembler will issue this error if a symbol
is defined more than once in the same module, e.g.:

_next:
move r0, #55
move [r1], r0
_next: ; oops -- choose a different name

407
Error and Warning Messages

The linker will issue this warning if the symbol (C or assembler) was defined multiple times in
different modules. The names of the modules are given in the error message. Note that C identifiers
often have an underscore prepended to their name after compilation.

(483) symbol "*" can’t be global (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(484) psect "*" can’t be in classes "*" and "*" (Linker)

A psect cannot be in more than one class. This is either due to assembler modules with conflicting
class= options to the PSECT directive, or use of the -C option to the linker, e.g.:

psect final,class=CODE
finish:
/* elsewhere: */
psect final,class=ENTRY

(485) unknown "with" psect referenced by psect "*" (Linker)

The specified psect has been placed with a psect using the psect with flag. The psect it has been
placed with does not exist, e.g.:

psect starttext,class=CODE,with=rext
; was that meant to be with text?

(486) psect "*" selector value redefined (Linker)

The selector value for this psect has been defined more than once.

(487) psect "*" type redefined: */* (Linker)

This psect has had its type defined differently by different modules. This probably means you are
trying to link incompatible object modules, e.g. linking 386 flat model code with 8086 real mode
code.

(488) psect "*" memory space redefined: */* (Linker)

A global psect has been defined in two different memory spaces. Either rename one of the psects or,
if they are the same psect, place them in the same memory space using the space psect flag, e.g.:

408
Error and Warning Messages

psect spdata,class=RAM,space=0
ds 6
; elsewhere:
psect spdata,class=RAM,space=1

(489) psect "*" memory delta redefined: */* (Linker)

A global psect has been defined with two different delta values, e.g.:

psect final,class=CODE,delta=2
finish:
; elsewhere:
psect final,class=CODE,delta=1

(490) class "*" memory space redefined: */* (Linker)

A class has been defined in two different memory spaces. Either rename one of the classes or, if they
are the same class, place them in the same memory space.

(491) can’t find 0x* words for psect "*" in segment "*" (Linker)
One of the main tasks the linker performs is positioning the blocks (or psects) of code and data that
is generated from the program into the memory available for the target device. This error indicates
that the linker was unable to find an area of free memory large enough to accommodate one of the
psects. The error message indicates the name of the psect that the linker was attempting to position
and the segment name which is typically the name of a class which is defined with a linker -A option.
Section 3.8.1 lists each compiler-generated psect and what it contains. Typically psect names
which are, or include, text relate to program code. Names such as bss or data refer to variable
blocks. This error can be due to two reasons.
First, the size of the program or the program’s data has exceeded the total amount of space on
the selected device. In other words, some part of your device’s memory has completely filled. If this
is the case, then the size of the specified psect must be reduced.
The second cause of this message is when the total amount of memory needed by the psect being
positioned is sufficient, but that this memory is fragmented in such a way that the largest contiguous
block is too small to accommodate the psect. The linker is unable to split psects in this situation.
That is, the linker cannot place part of a psect at one location and part somewhere else. Thus, the
linker must be able to find a contiguous block of memory large enough for every psect. If this is the
cause of the error, then the psect must be split into smaller psects if possible.
To find out what memory is still available, generate and look in the map file, see Section 2.6.9 for
information on how to generate a map file. Search for the string UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES. Under

409
Error and Warning Messages

this heading, look for the name of the segment specified in the error message. If the name is not
present, then all the memory available for this psect has been allocated. If it is present, there will be
one address range specified under this segment for each free block of memory. Determine the size
of each block and compare this with the number of words specified in the error message.
Psects containing code can be reduced by using all the compiler’s optimizations, or restructuring
the program. If a code psect must be split into two or more small psects, this requires splitting a
function into two or more smaller functions (which may call each other). These functions may need
to be placed in new modules.
Psects containing data may be reduced when invoking the compiler optimizations, but the effect
is less dramatic. The program may need to be rewritten so that it needs less variables. Section
5.10.2.2 has information on interpreting the map file’s call graph if the compiler you are using uses
a compiled stack. (If the string Call graph: is not present in the map file, then the compiled
code uses a hardware stack.) If a data psect needs to be split into smaller psects, the definitions
for variables will need to be moved to new modules or more evenly spread in the existing modules.
Memory allocation for auto variables is entirely handled by the compiler. Other than reducing the
number of these variables used, the programmer has little control over their operation. This applies
whether the compiled code uses a hardware or compiled stack.
For example, after receiving the message:

Can’t find 0x34 words (0x34 withtotal) for psect text

in segment CODE (error)

look in the map file for the ranges of unused memory.

UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES

CODE 00000244-0000025F
00001000-0000102f
RAM 00300014-00301FFB

In the CODE segment, there is 0x1c (0x25f-0x244+1) bytes of space available in one block and 0x30
available in another block. Neither of these are large enough to accommodate the psect text which
is 0x34 bytes long. Notice, however, that the total amount of memory available is larger than 0x34
bytes.

(492) attempt to position absolute psect "*" is illegal (Linker)

This psect is absolute and should not have an address specified in a -P option. Either remove the
abs psect flag, or remove the -P linker option.

410
Error and Warning Messages

(493) origin of psect "*" is defined more than once (Linker)

The origin of this psect is defined more than once. There is most likely more than one -p linker
option specifying this psect.

(494) bad -P format "*/*" (Linker)

The -P option given to the linker is malformed. This option specifies placement of a psect, e.g.:

-Ptext=10g0h

Maybe you meant:

-Ptext=10f0h

(495) use of both "with=" and "INCLASS/INCLASS" allocation is illegal (Linker)

It is not legal to specify both the link and location of a psect as within a class, when that psect was
also defined using a with psect flag.

(497) psect "*" exceeds max size: *h > *h (Linker)

The psect has more bytes in it than the maximum allowed as specified using the size psect flag.

(498) psect "*" exceeds address limit: *h > *h (Linker)

The maximum address of the psect exceeds the limit placed on it using the limit psect flag. Either
the psect needs to be linked at a different location or there is too much code/data in the psect.

(499) undefined symbol: (Assembler, Linker)

The symbol following is undefined at link time. This could be due to spelling error, or failure to link
an appropriate module.

(500) undefined symbols: (Linker)

A list of symbols follows that were undefined at link time. These errors could be due to spelling
error, or failure to link an appropriate module.

411
Error and Warning Messages

(501) program entry point is defined more than once (Linker)

There is more than one entry point defined in the object files given the linker. End entry point is
specified after the END directive. The runtime startup code defines the entry point, e.g.:
powerup:
goto start
END powerup ; end of file and define entry point
; other files that use END should not define another entry point

(502) incomplete * record body: length = * (Linker)

An object file contained a record with an illegal size. This probably means the file is truncated or
not an object file. Contact HI-TECH Support with details.

(503) ident records do not match (Linker)

The object files passed to the linker do not have matching ident records. This means they are for
different processor types.

(504) object code version is greater than *.* (Linker)

The object code version of an object module is higher than the highest version the linker is known
to work with. Check that you are using the correct linker. Contact HI-TECH Support if the object
file if you have not patched the linker.

(505) no end record found inobject file (Linker)

An object file did not contain an end record. This probably means the file is corrupted or not an
object file. Contact HI-TECH Support if the object file was generated by the compiler.

(506) object file record too long: *+* (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(507) unexpected end of file in object file (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(508) relocation offset (*) out of range 0..*-*-1 (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

412
Error and Warning Messages

(509) illegal relocation size: * (Linker)

There is an error in the object code format read by the linker. This either means you are using
a linker that is out of date, or that there is an internal error in the assembler or linker. Contact
HI-TECH Support with details if the object file was created by the compiler.

(510) complex relocation not supported for -R or -L options (Linker)

The linker was given a -R or -L option with file that contain complex relocation.

(511) bad complex range check (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(512) unknown complex operator 0x* (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(513) bad complex relocation (Linker)

The linker has been asked to perform complex relocation that is not syntactically correct. Probably
means an object file is corrupted.

(514) illegal relocation type: * (Linker)

An object file contained a relocation record with an illegal relocation type. This probably means the
file is corrupted or not an object file. Contact HI-TECH Support with details if the object file was
created by the compiler.

(515) unknown symbol type * (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(516) text record has bad length: *-*-(*+1) < 0 (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

413
Error and Warning Messages

(520) function "*" is never called (Linker)

This function is never called. This may not represent a problem, but space could be saved by remov-
ing it. If you believe this function should be called, check your source code. Some assembler library
routines are never called, although they are actually execute. In this case, the routines are linked in
a special sequence so that program execution falls through from one routine to the next.

(521) call depth exceeded by function "*" (Linker)

The call graph shows that functions are nested to a depth greater than specified.

(522) library "*" is badly ordered (Linker)

This library is badly ordered. It will still link correctly, but it will link faster if better ordered.

(523) argument to -W option (*) illegal and ignored (Linker)

The argument to the linker option -w is out of range. This option controls two features. For warning
levels, the range is -9 to 9. For the map file width, the range is greater than or equal to 10.

(524) unable to open list file "*": * (Linker)

The named list file could not be opened. The linker would be trying to fixup the list file so that it will
contain absolute addresses. Ensure that an assembler list file was generated during the compilation
stage. Alternatively, remove the assembler list file generation option from the link step.

(525) too many address (memory) spaces; space (*) ignored (Linker)
The limit to the number of address spaces (specified with the PSECT assembler directive) is currently
16.

(526) psect "*" not specified in -P option (first appears in "*") (Linker)
This psect was not specified in a -P or -A option to the linker. It has been linked at the end of the
program, which is probably not where you wanted it.

(528) no start record; entry point defaults to zero (Linker)

None of the object files passed to the linker contained a start record. The start address of the program
has been set to zero. This may be harmless, but it is recommended that you define a start address in
your startup module by using the END directive.

414
Error and Warning Messages

(529) usage: objtohex [-Ssymfile] [object-file [hex-file]] (Objtohex)

Improper usage of the command-line tool objtohex. If you are invoking objtohex directly then
please refer to Section 5.12 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and
you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(593) can’t find 0x* words (0x* withtotal) for psect "*" in segment "*" (Linker)
See error (491) on Page ??.

(594) undefined symbol: (Linker)

The symbol following is undefined at link time. This could be due to spelling error, or failure to link
an appropriate module.

(595) undefined symbols: (Linker)

A list of symbols follows that were undefined at link time. These errors could be due to spelling
error, or failure to link an appropriate module.

(596) segment "*" (*-*) overlaps segment "*" (*-*) (Linker)

The named segments have overlapping code or data. Check the addresses being assigned by the -P
linker option.

(599) No psect classes given for COFF write (Cromwell)

Cromwell requires that the program memory psect classes be specified to produce a COFF file.
Ensure that you are using the -N option as per Section 5.14.2.

(600) No chip arch given for COFF write (Cromwell)

Cromwell requires that the chip architecture be specified to produce a COFF file. Ensure that you
are using the -P option as per Section 5.14.1.

(601) Unknown chip arch "*" for COFF write (Cromwell)

The chip architecture specified for producing a COFF file isn’t recognised by Cromwell. Ensure that
you are using the -P option as per Section 5.14.1 and that the architecture specified matches one of
those in Table 5.8.

415
Error and Warning Messages

(602) null file format name (Cromwell)

The -I or -O option to Cromwell must specify a file format.

(603) ambiguous file format name "*" (Cromwell)

The input or output format specified to Cromwell is ambiguous. These formats are specified with
the -ikey and -okey options respectively.

(604) unknown file format name "*" (Cromwell)

The output format specified to CROMWELL is unknown, e.g.:

cromwell -m -P16F877 main.hex main.sym -ocot

and output file type of cot, did you mean cof?

(605) did not recognize format of input file (Cromwell)

The input file to Cromwell is required to be COD, Intel HEX, Motorola HEX, COFF, OMF51, P&E
or HI-TECH.

(606) inconsistent symbol tables (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(607) inconsistent line number tables (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(608) bad path specification (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(609) missing processor spec after -P (Cromwell)

The -p option to cromwell must specify a processor name.

(610) missing psect classes after -N (Cromwell)

Cromwell requires that the -N option be given a list of the names of psect classes.

416
Error and Warning Messages

(611) too many input files (Cromwell)

To many input files have been specified to be converted by CROMWELL.

(612) too many output files (Cromwell)

To many output file formats have been specified to CROMWELL.

(613) no output file format specified (Cromwell)

The output format must be specified to CROMWELL.

(614) no input files specified (Cromwell)

CROMWELL must have an input file to convert.

(616) option -Cbaseaddr is illegal with options -R or -L (Linker)

The linker option -Cbaseaddr cannot be used in conjunction with either the -R or -L linker options.

(618) error reading COD file data (Cromwell)

An error occurred reading the input COD file. Confirm the spelling and path of the file specified on
the command line.

(619) I/O error reading symbol table (Cromwell)

The COD file has an invalid format in the specified record.

(620) filename index out of range in line number record (Cromwell)

The COD file has an invalid value in the specified record.

(621) error writing ELF/DWARF section "*" on "*" (Cromwell)

An error occurred writing the indicated section to the given file. Confirm the spelling and path of
the file specified on the command line.

(622) too many type entries (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

417
Error and Warning Messages

(623) bad class in type hashing (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(624) bad class in type compare (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(625) too many files in COFF file (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(626) string lookup failed in COFF: get_string() (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(627) missing "*" in SDB file "*" line * column * (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(629) bad storage class "*" in SDB file "*" line * column * (Cromwell)
This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(630) invalid syntax for prefix list in SDB file "*" (Cromwell)
This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(631) syntax error at token "*" in SDB file "*" line * column * (Cromwell)
This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(632) can’t handle address size (*) (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(633) unknown symbol class (*) (Cromwell)

Cromwell has encountered a symbol class in the symbol table of a COFF, Microchip COFF, or
ICOFF file which it can’t identify.

418
Error and Warning Messages

(634) error dumping "*" (Cromwell)

Either the input file to CROMWELL is of an unsupported type or that file cannot be dumped to the
screen.

(635) invalid HEX file "*" on line * (Cromwell)

The specified HEX file contains an invalid line. Contact HI-TECH Support if the HEX file was
generated by the compiler.

(636) checksum error in Intel HEX file "*" on line * (Cromwell, Hexmate)
A checksum error was found at the specified line in the specified Intel hex file. The HEX file may
be corrupt.

(637) unknown prefix "*" in SDB file "*" (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler warning. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(638) version mismatch: 0x* expected (Cromwell)

The input Microchip COFF file wasn’t produced using Cromwell.

(639) zero bit width in Microchip optional header (Cromwell)

The optional header in the input Microchip COFF file indicates that the program or data memory
spaces are zero bits wide.

(668) prefix list did not match any SDB types (Cromwell)
This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(669) prefix list matched more than one SDB type (Cromwell)
This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(670) bad argument to -T (Clist)

The argument to the -T option to specify tab size was not present or correctly formed. The option
expects a decimal interger argument.

419
Error and Warning Messages

(671) argument to -T should be in range 1 to 64 (Clist)

The argument to the -T option to specify tab size was not in the expected range. The option expects
a decimal interger argument ranging from 1 to 64 inclusive.

(673) missing filename after * option (Objtohex)

The indicated option requires a valid file name. Ensure that the filename argument supplied to this
option exists and is spelt correctly.

(674) too many references to "*" (Cref)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(679) unknown extraspecial: * (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(680) bad format for -P option (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(682) this architecture is not supported by the PICC Lite compiler (Code Generator)
A target device other than baseline, midrange or highend was specified. This compiler only supports
devices from these architecture families.

(683) bank 1 variables are not supported by the PICC Lite compiler (Code Generator)
A variable with an absolute address located in bank 1 was detected. This compiler does not support
code generation of variables in this bank.

(684) bank 2 and 3 variables are not supported by the PICC Lite compiler (Code Generator)
A variable with an absolute address located in bank 2 or 3 was detected. This compiler does not
support code generation of variables in these banks.

(685) bad putwsize() (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

420
Error and Warning Messages

(686) bad switch size (*) (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(687) bad pushreg "*" (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. See
Section 5.7.2 for more information.

(688) bad popreg "*" (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(689) unknown predicate "*" (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(693) interrupt level may only be 0 (default) or 1 (Code Generator)

The only possible interrupt levels are 0 or 1. Check to ensure that all interrupt_level pragmas
use these levels.

#pragma interrupt_level 2 /* oops -- only 0 or 1 */

void interrupt isr(void)
{
/* isr code goes here */
}

(695) duplicate case label (*) (Code Generator)

There are two case labels with the same value in this switch statement, e.g.:

switch(in) {
case ’0’: /* if this is case ’0’... */
b++;
break;
case ’0’: /* then what is this case? */
b--;
break;
}

421
Error and Warning Messages

(696) out-of-range case label (*) (Code Generator)

This case label is not a value that the controlling expression can yield, and thus this label will never
be selected.

(697) non-constant case label (Code Generator)

A case label in this switch statement has a value which is not a constant.

(698) bit variables must be global or static (Code Generator)

A bit variable cannot be of type auto. If you require a bit variable with scope local to a block of
code or function, qualify it static, e.g.:

bit proc(int a)
{
bit bb; /* oops -- this should be: static bit bb; */
bb = (a > 66);
return bb;
}

(699) no case labels in switch (Code Generator)

There are no case labels in this switch statement, e.g.:

switch(input) {
} /* there is nothing to match the value of input */

(700) truncation of enumerated value (Code Generator)

An enumerated value larger than the maximum value supported by this compiler was detected and
has been truncated, e.g.:

enum { ZERO, ONE, BIG=0x99999999 } test_case;

(701) unreasonable matching depth (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(702) regused(): bad arg to G (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

422
Error and Warning Messages

(703) bad GN (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. See
Section 5.7.2 for more information.

(704) bad RET_MASK (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(705) bad which (*) after I (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(706) bad which in expand() (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(707) bad SX (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(708) bad mod "+" for how = "*" (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(709) metaregister "*" can’t be used directly (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(710) bad U usage (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(711) bad how in expand() (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

423
Error and Warning Messages

(712) can’t generate code for this expression (Code Generator)

This error indicates that a C expression is too difficult for the code generator to actually compile. For
successful code generation, the code generator must know how to compile an expression and there
must be enough resources (e.g. registers or temporary memory locations) available. Simplifying
the expression, e.g. using a temporary variable to hold an intermediate result, may get around this
message. Contact HI-TECH Support with details of this message.
This error may also be issued if the code being compiled is in some way unusual. For example
code which writes to a const-qualified object is illegal and will result in warning messages, but the
code generator may unsuccessfully try to produce code to perform the write.

(713) bad initialization list (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(714) bad intermediate code (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(715) bad pragma "*" (Code Generator)

The code generator has been passed a pragma directive that it does not understand. This implies that
the pragma you have used is a HI-TECH specific pragma, but the specific compiler you are using
has not implemented this pragma.

(716) bad argument to -M option "*" (Code Generator)

The code generator has been passed a -M option that it does not understand. This should not happen
if it is being invoked by a standard compiler driver.

(718) incompatible intermediate code version; should be *.* (Code Generator)

The intermediate code file produced by P1 is not the correct version for use with this code generator.
This is either that incompatible versions of one or more compilers have been installed in the same
directory, or a temporary file error has occurred leading to corruption of a temporary file. Check the
setting of the TEMP environment variable. If it refers to a long path name, change it to something
shorter. Contact HI-TECH Support with details if required.

(720) multiple free: * (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

424
Error and Warning Messages

(721) element count must be constant expression (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(722) bad variable syntax in intermediate code (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(723) function definitions nested too deep (Code Generator)

This error is unlikely to happen with C code, since C cannot have nested functions! Contact HI-
TECH Support with details.

(724) bad op (*) in revlog() (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(726) bad op "*" in uconval() (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(727) bad op "*" in bconfloat() (Code Generator)

This is an internal code generator error. Contact HI-TECH technical support with details.

(728) bad op "*" in confloat() (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(729) bad op "*" in conval() (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(730) bad op "*" (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(731) expression error with reserved word (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

425
Error and Warning Messages

(732) initialization of bit types is illegal (Code Generator)

Variables of type bit cannot be initialised, e.g.:

bit b1 = 1; /* oops!
b1 must be assigned after its definition */

(733) bad string "*" in pragma "psect" (Code Generator)

The code generator has been passed a pragma psect directive that has a badly formed string, e.g.:

#pragma psect text /* redirect text psect into what? */

Maybe you meant something like:

#pragma psect text=special_text

(734) too many "psect" pragmas (Code Generator)

Too many #pragma psect directives have been used.

(735) bad string "*" in pragma "stack_size" (Code Generator)

The argument to the stack_size pragma is malformed. This pragma must be followed by a number
representing the maximum allowed stack size.

(737) unknown argument "*" to pragma "switch" (Code Generator)

The #pragma switch directive has been used with an invalid switch code generation method. Pos-
sible arguments are: auto, simple and direct.

(739) error closing output file (Code Generator, Optimiser)

The compiler detected an error when closing a file. Contact HI-TECH Support with details.

(740) zero dimension array is illegal (Code Generator)

The code generator has been passed a declaration that results in an array having a zero dimension.

426
Error and Warning Messages

(741) bitfield too large (* bits) (Code Generator)

The maximum number of bits in a bit field is the same as the number of bits in an int, e.g. assuming
an int is 16 bits wide:

struct {
unsigned flag : 1;
unsigned value : 12;
unsigned cont : 6; /* oops -- that’s a total of 19 bits */
} object;

(742) function "*" argument evaluation overlapped (Linker)

A function call involves arguments which overlap between two functions. This could occur with a
call like:

void fn1(void)
{
fn3( 7, fn2(3), fn2(9)); /* Offending call */
}
char fn2(char fred)
{
return fred + fn3(5,1,0);
}
char fn3(char one, char two, char three)
{
return one+two+three;
}

where fn1 is calling fn3, and two arguments are evaluated by calling fn2, which in turn calls fn3.
The program structure should be modified to prevent this type of call sequence.

(743) divide by zero (Code Generator)

An expression involving a division by zero has been detected in your code.

(744) static object "*" has zero size (Code Generator)

A static object has been declared, but has a size of zero.

427
Error and Warning Messages

(745) nodecount = * (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(746) object "*" qualified const, but not initialized (Code Generator)
An object has been qualified as const, but there is no initial value supplied at the definition. As this
object cannot be written by the C program, this may imply the intial value was accidently omitted.

(747) unrecognized option "*" to -Z (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(748) variable "*" may be used before set (Code Generator)

This variable may be used before it has been assigned a value. Since it is an auto variable, this will
result in it having a random value, e.g.:

void main(void)
{
int a;
if(a) /* oops -- a has never been assigned a value */
process();
}

(749) unknown register name "*" used with pragma (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(750) constant operand to || or && (Code Generator)

One operand to the logical operators || or && is a constant. Check the expression for missing or
badly placed parentheses. This message may also occur if the global optimizer is enabled and one of
the operands is an auto or static local variable whose value has been tracked by the code generator,
e.g.:

{
int a;
a = 6;
if(a || b) /* a is 6, therefore this is always true */
b++;

428
Error and Warning Messages

(751) arithmetic overflow in constant expression (Code Generator)

A constant expression has been evaluated by the code generator that has resulted in a value that is
too big for the type of the expression. The most common code to trigger this warning is assignments
to signed data types. For example:

signed char c;
c = 0xFF;

As a signed 8-bit quantity, c can only be assigned values -128 to 127. The constant is equal to 255
and is outside this range. If you mean to set all bits in this variable, then use either of:

c = ~0x0;
c = -1;

which will set all the bits in the variable regardless of the size of the variable and without warning.
This warning can also be triggered by intermediate values overflowing. For example:

unsigned int i; /* assume ints are 16 bits wide */

i = 240 * 137; /* this should be okay, right? */

A quick check with your calculator reveals that 240 * 137 is 32880 which can easily be stored in
an unsigned int, but a warning is produced. Why? Because 240 and 137 and both signed int
values. Therefore the result of the multiplication must also be a signed int value, but a signed
int cannot hold the value 32880. (Both operands are constant values so the code generator can
evaluate this expression at compile time, but it must do so following all the ANSI rules.) The
following code forces the multiplication to be performed with an unsigned result:

i = 240u * 137; /* force at least one operand

to be unsigned */

(752) conversion to shorter data type (Code Generator)

Truncation may occur in this expression as the lvalue is of shorter type than the rvalue, e.g.:

char a;
int b, c;
a = b + c; /* int to char conversion
may result in truncation */

429
Error and Warning Messages

(753) undefined shift (* bits) (Code Generator)

An attempt has been made to shift a value by a number of bits equal to or greater than the number of
bits in the data type. This will produce an undefined result on many processors. This is non-portable
code and is flagged as having undefined results by the C Standard, e.g.:

int input;
input < <= 33; /* oops -- that shifts the entire value out */

(754) bitfield comparison out of range (Code Generator)

This is the result of comparing a bitfield with a value when the value is out of range of the bitfield.
For example, comparing a 2-bit bitfield to the value 5 will never be true as a 2-bit bitfield has a range
from 0 to 3, e.g.:

struct {
unsigned mask : 2; /* mask can hold values 0 to 3 */
} value;
int compare(void)
{
return (value.mask == 6); /* test can
}

(755) divide by zero (Code Generator)

A constant expression that was being evaluated involved a division by zero, e.g.:

a /= 0; /* divide by 0: was this what you were intending */

(757) constant conditional branch (Code Generator)

A conditional branch (generated by an if, for, while statement etc.) always follows the same path.
This will be some sort of comparison involving a variable and a constant expression. For the code
generator to issue this message, the variable must have local scope (either auto or static local) and
the global optimizer must be enabled, possibly at higher level than 1, and the warning level threshold
may need to be lower than the default level of 0.
The global optimizer keeps track of the contents of local variables for as long as is possible during
a function. For C code that compares these variables to constants, the result of the comparison can
be deduced at compile time and the output code hard coded to avoid the comparison, e.g.:

430
Error and Warning Messages

{
int a, b;
a = 5;
/* this can never be false;
always perform the true statement */
if(a == 4)
b = 6;
will produce code that sets a to 5, then immediately sets b to 6. No code will be produced for the
comparison if(a == 4). If a was a global variable, it may be that other functions (particularly
interrupt functions) may modify it and so tracking the variable cannot be performed.
This warning may indicate more than an optimization made by the compiler. It may indicate an
expression with missing or badly placed parentheses, causing the evaluation to yield a value different
to what you expected.
This warning may also be issued because you have written something like while(1). To produce
an infinite loop, use for(;;).
A similar situation arises with for loops, e.g.:
{
int a, b;
/* this loop must iterate at least once */
for(a=0; a!=10; a++)
b = func(a);
In this case the code generator can again pick up that a is assigned the value 0, then immediately
checked to see if it is equal to 10. Because a is modified during the for loop, the comparison
code cannot be removed, but the code generator will adjust the code so that the comparison is not
performed on the first pass of the loop; only on the subsequent passes. This may not reduce code
size, but it will speed program execution.

(758) constant conditional branch: possible use of "=" instead of "==" (Code Generator)
There is an expression inside an if or other conditional construct, where a constant is being assigned
to a variable. This may mean you have inadvertently used an assignment = instead of a compare ==,
e.g.:
int a, b;
/* this can never be false;
always perform the true statement */
if(a = 4)
b = 6;

431
Error and Warning Messages

will assign the value 4 to a, then , as the value of the assignment is always true, the comparison can
be omitted and the assignment to b always made. Did you mean:

/* this can never be false;

always perform the true statement */
if(a == 4)
b = 6;

which checks to see if a is equal to 4.

(759) expression generates no code (Code Generator)

This expression generates no output code. Check for things like leaving off the parentheses in a
function call, e.g.:

int fred;
fred; /* this is valid, but has no effect at all */

Some devices require that special function register need to be read to clear hardware flags. To
accommodate this, in some instances the code generator does produce code for a statement which
only consists of a variable ID. This may happen for variables which are qualified as volatile.
Typically the output code will read the variable, but not do anything with the value read.

(760) portion of expression has no effect (Code Generator)

Part of this expression has no side effects, and no effect on the value of the expression, e.g.:

int a, b, c;
a = b,c; /* “b” has no effect,
was that meant to be a comma? */

(761) sizeof yields 0 (Code Generator)

The code generator has taken the size of an object and found it to be zero. This almost certainly
indicates an error in your declaration of a pointer, e.g. you may have declared a pointer to a zero
length array. In general, pointers to arrays are of little use. If you require a pointer to an array of
objects of unknown length, you only need a pointer to a single object that can then be indexed or
incremented.

432
Error and Warning Messages

(762) constant truncated when assigned to bitfield (Code Generator)

A constant value is too large for a bitfield structure member to which it is being assigned, e.g.

struct INPUT {
unsigned a : 3;
unsigned b : 5;
} input_grp;
input_grp.a = 0x12;
/* 12h cannot fit into a 3-bit wide object */

(763) constant left operand to "? :" operator (Code Generator)

The left operand to a conditional operator ? is constant, thus the result of the tertiary operator ?:
will always be the same, e.g.:

a = 8 ? b : c; /* this is the same as saying a = b; */

(764) mismatched comparison (Code Generator)

A comparison is being made between a variable or expression and a constant value which is not in
the range of possible values for that expression, e.g.:

unsigned char c;
if(c > 300) /* oops -- how can this be true? */
close();

(765) degenerate unsigned comparison (Code Generator)

There is a comparison of an unsigned value with zero, which will always be true or false, e.g.:

unsigned char c;
if(c >= 0)

will always be true, because an unsigned value can never be less than zero.

(766) degenerate signed comparison (Code Generator)

There is a comparison of a signed value with the most negative value possible for this type, such
that the comparison will always be true or false, e.g.:

433
Error and Warning Messages

char c;
if(c >= -128)

will always be true, because an 8 bit signed char has a maximum negative value of -128.

(767) constant truncated to bitfield width (Code Generator)

A constant value is too large for a bitfield structure member on which it is operating, e.g.

struct INPUT {
unsigned a : 3;
unsigned b : 5;
} input_grp;
input_grp.a |= 0x13;
/* 13h to large for 3-bit wide object */

(768) constant relational expression (Code Generator)

There is a relational expression that will always be true or false. This may be because e.g. you are
comparing an unsigned number with a negative value, or comparing a variable with a value greater
than the largest number it can represent, e.g.:

unsigned int a;
if(a == -10) /* if a is unsigned, how can it be -10? */
b = 9;

(769) no space for macro definition (Assembler)

The assembler has run out of memory.

(772) include files nested too deep (Assembler)

Macro expansions and include file handling have filled up the assembler’s internal stack. The maxi-
mum number of open macros and include files is 30.

(773) macro expansions nested too deep (Assembler)

Macro expansions in the assembler are nested too deep. The limit is 30 macros and include files
nested at one time.

434
Error and Warning Messages

(774) too many macro parameters (Assembler)

There are too many macro parameters on this macro definition.

(776) can’t allocate space for object "*" (offs: *) (Assembler)

The assembler has run out of memory.

(777) can’t allocate space for opnd structure within object "*", (offs: *) (Assembler)
The assembler has run out of memory.

(780) too many psects defined (Assembler)

There are too many psects defined! Boy, what a program!

(781) can’t enter abs psect (Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(782) REMSYM error (Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(783) "with" psects are cyclic (Assembler)

If Psect A is to be placed “with” Psect B, and Psect B is to be placed “with” Psect A, there is no
hierarchy. The with flag is an attribute of a psect and indicates that this psect must be placed in the
same memory page as the specified psect.
Remove a with flag from one of the psect declarations. Such an assembler declaration may look
like:

psect my_text,local,class=CODE,with=basecode

which will define a psect called my_text and place this in the same page as the psect basecode.

(784) overfreed (Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

435
Error and Warning Messages

(785) too many temporary labels (Assembler)

There are too many temporary labels in this assembler file. The assembler allows a maximum of
2000 temporary labels.

(787) can’t handle "v_rtype" of * in copyexpr (Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(788) invalid character "*" in number (Assembler)

A number contained a character that was not part of the range 0-9 or 0-F.

(790) end of file inside conditional (Assembler)

END-of-FILE was encountered while scanning for an "endif" to match a previous "if".

(793) unterminated macro argument (Assembler)

An argument to a macro is not terminated. Note that angle brackets ("< >") are used to quote macro
arguments.

(794) invalid number syntax (Assembler, Optimiser)

The syntax of a number is invalid. This can be, e.g. use of 8 or 9 in an octal number, or other
malformed numbers.

(796) use of LOCAL outside macros is illegal (Assembler)

The LOCAL directive is only legal inside macros. It defines local labels that will be unique for each
invocation of the macro.

(797) syntax error in LOCAL argument (Assembler)

A symbol defined using the LOCAL assembler directive in an assembler macro is syntactically incor-
rect. Ensure that all symbols and all other assembler identifiers conform with the assembly language
of the target device.

436
Error and Warning Messages

(798) macro argument may not appear after LOCAL (Assembler)

The list of labels after the directive LOCAL may not include any of the formal parameters to the
macro, e.g.:

mmm macro a1
move r0, #a1
LOCAL a1 ; oops --
; the macro parameter cannot be used with local
ENDM

(799) REPT argument must be >= 0 (Assembler)

The argument to a REPT directive must be greater than zero, e.g.:

rept -2 ; -2 copies of this code? */

move r0, [r1]++
endm

(800) undefined symbol "*" (Assembler)

The named symbol is not defined in this module, and has not been specified GLOBAL.

(801) range check too complex (Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(802) invalid address after END directive (Assembler)

The start address of the program which is specified after the assembler END directive must be a label
in the current file.

(803) undefined temporary label (Assembler)

A temporary label has been referenced that is not defined. Note that a temporary label must have a
number >= 0.

(804) write error on object file (Assembler)

The assembler failed to write to an object file. This may be an internal compiler error. Contact
HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

437
Error and Warning Messages

(805) non-whitespace ignored after END directive (Assembler)

The END directive, if used, indicates the end of the source file. If there are non-whitespace characters
after the END directive, then the directive is does actually mark the end of the file.

(806) attempted to get an undefined object (*) (Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(807) attempted to set an undefined object (*) (Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(808) bad size in add_reloc() (Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(809) unknown addressing mode (*) (Assembler, Optimiser)

An unknown addressing mode was used in the assembly file.

(811) "cnt" too large (*) in display() (Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(814) processor type not defined (Assembler)

The processor must be defined either from the command line (eg. -16c84), via the PROCESSOR
assembler directive, or via the LIST assembler directive.

(815) syntax error in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file contains non-standard syntax at the specified line.

(816) duplicate ARCH specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Assembler, Driver)
The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple ARCH values. Only one ARCH value is
allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details.

(817) unknown architecture in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver)

An chip architecture (family) that is unknown was encountered when reading the chip INI file.

438
Error and Warning Messages

(818) duplicate BANKS for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple BANKS values. Only one BANKS value is
allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details.

(819) duplicate ZEROREG for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple ZEROREG values. Only one ZEROREG
value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with
details.

(820) duplicate SPAREBIT for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple SPAREBIT values. Only one SPAREBIT
value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with
details.

(822) duplicate ROMSIZE for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple ROMSIZE values. Only one ROMSIZE value
is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details.

(823) duplicate START for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple START values. Only one START value is
allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details.

(824) duplicate LIB for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple LIB values. Only one LIB value is allowed.
If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details.

(825) too many RAMBANK lines in chipinfo file for "*" (Assembler)
The chipinfo file contains a processor section with too many RAMBANK fields. Reduce the number
of values.

(826) inverted ram bank in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver)

The second hex number specified in the RAM field in the chipinfo file must be greater in value than
the first.

439
Error and Warning Messages

(827) too many COMMON lines in chipinfo file for "*" (Assembler)
There are too many lines specifying common (access bank) memory in the chip configuration file.

(828) inverted common bank in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver)

The second hex number specified in the COMMON field in the chipinfo file must be greater in value
than the first. Contact HI-TECH Support if you have not modified the chipinfo INI file.

(829) unrecognized line in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file contains a processor section with an unrecognised line. Contact HI-TECH Support
if the INI has not been edited.

(830) missing ARCH specification for "*" in chipinfo file (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a processor section without an ARCH values. The architecture of the processor
must be specified. Contact HI-TECH Support if the chipinfo file has not been modified.

(832) empty chip info file "*" (Assembler)

The chipinfo file contains no data. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-
TECH Support with details.

(833) no valid entries in chipinfo file (Assembler)

The chipinfo file contains no valid processor descriptions.

(834) page width must be >= 60 (Assembler)

The listing page width must be at least 60 characters. Any less will not allow a properly formatted
listing to be produced, e.g.:

LIST C=10 ; the page width will need to be wider than this

(835) form length must be >= 15 (Assembler)

The form length specified using the -Flength option must be at least 15 lines. Setting this length
to zero is allowed and turns off paging altogether. The default value is zero (pageless).

440
Error and Warning Messages

(836) no file arguments (Assembler)

The assembler has been invoked without any file arguments. It cannot assemble anything.

(839) relocation too complex (Assembler)

The complex relocation in this expression is too big to be inserted into the object file.

(840) phase error (Assembler)

The assembler has calculated a different value for a symbol on two different passes. This is probably
due to bizarre use of macros or conditional assembly.

(842) bad bit number (Assembler, Optimiser)

A bit number must be an absolute expression in the range 0-7.

(843) a macro name can’t also be an EQU/SET symbol (Assembler)

An EQU or SET symbol has been found with the same name as a macro. This is not allowed. For
example:

getval MACRO
mov r0, r1
ENDM
getval EQU 55h ; oops -- choose a different name to the macro

(844) lexical error (Assembler, Optimiser)

An unrecognized character or token has been seen in the input.

(845) symbol "*" defined more than once (Assembler)

This symbol has been defined in more than one place. The assembler will issue this error if a symbol
is defined more than once in the same module, e.g.:

_next:
move r0, #55
move [r1], r0
_next: ; oops -- choose a different name

441
Error and Warning Messages

The linker will issue this warning if the symbol (C or assembler) was defined multiple times in
different modules. The names of the modules are given in the error message. Note that C identifiers
often have an underscore prepended to their name after compilation.

(846) relocation error (Assembler, Optimiser)

It is not possible to add together two relocatable quantities. A constant may be added to a relocatable
value, and two relocatable addresses in the same psect may be subtracted. An absolute value must
be used in various places where the assembler must know a value at assembly time.

(847) operand error (Assembler, Optimiser)

The operand to this opcode is invalid. Check your assembler reference manual for the proper form
of operands for this instruction.

(849) illegal instruction for this processor (Assembler)

The instruction is not supported by this processor.

(850) PAGESEL not usable with this processor (Assembler)

The PAGESEL pseudo-instruction is not usable with the device selected.

(852) radix must be from 2 - 16 (Assembler)

The radix specified using the RADIX assembler directive must be in the range from 2 (binary) to 16
(hexadecimal).

(853) invalid size for FNSIZE directive (Assembler)

The assembler FNSIZE assembler directive arguments must be positive constants.

(855) ORG argument must be a positive constant (Assembler)

An argument to the ORG assembler directive must be a positive constant or a symbol which has been
equated to a positive constant, e.g.:

ORG -10 /* this must a positive offset to the current psect */

442
Error and Warning Messages

(856) ALIGN argument must be a positive constant (Assembler)

The align assembler directive requires a non-zero positive integer argument.

(857) psect may not be local and global (Linker)

A local psect may not have the same name as a global psect, e.g.:
psect text,class=CODE ; text is implicitly global
move r0, r1
; elsewhere:
psect text,local,class=CODE
move r2, r4
The global flag is the default for a psect if its scope is not explicitly stated.

(859) argument to C option must specify a positive constant (Assembler)

The parameter to the LIST assembler control’s C= option (which sets the column width of the listing
output) must be a positive decimal constant number, e.g.:
LIST C=a0h ; constant must be decimal and positive,
try: LIST C=80

(860) page width must be >= 49 (Assembler)

The page width suboption to the LIST assembler directive must specify a with of at least 49.

(861) argument to N option must specify a positive constant (Assembler)

The parameter to the LIST assembler control’s N option (which sets the page length for the listing
output) must be a positive constant number, e.g.:
LIST N=-3 ; page length must be positive

(862) symbol is not external (Assembler)

A symbol has been declared as EXTRN but is also defined in the current module.

(863) symbol can’t be both extern and public (Assembler)

If the symbol is declared as extern, it is to be imported. If it is declared as public, it is to be exported
from the current module. It is not possible for a symbol to be both.

443
Error and Warning Messages

(864) argument to "size" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive’s size option must be a positive constant number,
e.g.:

PSECT text,class=CODE,size=-200 ; a negative size?

(865) psect flag "size" redefined (Assembler)

The size flag to the PSECT assembler directive is different from a previous PSECT directive, e.g.:

psect spdata,class=RAM,size=400
; elsewhere:
psect spdata,class=RAM,size=500

(866) argument to "reloc" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive’s reloc option must be a positive constant number,
e.g.:

psect test,class=CODE,reloc=-4 ; the reloc must be positive

(867) psect flag "reloc" redefined (Assembler)

The reloc flag to the PSECT assembler directive is different from a previous PSECT directive, e.g.:

psect spdata,class=RAM,reloc=4
; elsewhere:
psect spdata,class=RAM,reloc=8

(868) argument to "delta" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive’s DELTA option must be a positive constant number,
e.g.:

PSECT text,class=CODE,delta=-2 ; negative delta value doesn’t make sense

(869) psect flag "delta" redefined (Assembler)

The ’DELTA’ option of a psect has been redefined more than once in the same module.

444
Error and Warning Messages

(870) argument to "pad" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive’s ’PAD’ option must be a non-zero positive integer.

(871) argument to "space" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive’s space option must be a positive constant number,
e.g.:

PSECT text,class=CODE,space=-1 ; space values start at zero

(872) psect flag "space" redefined (Assembler)

The space flag to the PSECT assembler directive is different from a previous PSECT directive, e.g.:

psect spdata,class=RAM,space=0
; elsewhere:
psect spdata,class=RAM,space=1

(873) a psect may only be in one class (Assembler)

You cannot assign a psect to more than one class. The psect was defined differently at this point than
when it was defined elsewhere. A psect’s class is specified via a flag as in the following:

psect text,class=CODE

Look for other psect definitions that specify a different class name.

(874) a psect may only have one "with" option (Assembler)

A psect can only be placed with one other psect. A psect’s with option is specified via a flag as in
the following:

psect bss,with=data

Look for other psect definitions that specify a different with psect name.

(875) bad character constant in expression (Assembler,Optimizer)

The character constant was expected to consist of only one character, but was found to be greater
than one character or none at all. An assembler specific example:

mov r0, #’12’ ; ’12’ specifies two characters

445
Error and Warning Messages

(876) syntax error (Assembler, Optimiser)

A syntax error has been detected. This could be caused a number of things.

(877) yacc stack overflow (Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(878) -S option used: "*" ignored (Driver)

The indicated assembly file has been supplied to the driver in conjunction with the -S option. The
driver really has nothing to do since the file is already an assembly file.

(880) invalid number of parameters. Use "* –HELP" for help (Driver)
Improper command-line usage of the of the compiler’s driver.

(881) setup succeeded (Driver)

The compiler has been successfully setup using the --setup driver option.

(883) setup failed (Driver)

The compiler was not successfully setup using the --setup driver option. Ensure that the directory
argument to this option is spelt correctly, is syntactically correct for your host operating system and
it exists.

(884) please ensure you have write permissions to the configuration file (Driver)
The compiler was not successfully setup using the --setup driver option because the driver was
unable to access the XML configuration file. Ensure that you have write permission to this file. The
driver will search the following configuration files in order:

• the file specified by the environment variable HTC_XML

• the file /etc/htsoft.xml if the directory ’/etc’ is writable and there is no .htsoft.xml file
in your home directory

• the file .htsoft.xml file in your home directory

If none of the files can be located then the above error will occur.

446
Error and Warning Messages

(889) this * compiler has expired (Driver)

The demo period for this compiler has concluded.

(890) contact HI-TECH Software to purchase and re-activate this compiler (Driver)
The evaluation period of this demo installation of the compiler has expired. You will need to pur-
chase the compiler to re-activate it. If however you sincerely believe the evaluation period has ended
prematurely please contact HI-TECH technical support.

(891) can’t open psect usage map file "*": * (Driver)

The driver was unable to open the indicated file. The psect usage map file is generated by the
driver when the driver option --summary=file is used. Ensure that the file is not open in another
application.

(892) can’t open memory usage map file "*": * (Driver)

The driver was unable to open the indicated file. The memory usage map file is generated by the
driver when the driver option --summary=file is used. Ensure that the file is not open in another
application.

(893) can’t open HEX usage map file "*": * (Driver)

The driver was unable to open the indicated file. The HEX usage map file is generated by the
driver when the driver option --summary=file is used. Ensure that the file is not open in another
application.

(894) unknown source file type "*" (Driver)

The extension of the indicated input file could not be determined. Only files with the extensions as,
c, obj, usb, p1, lib or hex are identified by the driver.

(895) can’t request and specify options in the one command (Driver)
The usage of the driver options --getoption and --setoption is mutually exclusive.

(896) no memory ranges specified for data space (Driver)

No on-chip or external memory ranges have been specified for the data space memory for the device
specified.

447
Error and Warning Messages

(897) no memory ranges specified for program space (Driver)

No on-chip or external memory ranges have been specified for the program space memory for the
device specified.

(899) can’t open option file "*" for application "*": * (Driver)
An option file specified by a --getoption or --setoption driver option could not be opened. If
you are using the --setoption option ensure that the name of the file is spelt correctly and that
it exists. If you are using the --getoption option ensure that this file can be created at the given
location or that it is not in use by any other application.

(900) exec failed: * (Driver)

The subcomponent listed failed to execute. Does the file exist? Try re-installing the compiler.

(902) no chip name specified; use "* –CHIPINFO" to see available chip names (Driver)
The driver was invoked without selecting what chip to build for. Running the driver with the –
CHIPINFO option will display a list of all chips that could be selected to build for.

(904) illegal format specified in "*" option (Driver)

The usage of this option was incorrect. Confirm correct usage with –HELP or refer to the part of the
manual that discusses this option.

(905) illegal application specified in "*" option (Driver)

The application given to this option is not understood or does not belong to the compiler.

(907) unknown memory space tag "*" in "*" option specification (Driver)
A parameter to this memory option was a string but did not match any valid tags. Refer to the section
of this manual that describes this option to see what tags (if any) are valid for this device.

(908) exit status = * (Driver)

One of the subcomponents being executed encountered a problem and returned an error code. Other
messages should have been reported by the subcomponent to explain the problem that was encoun-
tered.

448
Error and Warning Messages

(913) "*" option may cause compiler errors in some standard header files (Driver)
Using this option will invalidate some of the qualifiers used in the standard header files resulting in
errors. This issue and its solution are detailed in the section of this manual that specifically discusses
this option.

(915) no room for arguments (Preprocessor, Parser, Code Generator, Linker, Objtohex)
The code generator could not allocate any more memory.

(917) argument too long (Preprocessor, Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(918) *: no match (Preprocessor, Parser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(919) * in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

The specified parameter in the chip configuration file is illegal.

(920) empty chipinfo file (Driver, Assembler)

The chip configuration file was able to be opened but it was empty. Try re-installing the compiler.

(922) chip "*" not present in chipinfo file "*" (Driver)

The chip selected does not appear in the compiler’s chip configuration file. You may need to contact
HI-TECH Software to see if support for this device is available or upgrade the version of your
compiler.

(923) unknown suboption "*" (Driver)

This option can take suboptions, but this suboption is not understood. This may just be a simple
spelling error. If not, –HELP to look up what suboptions are permitted here.

(924) missing argument to "*" option (Driver)

This option expects more data but none was given. Check the usage of this option.

449
Error and Warning Messages

(925) extraneous argument to "*" option (Driver)

This option does not accept additional data, yet additional data was given. Check the usage of this
option.

(926) duplicate "*" option (Driver)

This option can only appear once, but appeared more than once.

(928) bad "*" option value (Driver, Assembler)

The indicated option was expecting a valid hexadecimal integer argument.

(929) bad "*" option ranges (Driver)

This option was expecting a parameter in a range format (start_of_range-end_of_range), but the
parameter did not conform to this syntax.

(930) bad "*" option specification (Driver)

The parameters to this option were not specified correctly. Run the driver with –HELP or refer to
the driver’s chapter in this manual to verify the correct usage of this option.

(931) command file not specified (Driver)

Command file to this application, expected to be found after ’@’ or ’<’ on the command line was
not found.

(939) no file arguments (Driver)

The driver has been invoked with no input files listed on its command line. If you are getting this
message while building through a third party IDE, perhaps the IDE could not verify the source files
to compile or object files to link and withheld them from the command line.

(940) *-bit checksum * placed at * (Objtohex)

Presenting the result of the requested checksum calculation.

(941) bad "*" assignment; USAGE: ** (Hexmate)

An option to Hexmate was incorrectly used or incomplete. Follow the usage supplied by the message
and ensure that that the option has been formed correctly and completely.

450
Error and Warning Messages

(942) unexpected character on line * of file "*" (Hexmate)

File contains a character that was not valid for this type of file, the file may be corrupt. For example,
an Intel hex file is expected to contain only ASCII representations of hexadecimal digits, colons (:)
and line formatting. The presence of any other characters will result in this error.

(944) data conflict at address *h between * and * (Hexmate)

Sources to Hexmate request differing data to be stored to the same address. To force one data source
to override the other, use the ’+’ specifier. If the two named sources of conflict are the same source,
then the source may contain an error.

(945) checksum range (*h to *h) contained an indeterminate value (Hexmate)

The range for this checksum calculation contained a value that could not be resolved. This can
happen if the checksum result was to be stored within the address range of the checksum calculation.

(948) checksum result width must be between 1 and 4 bytes (Hexmate)

The requested checksum byte size is illegal. Checksum results must be within 1 to 4 bytes wide.
Check the parameters to the -CKSUM option.

(949) start of checksum range must be less than end of range (Hexmate)
The -CKSUM option has been given a range where the start is greater than the end. The parameters
may be incomplete or entered in the wrong order.

(951) start of fill range must be less than end of range (Hexmate)
The -FILL option has been given a range where the start is greater than the end. The parameters may
be incomplete or entered in the wrong order.

(953) unknown -HELP sub-option: * (Hexmate)

Invalid sub-option passed to -HELP. Check the spelling of the sub-option or use -HELP with no
sub-option to list all options.

(956) -SERIAL value must be between 1 and * bytes long (Hexmate)

The serial number being stored was out of range. Ensure that the serial number can be stored in the
number of bytes permissible by this option.

451
Error and Warning Messages

(958) too many input files specified; * file maximum (Hexmate)

Too many file arguments have been used. Try merging these files in several stages rather than in one
command.

(960) unexpected record type (*) on line * of "*" (Hexmate)

Intel hex file contained an invalid record type. Consult the Intel hex format specification for valid
record types.

(962) forced data conflict at address *h between * and * (Hexmate)

Sources to Hexmate force differing data to be stored to the same address. More than one source
using the ’+’ specifier store data at the same address. The actual data stored there may not be what
you expect.

(963) checksum range includes voids or unspecified memory locations (Hexmate)

Checksum range had gaps in data content. The runtime calculated checksum is likely to differ from
the compile-time checksum due to gaps/unused byes within the address range that the checksum is
calculated over. Filling unused locations with a known value will correct this.

(964) unpaired nibble in -FILL value will be truncated (Hexmate)

The hexadecimal code given to the FILL option contained an incomplete byte. The incomplete byte
(nibble) will be disregarded.

(965) -STRPACK option not yet implemented, option will be ignored (Hexmate)
This option currently is not available and will be ignored.

(966) no END record for HEX file "*" (Hexmate)

Intel hex file did not contain a record of type END. The hex file may be incomplete.

(967) unused function definition "*" (from line *) (Parser)

The indicated static function was never called in the module being compiled. Being static, the
function cannot be called from other modules so this warning implies the function is never used.
Either the function is redundant, or the code that was meant to call it was excluded from compilation
or misspelt the name of the function.

452
Error and Warning Messages

(968) unterminated string (Assembler, Optimiser)

A string constant appears not to have a closing quote missing.

(969) end of string in format specifier (Parser)

The format specifier for the printf() style function is malformed.

(970) character not valid at this point in format specifier (Parser)

The printf() style format specifier has an illegal character.

(971) type modifiers not valid with this format (Parser)

Type modifiers may not be used with this format.

(972) only modifiers "h" and "l" valid with this format (Parser)

Only modifiers h (short) and l (long) are legal with this printf format specifier.

(973) only modifier "l" valid with this format (Parser)

The only modifier that is legal with this format is l (for long).

(974) type modifier already specified (Parser)

This type modifier has already be specified in this type.

(975) invalid format specifier or type modifier (Parser)

The format specifier or modifier in the printf-style string is illegal for this particular format.

(976) field width not valid at this point (Parser)

A field width may not appear at this point in a printf() type format specifier.

453
Error and Warning Messages

(978) this identifier is already an enum tag (Parser)

This identifier following a struct or union keyword is already the tag for an enumerated type, and
thus should only follow the keyword enum, e.g.:

enum IN {ONE=1, TWO};

struct IN { /* oops -- IN is already defined */
int a, b;
};

(979) this identifier is already a struct tag (Parser)

This identifier following a union or enum keyword is already the tag for a structure, and thus should
only follow the keyword struct, e.g.:

struct IN {
int a, b;
};
enum IN {ONE=1, TWO}; /* oops -- IN is already defined */

(980) this identifier is already a union tag (Parser)

This identifier following a struct or enum keyword is already the tag for a union, and thus should
only follow the keyword union, e.g.:

union IN {
int a, b;
};
enum IN {ONE=1, TWO}; /* oops -- IN is already defined */

(981) pointer required (Parser)

A pointer is required here, e.g.:

struct DATA data;

data->a = 9; /* data is a structure,
not a pointer to a structure */

(982) unknown op "*" in nxtuse() (Optimiser,Assembler)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

454
Error and Warning Messages

(983) storage class redeclared (Parser)

A variable previously declared as being static, has now be redeclared as extern.

(984) type redeclared (Parser)

The type of this function or object has been redeclared. This can occur because of two incompatible
declarations, or because an implicit declaration is followed by an incompatible declaration, e.g.:

int a;
char a; /* oops -- what is the correct type? */

(985) qualifiers redeclared (Parser)

This function or variable has different qualifiers in different declarations.

(986) enum member redeclared (Parser)

A member of an enumeration is defined twice or more with differing values. Does the member
appear twice in the same list or does the name of the member appear in more than one enum list?

(987) arguments redeclared (Parser)

The data types of the parameters passed to this function do not match its prototype.

(988) number of arguments redeclared (Parser)

The number of arguments in this function declaration does not agree with a previous declaration of
the same function.

(989) module has code below file base of *h (Linker)

This module has code below the address given, but the -C option has been used to specify that a
binary output file is to be created that is mapped to this address. This would mean code from this
module would have to be placed before the beginning of the file! Check for missing psect directives
in assembler files.

455
Error and Warning Messages

(990) modulus by zero in #if; zero result assumed (Preprocessor)

A modulus operation in a #if expression has a zero divisor. The result has been assumed to be zero,
e.g.:

#define ZERO 0
#if FOO%ZERO /* this will have an assumed result of 0 */
#define INTERESTING
#endif

(991) integer expression required (Parser)

In an enum declaration, values may be assigned to the members, but the expression must evaluate to
a constant of type int, e.g.:

enum {one = 1, two, about_three = 3.12};

/* no non-int values allowed */

(992) can’t find op (Assembler, Optimiser)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(993) some command-line options are disabled (Driver)

The compiler is operating in demo mode. Some command-line options are disabled.

(994) some command-line options are disabled and compilation is delayed (Driver)
The compiler is operating in demo mode. Some command-line options are disabled, the compilation
speed will be slower.

(995) some command-line options are disabled, code size is limited to 16kB, compilation is
delayed (Driver)
The compiler is operating in demo mode. Some command-line options are disabled, the compilation
speed will be slower, and the maximum allowed code size is limited to 16kB.

(1003) nested "if" directives too deep (Assembler)

A series of assembler IF directives have been nested too deep. The maximum depth may vary but
typically 10 levels are permitted.

456
Error and Warning Messages

(1013) argument to "limit" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The value of the limit flag as used in a psect’s declaration must be a positive constant. A negative
limit is not permissible.

(1014) psect flag "limit" redefined (Assembler)

The limit flag in a psect declaration has been redeclared with a differing. It is not necessary to
redeclare this flag.

(1015) missing "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

This attribute was expected to appear at least once but was not defined for this chip.

(1016) missing argument* to "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)
This value of this attribute is blank in the chip configuration file.

(1017) extraneous argument* to "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)
There are too many attributes for the the listed specification in the chip configuration file.

(1018) illegal number of "*" specification* (* found; * expected) in chipinfo file "*" at line *
(Driver)
This attribute was expected to appear a certain number of times but it did not for this chip.

(1019) duplicate "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

This attribute can only be defined once but has been defined more than once for this chip.

(1020) unknown attribute "*" in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

The chip configuration file contains an attribute that is not understood by this version of the com-
piler. Has the chip configuration file or the driver been replaced with an equivalent component from
another version of this compiler?

(1021) syntax error reading "*" value in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)
The chip configuration file incorrectly defines the specified value for this device. If you are modify-
ing this file yourself, take care and refer to the comments at the beginning of this file for a description
on what type of values are expected here.

457
Error and Warning Messages

(1022) syntax error reading "*" range in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)
The chip configuration file incorrectly defines the specified range for this device. If you are modify-
ing this file yourself, take care and refer to the comments at the beginning of this file for a description
on what type of values are expected here.

(1024) syntax error in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

The chip configuration file contains a syntax error at the line specified.

(1025) unknown architecture in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

The attribute at the line indicated defines an architecture that is unknown to this compiler.

(1026) missing architecture in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a processor section without an ARCH values. The architecture of the processor
must be specified. Contact HI-TECH Support if the chipinfo file has not been modified.

(1027) activation was successful (Driver)

The compiler was successfully activated.

(1028) activation was not successful - error code (*) (Driver)

The compiler did not activated successfully.

(1029) compiler not installed correctly - error code (*) (Driver)

This compiler has failed to find any activation information and cannot proceed to execute. The com-
piler may have been installed incorrectly or incompletely. The error code quoted can help diagnose
the reason for this failure. You may be asked for this failure code if contacting HI-TECH Software
for assistance with this problem.

(1030) HEXMATE - Intel hex editing utility (Build 1.%i) (Hexmate)

Indicating the version number of the Hexmate being executed.

(1031) USAGE: * [input1.hex] [input2.hex]... [inputN.hex] [options] (Hexmate)

The suggested usage of Hexmate.

458
Error and Warning Messages

(1032) use –HELP=<option> for usage of these command line options (Hexmate)
More detailed information is available for a specific option by passing that option to the HELP
option.

(1033) available command-line options: (Hexmate)

This is a simple heading that appears before the list of available options for this application.

(1034) type "*" for available options (Hexmate)

It looks like you need help. This advisory suggests how to get more information about the options
available to this application or the usage of these options.

(1035) bad argument count (*) (Parser)

The number of arguments to a function is unreasonable. This is an internal compiler error. Contact
HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1036) bad "*" optional header length (0x* expected) (Cromwell)

The length of the optional header in this COFF file was of an incorrect length.

(1037) short read on * (Cromwell)

When reading the type of data indicated in this message, it terminated before reaching its specified
length.

(1038) string table length too short (Cromwell)

The specified length of the COFF string table is less than the minimum.

(1039) inconsistent symbol count (Cromwell)

The number of symbols in the symbol table has exceeded the number indicated in the COFF header.

(1040) bad checksum: record 0x*, checksum 0x* (Cromwell)

A record of the type specified failed to match its own checksum value.

459
Error and Warning Messages

(1041) short record (Cromwell)

While reading a file, one of the file’s records ended short of its specified length.

(1042) unknown * record type 0x* (Cromwell)

The type indicator of this record did not match any valid types for this file format.

(1043) unknown optional header (Cromwell)

When reading this Microchip COFF file, the optional header within the file header was of an incor-
rect length.

(1044) end of file encountered (Cromwell, Linker)

The end of the file was found while more data was expected. Has this input file been truncated?

(1045) short read on block of * bytes (Cromwell)

A while reading a block of byte data from a UBROF record, the block ended before the expected
length.

(1046) short string read (Cromwell)

A while reading a string from a UBROF record, the string ended before the specified length.

(1047) bad type byte for UBROF file (Cromwell)

This UBROF file did not begin with the correct record.

(1048) bad time/date stamp (Cromwell)

This UBROF file has a bad time/date stamp.

(1049) wrong CRC on 0x* bytes; should be * (Cromwell)

An end record has a mismatching CRC value in this UBROF file.

(1050) bad date in 0x52 record (Cromwell)

A debug record has a bad date component in this UBROF file.

460
Error and Warning Messages

(1051) bad date in 0x01 record (Cromwell)

A start of program record or segment record has a bad date component in this UBROF file.

(1052) unknown record type (Cromwell)

A record type could not be determined when reading this UBROF file.

(1058) assertion (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1059) rewrite loop (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1081) static initialization of persistent variable "*" (Parser, Code Generator)

A persistent variable has been assigned an initial value. This is somewhat contradictory as the initial
value will be assigned to the variable during execution of the compiler’s startup code, however the
persistent qualifier requests that this variable shall be unchanged by the compiler’s startup code.

(1082) size of initialized array element is zero (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1088) function pointer "*" is used but never assigned a value (Code Generator)
A function call involving a function pointer was made, but the pointer was never assigned a target
address, e.g.:

void (*fp)(int);
fp(23); /* oops -- what function does fp point to? */

(1089) recursive function call to "*" (Code Generator)

A recursive call to the specified function has been found. The call may be direct or indirect (using
function pointers) and may be either a function calling itself, or calling another function whose call
graph includes the function under consideration.

461
Error and Warning Messages

(1090) variable "*" is not used (Code Generator)

This variable is declared but has not been used by the program. Consider removing it from the
program.

(1091) main function "*" not defined (Code Generator)

The main function has not been defined. Every C program must have a function called main.

(1094) bad derived type (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1095) bad call to typeSub() (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1096) type should be unqualified (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1097) unknown type string "*" (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1098) conflicting declarations for variable "*" (*:*) (Parser, Code Generator)
Differing type information has been detected in the declarations for a variable, or between a declaratin
and the definition of a variable, e.g.:

extern long int test;

int test; /* oops -- which is right? int or long int ? */

(1104) unqualified error (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1118) bad string "*" in getexpr(J) (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

462
Error and Warning Messages

(1119) bad string "*" in getexpr(LRN) (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1121) expression error (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1137) match() error: * (Code Generator)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1157) W register must be W9 (Assembler)

The working register required here has to be W9, but an other working register was selected.

(1159) W register must be W11 (Assembler)

The working register required here has to be W11, but an other working register was selected.

(1178) the "*" option has been removed and has no effect (Driver)
This option no longer exists in this version of the compiler and has been ignored. Use the compiler’s
–help option or refer to the manual to find a replacement option.

(1179) interrupt level for function "*" may not exceed * (Code Generator)
The interrupt level for the function specified is too high. Each interrupt function is assigned a
unique interrupt level. This level is considered when analysing the call graph and re-entrantly called
functions. If using the interrupt_level pragma, check the value specified.

(1180) directory "*" does not exist (Driver)

The directory specified in the setup option does not exist. Create the directory and try again.

(1182) near variables must be global or static (Code Generator)

A variable qualified as near must also be qualified with static or made global. An auto variable
cannot be qualified as near.

463
Error and Warning Messages

(1183) invalid version number (Activation)

During activation, no matching version number was found on the HI-TECH activation server database
for the serial number specified.

(1184) activation limit reached (Activation)

The number of activations of the serial number specified has exceeded the maximum number allowed
for the license.

(1185) invalid serial number (Activation)

During activation, no matching serial number was found on the HI-TECH activation server database.

(1186) licence has expired (Driver)

The time-limited license for this compiler has expired.

(1187) invalid activation request (Driver)

The compiler has not been correctly activated.

(1188) network error * (Activation)

The compiler activation software was unable to connect to the HI-TECH activation server via the
network.

(1190) FAE license only - not for use in commercial applications (Driver)
Indicates that this compiler has been activated with an FAE licence. This licence does not permit the
product to be used for the development of commercial applications.

(1191) licensed for educational use only (Driver)

Indicates that this compiler has been activated with an education licence. The educational licence is
only available to educational facilities and does not permit the product to be used for the development
of commercial applications.

(1192) licensed for evaluation purposes only (Driver)

Indicates that this compiler has been activated with an evaluation licence.

464
Error and Warning Messages

(1193) this licence will expire on * (Driver)

The compiler has been installed as a time-limited trial. This trial will end on the date specified.

(1195) invalid syntax for "*" option (Driver)

A command line option that accepts additional parameters was given inappropriate data or insuffi-
cient data. For example an option may expect two parameters with both being integers. Passing a
string as one of these parameters or supplying only one parameter could result in this error.

(1198) too many "*" specifications; * maximum (Hexmate)

This option has been specified too many times. If possible, try performing these operations over
several command lines.

(1199) compiler has not been activated (Driver)

The trial period for this compiler has expired. The compiler is now inoperable until activated with
a valid serial number. Contact HI-TECH Software to purchase this software and obtain a serial
number.

(1200) Found %0*lXh at address *h (Hexmate)

The code sequence specified in a -FIND option has been found at this address.

(1201) all FIND/REPLACE code specifications must be of equal width (Hexmate)

All find, replace and mask attributes in this option must be of the same byte width. Check the
parameters supplied to this option. For example finding 1234h (2 bytes) masked with FFh (1 byte)
will result in an error, but masking with 00FFh (2 bytes) will be Ok.

(1202) unknown format requested in -FORMAT: * (Hexmate)

An unknown or unsupported INHX format has been requested. Refer to documentation for supported
INHX formats.

(1203) unpaired nibble in * value will be truncated (Hexmate)

Data to this option was not entered as whole bytes. Perhaps the data was incomplete or a leading
zero was omitted. For example the value Fh contains only four bits of significant data and is not a
whole byte. The value 0Fh contains eight bits of significant data and is a whole byte.

465
Error and Warning Messages

(1204) * value must be between 1 and * bytes long (Hexmate)

An illegal length of data was given to this option. The value provided to this option exceeds the
maximum or minimum bounds required by this option.

(1205) using the configuration file *; you may override this with the environment variable
HTC_XML (Driver)
This is the compiler configuration file selected during compiler setup. This can be changed via
the HTC_XML environment variable. This file is used to determine where the compiler has been
installed.

(1207) some of the command line options you are using are now obsolete (Driver)
Some of the command line options passed to the driver have now been discontinued in this version
of the compiler, however during a grace period these old options will still be processed by the driver.

(1208) use –help option or refer to the user manual for option details (Driver)
An obsolete option was detected. Use –help or refer to the manual to find a replacement option that
will not result in this advisory message.

(1209) An old MPLAB tool suite plug-in was detected. (Driver)

The options passed to the driver resemble those that the Microchip MPLAB IDE would pass to a
previous version of this compiler. Some of these options are now obsolete, however they were still
interpreted. It is recommended that you install an updated HI-TECH options plug-in for the MPLAB
IDE.

(1210) Visit the HI-TECH Software website (www.htsoft.com) for a possible update (Driver)
Visit our website to see if an update is available to address the issue(s) listed in the previous compiler
message. Please refer to the on-line self-help facilities such as the Frequently asked Questions or
search the On-line forums. In the event of no details being found here, contact HI-TECH Software
for further information.

(1211) Memory type "*" is not valid for this device (Driver)
A command-line option attempted to add a type of memory to this device that is not supported by
this device. For example, adding external RAM to a device that does not have an external memory
interface.

466
Error and Warning Messages

(1212) Found * (%0*lXh) at address *h (Hexmate)

The code sequence specified in a -FIND option has been found at this address.

(1213) duplicate ARCH for * in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver)

The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple ARCH values. Only one ARCH value is
allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details.

(1214) duplicate RAMSIZE for * in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

More than one RAMSIZE entry was found in the chipinfo file for this particular chip.

(1215) can’t open chipinfo file * (Assembler)

The chip configuration file was not able to be opened for reading. Check that the file’s pathname is
correct.

(1216) empty chipinfo file * (Assembler)

The chip configuration file was able to be opened but was found to be empty. This file may have
been corrupted.

(1217) can’t open command file * (Assembler)

The input command file could not be opened for reading. Check that the file’s pathname is correct.

(1218) can’t create cross reference file * (Assembler)

The assembler attempted to create a cross reference file, but it could not be created. Check that the
file’s pathname is correct.

(1219) can’t create list file * (Assembler)

The assembler could not open or create an assembler listing file. Check that the file’s pathname is
correct. Is the file attempting to be created in a read-only directory or is the file already open in
another application?

467
Error and Warning Messages

(1220) can’t create assembler file * (Assembler)

The assembler could not open or create an assembler output file. Check that the file’s pathname is
correct. Is the file attempting to be created in a read-only directory or is the file already open in
another application?

(1221) can’t create relocatable list file * (Assembler)

The assembler could not open or create its relocatable list file. Is the file attempting to be created in
a read-only directory or is the file already open in another application?

(1222) can’t create object file * (Assembler)

The assembler could not open or create its output object file. Check that the file’s pathname is
correct. Is the file attempting to be created in a read-only directory or is the file already open in
another application?

(1223) relative branch/call offset out of range (Assembler)

The destination of a relative branch or call instruction was too far away for the instruction to reach.
These instructions have a limited reach. Try using an instruction other than a relative branch/call to
get to the destination, or bring the destination closer.

(1224) banked/common conflict (Assembler)

The assembler has found conflicting information that suggests that a symbol is located in the access
bank, but also in the banked RAM area, e.g.:
movwf c:_foo,b ; _foo cannot be common and banked

(1225) LFSR instruction argument must be 0-3 (Assembler)

The LFSR instruction’s first parameter must be within the range 0 to 3.

(1228) unable to locate installation directory (Driver)

The compiler cannot determine the directory where it has been installed.

(1230) dereferencing uninitialized pointer "*" (Code Generator)

A pointer that has not yet been assigned a value has been dereferenced. This can result in erroneous
behaviour at runtime.

468
Error and Warning Messages

(1232) persistent data may be corrupted during asynchronous reset (see errata) (Driver)
For some PIC18 chips, data may become corrupted during the event of an asynchronous reset. Refer
to the Microchip errata document for more details about how this chip is affected. This

(1233) Employing * errata work-arounds: (Driver)

The compiler is applying software workarounds for known issues in the selected device. Consult the
errata document for this device to see whether it is safe to disable the compiler’s workaround for any
of the listed problems.

(1234) ** (Driver)
Listing a silicon defect that the compiler is working around. Software workarounds generally in-
crease the overall code size. Refer to the errata document for the device you are using to see whether
the defect affects your program. If not, you may save space by disabling the workaround.

(1235) unknown keyword * (Driver)

The token contained in the USB descriptor file was not recognised.

(1236) invalid argument to *: * (Driver)

An option that can take additional parameters was given an invalid parameter value. Check the usage
of the option or the syntax or range of the expected parameter.

(1237) endpoint 0 is pre-defined (Driver)

An attempt has been made to define endpoint 0 in a USB file. This channel c

(1238) FNALIGN failure on * (Linker)

Two functions have their auto/parameter blocks aligned using the FNALIGN directive, but one func-
tion calls the other, which implies that must not be aligned. This will occur if a function pointer is
assigned the address of each function, but one function calls the other. For example:

int one(int a) { return a; }

int two(int a) { return two(a)+2; } /* ! */
int (*ip)(int);
ip = one;
ip(23);

469
Error and Warning Messages

ip = two; /* ip references one and two; two calls one */

ip(67);

(1239) pointer * has no valid targets (Code Generator)

A function call involving a function pointer was made, but the pointer was never assigned a target
address, e.g.:

void (*fp)(int);
fp(23); /* oops -- what function does fp point to? */

(1240) unknown checksum algorithm type (%i) (Driver)

The error file specified after the -Efile or -E+file options could not be opened. Check to ensure
that the file or directory is valid and that has read only access.

(1241) bad start address in * (Driver)

The start of range address for the --CHECKSUM option could not be read. This value must be a
hexadecimal number.

(1242) bad end address in * (Driver)

The end of range address for the --CHECKSUM option could not be read. This value must be a
hexadecimal number.

(1243) bad destination address in * (Driver)

The destination address for the --CHECKSUM option could not be read. This value must be a hexadec-
imal number.

(1245) value greater than zero required for * (Hexmate)

The align operand to the HEXMATE -FIND option must be positive.

(1246) no RAM defined for variable placement (Code Generator)

No memory has been specified to cover the banked RAM memory.

470
Error and Warning Messages

(1247) no access RAM defined for variable placement (Code Generator)

No memory has been specified to cover the access bank memory.

(1248) symbol (*) encountered with undefined type size (Code Generator)

The code generator was asked to position a variable, but the size of the variable is not known. This
is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1249) could not find space (* byte*) for variable * in access bank (Code Generator)

The code generator could not find space in the access bank RAM for the variable specified. Variables
qualifed as near are forced into this area of memory.

(1250) could not find space (* byte*) for variable * (Code Generator)

The code generator could not find space in the banked RAM for the variable specified.

(1251) no far RAM defined for variable placement (Code Generator)

Variables were qualified as far in the source code, but no memory has been specified to hold these
objects. Variables qualfiied as far will reside in the program space memory, but are writable. Mem-
ory can be secified using the --RAM option with address ranges above the top of the on-chip program
space memory.

(1252) could not find space (* byte*) for variable * in far RAM (Code Generator)

The code generator could not find space in RAM for the psect that holds variables qualified as far.

(1253) could not find space (* byte*) for auto/param block (Code Generator)

The code generator could not find space in RAM for the psect that holds auto and parameter vari-
ables.

(1254) could not find space (* byte*) for data block (Code Generator)

The code generator could not find space in RAM for the data psect that holds initialised variables.

471
Error and Warning Messages

(1255) conflicting paths for output directory (Driver)

The compiler has been given contradictory paths for the output directory via any of the -O or
--OUTDIR options, e.g.

--outdir=../../ -o../main.hex

(1256) undefined symbol "*" treated as hex constant (Assembler)

A token which could either be interpreted as a symbol or a hexadecimal value does not match any
previously defined symbol and so will be interpreted as the latter. Use a leading zero to avoid the
ambiguity, or use an alternate radix sepcifier such as 0x. For example:

mov a, F7h ; is this the symbol F7h, or the hex number 0xF7?

(1257) local variable "*" is used but never given a value (Code Generator)

An auto variable has been defined and used in an expression, but it has not been assigned a value
in the C code before its first use. Auto variables are not cleared on startup and their initial value is
undefined. For example:

void main(void) {
double src, out;
out = sin(src); /* oops -- what value was in src? */

(1258) possible stack overflow when calling function "*" (Code Generator)

The call tree analysis by the code generator indicates that the hardware stack may overflow. This
should be treated as a guide only. Interrupts, the assembler optimizer and the program structure may
affect the stack usage. The stack usuage is based on the C program and does not include any call
tree derived from assembly code.

(1259) can’t optimize for both speed and space (Driver)

The driver has been given contradictory options of compile for speed and compile for space, e.g.

--opt=speed,space

472
Error and Warning Messages

(1260) macro "*" redefined (Assembler)

More than one definition for a macro with the same name has been encountered, e.g.

MACRO fin
ret
ENDM
MACRO fin ; oops -- was this meant to be a different macro?
reti
ENDM

(1261) string constant required (Assembler)

A string argument is required with the DS or DSU directive, e.g.

DS ONE ; oops -- did you mean DS “ONE”?

(1264) unsafe pointer conversion (Code Generator)

A pointer to one kind of structure has been converted to another kind of structure and the structures
do not have a similar definition, e.g.

struct ONE {
unsigned a;
long b; /* ! */
} one;
struct TWO {
unsigned a;
unsigned b; /* ! */
} two;
struct ONE * oneptr;
oneptr = & two; /* oops --
was ONE meant to be same struct as TWO? */

(1267) fixup overflow referencing * * (0x*) into * byte* at 0x* (*** */0x*) (Linker)

See the following error message (1268) for more information..

473
Error and Warning Messages

(1268) fixup overflow storing 0x* in * byte* at 0x* (*** */0x*) (Linker)
Fixup is the process conducted by the linker of replacing symbolic references to variables etc, in an
assembler instruction with an absolute value. This takes place after positioning the psects (program
sections or blocks) into the available memory on the target device. Fixup overflow is when the
value determined for a symbol is too large to fit within the allocated space within the assembler
instruction. For example, if an assembler instruction has an 8-bit field to hold an address and the
linker determines that the symbol that has been used to represent this address has the value 0x110,
then clearly this value cannot be inserted into the instruction.

(1269) there * * day* left until this licence will expire (Driver)
This compiler has not been activated and is running as a demo. The time indicated is how long the
demo period will continue.

(1273) Omniscient Code Generation not available in Lite mode (Driver)

When running in Lite mode, the advanced Omniscient Code Generation (OCG) features are disabled.
This will result in much larger code than would be produced when running in PRO mode.

(1274) delay exceeds maximum limit of * cycles (Code Generator)

The argument to the in-line delay routine (_delay) is limited to the maximum size indicated. Use
the routine consequtively, or place it is a loop to acheive the desired delay period.

(1282) no REAL ICE transport options specified (Driver)

When selecting the Microchip MPLAB REAL ICE as the debugger, the --debugger option must
include the transport type for trace facilities.

(1283) illegal table pointer address size * (__activetblptr) (Driver)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1284) malformed mapfile while generating summary: CLASS expected but not found(Driver)
This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1285) malformed mapfile while generating summary: no name at position * (Driver)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

474
Error and Warning Messages

(1286) malformed mapfile while generating summary: no link address at position * (Driver)
This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1287) malformed mapfile while generating summary: no load address at position * (Driver)
This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1288) malformed mapfile while generating summary: no length at position * (Driver)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1289) line range limit exceeded, debugging may be affected (Cromwell)

Internally Cromwell can only handle a limited number of addresses which correspond to a single
line of C code. In all but the most perverse cases this limit shouldn’t be reached. However if it has
then consider breaking up the related C statement into a series of simpiler statements. If that is not
possible or successful then contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1290) DWARF: Buffer overflow in DIE (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1291) bad ELF string table index (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1292) malformed define in .SDB file * (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1293) DWARF: couldn’t find type for * (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler warning. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details.

(1294) there is only one day left until this licence expires (Driver)
The compiler was fully activated for a limited evaluation period. That period is about to expire in
one day. When expired the compiler will switch to Lite mode - if available - or cease to function. To
fully reactivate the compiler a valid serial number is required. Please contact our sales department
for more details.

475
Error and Warning Messages

(1295) there are * days left until this licence will expire (Driver)
The compiler was fully activated for a limited evaluation period. That period expire soon. When
expired the compiler will switch to Lite mode - if available - or cease to function. To fully reactivate
the compiler a valid serial number is required. Please contact our sales department for more details.

(1296) source file "*" conflicts with "*" (Driver)

If two source files with the same name but different paths are given as arguments to the driver this
fatal error will occur. For example foobar.c may be specified twice but in different directories. This
is illegal in the cases where the compiler or IDE assumes that foobar.c will produce an intermediate
file foobar.p1 and all intermediate files are output in the same directory regardless of the source
directory. Consider renaming one of these files.

(1297) option * not available in Lite mode (Driver)

Although fully functional, compilers in Lite mode have certain driver options disabled. These op-
tions are those (such as as –setoption and –getoption) which would allow users to circumvent the
restrictions on optimisations.

(1348) Enum tag %s is redefined from (%s:%d) (Driver)

This enum tag has already been defined in the same scope. It cannot be defined again, e.g.:
enum myenum {a,b,c}; /* an enum called “myenum” */
enum myenum {a,f,g}; /* attempting to define another of the same name */
Note that enum with the same name, but defined with different scopes are legal, but not recom-
mended.

(0) delete what ? (Libr)

The librarian requires one or more modules to be listed for deletion when using the d key, e.g.:
libr d c:\ht-pic\lib\pic704-c.lib
does not indicate which modules to delete. try something like:
libr d c:\ht-pic\lib\pic704-c.lib wdiv.obj

(0) incomplete ident record (Libr)

The IDENT record in the object file was incomplete. Contact HI-TECH Support with details.

476
Error and Warning Messages

(0) incomplete symbol record (Libr)

The SYM record in the object file was incomplete. Contact HI-TECH Support with details.

(0) library file names should have .lib extension: * (Libr)

Use the .lib extension when specifying a library filename.

(0) module * defines no symbols (Libr)

No symbols were found in the module’s object file. This may be what was intended, or it may mean
that part of the code was inadvertently removed or commented.

(0) replace what ? (Libr)

The librarian requires one or more modules to be listed for replacement when using the r key, e.g.:

libr r lcd.lib

This command needs the name of a module (.obj file) after the library name.

477
Error and Warning Messages

478
Appendix C

Chip Information

The following table lists all devices currently supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU
Family.

Table C.1: Devices supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family

DEVICE ROMSIZE RAMSIZE EEPROMSIZE EXTMEM

18C242 4000 200
18C252 8000 600
18C442 4000 200
18C452 8000 600
18C601 0 600 3FFFF
18C801 0 600 1FFFFF
18C658 8000 600
18C858 8000 600
18F23K20 2000 200 100
18F2410 4000 300
18F24J10 3FF8 400
18F242 4000 300 100
18F2420 4000 300 100
18F24K20 4000 300 100
18F2423 4000 300 100
18F248 4000 300 100
18F2480 4000 300 100
18F2510 8000 600
18F25J10 7FF8 400
18F2515 C000 F80
18F252 8000 600 100
18F2520 8000 600 100
18F25K20 8000 600 100
continued. . .

479
Chip Information

Table C.1: Devices supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family

DEVICE ROMSIZE RAMSIZE EEPROMSIZE EXTMEM

18F2523 8000 600 100
18F258 8000 600 100
18F2580 8000 600 100
18F2610 10000 F80
18F26K20 10000 F60 100
18F43K20 2000 200 100
18F4410 4000 300
18F44J10 3FF8 400
18F442 4000 300 100
18F4420 4000 300 100
18F44K20 4000 300 100
18F4423 4000 300 100
18F448 4000 300 100
18F4480 4000 300 100
18F4510 8000 600
18F45J10 7FF8 400
18F4515 C000 F80
18F452 8000 600 100
18F4520 8000 600 100
18F45K20 8000 600 100
18F4523 8000 600 100
18F458 8000 600 100
18F4580 8000 600 100
18F4610 10000 F80
18F46K20 10000 F60 100
18F1220 1000 100 100
18F1230 1000 100 80
18F1320 2000 100 100
18F1330 2000 100 80
18F13K50 2000 200 100
18F14K50 4000 200 100
18F2220 1000 200 100
18F2221 1000 200 100
18F2320 2000 200 100
18F2321 2000 200 100
18F2331 2000 300 100
18F2431 4000 300 100
18F2439 3000 280 100
18F2450 4000 200
18F2455 6000 400 100
18F2458 6000 400 100
18F2525 C000 F80 400
18F2550 8000 400 100
18F2553 8000 400 100
18F2539 6000 580 100
continued. . .

480
Chip Information

Table C.1: Devices supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family

DEVICE ROMSIZE RAMSIZE EEPROMSIZE EXTMEM

18F2585 C000 D00 400
18F2620 10000 F80 400
18F2680 10000 D00 400
18F2682 14000 D00 400
18F2685 18000 D00 400
18F4220 1000 200 100
18F4221 1000 200 100
18F4320 2000 200 100
18F4321 2000 200 100
18F4331 2000 300 100
18F4431 4000 300 100
18F4439 3000 280 100
18F4455 6000 400 100
18F4458 6000 400 100
18F4525 C000 F80 400
18F4539 6000 580 100
18F4450 4000 200
18F4550 8000 400 100
18F4553 8000 400 100
18F4585 C000 D00 400
18F4620 10000 F80 400
18F4680 10000 D00 400
18F4682 14000 D00 400
18F4685 18000 D00 400
18F6310 2000 300
18F63J11 1FF8 400
18F6390 2000 300
18F63J90 1FF8 400
18F6393 2000 300
18F6410 4000 300
18F64J11 3FF8 400
18F6490 4000 300
18F64J90 3FF8 400
18F6493 4000 300
18F6520 8000 800 400
18F6525 C000 F00 400
18F6527 C000 F60 400
18F6585 C000 D00 400
18F65J10 7FF8 800
18F65J11 7FF8 800
18F65J15 BFF8 800
18F65J50 7FF8 F40
18F65J90 7FF8 800
18F66J11 FFF8 F40
18F66J16 17FF8 F40
continued. . .

481
Chip Information

Table C.1: Devices supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family

DEVICE ROMSIZE RAMSIZE EEPROMSIZE EXTMEM

18F6620 10000 F00 400
18F6621 10000 F00 400
18F6622 10000 F60 400
18F6627 18000 F60 400
18F6628 18000 F60 400
18F6680 10000 D00 400
18F66J10 FFF8 800
18F66J15 17FF8 F00
18F66J50 FFF8 F40
18F66J55 17FF8 F40
18F67J11 1FFF8 F40
18F6720 20000 F00 400
18F6722 20000 F60 400
18F6723 20000 F60 400
18F67J10 1FFF8 F00
18F67J50 1FFF8 F40
18F8310 2000 300 1FFFFF
18F83J11 1FF8 400
18F8390 2000 300
18F83J90 1FF8 400
18F8393 2000 300
18F8410 4000 300 1FFFFF
18F84J11 3FF8 400
18F8490 4000 300
18F84J90 3FF8 400
18F8493 4000 300
18F85J11 7FF8 800
18F8520 8000 800 400 1FFFFF
18F8525 C000 F00 400 1FFFFF
18F8527 C000 F60 400 1FFFFF
18F8585 C000 D00 400 1FFFFF
18F85J10 7FF8 800 1FFFFF
18F85J15 BFF8 800 1FFFFF
18F85J50 7FF8 F40
18F85J90 7FF8 800
18F86J11 FFF8 F40
18F86J16 17FF8 F40
18F8620 10000 F00 400 1FFFFF
18F8621 10000 F00 400 1FFFFF
18F8622 10000 F60 400 1FFFFF
18F8627 18000 F60 400 1FFFFF
18F8628 18000 F60 400 1FFFFF
18F8680 10000 D00 400 1FFFFF
18F86J10 FFF8 800 1FFFFF
18F86J15 17FF8 F00 1FFFFF
continued. . .

482
Chip Information

Table C.1: Devices supported by HI-TECH C PRO for the PIC18 MCU Family

DEVICE ROMSIZE RAMSIZE EEPROMSIZE EXTMEM

18F86J50 FFF8 F40
18F86J55 17FF8 F40
18F87J11 1FFF8 F40
18F8720 20000 F00 400 1FFFFF
18F8722 20000 F60 400 1FFFFF
18F8723 20000 F60 400 1FFFFF
18F87J10 1FFF8 F00 1FFFFF
18F66J60 FFF8 E80 1FFFFF
18F66J65 17FF8 E80 1FFFFF
18F67J60 1FFF8 E80 1FFFFF
18F86J60 FFF8 E80 1FFFFF
18F86J65 17FF8 E80 1FFFFF
18F87J50 1FFF8 F40
18F87J60 1FFF8 E80 1FFFFF
18F96J60 FFF8 E80 1FFFFF
18F96J65 17FF8 E80 1FFFFF
18F97J60 1FFF8 E80 1FFFFF

483
Chip Information

484
Appendix D

Configuration Attributes

The following tables present the various configuration attributes available for each PIC18 device
and the configuration register to which each attribute applies. These attributes are usable with the
__CONFIG() macro.

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18C242 OSCSEN WDTPS128 CCP2RC1 STVREN
18C252 OSCSDIS ... CCP2RB3 STVRDIS
18C442 — WDTPS1
18C452 RCIO —
HSPLL WDTEN
ECIO WDTDIS
EC —
RC BORV25
HS BORV27
XT BORV42
LP BORV45
— —
UNPROTECT BOREN
PROTECT BORDIS
—
PWRTEN
PWRTDIS

485
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18C601 RC BW16 STVREN
18C801 HS BW8 STVRDIS
EC —
LP PWRTEN
PWRTDIS
—
WDTPS1
...
WDTPS128
—
WDTEN
WDTDIS

18C658 OSCSEN WDTPS1 STVREN

18C858 OSCSDIS ... STVRDIS
— WDTPS128
RCIO —
HSPLL WDTEN
ECIO WDTDIS
EC —
RC BORV25
HS BORV27
XT BORV42
LP BORV45
— —
UNPROTECT BOREN
PROTECT BORDIS
—
PWRTEN
PWRTDIS

18F1220 IESOEN BORDIS MCLREN DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRU

18F1320 IESODIS BOREN MCLRDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
— — — — — —
FCMEN BORV45 LVPEN CP1 WP1 TRP1
FCMDIS BORV42 LVPDIS — — —
— BORV27 — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTCLKO BORV20 STVREN — — —
RCCLKO — STVRDIS CPD WPD TRPB
RCIO PWRTEN — — —
EXTIO PWRTDIS CPB WPB TRPALL
HSPLL — — —
ECIO WDTPS1 CPALL WPC
ECCLKO ... —
HS WDTPS32K WPALL
XT —
LP WDTEN
WDTDIS

486
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F1230 IESOEN BOREN PWMOUTDIS XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA
18F1330 IESODIS BOREN_XSLP PWMOUTEN XINSTDIS CPA WPA —
— SWBOREN — — — — TRP1
FCMEN BORDIS LOWPOLLO STVREN CP1 WP1 —
FCMDIS — LOWPOLHI STVRDIS — — TRP0
— BORV20 — — CP0 WP0 —
EXTCLKO BORV27 HIPOLLO BBSIZ1K — — TRPB
RCCLKO BORV42 HIPOLHI BBSIZ512 CPD WPD —
RCIO BORV45 — BBSIZ256 — — TRPALL
EXTIO — T1RA6 — CPB WPB
HSPLL PWRTEN T1RB2 DEBUGEN — —
ECIO PWRTDIS — DEBUGDIS CPALL WPC
ECCLKO — FLTARA5 —
HS WDTEN FLTARA7 WPALL
XT WDTDIS —
LP — MCLREN
WDTPS32K MCLRDIS
...
WDTPS1

18F13K50 IESOEN BORV30 MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA

IESODIS BORV27 MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPA WPA —
— BORV22 — — — — TRP1
FCMEN BORV19 HFSTART DEBUGEN CP1 WP1 —
FCMDIS — HFSTABLE DEBUGDIS — — TRP0
— BOREN — CP0 WP0 —
PCLKEN BOREN_XSLP BBSIZ512 — — TRPB
PCLKDIS SWBOREN BBSIZ1K CPD WPD —
PLLEN BORDIS — — — TRPALL
PLLDIS — LVPEN CPB WPB
— PWRTEN LVPDIS — —
EXTCLKO PWRTDIS — CPALL WPC
ECLOW — STVREN —
ECLOWCLKO WDTPS1 STVRDIS WPALL
ECMED ...
ECMEDCLKO WDTPS32K
RCCLKO —
RCIO WDTDIS
EXTIO WDTEN
ECIO
ECCLKO
HS
XT
LP

487
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F14K50 IESOEN BORV30 MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA
IESODIS BORV27 MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPA WPA —
— BORV22 — — — — TRP1
FCMEN BORV19 HFSTART DEBUGEN CP1 WP1 —
FCMDIS — HFSTABLE DEBUGDIS — — TRP0
— BOREN — CP0 WP0 —
PCLKEN BOREN_XSLP BBSIZ1K — — TRPB
PCLKDIS SWBOREN BBSIZ2K CPD WPD —
PLLEN BORDIS — — — TRPALL
PLLDIS — LVPEN CPB WPB
— PWRTEN LVPDIS — —
EXTCLKO PWRTDIS — CPALL WPC
ECLOW — STVREN —
ECLOWCLKO WDTPS1 STVRDIS WPALL
ECMED ...
ECMEDCLKO WDTPS32K
RCCLKO —
RCIO WDTDIS
EXTIO WDTEN
ECIO
ECCLKO
HS
XT
LP

18F2220 IESOEN BORDIS PBANALOG DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRU

18F4220 IESODIS BOREN PBDIGITAL DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
— — — — — — —
FCMEN BORV45 CCP2RC1 LVPEN CP1 WP1 TRP1
FCMDIS BORV42 CCP2RB3 LVPDIS — — —
— BORV27 — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTCLKO BORV20 MCLREN STVREN — — —
RCCLKO — MCLRDIS STVRDIS CPD WPD TRPB
RCIO PWRTEN — — —
EXTIO PWRTDIS CPB WPB TRPALL
HSPLL — — —
ECIO WDTPS1 CPALL WPC
ECCLKO ... —
HS WDTPS32K WPALL
XT —
LP WDTEN
WDTDIS

488
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2221 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN
18F2321 INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RB3 XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN PBDIGITAL STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP PBANALOG STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS LPT1EN LVPEN CPD WPD TRPB
HS — LPT1DIS LVPDIS — —
XT BORV21 — — CPB WPB
LP BORV28 MCLREN BBSIZ1K —
— BORV43 MCLRDIS BBSIZ512 WPC
FCMDIS BORV46 BBSIZ256
FCMEN — —
— WDTEN DEBUGDIS
IESODIS WDTDIS DEBUGEN
IESOEN —
WDTPS32K
...
WDTPS1

18F2320 IESOEN BORDIS PBANALOG DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRU

18F4320 IESODIS BOREN PBDIGITAL DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
— — — — — — —
FCMEN BORV45 CCP2RC1 LVPEN CP3 WP3 TRP3
FCMDIS BORV42 CCP2RB3 LVPDIS — — —
— BORV27 — — CP2 WP2 TRP2
EXTCLKO BORV20 MCLREN STVREN — — —
RCCLKO — MCLRDIS STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
RCIO PWRTEN — — —
EXTIO PWRTDIS CP0 WP0 TRP0
HSPLL — — — —
ECIO WDTPS1 CPD WPD TRPB
ECCLKO ... — — —
HS WDTPS32K CPB WPB TRPALL
XT — — —
LP WDTEN CPALL WPC
WDTDIS —
WPALL

489
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2331 IESOEN BORDIS PWMOUTDIS DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA
18F2431 IESODIS BOREN PWMOUTEN DEBUGDIS CPA WPA —
— — — — — — TRP1
FCMEN BORV45 LOWPOLLO LVPEN CP1 WP1 —
FCMDIS BORV42 LOWPOLHI LVPDIS — — TRP0
— BORV27 — — CP0 WP0 —
EXTCLKO BORV20 HIPOLLO STVREN — — TRPB
RCCLKO — HIPOLHI STVRDIS CPD WPD —
RCIO PWRTEN — — — TRPALL
EXTIO PWRTDIS T1LOWPOWER CPB WPB
HSPLL — T1STD — —
ECIO WDTPS1 — CPALL WPC
ECCLKO ... MCLREN —
HS WDTPS32K MCLRDIS WPALL
XT —
LP WDTEN
WDTDIS
—
WDTWINEN
WDTWINDIS

18F23K20 IESOEN BORV30 MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA

18F24K20 IESODIS BORV27 MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPA WPA —
18F43K20 — BORV22 — — — — TRP1
18F44K20 FCMEN BORV18 HFSTART DEBUGEN CP1 WP1 —
FCMDIS — HFSTABLE DEBUGDIS — — TRP0
— BOREN — — CP0 WP0 —
EXTCLKO BOREN_XSLP LPT1EN LVPEN — — TRPB
RCCLKO SWBOREN LPT1DIS LVPDIS CPD WPD —
RCIO BORDIS — — — — TRPALL
EXTIO — PBANALOG STVREN CPB WPB
HSPLL PWRTEN PBDIGITAL STVRDIS — —
ECIO PWRTDIS — CPALL WPC
ECCLKO — CCP2RC1 —
HS WDTPS1 CCP2RB3 WPALL
XT ...
LP WDTPS32K
—
WDTDIS
WDTEN

490
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2410 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WP0 TRP0
18F4410 INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RB3 XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP1 TRP1
EXTIO BOREN PBDIGITAL STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP PBANALOG STVRDIS CP1 WPB TRPB
ECIO SWBOREN — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS LPT1EN LVPEN CPB WPC
HS — LPT1DIS LVPDIS
XT BORV20 — —
LP BORV27 MCLREN DEBUGDIS
— BORV42 MCLRDIS DEBUGEN
FCMDIS BORV45
FCMEN —
— WDTEN
IESODIS WDTDIS
IESOEN —
WDTPS32K
...
WDTPS1

18F2420 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WP0 TRP0

18F4420 INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RB3 XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP1 TRP1
EXTIO BOREN PBDIGITAL STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP PBANALOG STVRDIS CP1 WPA TRPA
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS LPT1EN LVPEN CPA WPD TRPB
HS — LPT1DIS LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV20 — — CPD WPB TRPALL
LP BORV27 MCLREN DEBUGDIS — —
— BORV42 MCLRDIS DEBUGEN CPB WPC
FCMDIS BORV45 — —
FCMEN — CPALL WPALL
— WDTEN
IESODIS WDTDIS
IESOEN —
WDTPS32K
...
WDTPS1

491
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2423 IESOEN BOREN MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA
18F4423 IESODIS BOREN_XSLP MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPA WPA —
— SWBOREN — — — — TRP1
FCMEN BORDIS LPT1EN DEBUGEN CP1 WP1 —
FCMDIS — LPT1DIS DEBUGDIS — — TRP0
— BORV46 — — CP0 WP0 —
EXTCLKO BORV43 PBANALOG LVPEN — — TRPB
RCCLKO BORV28 PBDIGITAL LVPDIS CPD WPD —
RCIO BORV21 — — — — TRPALL
EXTIO — CCP2RC1 STVREN CPB WPB
HSPLL PWRTEN CCP2RB3 STVRDIS — —
ECIO PWRTDIS CPALL WPC
ECCLKO — —
HS WDTPS1 WPALL
XT ...
LP WDTPS32K
—
WDTDIS
WDTEN

18F242 OSCSEN BOREN CCP2RC1 DEBUGEN CPALL WP3 TRP3

18F252 OSCSDIS BORDIS CCP2RB3 DEBUGDIS CPA — —
18F442 — — — — WP2 TRP2
18F452 RCIO BORV45 LVPEN CP3 — —
RCRA6 BORV42 LVPDIS — WP1 TRP1
HSPLL BORV27 — CP2 — —
ECIO BORV25 STVREN — WP0 TRP0
ECRA6 — STVRDIS CP1 — —
ECDB4 PWRTEN — WPD TRPB
RC PWRTDIS CP0 — —
HS — — WPB TRPA
XT WDTPS128 CPD — TRPALL
LP ... — WPC TRU
WDTPS1 CPB —
— — WPA
WDTEN UNPROTECT WPALL
WDTDIS WRTEN

492
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2439 HSPLL BOREN DEBUGEN CPALL WPALL TRPALL
18F4439 ECIO BORDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
ECCLKO — — — — —
HS BORV45 LVPEN CP1 WP1 TRP1
BORV42 LVPDIS — — —
BORV27 — CP0 WP0 TRP0
BORV25 STVREN — — —
— STVRDIS CPD WPD TRPB
PWRTEN — —
PWRTDIS CPB WPB
— — —
WDTPS1 UNPROTECT WPC
... —
WDTPS128 WRTEN
—
WDTDIS
WDTEN

18F2450 USBPLL VREGEN PBANALOG XINSTEN UNPROTECT UNPROTECT UNPROTECT

USBOSC VREGDIS PBDIGITAL XINSTDIS — — —
— — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
CPUDIV4 PWRTDIS LPT1EN STVREN — — —
CPUDIV3 PWRTEN LPT1DIS STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
CPUDIV2 — — — — — —
CPUDIV1 BOREN MCLREN LVPEN CPD WPD TRPB
— BOREN_XSLP MCLRDIS LVPDIS — —
PLLDIV12 SWBOREN — CPB WPB
... BORDIS BBSIZ2K —
PLLDIV1 — BBSIZ1K WPC
— BORV20 —
HSPLL BORV27 DEBUGDIS
HS BORV42 DEBUGEN
INT_USBHS BORV45
INT_USBXT —
INTCLKO WDTEN
INTIO WDTDIS
ECPLLCLKO —
ECPLLIO WDTPS32K
ECCLKO ...
ECIO WDTPS1
XTPLL
XT
—
FCMDIS
FCMEN
—
IESODIS
IESOEN

493
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2455 USBPLL VREGEN CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT UNPROTECT UNPROTECT
18F2458 USBOSC VREGDIS CCP2RB3 XINSTDIS CPA WPA TRPA
18F4455 — — — — — — —
18F4458 CPUDIV4 PWRTDIS PBDIGITAL STVREN CP0 WP0 TRP0
CPUDIV3 PWRTEN PBANALOG STVRDIS — — —
CPUDIV2 — — — CP1 WP1 TRP1
CPUDIV1 BOREN LPT1EN LVPEN — — —
— BOREN_XSLP LPT1DIS LVPDIS CP2 WP2 TRP2
PLLPOSTDIV6 SWBOREN — — — — —
PLLPOSTDIV4 BORDIS MCLREN ICPORTEN CPD WPD TRPB
PLLPOSTDIV3 — MCLRDIS ICPORTDIS — — —
PLLPOSTDIV2 BORV20 — CPB WPB TRPALL
— BORV27 DEBUGDIS — —
PLLDIV12 BORV42 DEBUGEN CPALL WPC
... BORV45 —
PLLDIV1 — WPALL
— WDTEN
HSPLL WDTDIS
HS —
INT_USBHS WDTPS32K
INT_USBXT ...
INTCLKO WDTPS1
INTIO
ECPLLCLKO
ECPLLIO
ECCLKO
ECIO
XTPLL
XT
—
FCMDIS
FCMEN
—
IESODIS
IESOEN

494
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2480 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS PBDIGITAL XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN
18F4480 INTCLKO PWRTEN PBANALOG XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN LPT1EN STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP LPT1DIS STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS MCLREN LVPEN CPA WPA TRPA
HS — MCLRDIS LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV21 — CPD WPD TRPB
LP BORV28 BBSIZ2K — — —
— BORV43 BBSIZ1K CPB WPB TRPALL
FCMDIS BORV46 — — —
FCMEN — DEBUGDIS CPALL WPC
— WDTEN DEBUGEN —
IESODIS WDTDIS WPALL
IESOEN —
WDTPS32K
...
WDTPS1

18F248 OSCSEN PWRTEN DEBUGEN CPALL WPALL TRPA

18F448 OSCSDIS PWRTDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPALL
— — — — — —
RCIO BORV20 LVPEN CP1 WP1 TRP1
RCRA6 BORV27 LVPDIS — — —
HSPLL BORV42 — CP0 WP0 TRP0
ECIO BORV45 STVREN — — —
ECRA6 — STVRDIS UNPROTECT WPU TRPB
ECDB4 BOREN — — —
RC BORDIS CPD WPD TRU
HS — — —
XT WDTPS128 CPB WPB
LP ... —
WDTPS1 WPC
—
WDTEN
WDTDIS

18F24J10 XINSTEN ECPLL CCP2RC1

18F25J10 XINSTDIS EC CCP2RB3
18F44J10 — HSPLL
18F45J10 WDTDIS HS
WDTEN INTRC
— —
STVREN FCMDIS
STVRDIS FCMEN
— —
DEBUGEN IESODIS
DEBUGDIS IESOEN
— —
UNPROTECT WDTPS32K
PROTECT ...
WDTPS1

495
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2510 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WP0 TRP0
18F2610 INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RB3 XINSTDIS — — —
18F4510 INTIO — — — CP0 WP1 TRP1
18F4610 EXTIO BOREN PBDIGITAL STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP PBANALOG STVRDIS CP1 WP2 TRP2
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS LPT1EN LVPEN CP2 WP3 TRP3
HS — LPT1DIS LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV20 — — CP3 WPB TRPB
LP BORV27 MCLREN DEBUGDIS — —
— BORV42 MCLRDIS DEBUGEN CPB WPC
FCMDIS BORV45
FCMEN —
— WDTEN
IESODIS WDTDIS
IESOEN —
WDTPS32K
...
WDTPS1

18F2515 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WP0 TRP0

18F4515 INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RB3 XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP1 TRP1
EXTIO BOREN PBDIGITAL STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP PBANALOG STVRDIS CP1 WP2 TRP2
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS LPT1EN LVPEN CP2 WPB TRPB
HS — LPT1DIS LVPDIS — —
XT BORV20 — — CPB WPC
LP BORV27 MCLREN DEBUGDIS
— BORV42 MCLRDIS DEBUGEN
FCMDIS BORV45
FCMEN —
— WDTEN
IESODIS WDTDIS
IESOEN —
WDTPS32K
...
WDTPS1

496
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2520 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WP0 TRP0
18F4520 INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RB3 XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP1 TRP1
EXTIO BOREN PBDIGITAL STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP PBANALOG STVRDIS CP1 WP2 TRP2
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS LPT1EN LVPEN CP2 WP3 TRP3
HS — LPT1DIS LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV20 — — CP3 WPA TRPA
LP BORV27 MCLREN DEBUGDIS — — —
— BORV42 MCLRDIS DEBUGEN CPA WPD TRPB
FCMDIS BORV45 — — —
FCMEN — CPD WPB TRPALL
— WDTEN — —
IESODIS WDTDIS CPB WPC
IESOEN — — —
WDTPS32K CPALL WPALL
...
WDTPS1

18F2523 IESOEN BOREN MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA

18F4523 IESODIS BOREN_XSLP MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPA WPA —
— SWBOREN — — — — TRP3
FCMEN BORDIS LPT1EN DEBUGEN CP3 WP3 —
FCMDIS — LPT1DIS DEBUGDIS — — TRP2
— BORV46 — — CP2 WP2 —
EXTCLKO BORV43 PBANALOG LVPEN — — TRP1
RCCLKO BORV28 PBDIGITAL LVPDIS CP1 WP1 —
RCIO BORV21 — — — — TRP0
EXTIO — CCP2RC1 STVREN CP0 WP0 —
HSPLL PWRTEN CCP2RB3 STVRDIS — — TRPB
ECIO PWRTDIS CPD WPD —
ECCLKO — — — TRPALL
HS WDTPS1 CPB WPB
XT ... — —
LP WDTPS32K CPALL WPC
— —
WDTDIS WPALL
WDTEN

497
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2525 IESOEN BOREN MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPALL
18F4525 IESODIS BOREN_XSLP MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPALL WPALL TRPA
— SWBOREN — — CPA WPA —
FCMEN BORDIS LPT1EN DEBUGEN — — TRP2
FCMDIS — LPT1DIS DEBUGDIS CP2 WP2 —
— BORV46 — — — — TRP1
EXTCLKO BORV43 PBDIGITAL LVPEN CP1 WP1 —
RCCLKO BORV28 PBANALOG LVPDIS — — TRP0
RCIO BORV21 — — CP0 WP0 —
EXTIO — CCP2RC1 STVREN — — TRPB
HSPLL PWRTEN CCP2RB3 STVRDIS CPD WPD
ECIO PWRTDIS — —
ECCLKO — CPB WPB
HS WDTPS1 —
XT ... WPC
LP WDTPS32K
—
WDTDIS
WDTEN

18F2539 HSPLL BOREN DEBUGEN CPALL WPALL TRPALL

18F4539 ECIO BORDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
ECCLKO — — — — —
HS BORV45 LVPEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
BORV42 LVPDIS — — —
BORV27 — CP1 WP1 TRP1
BORV25 STVREN — — —
— STVRDIS CP0 WP0 TRP0
PWRTEN — — —
PWRTDIS CPD WPD TRPB
— — —
WDTPS1 CPB WPB
... — —
WDTPS128 UNPROTECT WPC
— —
WDTDIS WRTEN
WDTEN

498
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2550 USBPLL VREGEN CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT UNPROTECT UNPROTECT
18F2553 USBOSC VREGDIS CCP2RB3 XINSTDIS CPA WPA TRPA
18F4550 — — — — — — —
18F4553 CPUDIV4 PWRTDIS PBDIGITAL STVREN CP3 WP3 TRP3
CPUDIV3 PWRTEN PBANALOG STVRDIS — — —
CPUDIV2 — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
CPUDIV1 BOREN LPT1EN LVPEN — — —
— BOREN_XSLP LPT1DIS LVPDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
PLLPOSTDIV6 SWBOREN — — — — —
PLLPOSTDIV4 BORDIS MCLREN ICPORTEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
PLLPOSTDIV3 — MCLRDIS ICPORTDIS — — —
PLLPOSTDIV2 BORV20 — CPD WPD TRPB
— BORV27 DEBUGDIS — — —
PLLDIV12 BORV42 DEBUGEN CPB WPB TRPALL
... BORV45 — —
PLLDIV1 — CPALL WPC
— WDTEN —
HSPLL WDTDIS WPALL
HS —
INT_USBHS WDTPS32K
INT_USBXT ...
INTCLKO WDTPS1
INTIO
ECPLLCLKO
ECPLLIO
ECCLKO
ECIO
XTPLL
XT
—
FCMDIS
FCMEN
—
IESODIS
IESOEN

499
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2580 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS PBDIGITAL XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN
18F4580 INTCLKO PWRTEN PBANALOG XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN LPT1EN STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP LPT1DIS STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS MCLREN LVPEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
HS — MCLRDIS LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV21 — CP3 WP3 TRP3
LP BORV28 BBSIZ2K — — —
— BORV43 BBSIZ1K CPA WPA TRPA
FCMDIS BORV46 — — — —
FCMEN — DEBUGDIS CPD WPD TRPB
— WDTEN DEBUGEN — — —
IESODIS WDTDIS CPB WPB TRPALL
IESOEN — — —
WDTPS32K CPALL WPC
... —
WDTPS1 WPALL

18F2585 IESOEN BOREN MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPALL

18F4585 IESODIS BOREN_XSLP MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPALL WPALL TRPA
— SWBOREN — — CPA WPA —
FCMEN BORDIS LPT1EN DEBUGEN — — TRP2
FCMDIS — LPT1DIS DEBUGDIS CP2 WP2 —
— BORV46 — — — — TRP1
EXTCLKO BORV43 PBDIGITAL BBSIZ4K CP1 WP1 —
RCCLKO BORV28 PBANALOG BBSIZ2K — — TRP0
RCIO BORV21 BBSIZ1K CP0 WP0 —
EXTIO — — — — TRPB
HSPLL PWRTEN LVPEN CPD WPD
ECIO PWRTDIS LVPDIS — —
ECCLKO — — CPB WPB
HS WDTPS1 STVREN —
XT ... STVRDIS WPC
LP WDTPS32K
—
WDTDIS
WDTEN

500
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F258 OSCSEN PWRTEN DEBUGEN CPALL WPALL TRPA
18F458 OSCSDIS PWRTDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPALL
— — — — — —
RCIO BORV20 LVPEN CP3 WP3 TRP3
RCRA6 BORV27 LVPDIS — — —
HSPLL BORV42 — CP2 WP2 TRP2
ECIO BORV45 STVREN — — —
ECRA6 — STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECDB4 BOREN — — —
RC BORDIS CP0 WP0 TRP0
HS — — — —
XT WDTPS128 UNPROTECT WPU TRPB
LP ... — — —
WDTPS1 CPD WPD TRU
— — —
WDTEN CPB WPB
WDTDIS —
WPC

18F25K20 IESOEN BORV30 MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA

18F26K20 IESODIS BORV27 MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPA WPA —
18F45K20 — BORV22 — — — — TRP3
18F46K20 FCMEN BORV18 HFSTART DEBUGEN CP3 WP3 —
FCMDIS — HFSTABLE DEBUGDIS — — TRP2
— BOREN — — CP2 WP2 —
EXTCLKO BOREN_XSLP LPT1EN LVPEN — — TRP1
RCCLKO SWBOREN LPT1DIS LVPDIS CP1 WP1 —
RCIO BORDIS — — — — TRP0
EXTIO — PBANALOG STVREN CP0 WP0 —
HSPLL PWRTEN PBDIGITAL STVRDIS — — TRPB
ECIO PWRTDIS — CPD WPD —
ECCLKO — CCP2RC1 — — TRPALL
HS WDTPS1 CCP2RB3 CPB WPB
XT ... — —
LP WDTPS32K CPALL WPC
— —
WDTDIS WPALL
WDTEN

501
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2620 IESOEN BOREN MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPALL
18F4620 IESODIS BOREN_XSLP MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPALL WPALL TRPA
— SWBOREN — — CPA WPA —
FCMEN BORDIS LPT1EN DEBUGEN — — TRP3
FCMDIS — LPT1DIS DEBUGDIS CP3 WP3 —
— BORV46 — — — — TRP2
EXTCLKO BORV43 PBDIGITAL LVPEN CP2 WP2 —
RCCLKO BORV28 PBANALOG LVPDIS — — TRP1
RCIO BORV21 — — CP1 WP1 —
EXTIO — CCP2RC1 STVREN — — TRP0
HSPLL PWRTEN CCP2RB3 STVRDIS CP0 WP0 —
ECIO PWRTDIS — — TRPB
ECCLKO — CPD WPD
HS WDTPS1 — —
XT ... CPB WPB
LP WDTPS32K —
— WPC
WDTDIS
WDTEN

18F2680 IESOEN BOREN MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPALL

18F4680 IESODIS BOREN_XSLP MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPALL WPALL TRPA
— SWBOREN — — CPA WPA —
FCMEN BORDIS LPT1EN DEBUGEN — — TRP3
FCMDIS — LPT1DIS DEBUGDIS CP3 WP3 —
— BORV46 — — — — TRP2
EXTCLKO BORV43 PBDIGITAL BBSIZ4K CP2 WP2 —
RCCLKO BORV28 PBANALOG BBSIZ2K — — TRP1
RCIO BORV21 BBSIZ1K CP1 WP1 —
EXTIO — — — — TRP0
HSPLL PWRTEN LVPEN CP0 WP0 —
ECIO PWRTDIS LVPDIS — — TRPB
ECCLKO — — CPD WPD
HS WDTPS1 STVREN — —
XT ... STVRDIS CPB WPB
LP WDTPS32K —
— WPC
WDTDIS
WDTEN

502
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F2682 IESOEN BOREN MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA
18F4682 IESODIS BOREN_XSLP MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPA WPA —
— SWBOREN — — — — TRP4
FCMEN BORDIS LPT1EN DEBUGEN CP4 WP4 —
FCMDIS — LPT1DIS DEBUGDIS — — TRP3
— BORV46 — CP3 WP3 —
EXTCLKO BORV43 BBSIZ4K — — TRP2
RCCLKO BORV28 BBSIZ2K CP2 WP2 —
RCIO BORV21 BBSIZ1K — — TRP1
EXTIO — — CP1 WP1 —
HSPLL PWRTEN LVPEN — — TRP0
ECIO PWRTDIS LVPDIS CP0 WP0 —
ECCLKO — — — — TRPB
HS WDTPS1 STVREN CPD WPD —
XT ... STVRDIS — — TRPALL
LP WDTPS32K CPB WPB
— — —
WDTDIS CPALL WPC
WDTEN —
WPALL

18F2685 IESOEN BOREN MCLREN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA

18F4685 IESODIS BOREN_XSLP MCLRDIS XINSTDIS CPA WPA —
— SWBOREN — — — — TRP5
FCMEN BORDIS LPT1EN DEBUGEN CP5 WP5 —
FCMDIS — LPT1DIS DEBUGDIS — — TRP4
— BORV46 — CP4 WP4 —
EXTCLKO BORV43 BBSIZ4K — — TRP3
RCCLKO BORV28 BBSIZ2K CP3 WP3 —
RCIO BORV21 BBSIZ1K — — TRP2
EXTIO — — CP2 WP2 —
HSPLL PWRTEN LVPEN — — TRP1
ECIO PWRTDIS LVPDIS CP1 WP1 —
ECCLKO — — — — TRP0
HS WDTPS1 STVREN CP0 WP0 —
XT ... STVRDIS — — TRPB
LP WDTPS32K CPD WPD —
— — — TRPALL
WDTDIS CPB WPB
WDTEN — —
CPALL WPC
—
WPALL

503
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F4221 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN
18F4321 INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RB3 XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN PBDIGITAL STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP PBANALOG STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS LPT1EN LVPEN CPD WPD TRPB
HS — LPT1DIS LVPDIS — —
XT BORV21 — — CPB WPB
LP BORV28 MCLREN ICPORTEN —
— BORV43 MCLRDIS ICPORTDIS WPC
FCMDIS BORV46 —
FCMEN — BBSIZ1K
— WDTEN BBSIZ512
IESODIS WDTDIS BBSIZ256
IESOEN — —
WDTPS32K DEBUGDIS
... DEBUGEN
WDTPS1

18F4331 IESOEN BORDIS PWMOUTDIS DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA

18F4431 IESODIS BOREN PWMOUTEN DEBUGDIS CPA WPA —
— — — — — — TRP3
FCMEN BORV45 LOWPOLLO LVPEN CP3 WP3 —
FCMDIS BORV42 LOWPOLHI LVPDIS — — TRP2
— BORV27 — — CP2 WP2 —
EXTCLKO BORV20 HIPOLLO STVREN — — TRP1
RCCLKO — HIPOLHI STVRDIS CP1 WP1 —
RCIO PWRTEN — — — TRP0
EXTIO PWRTDIS T1LOWPOWER CP0 WP0 —
HSPLL — T1STD — — TRPB
ECIO WDTPS1 — CPD WPD —
ECCLKO ... FLTARC1 — — TRPALL
HS WDTPS32K FLTARD4 CPB WPB
XT — — — —
LP WDTEN SSPRC CPALL WPC
WDTDIS SSPRD —
— — WPALL
WDTWINEN PWM4RB5
WDTWINDIS PWM4RD5
—
XCLKRC3
XCLKRD0
—
MCLREN
MCLRDIS

504
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F4450 USBPLL VREGEN PBANALOG XINSTEN UNPROTECT UNPROTECT UNPROTECT
USBOSC VREGDIS PBDIGITAL XINSTDIS — — —
— — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
CPUDIV4 PWRTDIS LPT1EN STVREN — — —
CPUDIV3 PWRTEN LPT1DIS STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
CPUDIV2 — — — — — —
CPUDIV1 BOREN MCLREN LVPEN CPD WPD TRPB
— BOREN_XSLP MCLRDIS LVPDIS — —
PLLDIV12 SWBOREN — CPB WPB
... BORDIS BBSIZ2K —
PLLDIV1 — BBSIZ1K WPC
— BORV20 —
HSPLL BORV27 ICPORTEN
HS BORV42 ICPORTDIS
INT_USBHS BORV45 —
INT_USBXT — DEBUGDIS
INTCLKO WDTEN DEBUGEN
INTIO WDTDIS
ECPLLCLKO —
ECPLLIO WDTPS32K
ECCLKO ...
ECIO WDTPS1
XTPLL
XT
—
FCMDIS
FCMEN
—
IESODIS
IESOEN

18F6310 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT UNPROTECT

18F6410 INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RE7 XINSTDIS —
INTIO — — — CP0
EXTIO BOREN LPT1EN STVREN
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP LPT1DIS STVRDIS
ECIO SWBOREN — —
ECCLKO BORDIS MCLREN DEBUGDIS
HS — MCLRDIS DEBUGEN
XT BORV21
LP BORV28
— BORV43
FCMDIS BORV46
FCMEN —
— WDTEN
IESODIS WDTDIS
IESOEN —
WDTPS32K
...
WDTPS1

505
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F6390 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT
18F6393 RCCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RE7 XINSTDIS —
18F6490 RCIO — CCP2RB3 — CP
18F6493 EXTIO BOREN — STVREN
18F8390 HSPLL BOREN_XSLP LPT1EN STVRDIS
18F8393 ECIO SWBOREN LPT1DIS —
18F8490 ECCLKO BORDIS — DEBUGDIS
18F8493 HS — MCLRDIS DEBUGEN
XT BORV20 MCLREN
LP BORV27
— BORV42
FCMDIS BORV45
FCMEN —
— WDTEN
IESODIS WDTDIS
IESOEN —
WDTPS32K
...
WDTPS1

18F63J11 XINSTEN IESODIS CCP2RC1

18F64J11 XINSTDIS IESOEN CCP2RE7
18F65J11 — — CCP2RB3
DEBUGDIS FCMDIS
DEBUGEN FCMEN
— —
STVREN INTOSC
STVRDIS EXTOSC
— ECPLL
WDTEN ECCLKO
WDTDIS HSPLL
— HS
UNPROTECT —
— WDTPS32K
CP0 ...
— WDTPS1
CPA

506
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F63J90 XINSTEN IESODIS CCP2RC1
18F64J90 XINSTDIS IESOEN CCP2RE7
18F65J90 — —
18F83J90 DEBUGDIS FCMDIS
18F84J90 DEBUGEN FCMEN
18F85J90 — —
STVREN INTOSC
STVRDIS EXTOSC
— ECPLL
WDTEN ECCLKO
WDTDIS HSPLL
— HS
UNPROTECT —
— WDTPS32K
CP0 ...
— WDTPS1
CPA

18F6520 OSCSEN PWRTEN CCP2RC1 DEBUGEN CPALL WPALL TRPALL

OSCSDIS PWRTDIS CCP2RE7 DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
— — — — — — —
RCIO BORV25 T1STD LVPEN CP3 WP3 TRP3
RCRA6 BORV27 T1LOWPOWER LVPDIS — — —
HSPLL BORV42 — CP2 WP2 TRP2
ECIO BORV45 STVREN — — —
ECRA6 — STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECDB4 BOREN — — —
RC BORDIS CP0 WP0 TRP0
HS — — — —
XT WDTPS128 UNPROTECT WPU TRPB
LP ... — WRTEN —
WDTPS1 CPD — TRU
— — WPD
WDTEN CPB —
WDTDIS WPB
—
WPC

507
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F6525 OSCSEN BOREN MCLREN DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA
OSCSDIS BORDIS MCLRDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA —
— — — — — — TRP2
RCIO BORV45 CCP2RC1 LVPEN CP2 WP2 —
RCRA6 BORV42 CCP2RE7 LVPDIS — — TRP1
HSSW BORV27 — CP1 WP1 —
ECSW BORV20 STVREN — — TRP0
ECHW — STVRDIS CP0 WP0 —
RC PWRTEN — — TRPB
HSHW PWRTDIS CPD WPD —
EC — — — TRPALL
ECDB4 WDTPS1 CPB WPB
RCDB4 ... — —
HS WDTPS32K CPALL WPC
XT — —
LP WDTDIS WPALL
WDTEN

18F6527 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN

INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RE7 XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — CCP2RB3 — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN — STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP LPT1EN STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN LPT1DIS — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS — LVPEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
HS — MCLREN LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV21 MCLRDIS — CPA WPA TRPA
LP BORV28 BBSIZ4K — — —
— BORV43 BBSIZ2K CPD WPD TRPB
FCMDIS BORV46 BBSIZ1K — — —
FCMEN — — CPB WPB TRPALL
— WDTEN DEBUGDIS — —
IESODIS WDTDIS DEBUGEN CPALL WPC
IESOEN — —
WDTPS32K WPALL
...
WDTPS1

508
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F6585 OSCSEN BOREN MCLREN DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPALL
OSCSDIS BORDIS MCLRDIS DEBUGDIS CPALL WPALL TRPA
— — — — CPA WPA —
RCIO BORV45 CCP2RC1 LVPEN — — TRP2
RCRA6 BORV42 CCP2RB3 LVPDIS CP2 WP2 —
HSSW BORV27 CCP2RE7 — — — TRP1
ECSW BORV20 STVREN CP1 WP1 —
ECHW — STVRDIS — — TRP0
RC PWRTEN CP0 WP0 —
HSHW PWRTDIS — — TRPB
EC — CPD WPD
ECDB4 WDTPS1 — —
RCDB4 ... CPB WPB
HS WDTPS32K —
XT — WPC
LP WDTDIS
WDTEN

18F65J10 XINSTEN ECPLL CCP2RC1

18F65J15 XINSTDIS EC CCP2RE7
18F66J10 — HSPLL
18F66J15 WDTDIS HS
18F67J10 WDTEN INTRC
— —
STVREN FCMDIS
STVRDIS FCMEN
— —
DEBUGEN IESODIS
DEBUGDIS IESOEN
— —
UNPROTECT WDTPS32K
PROTECT ...
WDTPS1

509
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F65J50 XINSTEN IESODIS CCP2RC1
18F66J50 XINSTDIS IESOEN CCP2RE7
18F66J55 — — —
18F67J50 DEBUGDIS FCMDIS MSSP7MSK
DEBUGEN FCMEN MSSP5MSK
— —
STVREN ECPLL
STVRDIS EC
— HSPLL
PLLDIV1 HS
... INTPLL1
PLLDIV12 INTPLL2
— INTIO1
WDTEN INTIO2
WDTDIS —
— WDTPS32K
CPUDIV1 ...
CPUDIV2 WDTPS1
CPUDIV3
CPUDIV6
UNPROTECT
—
CP0
—
CPA

18F6620 OSCSEN PWRTEN CCP2RC1 DEBUGEN CPALL WPALL TRPALL

OSCSDIS PWRTDIS CCP2RE7 DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
— — — — — —
RCIO BORV25 LVPEN CP3 WP3 TRP3
RCRA6 BORV27 LVPDIS — — —
HSPLL BORV42 — CP2 WP2 TRP2
ECIO BORV45 STVREN — — —
ECRA6 — STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECDB4 BOREN — — —
RC BORDIS CP0 WP0 TRP0
HS — — — —
XT WDTPS128 UNPROTECT WPU TRPB
LP ... — WRTEN —
WDTPS1 CPD — TRU
— — WPD
WDTEN CPB —
WDTDIS WPB
—
WPC

510
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F6621 OSCSEN BOREN MCLREN DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA
OSCSDIS BORDIS MCLRDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA —
— — — — — — TRP3
RCIO BORV45 CCP2RC1 LVPEN CP3 WP3 —
RCRA6 BORV42 CCP2RE7 LVPDIS — — TRP2
HSSW BORV27 — CP2 WP2 —
ECSW BORV20 STVREN — — TRP1
ECHW — STVRDIS CP1 WP1 —
RC PWRTEN — — TRP0
HSHW PWRTDIS CP0 WP0 —
EC — — — TRPB
ECDB4 WDTPS1 CPD WPD —
RCDB4 ... — — TRPALL
HS WDTPS32K CPB WPB
XT — — —
LP WDTDIS CPALL WPC
WDTEN —
WPALL

18F6622 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN

INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RE7 XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — CCP2RB3 — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN — STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP LPT1EN STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN LPT1DIS — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS — LVPEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
HS — MCLREN LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV21 MCLRDIS — CP3 WP3 TRP3
LP BORV28 BBSIZ4K — — —
— BORV43 BBSIZ2K CPA WPA TRPA
FCMDIS BORV46 BBSIZ1K — — —
FCMEN — — CPD WPD TRPB
— WDTEN DEBUGDIS — — —
IESODIS WDTDIS DEBUGEN CPB WPB TRPALL
IESOEN — — —
WDTPS32K CPALL WPC
... —
WDTPS1 WPALL

511
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F6627 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN
18F6628 INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RE7 XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — CCP2RB3 — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN — STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP LPT1EN STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN LPT1DIS — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS — LVPEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
HS — MCLREN LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV21 MCLRDIS — CP3 WP3 TRP3
LP BORV28 BBSIZ4K — — —
— BORV43 BBSIZ2K CP4 WP4 TRP4
FCMDIS BORV46 BBSIZ1K — — —
FCMEN — — CP5 WP5 TRP5
— WDTEN DEBUGDIS — — —
IESODIS WDTDIS DEBUGEN CPA WPA TRPA
IESOEN — — — —
WDTPS32K CPD WPD TRPB
... — — —
WDTPS1 CPB WPB TRPALL
— —
CPALL WPC
—
WPALL

18F6680 OSCSEN BOREN MCLREN DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPALL

OSCSDIS BORDIS MCLRDIS DEBUGDIS CPALL WPALL TRPA
— — — — CPA WPA —
RCIO BORV45 CCP2RC1 LVPEN — — TRP3
RCRA6 BORV42 CCP2RB3 LVPDIS CP3 WP3 —
HSSW BORV27 CCP2RE7 — — — TRP2
ECSW BORV20 STVREN CP2 WP2 —
ECHW — STVRDIS — — TRP1
RC PWRTEN CP1 WP1 —
HSHW PWRTDIS — — TRP0
EC — CP0 WP0 —
ECDB4 WDTPS1 — — TRPB
RCDB4 ... CPD WPD
HS WDTPS32K — —
XT — CPB WPB
LP WDTDIS —
WDTEN WPC

512
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F66J11 XINSTEN IESODIS CCP2RC1
18F66J16 XINSTDIS IESOEN CCP2RE7
18F67J11 — — CCP2RB3
DEBUGDIS FCMDIS —
DEBUGEN FCMEN MSSP7MSK
— — MSSP5MSK
STVREN ECPLL
STVRDIS EC
— HSPLL
WDTEN HS
WDTDIS INTPLL1
— INTPLL2
UNPROTECT INTIO1
— INTIO2
CP0 —
— WDTPS32K
CPA ...
WDTPS1

18F66J60 XINSTEN ECPLL ETHLEDEN

18F66J65 XINSTDIS EC ETHLEDDIS
18F67J60 — HSPLL
WDTDIS HS
WDTEN INTRC
— —
STVREN FCMDIS
STVRDIS FCMEN
— —
DEBUGEN IESODIS
DEBUGDIS IESOEN
— —
UNPROTECT WDTPS32K
PROTECT ...
WDTPS1

513
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F6720 OSCSEN PWRTEN CCP2RC1 DEBUGEN CPALL WPALL TRPALL
OSCSDIS PWRTDIS CCP2RE7 DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
— — — — — —
RCIO BORV25 LVPEN CP7 WP7 TRP7
RCRA6 BORV27 LVPDIS — — —
HSPLL BORV42 — CP6 WP6 TRP6
ECIO BORV45 STVREN — — —
ECRA6 — STVRDIS CP5 WP5 TRP5
ECDB4 BOREN — — —
RC BORDIS CP4 WP4 TRP4
HS — — — —
XT WDTPS128 CP3 WP3 TRP3
LP ... — — —
WDTPS1 CP2 WP2 TRP2
— — — —
WDTEN CP1 WP1 TRP1
WDTDIS — — —
CP0 WP0 TRP0
— — —
UNPROTECT WPU TRPB
— WRTEN —
CPD — TRU
— WPD
CPB —
WPB
—
WPC

514
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F6722 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS CCP2RC1 XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN
18F6723 INTCLKO PWRTEN CCP2RE7 XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — CCP2RB3 — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN — STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP LPT1EN STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN LPT1DIS — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS — LVPEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
HS — MCLREN LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV21 MCLRDIS — CP3 WP3 TRP3
LP BORV28 BBSIZ4K — — —
— BORV43 BBSIZ2K CP4 WP4 TRP4
FCMDIS BORV46 BBSIZ1K — — —
FCMEN — — CP5 WP5 TRP5
— WDTEN DEBUGDIS — — —
IESODIS WDTDIS DEBUGEN CP6 WP6 TRP6
IESOEN — — — —
WDTPS32K CP7 WP7 TRP7
... — — —
WDTPS1 CPA WPA TRPA
— — —
CPD WPD TRPB
— — —
CPB WPB TRPALL
— —
CPALL WPC
—
WPALL

18F8310 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS WAITEN XINSTEN UNPROTECT UNPROTECT

18F8410 INTCLKO PWRTEN WAITDIS XINSTDIS — —
INTIO — — — CP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN BW16 STVREN
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP BW8 STVRDIS
ECIO SWBOREN — —
ECCLKO BORDIS MCU DEBUGDIS
HS — MPU DEBUGEN
XT BORV21 MPUBB
LP BORV28 XMCU
— BORV43 —
FCMDIS BORV46 CCP2RC1
FCMEN — CCP2RE7
— WDTEN CCP2RB3
IESODIS WDTDIS —
IESOEN — LPT1EN
WDTPS32K LPT1DIS
... —
WDTPS1 MCLREN
MCLRDIS

515
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F83J11 XINSTEN IESODIS WAITEN
18F84J11 XINSTDIS IESOEN WAITDIS
18F85J11 — — —
DEBUGDIS FCMDIS BW16
DEBUGEN FCMEN BW8
— — —
STVREN INTOSC ABW20
STVRDIS EXTOSC ABW16
— ECPLL ABW12
WDTEN ECCLKO ABW0
WDTDIS HSPLL —
— HS EASHFTEN
UNPROTECT — EASHFTDIS
— WDTPS32K —
CP0 ... CCP2RC1
— WDTPS1 CCP2RE7
CPA CCP2RB3

18F8520 OSCSEN PWRTEN WAITEN DEBUGEN CPALL WPALL TRPALL

OSCSDIS PWRTDIS WAITDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
— — — — — — —
RCIO BORV25 MCU LVPEN CP3 WP3 TRP3
RCRA6 BORV27 MPU LVPDIS — — —
HSPLL BORV42 MPUBB — CP2 WP2 TRP2
ECIO BORV45 XMCU STVREN — — —
ECRA6 — — STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECDB4 BOREN CCP2RC1 — — —
RC BORDIS CCP2RE7 CP0 WP0 TRP0
HS — CCP2RB3 — — —
XT WDTPS128 — UNPROTECT WPU TRPB
LP ... T1STD — WRTEN —
WDTPS1 T1LOWPOWER CPD — TRU
— — WPD
WDTEN CPB —
WDTDIS WPB
—
WPC

516
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F8525 OSCSEN BOREN WAITEN DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA
OSCSDIS BORDIS WAITDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA —
— — — — — — TRP2
RCIO BORV45 MCU LVPEN CP2 WP2 —
RCRA6 BORV42 MPU LVPDIS — — TRP1
HSSW BORV27 MPUBB — CP1 WP1 —
ECSW BORV20 XMCU STVREN — — TRP0
ECHW — — STVRDIS CP0 WP0 —
RC PWRTEN ECCPRE — — TRPB
HSHW PWRTDIS ECCPRH CPD WPD —
EC — — — — TRPALL
ECDB4 WDTPS1 CCP2RB3 CPB WPB
RCDB4 ... — — —
HS WDTPS32K MCLREN CPALL WPC
XT — MCLRDIS —
LP WDTDIS — WPALL
WDTEN CCP2RC1
CCP2RE7

18F8527 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS WAITEN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN

INTCLKO PWRTEN WAITDIS XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN BW16 STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP BW8 STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS ABW20 LVPEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
HS — ABW16 LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV21 ABW12 — CPA WPA TRPA
LP BORV28 ABW8 BBSIZ4K — — —
— BORV43 — BBSIZ2K CPD WPD TRPB
FCMDIS BORV46 MCU BBSIZ1K — — —
FCMEN — MPU — CPB WPB TRPALL
— WDTEN MPUBB DEBUGDIS — —
IESODIS WDTDIS XMCU DEBUGEN CPALL WPC
IESOEN — — —
WDTPS32K CCP2RC1 WPALL
... CCP2RE7
WDTPS1 CCP2RB3
—
ECCPRE
ECCPRH
—
LPT1EN
LPT1DIS
—
MCLREN
MCLRDIS

517
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F8585 OSCSEN BOREN WAITEN DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPALL
OSCSDIS BORDIS WAITDIS DEBUGDIS CPALL WPALL TRPA
— — — — CPA WPA —
RCIO BORV45 MCU LVPEN — — TRP2
RCRA6 BORV42 MPU LVPDIS CP2 WP2 —
HSSW BORV27 MPUBB — — — TRP1
ECSW BORV20 XMCU STVREN CP1 WP1 —
ECHW — — STVRDIS — — TRP0
RC PWRTEN MCLREN CP0 WP0 —
HSHW PWRTDIS MCLRDIS — — TRPB
EC — — CPD WPD
ECDB4 WDTPS1 CCP2RC1 — —
RCDB4 ... CCP2RB3 CPB WPB
HS WDTPS32K CCP2RE7 —
XT — WPC
LP WDTDIS
WDTEN

18F85J10 XINSTEN ECPLL WAITEN

18F85J15 XINSTDIS EC WAITDIS
18F86J10 — HSPLL —
18F86J15 WDTDIS HS BW16
18F87J10 WDTEN INTRC BW8
— — —
STVREN FCMDIS ABW20
STVRDIS FCMEN ABW16
— — ABW12
DEBUGEN IESODIS ABW0
DEBUGDIS IESOEN —
— — XMCU20
UNPROTECT WDTPS32K XMCU16
PROTECT ... XMCU12
WDTPS1 MCU
—
EASHFTEN
EASHFTDIS
—
CCP2RC1
CCP2RE7
—
ECCPRE
ECCPRH

518
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F85J50 XINSTEN IESODIS WAITEN
18F86J50 XINSTDIS IESOEN WAITDIS
18F86J55 — — —
18F87J50 DEBUGDIS FCMDIS BW16
DEBUGEN FCMEN BW8
— — —
STVREN ECPLL ABW20
STVRDIS EC ABW16
— HSPLL ABW12
PLLDIV1 HS ABW0
... INTPLL1 —
PLLDIV12 INTPLL2 EASHFTEN
— INTIO1 EASHFTDIS
WDTEN INTIO2 —
WDTDIS — CCP2RC1
— WDTPS32K CCP2RE7
CPUDIV1 ... CCP2RB3
CPUDIV2 WDTPS1 —
CPUDIV3 ECCPRE
CPUDIV6 ECCPRH
UNPROTECT ECCP_RE
— ECCP_RH
CP0 —
— PMP_DE
CPA PMP_AFH
MSSP7MSK
MSSP5MSK

18F8620 OSCSEN PWRTEN WAITEN DEBUGEN CPALL WPALL TRPALL

OSCSDIS PWRTDIS WAITDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
— — — — — — —
RCIO BORV25 MCU LVPEN CP3 WP3 TRP3
RCRA6 BORV27 MPU LVPDIS — — —
HSPLL BORV42 MPUBB — CP2 WP2 TRP2
ECIO BORV45 XMCU STVREN — — —
ECRA6 — — STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECDB4 BOREN CCP2RC1 — — —
RC BORDIS CCP2RE7 CP0 WP0 TRP0
HS — CCP2RB3 — — —
XT WDTPS128 UNPROTECT WPU TRPB
LP ... — WRTEN —
WDTPS1 CPD — TRU
— — WPD
WDTEN CPB —
WDTDIS WPB
—
WPC

519
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F8621 OSCSEN BOREN WAITEN DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPA
OSCSDIS BORDIS WAITDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA —
— — — — — — TRP3
RCIO BORV45 MCU LVPEN CP3 WP3 —
RCRA6 BORV42 MPU LVPDIS — — TRP2
HSSW BORV27 MPUBB — CP2 WP2 —
ECSW BORV20 XMCU STVREN — — TRP1
ECHW — — STVRDIS CP1 WP1 —
RC PWRTEN ECCPRE — — TRP0
HSHW PWRTDIS ECCPRH CP0 WP0 —
EC — — — — TRPB
ECDB4 WDTPS1 CCP2RB3 CPD WPD —
RCDB4 ... — — — TRPALL
HS WDTPS32K MCLREN CPB WPB
XT — MCLRDIS — —
LP WDTDIS — CPALL WPC
WDTEN CCP2RC1 —
CCP2RE7 WPALL

18F8622 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS WAITEN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN

INTCLKO PWRTEN WAITDIS XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN BW16 STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP BW8 STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS ABW20 LVPEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
HS — ABW16 LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV21 ABW12 — CP3 WP3 TRP3
LP BORV28 ABW8 BBSIZ4K — — —
— BORV43 — BBSIZ2K CPA WPA TRPA
FCMDIS BORV46 MCU BBSIZ1K — — —
FCMEN — MPU — CPD WPD TRPB
— WDTEN MPUBB DEBUGDIS — — —
IESODIS WDTDIS XMCU DEBUGEN CPB WPB TRPALL
IESOEN — — — —
WDTPS32K CCP2RC1 CPALL WPC
... CCP2RE7 —
WDTPS1 CCP2RB3 WPALL
—
ECCPRE
ECCPRH
—
LPT1EN
LPT1DIS
—
MCLREN
MCLRDIS

520
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F8627 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS WAITEN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN
18F8628 INTCLKO PWRTEN WAITDIS XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN BW16 STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP BW8 STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS ABW20 LVPEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
HS — ABW16 LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV21 ABW12 — CP3 WP3 TRP3
LP BORV28 ABW8 BBSIZ4K — — —
— BORV43 — BBSIZ2K CP4 WP4 TRP4
FCMDIS BORV46 MCU BBSIZ1K — — —
FCMEN — MPU — CP5 WP5 TRP5
— WDTEN MPUBB DEBUGDIS — — —
IESODIS WDTDIS XMCU DEBUGEN CPA WPA TRPA
IESOEN — — — — —
WDTPS32K CCP2RC1 CPD WPD TRPB
... CCP2RE7 — — —
WDTPS1 CCP2RB3 CPB WPB TRPALL
— — —
ECCPRE CPALL WPC
ECCPRH —
— WPALL
LPT1EN
LPT1DIS
—
MCLREN
MCLRDIS

18F8680 OSCSEN BOREN WAITEN DEBUGEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TRPALL

OSCSDIS BORDIS WAITDIS DEBUGDIS CPALL WPALL TRPA
— — — — CPA WPA —
RCIO BORV45 MCU LVPEN — — TRP3
RCRA6 BORV42 MPU LVPDIS CP3 WP3 —
HSSW BORV27 MPUBB — — — TRP2
ECSW BORV20 XMCU STVREN CP2 WP2 —
ECHW — — STVRDIS — — TRP1
RC PWRTEN MCLREN CP1 WP1 —
HSHW PWRTDIS MCLRDIS — — TRP0
EC — — CP0 WP0 —
ECDB4 WDTPS1 CCP2RC1 — — TRPB
RCDB4 ... CCP2RB3 CPD WPD
HS WDTPS32K CCP2RE7 — —
XT — CPB WPB
LP WDTDIS —
WDTEN WPC

521
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F86J11 XINSTEN IESODIS WAITEN
18F86J16 XINSTDIS IESOEN WAITDIS
18F87J11 — — —
DEBUGDIS FCMDIS BW16
DEBUGEN FCMEN BW8
— — —
STVREN ECPLL ABW20
STVRDIS EC ABW16
— HSPLL ABW12
WDTEN HS ABW0
WDTDIS INTPLL1 —
— INTPLL2 EASHFTEN
UNPROTECT INTIO1 EASHFTDIS
— INTIO2 —
CP0 — CCP2RC1
— WDTPS32K CCP2RE7
CPA ... CCP2RB3
WDTPS1 —
ECCPRE
ECCPRH
ECCP_RE
ECCP_RH
—
PMP_DE
PMP_AFH
MSSP7MSK
MSSP5MSK

18F86J60 XINSTEN ECPLL ETHLEDEN

18F86J65 XINSTDIS EC ETHLEDDIS
18F87J60 — HSPLL —
WDTDIS HS ECCPRE
WDTEN INTRC ECCPRH
— — —
STVREN FCMDIS CCP2RC1
STVRDIS FCMEN CCP2RB3
— —
DEBUGEN IESODIS
DEBUGDIS IESOEN
— —
UNPROTECT WDTPS32K
PROTECT ...
WDTPS1

522
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F8720 OSCSEN PWRTEN WAITEN DEBUGEN CPALL WPALL TRPALL
OSCSDIS PWRTDIS WAITDIS DEBUGDIS CPA WPA TRPA
— — — — — — —
RCIO BORV25 MCU LVPEN CP7 WP7 TRP7
RCRA6 BORV27 MPU LVPDIS — — —
HSPLL BORV42 MPUBB — CP6 WP6 TRP6
ECIO BORV45 XMCU STVREN — — —
ECRA6 — — STVRDIS CP5 WP5 TRP5
ECDB4 BOREN CCP2RC1 — — —
RC BORDIS CCP2RE7 CP4 WP4 TRP4
HS — CCP2RB3 — — —
XT WDTPS128 CP3 WP3 TRP3
LP ... — — —
WDTPS1 CP2 WP2 TRP2
— — — —
WDTEN CP1 WP1 TRP1
WDTDIS — — —
CP0 WP0 TRP0
— — —
UNPROTECT WPU TRPB
— WRTEN —
CPD — TRU
— WPD
CPB —
WPB
—
WPC

523
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F8722 EXTCLKO PWRTDIS WAITEN XINSTEN UNPROTECT WRTEN TREN
18F8723 INTCLKO PWRTEN WAITDIS XINSTDIS — — —
INTIO — — — CP0 WP0 TRP0
EXTIO BOREN BW16 STVREN — — —
HSPLL BOREN_XSLP BW8 STVRDIS CP1 WP1 TRP1
ECIO SWBOREN — — — — —
ECCLKO BORDIS ABW20 LVPEN CP2 WP2 TRP2
HS — ABW16 LVPDIS — — —
XT BORV21 ABW12 — CP3 WP3 TRP3
LP BORV28 ABW8 BBSIZ4K — — —
— BORV43 — BBSIZ2K CP4 WP4 TRP4
FCMDIS BORV46 MCU BBSIZ1K — — —
FCMEN — MPU — CP5 WP5 TRP5
— WDTEN MPUBB DEBUGDIS — — —
IESODIS WDTDIS XMCU DEBUGEN CP6 WP6 TRP6
IESOEN — — — — —
WDTPS32K CCP2RC1 CP7 WP7 TRP7
... CCP2RE7 — — —
WDTPS1 CCP2RB3 CPA WPA TRPA
— — — —
ECCPRE CPD WPD TRPB
ECCPRH — — —
— CPB WPB TRPALL
LPT1EN — —
LPT1DIS CPALL WPC
— —
MCLREN WPALL
MCLRDIS

524
Configuration Attributes

CHIP CFG 1 CFG 2 CFG 3 CFG 4 CFG 5 CFG 6 CFG 7

18F96J60 XINSTEN ECPLL WAITEN
18F96J65 XINSTDIS EC WAITDIS
18F97J60 — HSPLL —
WDTDIS HS BW16
WDTEN INTRC BW8
— — —
STVREN FCMDIS ABW20
STVRDIS FCMEN ABW16
— — ABW12
DEBUGEN IESODIS ABW0
DEBUGDIS IESOEN —
— — XMCU20
UNPROTECT WDTPS32K XMCU16
PROTECT ... XMCU12
WDTPS1 MCU
—
EASHFTEN
EASHFTDIS
—
ETHLEDEN
ETHLEDDIS
—
ECCPRE
ECCPRH
—
CCP2RC1
CCP2RB3

525
Configuration Attributes

526
Index

! macro quote character, 148 #pragma directives, 118

\ command file character, 23 #undef, 50
. psect address symbol, 163 $ character
.as files, 24 in assembly labels, 134
.cmd files, 183 $ location counter symbol, 135
.crf files, 53, 129 % macro argument prefix, 148
.hex files, 25 & assembly macro concatenation character, 148
.ini files, 74 _ character
.lib files, 181, 183 in assembly labels, 134
.lnk files, 166 _EEPROMSIZE, 117
.lst files, 51 _ERRATA_TYPES, 118
.obj files, 130, 162, 183 _FLASH_ERASE_SIZE, 117
.opt files, 129 _FLASH_WRITE_SIZE, 117
.p1 files, 24 _HTC_EDITION_, 116
.pro files, 59 _HTC_VER_MAJOR_, 117
.sdb files, 37 _HTC_VER_MINOR_, 117
.sym files, 37, 161, 164 _HTC_VER_PATCH_, 117
/ psect address symbol, 163 _ICDROM_END, 117
;; comment suppression characters, 148 _ICDROM_START, 117
<> macro quote characters, 148 _MPC_, 117
? character _PIC18, 117
in assembly labels, 134 _PLIB, 118
??_xxxx type symbols, 167 _RAMSIZE, 117
??nnnn type symbols, 135, 149 _ROMSIZE, 117
?_xxxx type symbols, 167 __Bxxxx type symbols, 126
?a_xxxx type symbols, 167 __CONFIG macro, 74, 204, 485
@ command file specifier, 23 __DATE__, 118
#asm directive, 111 __EEPROM_DATA, 76
#define, 44 __EEPROM_DATA macro, 205
#include directive, 22 __FILE__, 118

527
INDEX INDEX

__Hxxxx type symbols, 33, 126 implementation-defined behaviour, 73

__IDLOC, 75 argument area, 97
__IDLOC macro, 206 argument passing, 97
__LINE__, 118 ASCII characters, 81
__Lxxx type symbols, 33 asctime function, 211
__Lxxxx type symbols, 126 asin function, 213
__MPLAB_ICD__, 117 asm() C directive, 111
__MPLAB_PICKIT2__, 117 assembler, 127
__MPLAB_PICKIT3__, 117 controls, 152
__MPLAB_REALICE__, 117 directives, 139
__PICC18__, 117 options, 128
__TIME__, 118 pseudo-ops, 139
__serial0 label, 63 assembler control
24-bit doubles, 53 COND, 152
32-bit doubles, 53 EXPAND, 152
INCLUDE, 152
abs function, 209 LIST, 153
abs PSECT flag, 139 NOCOND, 153
absolute address, 131 NOEXPAND, 153
absolute object files, 162 NOLIST, 153
absolute psects, 139, 141 NOXREF, 154
absolute variables, 95, 131 PAGE, 154
bits, 80 SPACE, 154
access bank, 87, 103, 131 SUBTITLE, 154
accessing SFRs, 113 TITLE, 154
acos function, 210 XREF, 154
additional memory ranges, 60, 61 assembler directive
addresses ALIGN, 149
byte, 194 DABS, 144
link, 157, 163 DB, 143
load, 157, 163 DS, 144
word, 194 DW, 143
addressing unit, 141 ELSE, 147
ALIGN directive, 149 ELSIF, 147
alignment END, 34, 139
within psects, 149 ENDIF, 147
ANSI standard ENDM, 148
conformance, 64 EQU, 132, 143
divergence from, 73 FNADDR, 144

528
INDEX INDEX

FNALIGN, 144 -V, 130

FNARG, 145 -X, 130
FNBREAK, 145 -processor, 130
FNCALL, 146 assembler-generated symbols, 135
FNCONF, 146 assembly, 127
FNINDIR, 146 accessing C variables from, 112
FNROOT, 147 C prototypes for, 109
FNSIZE, 111, 146 called from C code, 108
GLOBAL, 111, 136, 139 character constants, 134
IF, 147 character set, 132
IRP, 150 comments, 132
IRPC, 150 conditional, 147
LOCAL, 135, 149 constants, 133
MACRO, 132, 148 default radix, 133
ORG, 142 delimiters, 133
PROCESSOR, 111, 130, 151 embedding in C code, 108
PSECT, 111, 138, 139 expressions, 136
REPT, 150 generating from C, 50
SET, 132, 143 identifiers, 134
SIGNAT, 125, 151 data typing, 134
assembler files in-line, 112
preprocessing, 58 include files, 152
assembler listings, 51 initializing
assembler optimizer bytes, 143
debug information and, 130 words, 143
enabling, 130 labels, 108, 132, 136
viewing output of, 129 line numbers, 130
assembler option location counter, 135
-A, 129 multi-character constants, 134
-C, 129 operators, 136
-Cchipinfo, 129 psects for, 108
-E, 129 radix specifiers, 133
-Flength, 129 relative jumps, 135
-H, 129 relocatable expression, 136
-I, 129 repeating macros, 150
-Llistfile, 130 reserving memory, 144
-O, 130 special characters, 133
-Ooutfile, 130 special comment strings, 133
-Twidth, 130 statement format, 132

529
INDEX INDEX

strings, 134 Avocet symbol file, 165

volatile locations, 133
assembly labels, 108, 132, 136 banked access, 131
? character, 134 banks
$ character, 134 RAM banks, 87
_chacrter, 134 bankx qualifier, 87
making globally accessable, 139 base specifier, see radix specifier
scope, 136, 139 bases
assembly listings C source, 78
blank lines, 154 biased exponent, 83
disabling macro expansion, 153 big endian format, 195
enabling, 153 bigbss psect, 95, 103
excluding conditional code, 153 bigdata psect, 104
expanding macros, 129, 152 binary constants
generating, 130 assembly, 134
hexadecimal constants, 129 C, 78
including conditional code, 152 bit clear instruction, 75
new page, 154 Bit instructions, 75
page length, 129 bit manipulation macros, 75
page width, 130 bit PSECT flag, 139
radix specification, 129 bit set instruction, 75
subtitles, 154 bit types, 104
titles, 154 absolute, 80
assembly macros, 148 in assembly, 139
! character, 148 bit-addressable Registers, 80
% character, 148 bit-fields, 84
& symbol, 148 initializing, 84
concatenation of arguments, 148 unamed, 84
quoting characters, 148 blocks, see psects
suppressing comments, 148 bootloader, 61, 192, 198
assert function, 214 bootloaders, 62, 196
atan function, 215 bsearch function, 220
atan2 function, 216 bss psect, 33, 95, 103, 156
atof function, 217 clearing, 156
atoi function, 218 byte addresses, 194
atol function, 219
auto variable area, 97 C standard libraries, 29, 30
auto variables, 94 call graph, 171
auto-variable block, 94 callgraph

530
INDEX INDEX

critical path, 174 config psect, 103

ceil function, 222 config_read() function, 226
cgets function, 223 config_write() function, 226
char types, 81 configuration
character constants, 78 word, 103
assembly, 134 configuration fuses, 74, 485
checksum endianism, 52, 195 console I/O functions, 126
checksum specifications, 184 const psect, 103
checksums, 52, 191, 195 const qualifier, 86
algorithms, 52, 195 constants
endianism, 52, 195 assembly, 133
chipinfo files, 74, 129 C specifiers, 78
class PSECT flag, 141 character, 78
classes, 160 string, see string literals
address ranges, 159 context retrieval, 106
boundary argument, 164 context saving, 105
upper address limit, 164 in-line assembly, 120
clearing of variables, 33 copyright notice, 50
clib suboption, 29 cos function, 228
CLRWDT macro, 225 cosh function, 229
COD file, 58 cputs function, 230
code protection fuses, 74 creating
command files, 23 libraries, 182
command line driver, 21 creating new, 102
command lines CREF application, 129, 186
HLINK, long command lines, 166 CREF option
long, 23, 183 -Fprefix, 186
verbose option, 51 -Hheading, 187
common access, 131 -Llen, 187
compiled stack, 171 -Ooutfile, 187
compiler errors -Pwidth, 187
format, 40 -Sstoplist, 187
compiler generated psects, 102 -Xprefix, 188
compiler-generate input files, 28 CREF options, 186
compiling critical path, 174
to assembly file, 50 cromwell application, 188
to object file, 44 cromwell option
COND assembler control, 152 -B, 191
conditional assembly, 147 -C, 190

531
INDEX INDEX

-D, 189 floating point, 82

-E, 191 int, 81
-F, 190 short, 81
-Ikey, 190 short long, 82
-L, 190 DB directive, 143
-M, 191 debug information, 37, 46
-N, 189 assembler, 130
-Okey, 190 optimizers and, 130
-P, 189 default psect, 138
-V, 191 default radix
cromwell options, 188 assembly, 133
cross reference delta PSECT flag, 141
disabling, 154 delta psect flag, 160
generating, 186 dependencies, 63
list utility, 186 dependency checking, 26
cross reference file, 129 destination register, 131
generation, 129 device selection, 52
cross reference listings, 53 device_id_read() function, 207, 208, 232
excluding header symbols, 186 DI macro, 234
excluding symbols, 187, 188 directives
headers, 187 asm, C, 111
output name, 187 assembler, 139
page length, 187 EQU, 136
page width, 187 div function, 236
cross referencing divide by zero
enabling, 154 result of, 101
ctime function, 231 doprnt.c source file, 35
doprnt.pre, 36
DABS directive, 144 double type, 53
data psect, 104, 156 driver
copying, 157 command file, 23
data psects, 32 command format, 22
data types, 77 input files, 22
16-bit integer, 81 long command lines, 23
24-bit integer, 82 options, 22
8-bit integer, 81 single step compilation, 25
assembly, 134 driver option
bit, 104 –CODEOFFSET, 52
char, 81 –CP, 52

532
INDEX INDEX

–DOUBLE=type, 53 eeprom_read function, 237

–ERRATA=type, 54 EEPROM_WRITE, 76
–ERRFORMAT=format, 54 eeprom_write function, 237
–ERRORS=number, 55 EI macro, 234
–IDE=MPLAB, 37 ELSE directive, 147
–LANG=language, 56 ELSIF directive, 147
–MSGFORMAT=format, 54 embedding serial numbers, 200
–NODEL, 25 END directive, 34, 139
–OUTPUT=type, 58 end_init psect, 103
–PASS1, 24, 26, 27 endasm directive, 111
–PRE, 27 ENDIF directive, 147
–RUNTIME, 29 ENDM directive, 148
–RUNTIME=type, 32, 34, 63 enhanced symbol files, 161
–WARN=level, 65 environment variable
–WARNFORMAT=format, 54 HTC_ERR_FORMAT, 40
-B, 44 HTC_MSG_FORMAT, 40
-C, 26, 44 HTC_WARN_FORMAT, 40
-Efile, 45 EQU directive, 132, 136, 143
-G, 37, 46 equating assembly symbols, 143
-I, 46 errata workarounds, 30, 31, 54
-L, 47 error files
-M, 49 creating, 160
-O, 36 error messages, 45
-S, 50 formatting, 40
driver options LIBR, 184
–WARNFORMAT=format, 65 eval_poly function, 239
DS directive, 144 exceptions, 104
DW directive, 143 exp function, 240
EXPAND assembler control, 152
EEPROM Data, 76 exponent, 82
EEPROM data, 103 expressions
eeprom memory assemby, 136
initializing, 76 relocatable, 136
reading, 76 External memory interface, 54
writing, 76 external program space, 88
eeprom qualifier, 76 external variables, 88
eeprom variables, 76
eeprom_data psect, 103 fabs function, 241
EEPROM_READ, 76 far keyword, 88

533
INDEX INDEX

far variables, 88 exponent, 83

farbss, 103 format, 82
farbss psect, 103 mantissa, 83
fardata, 103 floating suffix, 78
fardata psect, 103 floor function, 245
fast interrupt save/restore, 106 fmod function, 244
fast interrupts, 106 FNADDR directive, 144
file extensions, 22 FNALIGN directive, 144
file formats FNARG directive, 145
assembler listing, 51 FNBREAK directive, 145
Avocet symbol, 165 FNCALL directive, 146
command, 183 FNCONF directive, 146
creating with cromwell, 188 FNINDIR directive, 146
cross reference, 129, 186 FNROOT directive, 147
cross reference listings, 53 FNSIZE directive, 146
dependency, 63 frexp function, 246
DOS executable, 162 ftoa function, 247
enhanced symbol, 161 function
library, 181, 183 return values, 97
link, 166 16-bit, 98
object, 44, 162, 183 32-bit, 98
preprocessor, 58 8-bit, 98
prototype, 59 structures, 98
specifying, 58 function parameters, 97
symbol, 161 function pointers, 94
symbol files, 37 function prototypes, 125, 151
TOS executable, 162 function return values, 97
files function signatures, 151
intermediate, 57, 58 functions
output, 58 argument area, 97
temporary, 57, 58 argument passing, 97
fill memory, 191 getch, 126
filling unused memory, 55, 196 interrupt, 104
Flash and EEPROM Libraries, 30 interrupt qualifier, 104
flash_erase function, 242 kbhit, 126
flash_read function, 242 putch, 126
flash_write function, 242 recursion, 73
floating point data types, 82 return values, 97
biased exponent, 83 returning from, 104

534
INDEX INDEX

signatures, 125 -CK, 195

written in assembler, 108 -FILL, 196, 199
-FIND, 197
getch function, 126, 248 -FIND...,DELETE, 198
getchar function, 249 -FIND...,REPLACE, 198
getche function, 248 -FORMAT, 198
gets function, 250 -HELP, 199
GLOBAL directive, 111, 136, 139 -LOGFILE, 199
global optimization, 57 -MASK, 200
global PSECT flag, 141 -O, 200
global symbols, 156 -SERIAL, 63, 200
gmtime function, 251 -SIZE, 201
-STRING, 201
hardware -STRPACK, 202
initialization, 34 -addressing, 194
header files -break, 195
htc.h, 81 file specifications, 192
problems in, 64 hexmate options, 192
HEX file format, 198 HI-TIDE, 55
HEX file map, 199 HI_TECH_C, 116
hex files high priority interrupts, 105
address alignment, 62, 196 htc.h, 81, 113
address map, 191 HTC_ERR_FORMAT, 40
calculating check sums, 191 HTC_MSG_FORMAT, 40
converting to other Intel formats, 191 HTC_WARN_FORMAT, 40
data record, 62, 195
detecting instruction sequences, 191 I/O
embedding serial numbers, 192 console I/O functions, 126
extended address record, 198 serial, 126
filling unused memory, 55, 191 STDIO, 126
find and replacing instructions, 191 ibigdata psect, 102
merging multiple, 191 ICD support, 106
multiple, 160 ID Locations, 75
record length, 62, 191, 196, 198 ID locations, 103
hexadecimal constants idata psect, 32, 62, 102
assembly, 134 identifier length, 49
hexmate application, 25, 191 identifiers
hexmate option assembly, 134
+prefix, 194 IDLOC, 75

535
INDEX INDEX

idloc psect, 103 configuring priorities, 107

idloc_read() function, 253 fast, 106
idloc_write() function, 253 handling in C, 104
IEEE floating point format, 82 priority of, 104
IF directive, 147 use of shadow registers, 106
ifardata psect, 102 Interrupts fast, 106
Implementation-defined behaviour, 73 intsave psect, 104
division and modulus, 101 irdata psect, 102
shifts, 101 IRP directive, 150
in-line assembly, 105, 112 IRPC directive, 150
INCLUDE assembler control, 152 isalnum function, 255
include files isalpha function, 255
assembly, 152 isatty function, 257
incremental builds, 26 isdigit function, 255
INHX32, 191, 198 islower function, 255
INHX8M, 191, 199 itoa function, 258
init psect, 103
initialization of variables, 32 Japanese character handling, 118
input files, 22 JIS character handling, 118
int data types, 81 jis pragma directive, 118
intcode psect, 103 kbhit function, 126
intcodelo psect, 103 keyword
integer suffix auto, 94
long, 78 bankx, 87
unsigned, 78 extern, 110
integral constants, 78 far, 88
integral promotion, 100 interrupt, 104
Intermediate files, 58 low_priority, 105
intermediate files, 22, 26, 58 near, 86, 87
interrupt functions, 104 persistent, 34, 86, 87
calling from main line code, 106 keywords
calling functions from, 105 disabling non-ANSI, 64
context retrieval, 106
context saving, 105, 120 l.obj output file, 25
returning from, 104 label field, 132
interrupt keyword, 104 labels
interrupt priority, 104 assembly, 108, 132, 136
interrupt service routines, 104 local, 149
interrupts labs function, 259

536
INDEX INDEX

language support, 39 asin, 213

ldexp function, 260 assert, 214
ldiv function, 261 atan, 215
LFSR instruction, 113, 132 atan2, 216
librarian, 181 atof, 217
command files, 183 atoi, 218
command line arguments, 182, 183 atol, 219
error messages, 184 bsearch, 220
listing format, 183 ceil, 222
long command lines, 183 cgets, 223
module order, 184 config_read(), 226
libraries config_write(), 226
adding files to, 182 cos, 228
creating, 182 cosh, 229
deleting files from, 182 cputs, 230
EEPROM, 30 ctime, 231
excluding, 62 device_id_read(), 207, 208, 232
flash, 30 div, 236
flash and eeprom library naming convention, eeprom_read, 237
30 eeprom_write, 237
format of, 181 eval_poly, 239
linking, 165 exp, 240
listing modules in, 182 fabs, 241
Microchip Compatible Peripheral Libraries, flash_erase, 242
31, 62 flash_read, 242
module order, 184 flash_write, 242
scanning additional, 47 floor, 245
standard library naming convention, 30 fmod, 244
used in executable, 162 frexp, 246
library ftoa, 247
difference between object file, 181 getch, 248
manager, 181 getchar, 249
library function getche, 248
__CONFIG, 204 gets, 250
__EEPROM_DATA, 205 gmtime, 251
__IDLOC, 206 idloc_read(), 253
abs, 209 idloc_write(), 253
acos, 210 isalnum, 255
asctime, 211 isalpha, 255

537
INDEX INDEX

isatty, 257 strichr, 305

isdigit, 255 stricmp, 307
islower, 255 stristr, 321
itoa, 258 strlen, 311
labs, 259 strncat, 312
ldexp, 260 strncmp, 314
ldiv, 261 strncpy, 316
localtime, 262 strnicmp, 314
log, 264 strpbrk, 318
log10, 264 strrchr, 319
longjmp, 265 strrichr, 319
ltoa, 267 strspn, 320
memcmp, 268 strstr, 321
memmove, 270 strtod, 322
mktime, 271 strtok, 326
modf, 273 strtol, 324
os_tsleep, 275 tan, 328
persist_check, 276 tanh, 229
persist_validate, 276 time, 329
pow, 278 toascii, 331
printf, 35, 279, 282 tolower, 331
putch, 285 toupper, 331
putchar, 286 trunc, 332
puts, 288 ungetc, 333, 334
qsort, 289 ungetch, 335
rand, 291 utoa, 336
readtimerX, 293 va_arg, 337
round, 295 va_end, 337
scanf, 296 va_start, 337
setjmp, 298 vprintf, 282
sin, 300 vscanf, 296
sinh, 229 writetimerX, 339
sqrt, 302 xtoi, 340
srand, 303 library macro
strcat, 304 CLRWDT, 225
strchr, 305 DI, 234
strcmp, 307 EI, 234
strcpy, 309 NOP, 274
strcspn, 310 RESET, 294

538
INDEX INDEX

SLEEP, 301 -Wnum, 165

limit PSECT flag, 141 -X, 165
limiting number of error messages, 55 -Z, 165
link addresses, 157, 163 linker options, 157
linker, 155 adjusting use driver, 47
command files, 166 numbers in, 158
command line arguments, 157, 166 linking programs, 124
invoking, 166 LIST assembler control, 153
long command lines, 166 list files
passes, 181 assembler, 51
symbols handled, 156 little endian format, 77, 81, 82, 195
linker defined symbols, 126 load addresses, 157, 163
linker errors loadfsr, 132
aborting, 161 LOCAL directive, 135, 149
undefined symbols, 162 local PSECT flag, 141
linker option local psects, 156
-Aclass=low-high, 159, 164 local symbols, 51
-Cpsect=class, 160 suppressing, 130, 165
-Dsymfile, 160 local variables, 94
-Eerrfile, 160 auto, 94
-F, 160 static, 95
-Gspec, 160 localtime function, 262
-H+symfile, 161 location counter, 135, 142
-Hsymfile, 161 log function, 264
-I, 162 LOG10 function, 264
-Jerrcount, 161 long data types, 82
-K, 162 long integer suffix, 78
-L, 162 longjmp function, 265
-LM, 162 low priority interrupts, 105
-Mmapfile, 162 ltoa function, 267
-N, 162
-Nc, 162 MACRO directive, 132, 148
-Ns, 162 macros
-Ooutfile, 162 disabling in listing, 153
-Pspec, 163 expanding in listings, 129, 152
-Qprocessor, 164 nul operator, 148
-Sclass=limit[,bound], 164 predefined, 116
-Usymbol, 165 repeat with argument, 150
-Vavmap, 165 undefining, 50

539
INDEX INDEX

unnamed, 150 modules

main function, 27, 31 in library, 181
mantissa, 83 list format, 183
map files, 162 order in library, 184
call graph, 171 used in executable, 162
generating, 49 MOVFF instruction, 113
processor selection, 164 moving code, 52
segments, 169 MPLAB, 55
symbol tables in, 162 build options, 48, 65
width of, 165 debugging information, 37
maximum number of errors, 55 ICD support, 106
MDF, 38 plugin, 65
memcmp function, 268 multi-character constants
memmove function, 270 assembly, 134
memory multiple hex files, 160
external program space, 88
external RAM, 88 near keyword, 86, 87
for auto variables, 94 NOCOND assembler control, 153
reserving, 60, 61 NOEXPAND assembler control, 153
specifying, 60, 61 nojis pragma directive, 118
specifying ranges, 159 NOLIST assembler control, 153
unused, 55, 162 non-volatile memory, 87, 104
Memory models, 44 non-volatile RAM, 86
memory pages, 142 NOP macro, 274
memory summary, 64 NOXREF assembler control, 154
merging hex files, 194 numbers
message C source, 78
language, 39 in linker options, 158
message description files, 38 nvbit psect, 87, 104
messages nvram, 86
disabling, 56 nvram psect, 87, 104
warning, 56 nvrram psect, 87, 104
Microchip COF file, 58
Microchip Compatible Peripheral Libraries, 31, object code, version number, 162
62 object files, 44
mixing C and assembly, 108 absolute, 162
mktime function, 271 relocatable, 155
modf function, 273 specifying name of, 130
module, 22 suppressing local symbols, 130

540
INDEX INDEX

symbol only, 160 overlaid memory areas, 162

OBJTOHEX, 184 overlaid psects, 141
command line arguments, 184 ovrld PSECT flag, 141
objtohex application, 25
offsetting code, 52 p-code files, 22
operators pa_nodes psect, 102
assembly, 136 PAGE assembler control, 154
Optimizations parameter passing, 97
assembler, 57 passing parameters to assembly, 108
code generator, 57 persist_check function, 276
debugging, 57 persist_validate function, 276
global, 57 persistent keyword, 86
optimizations persistent qualifier, 34, 87
assembler, see assembler optimizer persistent variables, 104
optimizing assembly code, 129 PIC18 MCU assembly language, 131
options PICC18
assembler, 128 predefined macros, 116
ORG directive, 142 supported data types, 77
os_tsleep function, 275 PICC18, see driver
output PICC18 options
specifying name of, 49 –EMI, 54
output directory, 58 –SUMMARY=type, 124
output file, 49 -C, 124
output file formats, 162 -S, 124
American Automation HEX, 58 PICC18 output formats
Binary, 58 American Automation Hex, 36
Bytecraft COD, 58 Binary, 36
COFF, 58 Bytecraft, 36
ELF, 58 Intel Hex, 36
Intel HEX, 58 Motorola Hex, 36
library, 58 Tektronix Hex, 36
Microchip COFF, 58 UBROF, 36
Motorola S19 HEX, 58 PICC18 options
specifying, 58, 184 –CHAR=type, 81
Tektronic, 58 pointer
UBROF, 58 qualifiers, 88
output files, 58 sizes, 52
l.obj, 25 pointers, 88
names of, 23 16bit, 88

541
INDEX INDEX

32 bit, 88 psect
combining with type modifiers, 88 bigbss, 103
function, 94 bigdata, 104
to functions, 52, 88 bss, 33, 103, 156
to program space, 52 config, 103
pow function, 278 const, 103
powerup psect, 102 data, 104, 156
powerup routine, 32, 34 eeprom_data, 103
powerup.as, 34 end_init, 103
pragma directives, 118 farbss, 103
predefined symbols fardata, 103
preprocessor, 116 ibigdata, 102
preprocessing, 50 idata, 32, 62, 102
assembler files, 50 idloc, 103
preprocessor ifardata, 102
macros, 44 init, 103
path, 46 intcode, 103
preprocessor directive intcodelo, 103
asm, 111 intsave, 104
endasm, 111 irdata, 102
preprocessor directives, 116 nvbit, 87, 104
in assembly files, 132 nvram, 87, 104
preprocessor symbols nvrram, 87, 104
predefined, 116 pa_nodes, 102
printf powerup, 102
format checking, 118 rbit, 104
printf function, 28, 279, 282 rbss, 62, 103
printf_check pragma directive, 118 rdata, 32, 103
PROCESSOR directive, 130 text, 102
processor ID data, 75 PSECT directive, 138, 139
processor selection, 52, 151, 164 PSECT directive flag
processor selections, 74 limit, 165
processors PSECT directive flags, 139
adding new, 74 abs, 139
program entry point, 34, 139 bit, 139
program sections, 138 class, 141
project name, 23 delta, 141
prototypes global, 141
for assembly code, 109 limit, 141

542
INDEX INDEX

local, 141 persistent, 34, 86, 87

ovrld, 141 volatile, 133
pure, 142 qualifiers, 86
reloc, 142 and auto variables, 94
size, 142 const, 86
space, 142 pointer, 88
with, 142 volatile, 86
psects, 102, 138, 156 quiet mode, 50
absolute, 139, 141
aligning within, 149 radix specifiers
alignment of, 142 assembly, 133
basic kinds, 156 binary, 78
class, 159, 160, 164 C source, 78
compiler generated, 102 decimal, 78
default, 138 hexadecimal, 78
delta value of, 160 octal, 78
differentiating ROM and RAM, 142 RAM access bit, 131
for assembly code, 108 rand function, 291
linking, 155 rbit psect, 104
listing, 64 rbss psect, 62, 95, 103
local, 156 rdata psect, 32, 103
maximum size of, 142 read-only variables, 86
page boundaries and, 142 READTIMERx function, 293
specifying address ranges, 164 recursion, 73
specifying addresses, 159, 163 redirecting errors, 45
struct, 98 reference, 158, 169
pseudo-ops register
assembler, 139 usage, 99
pure PSECT flag, 142 registers
putch function, 126, 285 shadow, 105, 106
putchar function, 286 special function, see special function regis-
puts function, 288 ters
regsused pragma directive, 120
qsort function, 289 relative jump, 135
qualifier RELOC, 160, 163
auto, 94 reloc PSECT flag, 142
bankx, 87 relocatable
far, 88 object files, 155
near, 86 relocation, 155

543
INDEX INDEX

relocation information multibyte, 77

preserving, 162 shadow registers, 105, 106
REPT directive, 150 shift operations
reserving memory, 60, 61 result of, 101
reset shifting code, 52
code executed after, 34 short long data types, 82
RESET macro, 294 sign extension when shifting, 101
RETFIE instruction, 104, 106, 132 SIGNAT directive, 111, 125, 151
RETLW instruction, 104 signature checking, 125
RETURN instruction, 104 signature values, 109
return values, 97 signatures, 151
rotate operation, 74 sin function, 300
round function, 295 single step compilation, 25
runtime environment, 63 sinh function, 229
RUNTIME option size of doubles, 53
clear, 62 size PSECT flag, 142
clib, 62 skipping applications, 63
init, 62 SLEEP macro, 301
keep, 62 source file, 22
no_startup, 62 SPACE assembler control, 154
plib, 62 space PSECT flag, 142
runtime startup special characters in assembly, 133
variable initialization, 32 special function registers, 113
runtime startup code, 31 in assembly code, 135
runtime startup module, 28, 62 multibyte, 77
special type qualifiers, 86
scale value, 139 sports cars, 135
scanf function, 296 sqrt function, 302
search path srand function, 303
header files, 46 stack
segment selector, 160 overflow, 62
segments, see psects, 160, 169 usage, 62
serial I/O, 126 standard library files, 29, 30
serial numbers, 63, 200 standard type qualifiers, 86
accessing, 63 start label, 34
SET directive, 132, 143 startup module, 62
setjmp function, 298 clearing bss, 156
sfr.h, 132 data copying, 157
SFRs startup.as, 32

544
INDEX INDEX

static variables, 95 hex, 64

STDIO, 126 mem, 64
storage class, 94 psect, 64
strcat function, 304 switch pragma directive, 121
strchr function, 305 switch type
strcmp function, 307 auto, 121
strcpy function, 309 direct table lookup, 121
strcspn function, 310 symbol files, 37, 46
strichr function, 305 Avocet format, 165
stricmp function, 307 enhanced, 161
string literals, 79, 201 generating, 161
concatenation, 79 local symbols in, 165
String packing, 202 old style, 160
strings removing local symbols from, 51
assembly, 134 removing symbols from, 164
storage location, 79, 201 source level, 46
type of, 79 symbol tables, 162, 165
stristr function, 321 sorting, 162
strlen function, 311 symbols
strncat function, 312 assembler-generated, 135
strncmp function, 314 global, 156, 182
strncpy function, 316 linker defined, 126
strnicmp function, 314 MPLAB specific, 37
strpbrk function, 318 undefined, 165
strrchr function, 319
strrichr function, 319 table read instruction, 96
strspn function, 320 tan function, 328
strstr function, 321 tanh function, 229
strtod function, 322 temporary files, 58
strtok function, 326 text psect, 102
strtol function, 324 time function, 329
struct psect, 98 Timers, 293
structures timers function, 339
bit-fields, 84 TITLE assembler control, 154
qualifiers, 85 toascii function, 331
SUBTITLE assembler control, 154 tolower function, 331
SUMMARY option toupper function, 331
class, 64 translation unit, 23
file, 64 trunc function, 332

545
INDEX INDEX

type checking vprintf function, 282

assembly routines, 109 vscanf function, 296
type modifiers
combining with pointers, 88 W register, 99, 133
type qualifier, 86 warning level, 65
type qualifiers, 86 setting, 165
typographic conventions, 19 warning message format, 65
warnings
unamed structure members, 84 level displayed, 65
ungetc function, 333, 334 suppressing, 165
ungetch function, 335 with PSECT flag, 142
universal toolsuite, 65 word addresses, 194
unnamed psect, 138 word boundaries, 142
unsigned integer suffix, 78 writetimerx function, 339
unused memory
XREF assembler control, 154
filling, 191
xtoi function, 340
utilities, 155
utoa function, 336

va_arg function, 337

va_end function, 337
va_start function, 337
variable initialization, 32
variables
absolute, 95, 131
accessing from assembly, 112
auto, 94
char types, 81
floating point types, 82
in external memory, 88
int types, 81
local, 94
persistent, 104
short long types, 82
static, 95
unique length of, 49
verbose, 51
version number, 65
volatile qualifier, 86, 133

546
PICC18 Command-line Options
Option Meaning
-C Compile to object files only
-Dmacro Define preprocessor macro
-E+file Redirect and optionally append errors to a file
-Gfile Generate source-level debugging information
-Ipath Specify a directory pathname for include files
-Llibrary Specify a library to be scanned by the linker
-L-option Specify -option to be passed directly to the linker
-Mfile Request generation of a MAP file
-Nsize Specify identifier length
-Ofile Output file name
-P Preprocess assembler files
-Q Specify quiet mode
-S Compile to assembler source files only
-Usymbol Undefine a predefined preprocessor symbol
-V Verbose: display compiler pass command lines
-X Eliminate local symbols from symbol table
--ASMLIST Generate assembler .LST file for each compilation
--CALLGRAPH=type Specify callgraph type in map file
Calculate a checksum
--CHECKSUM=start-end@destination<,specs>
--CHIP=processor Selects which processor to compile for
--CHIPINFO Displays a list of supported processors
--CODEOFFSET=address Offset program code to address
--CR=file Generate cross-reference listing
--DEBUGGER=type Select the debugger that will be used
--DOUBLE=type Selects size/kind of double types
--ECHO Echo command line
--EMI=type Select mode of the external memory interface
--ERRATA=type Add or remove specific software workarounds for sil-
icon errata issues.
--ERRFORMAT<=format> Format error message strings to the given style
--ERRORS=number Sets the maximun number of errors displayed
--GETOPTION=app,file Get the command line options for the named applica-
tion
--HELP<=option> Display the compiler’s command line options
continued. . .
PICC18 Command-line Options
Option Meaning
--IDE=ide Configure the compiler for use by the named IDE
--LANG=language Specify language for compiler messages
--MEMMAP=file Display memory summary information for the map
file
--MSGDISABLE=messagelist Disable Warning Messages
--MSGFORMAT<=format> Format general message strings to the given style
--NODEL Do not remove temporary files generated by the com-
piler
--NOEXEC Go through the motions of compiling without actually
compiling
--OBJDIR=path Specify intermediate files’ directory
--OPT<=type> Enable general compiler optimizations
--OUTDIR=path Specify output files directory
--OUTPUT=type Generate output file type
--PRE Produce preprocessed source files
--PROTO Generate function prototype information
--RAM=lo-hi<,lo-hi,...> Specify and/or reserve RAM ranges
--ROM=lo-hi<,lo-hi,...> Specify and/or reserve ROM ranges
--RUNTIME=type Configure the C runtime libraries to the specified type
--SCANDEP Generate file dependency “.DEP files”
--SERIAL=hexcode@address Store a value in program memory
--SETOPTION=app,file Set the command line options for the named applica-
tion
--SETUP=argument Setup the product
--STRICT Enable strict ANSI keyword conformance
--SUMMARY=type Selects the type of memory summary output
--TIME Report compilation times
--VER Display the compiler’s version number
--WARN=level Set the compiler’s warning level
--WARNFORMAT=format Format warning message strings to given style