Physical Fitness Training and

Mental Health
CARLYLE H. FOLKINS University of California, Davis
WESLEY E. SIME University of Nebraska-Lincoln

ABSTRACT: This review highlights theory and research Theoretical Perspectives

that have attempted to relate physical fitness training
to improvements on psychological variables among nor- SOMATOPSYCHIC THEORY
mals as well as selected clinical populations. Theoretical
speculations in this area are critiqued, and research Research on the psychological effects of physical
designs are evaluated as either experimental or quasi- fitness training has been inhibited by the lack of
experimental and therefore interpretable, or preexper- conceptual links between body and mind. Psy-
imental and therefore largely uninterpretable. The re- chologists have tended to view the mind as separate
search suggests that physical fitness training leads to from the body. Backer (1972) has suggested that
improved mood, self-concept, and work behavior; the
"the mind-body problem is relevant to contem-
evidence is less clear as to its effects on cognitive func-
tioning, although it does appear to bolster cognitive porary psychology only to the extent that the dual-
performance during and after physical stress. Except istic nature of man remains unchallenged" (p.
for self-concept, personality traits are not affected by 563). The term psychosomatic exemplifies this
improvements in physical fitness. Mentally retarded dualistic focus. Since its introduction, it has pro-
' children demonstrate psychological improvement fol- vided a conceptual link between mind and body
lowing physical fitness training, but no conclusion can that has formed a foundation for a new field of
be reached regarding the effects of physical fitness inquiry. While challenged as overly simplistic and
training with other clinical syndromes. Guidelines for outmoded (Selby & Calhoun, 1978; Wright, 1977),
upgrading future research designs are discussed. a new framework for causation, provided by the
psychosomatic perspective, has greatly expanded
treatment strategies in medicine. Harris (1973) has
Physical exercise has become increasingly popular proposed that a "somatopsychic" perspective can,
in recent years, and much research describing the similarly, serve as a framework for causation which
psychological benefits of improvements in fitness can generate hypotheses regarding the effects of
has emerged from a variety of settings. Physical exercise. "The somatopsychic rationale for man's
educators, exercise physiologists, psychologists, re- involvement in physical activity and sport, in brief,
habilitation counselors, psychiatrists, and physi- is the theory that bodily activity and function in-
cians have all addressed this issue with some degree fluence his behavior" (Harris, 1973, p. 240).
of optimism. The psychological benefits of fitness Somatopsychic theory does not, however, ad-
training, especially jogging, have been propagan-
dized by the popular press. A critical review of the
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Ste-
evidence is now needed to provide an objective phen I. Abramowitz to the preparation of this article. Carlyle
analysis of the purported positive relationship be- H. Eolkins is with the Department of Psychiatry, School of
tween physical fitness training and mental health Medicine, and the Graduate Group of Clinical Psychology.
Wesley E. Sime is the director of the Stress Physiology Labo-
variables among normal and clinical populations. ratory, 214 Coliseum, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Ne-
Since this is an emerging field of inquiry, especially braska 68588.
for psychologists, it seems important to summarize Requests for reprints should be sent to Carlyle H. Folkins,
Division of Mental Health, University of California, Davis,
the status of the theory and to evaluate the quality Medical Center, 2315 Stockton Boulevard, Sacramento, Cali-
of the relevant research. fornia 95817.

Vol. 36, No. 4, 373-389 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • APRIL 1981 • 373

Copyright 1981 by Ihe American Psychological Association, Inc.
oaw-oeax /s i /MO-I-K
dress the complex question of how changes in phys- PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWPOINTS
ical fitness affect psychological variables. It merely
allows us to establish boundaries for a new area of Psychologically oriented explanations of the men-
scientific investigation. Unfortunately, most at- tal health benefits of fitness training are also sim-
tempts to explain the psychological effects of phys- plistic and underdeveloped. Some researchers as-
ical fitness training have been piecemeal, and re- sume that physical fitness improvements give
search in this area has been largely atheoretical. people a sense of mastery, a sense of having control
Speculations about the processes underlying the over bodily functions, which is then associated with
assumed benefits have tended to emphasize either an experience of well-being (Ismail & Trachtman,
physiological or psychological points of view. 1973; Solomon & Bumpus, 1978). Hollandsworth
(1979) argues that aerobic exercise provides train-
PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWPOINTS ing in biofeedback. Others propose that exercise
is a form of meditation which triggers an altered
Physical educators have generally assumed that state of consciousness (Buffone, 1980; Solomon &
physical fitness is important to mental health. Their Bumpus, 1978). Still others (Bahrke & Morgan,
assumptions are based on an organismic view of 1978; Morgan, 1979; Selye, 1976; Sime, Note 1)
the mind-body relationship (Morgan, 1974). A postulate that exercise provides a distraction or
healthy body is a healthy mind. In recent years, diversion from anxiety-provoking cognitions.
researchers have promoted more specific hy- The current status of theorizing about the pro-
potheses that imply a direct physical causation for cesses that might explain physical fitness training
the psychological benefits of fitness training. Im- effects can best be described as a potpourri of spec-
provements in cardiovascular functioning follow- ulations. It appears to us that research in this area
ing training, for example, have been associated is desperately in need of an integrated theoretical
with reports of an increased sense of well-being model that can pull together the various claims of
(Buffone, 1980; Ismail & Trachtman, 1973) and cause and effect.
with more effective management of emotional
stress (Chapman & Mitchell, 1965). The often cited
well-being phenomenon following fitness training A COGNITIVELY ORIENTED MODEL
has also been linked to the release of morphinelike
chemicals (endorphins) synthesized in the brain
and pituitary gland (Stein & Belluzzi, 1978). Re- Lazarus (1975) places biofeedback research and
duction in resting muscle action potential follow- practice into the broad context of a cognitively
ing exercise training has been offered as an expla- oriented theory of adaption and emotion. The
nation for tension relief (deVries, 1968; Sime, Note main theoretical points he makes with respect to
1). Michael (1957) has argued that regular exercise focusing biofeedback research could apply equally
helps in stress adaptation: "The increased adrenal as well to research on physical fitness training and
activity resulting from repeated exercise seems to mental health. First, the physiological changes as-
cause an increased reserve of steroids available to sociated with fitness training may be seen as part
counter stress" (p. 53). of a broader field of inquiry that includes stress
Schwartz, Davidson, and Goleman (1978) offer emotions and adaptation strategies. Second, affec-
a systems model to explain the relaxation effect, tive changes assumed to follow from fitness train-
at the somatic level, associated with exercise. They ing may be mediated by cognitive appraisals of
conceptualize biobehavioral systems as having a the training effects relative to a variety of social
limited channel space. Noxious affects, such as and psychological variables (cf. Heaps, 1978).
anxiety, represent a recycling of unwanted infor- Third, the fitness training effect may be viewed
mation in the somatic and cognitive systems. If an as a self-regulation (coping) process that enhances
activity of a neutral nature, such as exercise, is adaptive interactions with a person's environment.
introduced, it then competes for channel space In Lazarus's view, coping behavior precedes emo-
with the ongoing activities associated with the anx- tion and helps regulate its form'and intensity. In
iety and causes attenuation of these activities. his typology of self-regulatory strategies, physical
We think that the foregoing speculations con- fitness training can be understood as one of a num-
cerning the physical bases for psychological changes ber of palliative procedures that allow for a gen-
are oversimplified and mechanistic and thus have eralized reduction in visceral or motor distur-
limited heuristic value. bances. Its general aim is reduction of somatic

374 • APRIL 1981 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST

turmoil. Greater reliance on metatheoretical mod- ficient intensity and duration to create a clinically
els of psychological activity, such as that outlined significant fitness training effect. Other studies
by Lazarus for biofeedback, should help lift re- without this documentation may have lacked the
search in this area out of the confusion created by intensity needed for a training effect, and conse-
atheoretical, mechanistic approaches. quently, interpretation of the resulting psycholog-
ical data is problematic. We have excluded from
Previous Reviews this review all intact group comparison studies.
These studies commonly compare athletes with
Layman (1974) and Scott (1960) have provided the nonathletes, fit groups with unfit groups, or psy-
most comprehensive reviews of the relationship of chiatric populations with normals, on psychologi-
physical activity to psychological variables such as cal variables. The independent variable in these
perception, body image, self-concept, mood, and studies is subject defined, so a causal relationship
social adjustment. Several reviewers have focused between fitness training and mental health cannot
on the connection between physical fitness and be demonstrated.
cognitive functioning (Clarke, 1958; Ismail, 1972; Since we are trying to bring the scientific status
Powell, 1975), while Cooper (1969) has considered of the remaining research into focus, quality is a
the research on athletics and personality. The lit- primary concern. We evaluated each study through
erature on the physical condition of psychiatric a framework for evaluating experimental designs
patients as well as the mental health of athletes has described by Campbell and Stanley (1963). They
been reviewed by Morgan (1974). The majority of present a series of three design categories—preex-
the studies cited in these reviews do not deal with perimental, quasi-experimental, and true experi-
psychological changes related to physical fitness mental—that can be used to evaluate the con-
changes. Instead, most examine differences on psy- straints on inference posed by design limitations.
chological variables between fit and unfit groups Preexperimental designs (the one-shot case study,
and normal and abnormal groups. Furthermore, the one-group pretest-posttest design, and the
most of the reviewed studies do not document fit- static group comparison design) do not control for
ness effects and, as such, are often more appro- extraneous variables which might produce effects
priately identified as sports participation studies that become confounded with the effect of the
(e.g., Layman, 1972). Only Hammett (1967) has treatment variable. These threats to internal valid-
summarized the pre- and posttraining studies, ity include history, maturation, test-taking effects,
which offer the most telling experimental ap- instrumentation, statistical regression, selection
proach to the question of physical fitness training bias, experimental mortality, and selection-mat-
effects on mental health. Since Hammett's review, uration interaction. A study by Kavanagh, Shep-
many more pre- and posttraining studies have been hard, Tuck, and Qureshi (1977) can be used to
published, and a body of research dealing with illustrate the one-group pretest-posttest design.
fitness training effects among psychiatric popula- They found marked improvement on a measure
tions has emerged. of depression for a group of severely depressed
cardiac males after four years of exercise-oriented
Effects of Physical Fitness Training rehabilitation. Obviously, there are numerous com-
peting explanations for the improvement in mental
This section is devoted to a review of research that health other than the exercise program. Improve-
attempts to evaluate physical fitness training ef- ment could have been a function of some other
fects among normals on cognition, perception, be- event: A change in diet, medication, or support at
havior, affect, and personality. While we do not home (history) may have caused it, the passage of
attempt to rigidly specify fitness criteria, we em- time may have been important (maturation), the
phasize those studies that document fitness training pretesting may have stimulated a shift (testing ef-
and, particularly, those that employ cardiovascular fect), or scores may have simply regressed toward
models of fitness rather than motor ability and the mean because subjects were selected on the
muscle skill or muscle strength models. An em- basis of their extreme scores (statistical regression).
phasis on cardiovascular criteria seemed justified, The intact group comparison studies excluded
since cardiovascular efficiency has become the best from this review employed the static group com-
indicator of level of physical fitness. Studies that parison preexperimental design. In these there is
demonstrate improvement on cardiovascular cri- no formal way to determine if the groups may
teria presumably have exercise programs of suf- have been equivalent before the special feature

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST * APRIL 1981 • 375

that differentiates the groups was introduced. The diovascularly oriented. Hence, the effect of phys-
foregoing problems with internal validity, inherent ical fitness training on academic achievement is
in preexperimental designs but generally not pres- still unclear.
ent in true and quasi-experimental designs, led us Several researchers have attempted to link fit-
to assume that a study needed to qualify as a quasi ness training among adults and the elderly with
or true experiment to add appreciably to the improvement in mental functioning; however, one
weight of evidence relating physical fitness to men- study that reported a positive outcome was preex-
tal health. perimental (Young, 1979), while another, which
Unfortunately, a large percentage of the studies reported no training effect, sampled only eight
we reviewed used a less than ideal approximation aged men and women (Barry, Steinmetz, Page,
of the nonequivalent control group design (a quasi- & Rodahl, 1966). Thus, no conclusions appear war-
experimental design). Ideally, in this situation the ranted.
experimental and control groups, which both re- Exercise programs have been related to im-
ceive pre- and posttesting, are "naturally assem- proved cognitive performance among geriatric
bled collectives" that are preferably somewhat mental patients (Powell, 1974; Stamford, Ham-
similar—the more similar the groups and the pre- bacher, & Fallica, 1974). These studies demon-
testing, the more effective the control. This design strate that fitness training may be useful as a means
is generally regarded as a major improvement over of reversing or arresting the physical degeneration
the one-group pretest-posttest design. Basic to the process of aging. According to Powell (1974), "The
design, however, is the assumption that the exper- unavoidable involvement of the entire brain in
imental condition can be randomly assigned to one physical activity may be an important factor me-
group. This assumption was almost never met by diating a positive change in mental abilities of the
the research studies reviewed here, More typically, elderly" (p. 160). More controlled studies on nor-
researchers studied changes in a group (often self- mal, aging individuals are needed to assess the im-
selected) exposed to a fitness training program as pact of fitness changes on cognitive functioning.
compared with changes in a convenient group that One index of improvement in physical fitness
did not have a fitness training experience. Yet, as is an increase in "oxygen transport capacity" (Bills,
Campbell and Stanley (1963) point out, these stud- 1937). In a series of experiments, Bills found that
ies with "control groups" do provide some infor- increases in the oxygen content of inspired air fol-
mation to help decide if the treatment has had an lowing fatigue-inducing mental work led to re-
effect. Also, when matching procedures are used, covery in mental performance. Gutin (1966) rea-
the groups are more likely to be similar on pre- soned that increases in physical fitness, with an
testing. increase in oxygen transport capacity, should lead
to increases in recovery in mental performance
COGNITION following physical fatigue. In one study (Gutin,
1966), he found no training effect for performance
Motor development has been assumed to be im- on mental tasks after physical exertion, while a
portant to the development of intelligence in chil- later study (Gutin & DiGennaro, 1968) showed that
dren (Piaget, 1936), and learning potential has physical conditioning had a positive impact on
been assumed to vary in accordance with physical performance. Neither study, however, docu-
fitness level (Clarke, 1958). After reviewing the mented cardiovascular fitness. Using a quasi-ex-
evidence to date, however, Harris (1973) con- perimental design, Weingarten (1973) found that
cluded that there were no well-controlled studies aerobic fitness training improved mental perfor-
to support the thesis that physical activity enhances mance during physical exertion.
intellectual functioning. Gruber (1975), on the In summary, attempts to improve cognitive
other hand, noted that fitness-oriented programs functioning through fitness training have been suc-
have led to improved academic performance in cessful with geriatric mental patients, but results
children (e.g., Ismail, 1967). In contrast, O'Conner with children and normal adults are unclear. Fit-
(1969) did not find any difference on academic ness training does appear to promote mental func-
achievement for first graders randomly assigned tioning during and after physical stress.
to a Kephart motor skills program or a regular
classroom physical education program that used PERCEPTION
minimal activity. Only the O'Conner study in-
cluded an assessment of fitness changes, but the Layman (1974) has reviewed the research relating
fitness training in this study was clearly not car- physical activity to perception. Any conclusions

376 • APRIL 1981 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST

TABLE 1
Effects of Physical Fitness Training on Cognition and Perception
Demonstrated fitness
Study Primary focus Subjects effects? Psychological measures and tasks Outcome

Arnheim & Sinclair Personality, self- Elementary age ? (motor skills improved) California Test of Personality, Improved
(1974)° awareness, visual children Frostig Movement Skills Test,
percept Draw-A-Person Test, Read-
ing Eye Camera III
Barry et al. (1966)" Cognition Geriatric Yes Raven's Progressive Matrices, No change
short-term retention, simple
addition, ambiguous stimuli
Fretz et al. (1969)a Cognition, percep- Children No (8-wk physical devel- WISC, Frostig, Bender-Gestalt Improved
tual-motor opment program) Test
Gutin (1966)b Cognition College males No (12 wks, 2 X wk fitness Employee Aptitude Survey No change
training)
Gutin & DiGennaro Cognition Students in a "con- Not fitness oriented (8 wks, Arithmetic tasks after step-up Some improved
(1968)' ditioning" class step-ups) exercises (posttest only)
Ismail (1967)" Cognition Fifth and sixth grad- No (1 yr, 30 min PE, Otis IQ No change
ers 3 X wk) Stanford Academic Achieve- Improved
ment
Johnson & Fretz (1967)c Perceptual-motor Children No (6-wk physical devel- Tachistoscope measure, mirror Improved
opment program) drawing task
s
M
O'Conner (1969)" Perception, cogni- First graders ? (Kephart program, mo- Perceptual Forms Test, Met- No change
tion tor skills improved) ropolitan Readiness and
O
Achievement Tests
Z Powell (1974)b Cognition Geriatric mental pa- No (12 wks, 1 hr exercise, Wechsler Memory Scale, Improved
Tf tients 5 X wk) Raven's Progressive Matri-
C/J ces, Memory-for-Designs
n Behavior Several geriatric behavior scales No change
3
O Stamford et al. (1974)b Cognition, behavior Geriatric mental pa- Yesd Draw-A-Person, WAIS, behav- Some improved
o
o
tients ior scales
55 Weingarten (1973)" Cognition Highway patrol Yes" Raven's Progressive Matrices Improved
H trainees
* Young (1979)° Cognition Male and female Yesd • WAIS, Trail-Making Test, Improved
adults Crossing-Off Test, Wechsler
^T
2 Memory Scale subtests
i —» Note. WISC = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children; WAIS = Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; wk(s) = week(s); yr = year; min = minutes; PE = physical education; hr = hour.
CD
OO " Approximates nonequivalent control group quasi-experimental design, but random assignment assumption is not met; Ismail (1967) and Weingarten (1973) used matching procedures.
1—•
'' Experimental design.
• *' Preexperimental design.
CO '' Cardiovascular fitness.
-4
-a
about the effects of fitness training on perception ter on discrimination of interpersonal skills but not
are premature because, as Layman points out, most on communication, as compared with the interper-
experimental programs have used motor training sonal functioning training group. Both groups were
activities rather than cardiovascular training. Ac- superior to the no-training control group.
cording to Layman, some improvement in visual The research relating fitness training to behav-
perception follows from activity training, espe- ioral variables suggests a positive relationship to
cially when the training is intensive and individ- work-related variables, but little has been done on
ualized, but cardiovascular training has no effect other relevant behaviors, such as sleep and social
on auditory perception. Three studies serve as a behavior. Fitness enthusiasts have also reported
representative sample of these activity-oriented that sexual behavior is enhanced by fitness training,
programs (Arnheim & Sinclair, 1974; Fretz, John- but no research in this area has been attempted
son, & Johnson, 1969; Johnson & Fretz, 1967). to date.
More detailed information regarding the studies
that have attempted to evaluate the effects of phys- AFFECT
ical fitness training on cognition and perception
is presented in Table 1. Avid exercisers and theorists in physical education
(e.g., Scott, 1960) report an improved sense of well-
BEHAVIOR being associated with fitness, and several research-
ers have corroborated this relationship (Carter,
Work. Research on the relationship between 1977; Snyder & Spreitzer, 1974). Similarly, Morris
physical fitness training and work behavior has and Husman (1978) found that a sense of improved
been reviewed by Donoghue (1977) and so does "life quality" resulted from a fitness training ex-
not receive a study-by-study critique here. Ac- perience for college students.
cording to Donoghue, fitness training has been Much of the research relating fitness training to
positively associated with reduced absenteeism, an various affects has focused on what one might call
effect that has been related to reduced risk of heart the stress emotions, especially anxiety. Most of
disease following fitness training. Moreover, ex- these studies have been summarized elsewhere
ercise breaks on the job appear to reduce errors (Folkins & Amsterdam, 1977), and as can be seen
and improve output. Workers who participate in from Table 2, almost all outcomes have been pos-
exercise programs generally report that their work itive. That is, fitness training is associated with im-
performance and attitudes improve, provement in mood states, an effect which is more
Sleep. Physical exercise appears to be impor- pronounced with subjects who are more distressed
tant to sleep behavior (Baekeland, 1970; Baekeland or physically unfit at the outset (e.g., deVries, 1968;
& Lasky, 1966; Walker et al., 1978), but only one Folkins et al., 1972; McPherson et al., 1967; Mor-
study has related physical fitness training to sleep. gan, Roberts, Brand, & Feinerman, 1970).
Folkins, Lynch, and Gardner (1972) found that Unfortunately, only one of these studies is a true
college females who showed improvements in experimental design (D. S. Hanson, 1971), and that
aerobic fitness also reported improvements in sleep study with 4-year-olds used movement training
behavior. Males, who were more fit than females and no measures of fitness change. The majority
at the outset, noted no change in sleep. Since so- of the remaining studies are attempts to create a
phisticated instrumentation exists for monitoring nonequivalent control group design by recruiting
sleep behavior, a true experimental study of the a convenient nonexercise group or class.
effects of physical fitness training on sleep behavior Too often, experimental fitness training is of-
appears feasible and is sorely needed. fered to specially recruited subjects who seek out
Social behavior. A large number of intact group exposure to the training. This selection bias is a
comparison studies have related fitness and sports serious problem in any attempts at comparison
activity to popularity, social adjustment, and the with controls. Furthermore, the experimental sub-
like (Stevenson, 1975), but little research is avail- jects know themselves to be "experimentals," and
able relative to the effects of fitness training. their moods may improve from this attention fac-
Greenberg (1976) randomly assigned 60 students tor. Nevertheless, the consistently positive findings
to one of three conditions: fitness training plus in- of these studies are impressive. Continued exper-
terpersonal functioning training, interpersonal func- imental work is needed, however, with more at-
tioning training, or a no-training control. On Car- tention given to controls on factors threatening in-
khuff's Communication and Discrimination Indices, ternal validity.
the fitness plus interpersonal training group did bet- Several researchers have demonstrated that brief

378 • APRIL 1981 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST

TABLE 2
Effects of Physical Fitness Training on Affect
Demonstrated fitness
Study Primary focus Subjects effects? Psychological measures and tasks Outcome

R. S. Brown et al. (1978, Depression High school and No (10 wks, jogging) Zung Self-Rating Depression Improved
Phase 1)" university athletes Scale
deVries (1968)" Tension Middle-aged males Yes Electromyogram Improved
Folkins (1976)" Moods Middle-aged males Yes^ Multiple Affect " Adjective Improved (anxi-
at risk of CHD Check List (MAACL) ety)
Folkins et al. (1972)" Personality, moods, College males and Yes" MAACL, rating scales Improved (fe-
work, sleep females males)
D. S. Hanson (1971)b Anxiety 4-year-olds No (10 wks, 30 min move- Holtzman Inkblot Test, teacher Improved
ment training, 5 X wk) rating
Karbe (1966)c Anxiety College females No (15 wks, 40 min swim- Institute for Personality and Improved
ming, 2 X wk) Ability Testing (IPAT) Anx-
iety scale, Swimming Anxi-
ety and Fear Check List
Kowal et al. (1978)" Moods, self-con- Male and female re- Yesd (males only) Spielberger State-Trait Anxi- Mood improved
cept, personality cruits ,. ety Inventory (STAI), Profile (males)
of Mood States, Eysenck Per-
sonality Inventory
> Lynch et al. (Note 2)° Moods Middle-aged males No (university exercise MAACL Improved
PI class, jogging)
2
o McPherson et al. (1967)° Moods Postinfarct and nor- No (24 wks, graduated Semantic differentials (moods) Improved
z> mal adult males exercise, 2 X wk)
T3 Morgan et al. (1970)" Depression Adult males No . Self-Rating Depression Scale No change
on
«; Morris and Husman Well-being College students Yes Pflaum Life Quality Inventory Improved
o (1978)a
o Popejoy (1968)° Anxiety Adult females No (20 wks, 4 X wk, fit- IPAT Anxiety scale, Neuroti- Improved
o ness training) cism Scale Questionnaire
o
35 Tredway (Note 3)e Moods Older adults No STAI, Self-Rating Depression Improved
H
Scale, Mood State Inventory
> Young (1979)° Well-being, anxiety Male and female Yesd Life Satisfaction and Health Improved
^3 adults Rating Scales, MAACL
2
r Note. CHD = coronary heart disease; wk(s) = week(s); min = minutes.
CO "b Approximates nonequivalent control group quasi-experimental design, but random assignment assumption is not met; McPherson et al. (1967) used matching procedures.
00 Experimental design.
1
•
Preexperimental design.
d
Cardiovascular fitness.
CO
-J
CD
or single doses of exercise can be used to relieve the brevity of training programs, one must con-
electromyographic tension (deVries, 1968; deVries sider whether the 16 PF is sufficiently sensitive.
& Adams, 1972; Sime, 1977; Wood, 1977) and state Since few of the 16 personality factors are theo-
anxiety (Morgan & Horstman, 1976). DeVries and retically expected to change following short-term
Adams (1972) found that exercise "has a signifi- intervention (cf. Cattell et al., 1970), one won-
cantly greater effect upon resting musculature, ders why so many researchers persist in using this
without any undesirable side effects, than does instrument to assess personality changes following
meprobamate" (p. 140) and recommended exer- fitness training. Another study, employing the
cise as a reasonable treatment modality when a Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
tranquilizer effect is desired. (MMPI) with postinfarct patients who completed
In an intact group comparison study, Cantor, a reconditioning program, failed to demonstrate
Zillman, and Day (1978) found that low-fit indi- improvement on the clinical scales of the MMPI
viduals had greater sympathetic-arousal responses (Naughton, Bruhn, & Lategola, 1968).
to stress films than did high-fit individuals. Could It appears that there is no evidence to support
fitness training produce such an effect? Since ex- a claim that global changes on personality tests
ercise is touted as a prophylactic for stress, a film follow from fitness training. This is not surprising
stress test of fitness training effects would be an in light of the fact that outcome research for psy-
important area for future research. chotherapy effects has been plagued with largely
disappointing results using this approach. One di-
PERSONALITY rection for future efforts might be to focus on a
target variable that is expected to shift. For ex-
Research relating physical fitness to personality has ample, Folkins et al. (1972) assumed that changes
not produced a consensus of opinion primarily in fitness would most likely affect present adjust-
because, until recently, investigators have persisted ment. As another example, Duke, Johnson, and
in simple attempts to compare athletes and non- Nowicki (1977) focused on locus of control in their
athletes on personality variables. A good number study of the effects of a sports fitness camp. The
of preexperimental and quasi-experimental efforts children in their preexperimental study moved
to assess the effects of fitness training on person- from an external to an internal locus of control,
ality among relative normals have emerged over although the researchers did not control for peer
the past 10 years, however. or leader effects.
The majority of the researchers in this area have Self-concept. The personality research with the
favored Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factor Ques- highest payoff has been that which focuses on self-
tionnaire (16 PF; Cattell, Eber, & Tatsuoka, 1970) concept variables. Researchers in this area gener-
for measuring personality variables. Ismail and his ally assume a self-as-object meaning for self, that
colleagues found rather modest gains or no change is, persons' attitudes and evaluations of aspects of
in the 16 PF variables following fitness training their self—body traits, abilities, and the like.
(Ismail & Trachtman, 1973; Ismail & Young, 1973, Changes in the body as a result of fitness training
1977; Young & Ismail, 1976). Similarly, Buccola might reasonably be expected to alter one's body
and Stone (1975) failed to find much effect fol- image, which is highly correlated with and might
lowing a 14-week program for older males. This be expected to radiate to self-concept (Zion, 1965)
lack of effect on 16 PF variables has been attrib- and affect (Goldberg & Folkins, 1974).
uted to the shortness of the training programs. Is- In a review of this literature, Layman (1974)
mail and Young (1977) assert that personality observes that "of seven studies involving tests of
changes would result from more lengthy training, self-concept before and after a physical develop-
which would create significant alterations in body ment program, four reported improvement in self-
chemistry and, consequently, changes in person- concept or body image . . . and three reported no
ality variables associated with body chemistry. One significant change" (p. 43). As can be seen from
problem with Ismail's research is that all his sub- Table 3, research since then has generally con-
jects were drawn from the middle-aged male staff firmed the assumption that fitness training im-
and faculty at Purdue University, many of whom proves self-concept. Of the two studies with ele-
were already fit before entering the program. mentary-school-age children, both of which
Other studies with the 16 PF on different popu- employed movement skills training rather than
lations are equally discouraging (Mayo, 1975; Till- cardiovascularly oriented training, the true exper-
man, 1965; Werner & Gottheil, 1966). Aside from imental study found positive changes in self-con-

380 • APRIL 1981 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST

cept (Martinek, Cheffers, & Zaichkowsky, 1978), garding these and other studies on the clinical ap-
while the quasi-experimental study did not (Bruya, plication of physical fitness training is presented
1977). Positive changes have been found for adult in Table 4.
male rehabilitation clients (Collingwood, 1972), Since fitness training promotes improvement in
adult females (J. S. Hanson & Nedde, 1974), col- mood states and self-concept, it might reasonably
lege students (Hilyer & Mitchell, 1979), seventh- be assumed to be a viable treatment modality for
grade males (McGowan, Jarman, & Pedersen, depressed patients. One case study (Blue, 1979)
1974), and obese teenage males (Collingwood & and two group studies (R. S. Brown, Ramirez, &
Willett, 1971). Mauser and Reynolds (1977), how- Taub, 1978; Kavanagh et al., 1977), both lacking
ever, found that an activity program had no effect adequate control groups, reported positive out-
for 4-12-year-olds. It seems that when fitness ef- comes using jogging programs with clinically de-
fects are documented, self-concept does indeed pressed populations. Greist et al. (1979) conducted
improve. In contrast to other personality dimen- one of the better designed studies in the clinical
sions that have been studied, self-concept appears area. They randomly assigned moderately de-
to be affected by physical fitness changes. Three pressed outpatients to one of three treatments: (a)
true experimental studies (Hilyer & Mitchell, 1979; supervised running, (b) time-limited (10 sessions)
Martinek et al., 1978; McGowan et al., 1974) have psychotherapy, and (c) time-unlimited psycho-
reported positive results, posing a challenge to therapy. At the end of 10 weeks, six of eight pa-
those who claim that random assignment is im- tients in the running group were "recovered."
possible in fitness training programs. Running appeared to be at least as effective as
It is possible that these changes are associated psychotherapy in reducing depression scale scores.
with the perception of improved fitness rather than Unfortunately, these authors did not present any
with actual changes in physical fitness (Heaps, statistical analyses. More designs of this type (but-
1978; Leonardson, 1977; Leonardson & Gargiulo, tressed by proper statistical methods) are needed
1978). A person's information about fitness training to fully document the utility of fitness training as
effects may be as important as, or more important a treatment or adjunctive treatment for depression.
than, the physical changes themselves (Heaps, Case reports suggest that running therapy can
1978). be used to inhibit phobic and acute anxiety re-
Exercise programs for the aged are often aimed sponses (Driscoll, 1976; Muller & Armstrong, 1975;
at improving motor flexibility, which is necessary Orwin, 1973, 1974) and to reduce trait anxiety
for many self-care tasks (e.g., Frekany & Leslie, among chronic psychiatric patients (Lion, 1978).
1975). Improved self-care skills ought to be de- However, no well-controlled studies have been
signed to try to enhance self-concept among aged conducted with patients suffering from acute or
individuals, but as yet, no work has been done with chronic anxiety.
this age group to evaluate the effects of exercise Results of research on exercise therapy for al-
on self-concept. coholism are also equivocal, primarily because
studies in this area either are not well controlled
(Frankel & Murphy, 1974; Murphy, Bennett,
Clinical Application of Physical Fitness Hagen, & Russell, 1972) or show only modest im-
Training provement on psychological variables (Gary &
Guthrie, 1972).
A number of studies of psychotic groups have fo- The literature dealing with the mentally re-
cused on the effects of physical fitness training on tarded has stressed physical education training
mental health (Clark, Wade, Massey, & Van Dyke, mainly because many retardates lack proper phys-
1975; Dodson & Mullens, 1969; Kramer & Bauer, ical training and experience in their development.
1955; Powell, 1974; Smith & Fige.takis, 1970; Tim- Several studies have demonstrated that a compre-
merman, 1954). However, these studies did not hensive conditioning program can produce signif-
employ conditioning programs of sufficient inten- icant gains in IQ (B. J. Brown, 1977; Corder, 1966;
sity or duration to produce cardiovascular fitness Oliver, 1958). Corder (1966) attempted to tease
effects or are plagued by selection bias problems out the change variance for IQ associated with the
(e.g., Dodson & Mullens, 1969). It thus does not Hawthorne effect, and while some portion of the
appear possible to reach any conclusion at this time change appeared related to it, the exercise treat-
regarding the effect of fitness training on psychotic ment effect was predominant and still significant.
symptomatology. More detailed information re- It remains difficult to determine how much of the

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • APRIL 1981 • 381

TABLE 3
CO
CO
Effects of Physical Fit ness Training on Perso nality and Self-Conc<ept
to
a Demonstrated fitness
> Study Primary focus Subjects effects? Psychological measures and tasks Outcome
JS
r Personality
CD
00
Buccola & Stone (1975)° Personality Older males Yes" 16 PF Some improved
1
7 Duke et al. (1977)" Locus of control Children Yes- Children's Internal-External Improved
Control Scale
^
2
M Folkins et al. (1972)b Personality (present College males and Yesd ACL (self-confidence and per- Improved (fe-
53
adjustment) females sonal adjustment) males)
.O
z Ismail & Young (1973)" Personality Middle-aged males Yesd 16 PF Some improved?
00
Ismail & Young (1977)° Personality Middle-aged males Yes" 16 PF, Eysenck Personality In- No change
n ventory, MAACL (anxiety)
s
o
r
o Kowal et al. (1978)b Moods, self-con- Male and female re- Yesd (males only) STAI, Profile of Mood States, Mood improved
O cept, personality cruits Eysenck Personality Inven- (males)
an tory
Mayo (1975)b Personality Seventh- and eighth- Yes" Cattell Junior-Senior High No change
grade females School Questionnaire
Naughton et al. (1968)b Clinical scales Postinfarct males Yesd MMPI No change
Tillman (1965)1' Personality High school males Yes 16 PF, Kuder Preference Rec- No change
ord — Form C
Werner & Gottheil Personality College males No (4-yr athletic pro- 16 PF No change
(1966)" gram)
Young & Ismail (1976)" Personality Middle-aged males Yes" 16 PF, Eysenck Personality In- Some improved
ventory, MAACL (anxiety)

Self-concept
Bruya (1977)° Self -concept Fourth graders No (4 wks, 30-rnin move- Piers-Harris Children's Self- No change
ment session, 2 X wk) Concept Scale
Colling wood (1972)b Body and self atti- Adult male rehabil- Yesd Body Attitude Scale, semantic Improved
tudes itation clients differentials, Bills Index of
Adjustment and Values
Colhngwood & Willett Body and self atti- Obese male teen- Yes'1 Same as above Improved
(1971)- tudes agers
J. S. Hanson & Nedde Self-concept Adult females Yes'1 Tennessee Self-Concept Scale Improved
(1974)" (TSCS)
gain in IQ suggested in these studies can be at-
.c tributed to a fitness training effect. Aside from the
•a -a W)
S 0) Hawthorne effect, receptive language stimulation
II
y S
a (e.g., reinforcement for appropriate responses to
1 1
jjj e O
1 1 verbal instructions) in perceptual-motor, motor
S
development, and conditioning programs for the
s retarded (Morrison & Pothier, 1978) could also
,
"S § 3
,
1
c
>,
^s account for IQ gains.
Research has convincingly shown that physical
s
03
'O O .s a
development programs for retarded children result
X2
q
& .=
in more positive body image (Chasey, Swartz, &
S o jij 'n ^§
o **« 1 Chasey, 1974; Maloney, Ball, & Edgar, 1970). This
1

(1972) used
^ improvement appears to remain stable over an
1* U I
extended period of time (Maloney & Payne, 1970).

CJ
1!
n f
§
S3 -O U "!.
s
X
Exercise programs also appear important for the
development of social skills among retarded chil-
H 2 C/3 H J ;
dren (B. J. Brown, 1977; Nunley, 1965). Studies
C
with retarded adults (Hussey, Maurer, & Schofield,
1
u 3 1976; Leighton, Cupp, Prince, Phillabaum, &
McLarren, 1966) have yielded no interpretable
|1 results because of serious design deficiencies.
t, Cardiologists have long recognized the impor-
1 rt
tance of exercise at both the physical and the psy-
chological levels in the treatment of postinfarct
1*8 £• 1
"B coronary patients (e.g., Hellerstein, 1965; Martic,
1
1976; Naughton, 1967). Quasi-experimental re-
£
0
>-
$
>•
Is i 'c
_o search (Folkins, 1976; McPherson et al., 1967, Ta-
g ble 2) has shown that gains in physical fitness
among males with coronary heart disease (CHD)
| "c
T: J
and among males likely to develop CHD are ac-
53 ec companied by improvement on affect variables.
rt
4) 4) 5P
J so
rt 8P 4)
13
u i Other "physical" problems that have been linked
I x to psychodynamic variables may also be responsive
Seventh-gra
Elementary
children

s
S 1 1 to physical exercise programs. Marley (1977) re-
o ~a
W) c
1 £2 I 2

i II
S
< 1) "3
11
1 c'
views the literature evaluating the effects of ex-
ercise on asthma and concludes that there is en-
< II_ 'S
"0
couraging evidence that 'exercise, especially
IB 2 swimming, reduces the incidence of asthma at-
rt
s?
£ | tacks. Since all the studies reviewed were preex-
§ S"

11 ||
perimental, such a conclusion does not seem war-
ranted. Some preexperimental data suggest that
o,
I
c
8
d
4)
O
e
O If If headaches may be controlled by brief, vigorous
8 0
S exercise (Atkinson, 1977; Ekbom & Lindahl, 1970),
o
! u x| 1 i"
*"d)
c>5
'T;
w "dj
« ^ i
^
'T3 >i wi S?
"g S
but no controlled studies with longer fitness train-
ing programs are available. Similarly, preexperi-
s^ •g 2
0,
mental data suggest that dysmenorrhea (painful
pi
S c
II
menstruation) may be relieved by regular exercise
t< ^ fl M
•^
CO
^?t^. > '«
" 5 13 a-s ^ c
— >> '^ cr_j
ss • (Lundquist, 1947), although much of the effect
s 2
o s "s s ~° c "*5 £ .£?
U | c
o "c 5 S
E aj ^ T3
may be placebo related (Hubbell, 1949).
In summary, physical fitness training has been
1 15 1
^rt sill advanced as a treatment for a variety of clinical
Experimei
Approxim;
cGowan el

Quasi-expt
Cardiovast

!il
1 ^ 4J
co syndromes. For the most part, however, the data
1
3 S>
SX —i 3 § ^
from these studies are merely suggestive. "Im-
rt rt •—•
1 1" provement" can often be attributed to a Haw-
d
l>

r
c

£ s S

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • APRIL 1981 • 383

G3
00

TABLE 4
Effects of Physical Fitness Training on Clinical Syndromes
SB
r Demonstrated fitness
Study Primary focus Subjects effects? Psychological measures and tests Outcome
CD
OO
i—'
Clark et al. (1975)° Psychotic behavior Geriatric mental pa- Nod Self -care, total daily activity No change
tients
S Dodson & Mullens Psychotic behavior Selected VA patients Yesd (S wks, 1-mile jog, MMPI, Personal Orientation Improved
R
53 (1969)b 5 X wk) Inventory, body image,
O Draw-A-Person (DAP), se-
Z mantic differentials, Auto-
T) kinetic Index
K Kramer & Bauer (1955)" Psychotic behavior VA patients No (10 days, swimming Ratings of hyperactive behav- No change
O activities) ior (mood im-
O proved)
0 Powell (1974)" Cognition Geriatic mental pa- No (12 wks, 1 hr exercise, Raven's Progressive Matrices, Improved
O tients 5 X wk) Memory-for-Designs
H Smith &Figetakis(1970)c Schizophrenia VA patients Yes (isometrics) MMPI, DAP, Cornell-Cox No change
Health Inventory

Timmerman (1954)° Psychotic behavior VA patients No (hydrogymnastics) Behavior control treatments, Improved
e.g., seclusion, shock

R. S. Brown et al. (1978)c Depression University students No Zung Self-Rating Depression Improved
Scale, Activation-Deactiva-
tion Check List, Lorr Mood
Check List
Greist et al. (1979)" Depression Male and female No (10 wks, 30-45 min Symptom Check List-90 Improved
outpatients running, 3 X wk) (NIMH)

Kavanagh et al. (1977)'' Depression Postcoronary "most Yesd MMPI (Depression scale) Improved
depressed" males

Frankel & Murphy Alcoholism Middle-aged males Yes'1 MMPI Improved

(1974)''

Gary & Guthrie (1972)" Alcoholism Hospitalized males Yesd ACL, Body-Cathexis and Self- Some improved
Cathexis Scales, sleep behav-
ior

Murphy et al. (1972)1' Alcoholism Hospitalized males Yesd MMPI Improved

Table 4 (continued)
Demonstrated fitness
Study Primary focus Subjects effects? Psychological measures and tests Outcome

B. J. Brown (1977)" Mentally retarded 12-year-old males Yes (isometrics) Stanford-Binet IQ, Vineland Improved
Social Maturity Scale
Chasey et al. (1974)" Mentally retarded 10-19-year-olds No (5 wks, daily PE) Holtzman Inkblot Test Improved
Corder (1966)" Mentally retarded 12-16-year-old Yes (motor proficiency) WISC Improved
males
Hussey et al. (1976)c Mentally retarded Adults Yes (motor proficiency) Ratings of attention seeking ?
and social behavior
Leighton et al. (1966)° Mentally retarded Adult males Yes Peabody Picture Vocabulary ?
Test, WAIS, DAP, TAT, Sen-
tence Completion Test
Maloney et al. (1970)" Mentally retarded Males with mean age Yes (motor proficiency) Personal Orientation Inven- Improved
of 14 tory; Eye, Hand, and Ear
Test (body image measures)
s
PI
IS Nunley (1965)'' Mentally retarded 9-14-year-olds Yes (motor proficiency) Observations of adjustment, Improved
n "social behavior"
z Oliver (1958)' Mentally retarded 13-15-year-old Yes (motor proficiency) Terman-Merrill IQ, Porteus Improved
« males Maze Test, Raven's Progres-
o sive Matrices, DAP, God-
o
1— 1
dard's Form Board
o
n Note. VA = Veterans Administration; wk(s) = week(s); hr = hour; MMPI = Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory; PE = physical education; WISC = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children; WAIS =
3! Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; TAT = Thematic Apperception Test:; ACL = Adjective Check List.
H " Experimental design.
* k
Quasi-experimental design (time series).
p> 'Approximates nonequivalent control group quasi-experimental design, but random assignment assumption is not met; Hussey et al. (1976) and Oliver (1958) used matching procedures.
3 Cardiovascular fitness.
' Preexperimental design (one-group pretest-posttest).
r
CD
00
1—'

oo
on
thorne effect (see D. L. Hanson, 1967) or to In this review we have focused on problems with
"regression toward the mean." Furthermore, very internal validity, but threats to external validity
few studies have employed rigorous cardiovascu- (e.g., the interaction effect of selection bias and
larly oriented fitness training. On the other hand, the treatment variable, exercise) must also be ad-
there are several true experimental studies with dressed. Self-selected, motivated volunteers may
psychotics and the mentally retarded. Studies with demonstrate improvement in psychological func-
the mentally retarded, especially those with chil- tioning simply because they are motivated for
dren, have been reasonably well designed, but overall self-improvement. It is therefore necessary
none have used cardiovascularly oriented training to arrange for control groups that have time ex-
programs. It appears valid to conclude nevertheless posure equal to that of trainees (e.g., B. J. Brown,
that young retardates benefit psychologically from 1977), as well as equal and justified expectations
fitness training and that this effect is most dramatic for benefit (e.g., Corder, 1966).
for intellectual functioning and body image. Pop- Aside from design problems, variations in du-
ulation groups that tend toward very sedentary ration and intensity of exercise programs make
life-styles, such as the retarded and the aged, ap- results difficult to interpret. We have suggested
pear to derive cognitive benefits from relatively that documentation of cardiovascular functioning
simple but regular exercise programs. Some min- is one approach to greater standardization of train-
imal amount of gross muscular movement may be ing effects.
needed to provide a stimulating effect on brain This new field of study needs further develop-
functioning (cf. Powell, 1974). ment at the theoretical level as well. Research
would appeal to a wider audience and have a wider
application if it were embedded in a broader
Conclusions framework of psychological functioning. Lazarus's
(1975) emotion and adaptation theory, with its ty-
In general, studies of physical fitness effects on pology of self-regulatory processes, seems to us to
psychological health are poorly designed, Only offer a promising context for this research.
about 15% of the studies reviewed here qualified Finally, future research on fitness training as a
as true experiments, and most of these were studies treatment strategy may need to pay more attention
on clinical populations. The true experiments with to individual differences. Individuals probably dif-
normals were mostly done with children (D. S. fer greatly in their ability to profit psychologically
Hanson, 1971; McGowan et al, 1974; Martinek et from fitness training because of differences in be-
al., 1978), and only one of these employed mea- liefs, expectations, preferred coping styles, and the
sures of cardiovascular fitness (McGowan et al., like. For example, exercise seems beneficial for
1974). Almost half of the studies used preexperi- those who experience anxiety at the somatic level,
mental designs'—most often the one-group pretest- while meditation may be a better strategy for those
posttest design. This design was used in all the who are overburdened by cognitive anxiety
research on psychosomatic problems. The most (Schwartz et al., 1978).
common design (60% of the studies) used by re- While all areas reviewed need more true ex-
searchers working with normal groups was an ap- perimental research, fitness programs for almost
proximation of the nonequivalent control group all of the clinical syndromes have yet to be care-
design. Because of selection bias and regression fully evaluated. Fitness training and cognitive
effects, these studies often have problems with in- functioning among the aged and fitness training
ternal validity. In future research, once a group effects on sleep and sex behavior also need more
of motivated subjects has been identified, a random attention. Additionally, theoretical speculation
assignment procedure is imperative. With a candid suggests that fitness training should help people
appeal for scientific rigor, normal adults may con- cope with physical and psychological stresses. Lab-
sent to serve in reasonable control conditions. Sub- oratory experiments with psychologically stressful
jects could be asked to wait for fitness training and conditions (e.g., stress films, exams) could yield im-
serve as waiting-list controls. Alternatively, subjects portant evidence relevant to this hypothesis.
might serve as trainers' assistants (e.g., Corder,
1966) and thereby serve as controls for attention REFERENCE NOTES
and mastery aspects. Still others might be ran-
1. Sime, W. E. Acute relief of emotional stress. In Proceedings
domly assigned to a reasonable substitute such as of the American Association for the Advancement of Ten-
karate training. sion Control, Louisville, Kentucky, 1978.

386 • APRIL 1981 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST

2. Lynch, S., Folkins, C. H., & Wilmore, J. H. Relationship Collingwood, T. R., & Willett, L. The effects of physical train-
between three mood variables and physical exercise. Un- ing upon self-concept and body attitudes. Journal of Clinical
published manuscript, 1978, Psychology, 1971, 27, 411-412,
3. Tredway, V. A. Mood effects of exercise programs for older Cooper, L. Athletics, activity and personality: A review of the
adults. Paper presented at the meeting of the American literature. Research Quarterly, 1969, 40, 17-22,
Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada, August 1978. Corder, W. W. Effects of physical education on the intellectual,
physical and social development of educable mentally re-
REFERENCES tarded boys. Exceptional Children, 1966, 32, 357-364.
deVries, H. A. Immediate and long-term effects of exercise
Arnheim, D. D., & Sinclair, W. A. The effects of a motor de- upon resting muscle action potential level. Journal of Sports
velopment program on selected factors in motor ability, per- Medicine and Physical Fitness, 1968, 8, 1-11.
sonality, self-awareness and vision. American Corrective deVries, H. A., & Adams, G. M. Electromyographic comparison
Therapy Journal, 1974, 28, 167-171. of single dose of exercise and meprobamate as to effects on
Atkinson, R. Physical fitness and headache. Headache, 1977, muscular relaxation. American Journal of Physical Medi-
17, 189-191. cine, 1972, 51, 130-141.
Baekeland, F. Exercise deprivation. Archives of General Psy- Dodson, L. G, & Mullens, W. R. Some effects of jogging on
chiatry, 1970, 22, 365-369. psychiatric hospital patients. American Corrective Therapy
Baekeland, F., & Lasky, R. Exercise and sleep patterns in college Journal, 1969, 23, 130-134.
athletes, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1966, 23, 1203-1207. Donoghue, S. The correlation between physical fitness, absen-
Balirke, M. S., & Morgan, W. P. Anxiety reduction following teeism and work performance. Canadian Journal of Public
exercise and meditation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, Health, 1977, 68, 201-203.
1978, 2, 323-334. Driscoll, R. Anxiety reduction using physical exertion and pos-
Barry, A. J., Steinmetz, O. R., Page, H. F., & Rodahl, K. The itive images. Psychological Record, 1976, 26, 87-94.
effects of physical conditioning on older individuals: II. Motor Duke, M., Johnson, T. C., & Nowicki, S., Jr, Effects of sports
performance and cognitive function. Journal of Gerontology, fitness camp experience on locus of control orientation in
1966, 21, 192-198. children, ages 6 to 14. Research Quarterly, 1977, 48, 280-
Bills, A. G. The role of oxygen in recovery from mental fatigue. 283.
Psychological Bulletin, 1937, 34, 729, (Abstract) Backer, J. N. On some elementary philosophical problems of
Blue, F. R. Aerobic running as a treatment for moderate depres- psychology. American Psychologist, 1972, 27, 553-565.
sion. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1979, 48, 228. Ekbom, K,, & Lindahl, J. Effect of induced rise of blood pres-
Brown, B. J. The effect of an isometric strength program on sure on pain in cluster headache. Acta Neurologica Scandi-
the intellectual and social development of trainable retarded navica, 1970, 46, 585-600.
males, American Corrective Therapy Journal, 1977, S I , 44-
Folkins, C. H. Effects of physical training on mood. Journal
48.
of Clinical Psychology, 1976, 32, 385-388.
Brown, R. S., Ramirez, D. E., & Taub, J. M. The prescription
of exercise for depression. The Physician and Sportsmedi- Folkins, C. H., & Amsterdam, E. A, Control and modification
of stress emotions through chronic exercise. In E. A. Am-
cine, 1978, 6, 34-49.
sterdam, J. H. Wilmore, & A. N. DeMaria (Eds.), Exercise
Bruya, L. D. Effect of selected movement skills on positive self-
concept. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1977, 45, 252-254. and cardiovascular health and disease. New York: Yorke,
Buccola, V. A., & Stone, W. J, Effects of jogging and cycling 1977.
programs on physiological and personality variables in aged Folkins, C. H., Lynch, S., & Gardner, M. M. Psychological fit-
men. Research Quarterly, 1975, 46, 134-139. ness as a function of physical fitness. Archives of Physical
Buffone, G. W. Exercise as therapy: A closer look. Journal of Medicine and Rehabilitation, 1972, 53, 503-508.
Counseling and Psychotherapy, 1980, 3, 101-115. Frankel, A., & Murphy, J. Physical fitness and personality in
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. Experimental and quasi- alcoholism. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcoholism,
experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1974, 35, 1272-1278.
1963. Frekany, G. A., & Leslie, D. K. Effects of an exercise program
Cantor, J. R., Zillrnan, D., & Day, K. D. Relationships between on selected flexibility measurements of senior citizens. Ger-
cardio-respiratory fitness and physiological responses to films. ontologist, 1975, 15, 182-183.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1978, 46, 1123-1130. Fretz, B. R., Johnson, W. R., & Johnson, J. A. Intellectual and
Carter, R. Exercise and happiness. Journal of Sports Medicine perceptual motor development as a function of therapeutic
and Physical Fitness, 1977, 17, 307-313. play. Research Quarterly, 1969, 40, 687-691.
Cattell, R. B., Eber, H. W., & Tatsuoka, M. M. Handbook for Gary, V,, & Guthrie, D. The effect of jogging on physical fitness
the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) in clin- and self-concept in hospitalized alcoholics. Quarterly Journal
ical, educational, industrial, and research psychology. of Studies on Alcoholism, 1972, 33, 1073-1078.
Champaign, 111.: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, Goldberg, B., & Folkins, C. Relationship of body-image to neg-
1970. ative emotional attitudes, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1974,
Chapman, C. B., & Mitchell, J. H. The physiology of exercise. 39, 1053-1054.
Scientific American, 1965, 212(5), 88-96. Greenberg, B. The effects of training in physical conditioning
Chasey, W. C, Swartz, J. D., & Chasey, C, G. Effect of motor on the acquisition of interpersonal skills (Doctoral disserta-
development on body image scores for institutionalized men- tion, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1975). Dis-
tally retarded children. American Journal of Mental Defi- sertation Abstracts International, 1976, 36, 3603B. (Univer-
ciency, 1974, 78, 440-445. sity Microfilms No. 76-01441)
Clark, B. A., Wade, M. G., Massey, B. H., & Van Dyke, R. Greist, J. H., Klein, M. H., Eischens, R. R., Paris, J. W., Gurman,
Response of institutionalized geriatric mental patients to a A. S., & Morgan, W, P. Running as treatment for depression.
twelve-week program of regular physical activity. Journal Comprehensive Psychiatry, 1979, 20, 41-54.
of Gerontology, 1975, 30, 565-573. Gruber, J. J. Exercise and mental performance. International
Clarke, H. H. Physical fitness benefits: A summary of research. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1975, 6, 28-40.
Education, 1958, 78, 460-466. Gutin, B. Effect of increase in physical fitness on mental ability
Collingwood, T. R. The effects of physical training upon be- following physical and mental stress. Research Quarterly,
havior and self attitudes. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1966, 37, 211-220.
1972, 28, 583-585, Gutin, B., & DiGennaro, J. Effect of one-minute and five-min-

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • APRIL 1981 • 387

ute step ups on performance of simple addition. Research Layman, E. M. Psychological effects of physical activity. In
Quarterly, 1968, 39, 81-85. J. H. Wilmore (Ed.), Exercise and sports sciences reviews.
Hammett, V. B. Psychological changes with physical fitness New York: Academic Press, 1974.
training. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 1967, 96, Lazarus, R. S. A cognitively oriented psychologist looks at bio-
764-768. feedback. American Psychologist, 1975, 30, 553-561.
Hanson, D. L. Influence of the Hawthorne effect upon physical Leighton, J. R., Cupp, M., Prince, A. J., Phillabaurn, D. E., &
education research. Research Quarterly, 1967, 38, 723-724. McLarren, G. L. The effect of a physical fitness development
Hanson, D. S. The effect of a concentrated program in move- program on self-concept, mental age and job proficiency in
ment behavior on the affective behavior of four year old the mentally retarded—A pilot study in corrective therapy.
children at university elementary school (Doctoral disserta- Journal of the Association of Physical and Mental Reha-
tion, University of California, Los Angeles, 1970). Disserta- bilitation, 1966, 20, 4-11.
tion Abstracts International, 1971, 31, 3319A. (University Leonardson, G. R. Relationship between self-concept and per-
Microfilms No. 71-00629) ceived physical fitness. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1977,
Hanson, J. S., & Nedde, W. H. Long term physical training 44, 62.
effect in sedentary females. Journal of Applied Physiology, Leonardson, G. R., & Gargiulo, R. M. Self-perception and phys-
1974, 37, 112-116. ical fitness. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1978, 46, 338,
Harris, D. V. Involvement in sports: A somatopsychic rationale Lion, L. S. Psychological effects of jogging: A preliminary study.
for physical activity. Philadelphia, Pa.: Lea & Febiger, 1973. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1978, 47, 1215-1218.
Heaps, R. A. Relating physical and psychological fitness: A psy- Lundquist, C. Use of the billing exercise for dysmenorrhea for
chological point of view. Journal of Sports Medicine and college women. Research Quarterly, 1947, IS, 44-53.
Physical Fitness, 1978, 18, 399-408. Maloney, M. P., Ball, T. S., & Edgar, C. L. Analysis of the
Hellerstein, A. Active physical conditioning of coronary pa- generalizability of sensory-motor training. American Journal
tients. Circulation, 1965, 32, 100. of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, 458-469.
Hilyer, J., & Mitchell, W. Effect of systematic physical fitness Maloney, M. P., & Payne, L. F. Note on the stability of changes
training combined with counseling on the self-concept of in body image due to sensory-motor training. American Jour-
college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1979, nal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, 708.
26, 427-436. Marley, W. P. Asthma and exercise: A review. American Cor-
Hollandsworth, J. G., Jr. Some thoughts on distance running as rective Therapy Journal, 1977, 31, 95-102.
training in biofeedback. Journal of Sport Behavior, 1979, 2, Martic, M. Results of psychological testing of coronarypaths in
71-82. a longitudinal study of the follow-up effects of training. In
Hubbell, J. W. Specific and non-specific exercises for relief of U. Stocksmeier (Ed.), Psychological approach to the reha-
dysmenorrhea. Research Quarterly, 1949, 20, 378-386. bilitation of coronary patients. New York: Springer, 1976.
Hussey, C., Maurer, J. F., & Schofield, L. J. Physical education Martinek, T. J., Cheffers, J. T., & Zaichkowsky, L. D. Physical
training for adult retardates in a sheltered workshop setting. activity, motor development and self-concept: Race and age
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1976, 32, 701-705. differences. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1978, 46, 147-154.
Ismail, A. H. The effect of a well-organized physical education Mauser, H., & Reynolds, R. P. Effects of a developmental phys-
programme on intellectual performance. Research in Phys- ical activity program on children's body coordination and
ical Education, 1967, 1, 31-38. self-concept. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1977, 44, 1057-
Ismail, A. H. Integrated development. In J. E. Kane (Ed.), Psy- 1058.
chological aspects of physical education and sport. London: Mayo, F. M. The effects of aerobics conditioning exercises on
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972. selected personality characteristics of seventh- and eighth-
Ismail, A. H., & Trachtman, L. E. Jogging the imagination. grade girls (Doctoral dissertation, North Texas State Univer-
Psychology Today, March 1973, pp. 79-82. sity, 1974). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1975, 35,
Ismail, A. H., & Young, R. J. The effect of chronic exercise on 4163A. (University Microfilms No. 75-00890)
the personality of middle-aged men by univariate and mul- McGowan, R. W., Jarrnan, B. O., & Pedersen, D. M. Effects
tivariate approaches. Journal of Human Ergology, 1973, 2, of a competitive endurance training program on self-concept
47-57. and peer approval. Journal of Psychology, 1974, 86, 57-60.
Ismail, A. H., & Young, R. J. Effect of chronic exercise on the McPherson, B, D., Paivio, A., Yuhasz, M. S., Rechnitzer, P. A.,
-personality of adults. Annals of the New York Academy of Pickard, H. A., & Lefcoe, N. B. Psychological effects of an
Sciences, 1977, 301, 958-969. exercise program for postinfarct and normal adult men. Jour-
Johnson, W. R., & Fretz, B. R. Changes in perceptual-motor nal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 1967, 7, 95-
skills after a children's physical development program. Per- 102.
ceptual and Motor Skills, 1967, 24, 610. Michael, E. D., Jr. Stress adaptation through exercise. Research
Karbe, W. W. The relationship of general anxiety and specific Quarterly, 1957, 28, 50-54.
anxiety concerning the learning of swimming (Doctoral dis- Morgan, W. P. Exercise and mental disorder. In A. J. Ryan
sertation, New York University, 1966). Dissertation Ab- & F. L. Allman, Jr. (Eds.), Sports medicine. New York: Ac-
stracts, 1966, 28, 3489A. (University Microfilms No. 66- ademic Press, 1974.
09459) Morgan, W. P. Anxiety reduction following acute physical ac-
Kavanagh, T., Shephard, R. J., Tuck, J. A., & Qureshi, S. Depres- tivity. Psychiatric Annals, 1979, 9, 141-147.
sion following myocardial infarction: The effect of distance Morgan, W. P., & Horstman, O. H. Anxiety reduction following
running. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1977, acute physical activity. Medicine and Science in Sports, 1976,
301, 1029-1038. 8, 62. (Abstract)
Kowal, D. M., Patton, J. F., & Vogel, J. A. Psychological states Morgan, W. P., Roberts, J. A., Brand, F. R., & Feinerman,
and aerobic fitness of male and female recruits before and A. D. Psychological effect of chronic physical activity. Med-
after basic training. Aviation, Space and Environmental icine and Science in Sports, 1970, 2, 213-217.
Medicine, 1978, 49, 603-606. Morris, A. F., & Husman, B. F. Life quality changes following
Kramer, R., & Bauer, R. Behavioral effects of hydrogymnastics. an endurance conditioning program. American Corrective
Journal of the Association of Physical and Mental Reha- Therapy Journal, 1978, 32, 3-6.
bilitation, 1955, 9, 10-12, Morrison, D., & Pothier, P. Effects of sensory-motor training
Layman, E. M, The contribution of play and sports to emotional on the lariguage development of retarded preschoolers.
health. In J. E. Kane (Ed,), Psijchological aspects of physical American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1978, 48, 310-319.
education and sport. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972. Muller, B., & Armstrong, H. E. A further note on the "running

388 « APRIL 1981 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST

treatment" for anxiety. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research Sime, W. E. A comparison of exercise and meditation in re-
and Practice, 1975, 12, 385-387. ducing psychological response to stress. Medicine and Science
Murphy, J. B., Bennett, R. N., Hagen, J. M, & Russell, M. W. in Sports, 1977, 0, 55. (Abstract)
Some suggestive data regarding the relationship of physical Smith, W. C., & Figetakis, N. Some effects of isometric exercise
fitness to emotional difficulties. Newsletter for Research in on muscular strength, body-image perception and psychiatric
Psychology, 1972, 14, 15-17. symptomatology in chronic schizophrenics. American Cor-
Naughton, J. Rehabilitation for patients after myocardial in- rective Therapy Journal, 1970, 24, 100-104.
farction. Southern Medical Bulletin, 1967, 55, 29. Snyder, E. E., & Spreitzer, E, A. Involvement in sports and
Naughton, J., Bruhn, J. G., & Lategola, M. T. Effects of physical psychological well-being. International Journal of Sport Psy-
training on physiologic and behavioral characteristics of car- chology, 1974, 5, 28-39.
diac patients. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabili- Solomon, E. G., & Bumpus, A. K. The running meditation re-
tation, 1968, 49, 131-137. sponse: An adjunct to psychotherapy. American Journal of
Nunley, R. L. A physical fitness program. Journal of the Psychotherapy, 1978, 32, 583-392.
American Physical Therapy Association, 1965, 45, 946-954. Stamford, B. A., Hambacher, W., & Fallica, A. Effects of daily
O'Conner, C. Effects of selected physical activities upon motor physical exercise on the psychiatric state of institutional ge-
performance, perceptual performance and academic achieve- riatric mental patients. Research Quarterly, 1974, 45, 34-41,
ment of first graders. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1969, 29, Stein, L., & Belluzzi, J. D. Brain endorphine and the sense of
703-709. well-being: A psychobiological hypothesis. Advances in Bio-
Oliver, J. N. The effects of physical conditioning exercises and chemical Psychopharmacology, 1978, 18, 299-311.
activities on the mental characteristics of educationally sub- Stevenson, C. L. Socialization effects of participation in sport:
normal boys. British Journal of Educational Psychiatry, A critical review of the research. Research Quarterly, 1975,
1958, 28, 155-165. 46, 287-301.
Orwin, A. 'The running treatment': A preliminary communi- Tillrnan, K. Relationship between physical fitness and selected
cation on a new use for an old therapy (physical activity) in personality traits. Research Quarterly, 1965, 36, 483-489.
the agoraphobic syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, Timmerman, J. Effectiveness of hydrogymnastic 1 therapy in
1973, 122, 175-179. treating the acutely disturbed psychotic. Journal of the As-
Orwin, A. Treatment of a situational phobia—A case for run- sociation of Physical and Mental Rehabilitation, 1954, 8,
ning. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1974, 125, 95-98. 192-194.
Piaget, J. The origins of intelligence in children. New York: Walker, J. M., Floyd, T. C., Fein, G., Cavness, C., Lualhati, R.,
New York University Press, 1936. & Feinberg, I. Effects of exercise on sleep. Journal of Applied
Popejoy, D. I. The effects of a physical fitness program on Physiology, 1978, 44, 945-951.
selected psychological and physiological measures of anxiety Weingarten, G. Mental performance during physical exertion:
(Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, 1967). Disser- The benefit of being physically fit. International Journal of
tation Abstracts, 1968,29, 4900A. (University Microfilms No. Sport Psychology, 1973, 4, 16-26.
68-08196)
Werner, A. C., & Gottheil, E. Personality development and
Powell, R. R. Psychological effects of exercise therapy upon participation in college athletics. Research Quarterly, 1966,
institutionalized geriatric mental patients. Journal of Ger- 37, 126-131.
ontology, 1974, 29, 157-161.
Powell, R. R. Effects of exercise on mental functioning. Journal Wood, D. T. The relationship between state anxiety and acute
of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 1975, 15, 125-131. physical activity. American Corrective Therapy Journal,
1977, 31, 67-69.
Schwartz, G. E., Davidson, R. J., & Golennan, D. J. Patterning
of cognitive and somatic processes in the self-regulation of Wright, L. Conceptualizing and defining psychosomatic dis-
anxiety: Effects of meditation versus exercise. Psychosomatic orders. American Psychologist, 1977, 32, 625-628.
Medicine, 1978, 40, 321-328. Young, R. J. The effect of regular exercise on cognitive func-
Scott, M. G. The contributions of physical activity to psycho- tioning and personality. British Journal of Sports Medicine,
logical development. Research Quarterly, 1960, 31, 307-320.' 1979, 13, 110-M7.
Selby, J. W,, & Calhoun, L. G. Psychosomatic phenomena: An Young, R. J., & Ismail, A. H. Personality differences of adult
extension of Wright. American Psychologist, 1978, 33, 396- men before and after a physical fitness program. Research
397. (Comment) Quarterly, 1976, 47, 513-519.
Selye, H. Stress and physical activity. McGill Journal of Ed- Zion, L. C. Body concept as it relates to self-concept. Research
ucation, 1976, 11, 3-14. Quarterly, 1965, 36, 490-495.

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • APRIL 1981 • 389