Landslide Hazard Information

A landslide, also known as a landslip, is a geological phenomenon that includes a wide range of ground
movements, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows. Landslides can occur in
offshore, coastal and onshore environments. Although the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a
landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability. Typically, pre-
conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the area/slope prone to failure, whereas
the actual landslide often requires a trigger before being released.

Types of Landslides

 The term "landslide" describes a wide variety of

processes that result in the downward and outward
movement of slope-forming materials including rock, soil,
artificial fill, or a combination of these. The materials may Types of Landslides
move by falling, toppling, sliding, spreading, or flowing.
The drawing below is a graphic illustration of a landslide,
with the commonly accepted terminology describing its
features.

Anatomy of a Landslide

Rotational slide: This is a slide in which the surface of

rupture is curved concavely upward and the slide movement is
roughly rotational about an axis that is parallel to the ground
surface and transverse across the slide.

Figure 1. An idealized slump-earth flow showing commonly

used nomenclature for labeling the parts of a
landslide. Enlarge Image

Although landslides are primarily associated with

mountainous regions, they can also occur in areas of
generally low relief. In low-relief areas, landslides occur as
cut-and fill failures (roadway and building excavations), Translational slide: In this type of slide, the landslide mass
river bluff failures, lateral spreading landslides, collapse of moves along a roughly planar surface with little rotation or
mine-waste piles (especially coal), and a wide variety of backward tilting.
slope failures associated with quarries and open-pit
mines. The most common types of landslides are
described and illustrated at right. 

Slides

Although many types of mass movements are included in

the general term "landslide," the more restrictive use of
the term refers only to mass movements, where there is a
distinct zone of weakness that separates the slide material
from more stable underlying material. The two major types
of slides are rotational slides and translational slides. Slide
types, images and descriptions at right.  Block slide: is a translational slide in which the moving mass
consists of a single unit or a few closely related units that
move downslope as a relatively coherent mass.
Flows

There are five basic categories of flows that differ from

one another in fundamental ways. Flow types, images and
descriptions at right. 
Although there are multiple types of causes of landslides,
the three that cause most of the damaging landslides
around the world are these: 
Fall: Falls are abrupt movements of masses of geologic
materials, such as rocks and boulders, that become detached
Landslides and Water
from steep slopes or cliffs. Separation occurs along
discontinuities such as fractures, joints, and bedding planes,
and movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling. Falls
Slope saturation by water is a primary cause of landslides. are strongly influenced by gravity, mechanical weathering,
This effect can occur in the form of intense rainfall, and the presence of interstitial water.
snowmelt, changes in ground-water levels, and waterlevel
changes along coastlines, earth dams, and the banks of
lakes, reservoirs, canals, and rivers. 

Landsliding and flooding are closely allied because both

are related to precipitation, runoff, and the saturation of
ground by water. In addition, debris flows and mudflows
usually occur in small, steep stream channels and often
are mistaken for floods; in fact, these two events often
occur simultaneously in the same area. 

Landslides can cause flooding by forming landslide dams

that block valleys and stream channels, allowing large
amounts of water to back up. This causes backwater Topple: Toppling failures are distinguished by the forward
flooding and, if the dam fails, subsequent downstream rotation of a unit or units about some pivotal point, below or
flooding. Also, solid landslide debris can "bulk" or add low in the unit, under the actions of gravity and forces exerted
volume and density to otherwise normal streamflow or by adjacent units or by fluids in cracks.
cause channel blockages and diversions creating flood
conditions or localized erosion. Landslides can also cause
overtopping of reservoirs and/or reduced capacity of
reservoirs to store water. 

Landslides and Seismic Activity

Many mountainous areas that are vulnerable to landslides

have also experienced at least moderate rates of
earthquake occurrence in recorded times. The occurrence
of earthquakes in steep landslide-prone areas greatly
increases the likelihood that landslides will occur, due to Debris flow: A debris flow is a form of rapid mass movement
ground shaking alone or shaking- caused dilation of soil in which a combination of loose soil, rock, organic matter, air,
materials, which allows rapid infiltration of water. The 1964 and water mobilize as a slurry that flows downslope. Debris
Great Alaska Earthquake caused widespread landsliding flows include less than 50% fines. Debris flows are commonly
and other ground failure, which caused most of the caused by intense surface-water flow, due to heavy
monetary loss due to the earthquake. Other areas of the precipitation or rapid snowmelt, that erodes and mobilizes
United States, such as California and the Puget Sound loose soil or rock on steep slopes. Debris flows also
region in Washington, have experienced slides, lateral commonly mobilize from other types of landslides that occur
spreading, and other types of ground failure due to on steep slopes, are nearly saturated, and consist of a large
moderate to large earthquakes. Widespread rockfalls also proportion of silt- and sand-sized material. Debris-flow source
are caused by loosening of rocks as a result of ground areas are often associated with steep gullies, and debris-flow
shaking. Worldwide, landslides caused by earthquakes kill deposits are usually indicated by the presence of debris fans at
people and damage structures at higher rates than in the the mouths of gullies. Fires that denude slopes of vegetation
United States.  intensify the susceptibility of slopes to debris flows.
Debris avalanche: This is a variety of very rapid to extremely
Landslides and Volcanic Activity rapid debris flow.

Landslides due to volcanic activity are some of the most

devastating types. Volcanic lava may melt snow at a rapid
rate, causing a deluge of rock, soil, ash, and water that
accelerates rapidly on the steep slopes of volcanoes,
devastating anything in its path. These volcanic debris
flows (also known as lahars) reach great distances, once
they leave the flanks of the volcano, and can damage
structures in flat areas surrounding the volcanoes. The
1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, in Washington
triggered a massive landslide on the north flank of the
volcano, the largest landslide in recorded times. 
Earthflow: Earthflows have a characteristic "hourglass"
shape. The slope material liquefies and runs out, forming a
Landslide Mitigation - bowl or depression at the head. The flow itself is elongate and
How to Reduce the Effects of Landslides usually occurs in fine-grained materials or clay-bearing rocks
on moderate slopes and under saturated conditions. However,
dry flows of granular material are also possible.
Mudflow: A mudflow is an earthflow consisting of material
Vulnerability to landslide hazards is a function of location, that is wet enough to flow rapidly and that contains at least 50
type of human activity, use, and frequency of landslide percent sand-, silt-, and clay-sized particles. In some
events. The effects of landslides on people and structures instances, for example in many newspaper reports, mudflows
can be lessened by total avoidance of landslide hazard and debris flows are commonly referred to as "mudslides."
areas or by restricting, prohibiting, or imposing conditions
on hazard-zone activity. Local governments can reduce
landslide effects through land-use policies and
regulations. Individuals can reduce their exposure to
hazards by educating themselves on the past hazard
history of a site and by making inquiries to planning and
engineering departments of local governments. They can
also obtain the professional services of an engineering
geologist, a geotechnical engineer, or a civil engineer,
who can properly evaluate the hazard potential of a site,
built or unbuilt. 

The hazard from landslides can be reduced by avoiding

construction on steep slopes and existing landslides, or by Creep: Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward
stabilizing the slopes. Stability increases when ground movement of slope-forming soil or rock. Movement is caused
water is prevented from rising in the landslide mass by (1) by shear stress sufficient to produce permanent deformation,
covering the landslide with an impermeable membrane, but too small to produce shear failure. There are generally
(2) directing surface water away from the landslide, (3) three types of creep: (1) seasonal, where movement is within
draining ground water away from the landslide, and (4) the depth of soil affected by seasonal changes in soil moisture
minimizing surface irrigation. Slope stability is also and soil temperature; (2) continuous, where shear stress
increased when a retaining structure and/ or the weight of continuously exceeds the strength of the material; and (3)
a soil/rock berm are placed at the toe of the landslide or progressive, where slopes are reaching the point of failure as
when mass is removed from the top of the slope. other types of mass movements. Creep is indicated by curved
tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls, tilted poles or
fences, and small soil ripples or ridges.

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Lateral Spreads: Lateral spreads are distinctive because they

usually occur on very gentle slopes or flat terrain. The
dominant mode of movement is lateral extension accompanied
by shear or tensile fractures. The failure is caused by
liquefaction, the process whereby saturated, loose,
cohesionless sediments (usually sands and silts) are
transformed from a solid into a liquefied state. Failure is
usually triggered by rapid ground motion, such as that
experienced during an earthquake, but can also be artificially
Causes of landslides

The Mameyes Landslide, in the Mameyes neighborhood of barrioPortugués Urbano in Ponce, Puerto Rico, which buried more than 100
homes, was caused by extensive accumulation of rains and, according to some sources, lightning.

Landslides occur when the stability of the slope changes from a stable to an unstable condition. A change in the
stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors, acting together or alone. Natural causes of landslides
include:

 groundwater (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope

 Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil structure (e.g. after a wildfire - a fire in
forests lasting for 3–4 days)
 erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves
 weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melt, glaciers melting, or heavy rains
 earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope
 earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes
 volcanic eruptions

Landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as

 deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already fragile slopes.

 vibrations from machinery or traffic
 blasting
 earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads on an existing slope
 in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to bedrock
 Construction, agricultural or forestry activities (logging) which change the amount of water which infiltrates the
soil.

The landslide at Surte in Sweden, 1950. It was a quick clay slide killing one person.

Types[edit]
Amboori debris flow, occurred on 9 November 2001 in Kerala, India. The event killed 39 people.[1]

Slope material that becomes saturated with water may develop into a debris flow or mud flow. The resulting slurry
of rock and mud may pick up trees, houses and cars, thus blocking bridges and tributaries causing flooding along its
path.

Debris flow is often mistaken for flash flood, but they are entirely different processes.

Muddy-debris flows in alpine areas cause severe damage to structures and infrastructure and often claim human
lives. Muddy-debris flows can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can dam stream beds,
resulting in temporary water blockage. As the impoundments fail, a "domino effect" may be created, with a
remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, which takes up the debris in the stream channel. The solid-
liquid mixture can reach densities of up to 2 tons/m³ and velocities of up to 14 m/s (Chiarle and Luino, 1998;
Arattano, 2003). These processes normally cause the first severe road interruptions, due not only to deposits
accumulated on the road (from several cubic metres to hundreds of cubic metres), but in some cases to the
complete removal of bridges or roadways or railways crossing the stream channel. Damage usually derives from a
common underestimation of mud-debris flows: in the alpine valleys, for example, bridges are frequently destroyed
by the impact force of the flow because their span is usually calculated only for a water discharge. For a small basin
in the Italian Alps (area = 1.76 km²) affected by a debris flow, Chiarle and Luino (1998)[citation needed]estimated a peak
discharge of 750 m3/s for a section located in the middle stretch of the main channel. At the same cross section, the
maximum foreseeable water discharge (by HEC-1), was 19 m³/s, a value about 40 times lower than that calculated
for the debris flow that occurred.

Earthflows[edit]
A rock slide in Guerrero, Mexico

Earthflows are downslope, viscous flows of saturated, fine-grained materials, which move at any speed from slow to
fast. Typically, they can move at speeds from 0.17 to 20 km/h (0.1 to 12.4 mph). Though these are a lot
like mudflows, overall they are slower moving and are covered with solid material carried along by flow from within.
They are different from fluid flows in that they are more rapid. Clay, fine sand and silt, and fine-grained, pyroclastic
material are all susceptible to earthflows. The velocity of the earthflow is all dependent on how much water content
is in the flow itself: if there is more water content in the flow, the higher the velocity will be.

These flows usually begin when the pore pressures in a fine-grained mass increase until enough of the weight of the
material is supported by pore water to significantly decrease the internal shearing strength of the material. This
thereby creates a bulging lobe which advances with a slow, rolling motion. As these lobes spread out, drainage of
the mass increases and the margins dry out, thereby lowering the overall velocity of the flow. This process causes
the flow to thicken. The bulbous variety of earthflows are not that spectacular, but they are much more common than
their rapid counterparts. They develop a sag at their heads and are usually derived from the slumping at the source.

Earthflows occur much more during periods of high precipitation, which saturates the ground and adds water to the
slope content. Fissures develop during the movement of clay-like material which creates the intrusion of water into
the earthflows. Water then increases the pore-water pressure and reduces the shearing strength of the material.[2]

Debris landslide[edit]

Goodell Creek Debris Avalanche, Washington

A debris slide is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic movement of rocks soil and debris mixed with water or
ice (or both). They are usually triggered by the saturation of thickly vegetated slopes which results in an incoherent
mixture of broken timber, smaller vegetation and other debris.[2] Debris avalanches differ from debris slides because
their movement is much more rapid. This is usually a result of lower cohesion or higher water content and commonly
steeper slopes.

Steep coastal cliffs can be caused by catastrophic debris avalanches. These have been common on the submerged
flanks of ocean island volcanos such as the Hawaiian Islands and the Cape Verde Islands.[3] Another slip of this type
was Storegga landslide.

Movement: Debris slides generally start with big rocks that start at the top of the slide and begin to break apart as
they slide towards the bottom. This is much slower than a debris avalanche. Debris avalanches are very fast and the
entire mass seems to liquefy as it slides down the slope. This is caused by a combination of saturated material, and
steep slopes. As the debris moves down the slope it generally follows stream channels leaving a v-shaped scar as it
moves down the hill. This differs from the more U-shaped scar of a slump. Debris avalanches can also travel well
past the foot of the slope due to their tremendous speed.[4]

Blockade of Hunza river

Sturzstrom[edit]
A sturzstrom is a rare, poorly understood type of landslide, typically with a long run-out. Often very large, these
slides are unusually mobile, flowing very far over a low angle, flat, or even slightly uphill terrain.

See also: Slump (geology)

Shallow landslide[edit]

Hotel Limone at the Lake Garda. Part of a hill of Devonian shale was removed to make the road, forming a dip-slope. The upper block
detached along a bedding plane and is sliding down the hill, forming a jumbled pile of rock at the toe of the slide.

Landslide in which the sliding surface is located within the soil mantle or weathered bedrock (typically to a depth
from few decimetres to some metres)is called a shallow landslide. They usually include debris slides, debris flow,
and failures of road cut-slopes. Landslides occurring as single large blocks of rock moving slowly down slope are
sometimes called block glides.

Shallow landslides can often happen in areas that have slopes with high permeable soils on top of low permeable
bottom soils. The low permeable, bottom soils trap the water in the shallower, high permeable soils creating high
water pressure in the top soils. As the top soils are filled with water and become heavy, slopes can become very
unstable and slide over the low permeable bottom soils. Say there is a slope with silt and sand as its top soil and
bedrock as its bottom soil. During an intense rainstorm, the bedrock will keep the rain trapped in the top soils of silt
and sand. As the topsoil becomes saturated and heavy, it can start to slide over the bedrock and become a shallow
landslide. R. H. Campbell did a study on shallow landslides on Santa Cruz Island California. He notes that if
permeability decreases with depth, a perched water table may develop in soils at intense precipitation. When pore
water pressures are sufficient to reduce effective normal stress to a critical level, failure occurs.[5]

Deep-seated landslide[edit]

Deep-seated landslide on mountain in Sehara, Kihō, beside of Kumano river

between Wakayama and Mie Japan caused by torrential rain of Tropical Storm Talas (2011)