LESSON 1: UNDERSTANDING THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Unit 1: Defining Globalization

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this unit students must be able to:

1. Understand and apply the sociological imagination

2. Understand the Interdisciplinary Approach
3. Demonstrate critical thinking in comprehending contemporary event in light of the
globalizing economic, social, political and cultural processes.

Sections of the Unit:

1. The Sociological Imagination

2. Defining Globalization
3. Nation-State, Nation, Nationalism

Sociological Imagination

Why should we care?

Why is it important to know the
different global processes that
influence our society? Because,
as C Wright Mills argues, we
must understand our problems in
light of the greater context of
social structures. By doing this,
we can cure the parochial outlook
to one's immediate community. A
person who only looks at his
community's problems without
looking at the wider context of
society is parochial. Also, one
who looks at his country's
problems without analyzing the
larger global context is close-
minded. This course aims to stretch the limits of your imagination. To get under the hood and
examine the intricate mechanisms of the different global structures working hand in hand to
maintain social equilibrium. As I have before, one of the purposes of this course is to broaden
your imagination to understand the relationship between different structures of the
contemporary world that produce our social realities. It is then critical for us to understand what I
mean by using the word imagination to achieve this level of understanding. Before further
discussing its implication I would like to invite you to first read C Wright Mills' (1916-1962) first
chapter in his book, "sociological imagination."

As C Wright Mills (1916-1962) discussed, sociological imagination is the ability to see

the social patterns that influence individuals, families, groups, and organizations. It is the
individual’s awareness of the relationship between the individual and the wider society, both
today and in the past. By exercising it, we make connections to the root cause of structures and
move away from seeing things through the personal lens. By using it we will be able to
understand and explain how some of our problems are caused by underlying structural
obstacles caused by certain social issues. As C Wright Mills explains (1916-1962), neither the
life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both,”
For example, when When a person a single person is without employment in a nation whose
population is close to a hundred million, the problems in employment remains a personal
problem. He may just not seem to have the desire to put himself to work or whatever personal
reasons that may hinder him to find a job. If however, thousands are without jobs in a nation of
a hundred million, then there may be a larger barrier that must be addressed. It may be the
issue of job mismatched where many students graduate with credible degrees but remain
jobless due to the inadequacy of finding the jobs that fit their particular skills within the country.
My point in this matter is that when people share a common problem, a common experience of
difficulty there may be an underlying social issue that must be addressed. Since these issues
are outside of the personal sphere of a person it calls into action a collective or a community to
address it by its roots When personal problems are collectively shared it may be the expression
of larger social issues that must be addressed.

Let us try to illustrate this by mapping out the cause of certain personal problems

experienced by students daily to its structural cause.

Given the provisions from the Polytechnic University of the Philippines’ student manual,
illness excused by a medical certificate as well as absences authorized in writing by the
University, are the only grounds for excusing tardiness or absence. Given the urban
circumstances of massive traffic and frequent public transport malfunctions, increasing student’s
travel time it may be appropriate to interpret student tardiness beyond the student’s conduct and
inspect its social cause. Just as we may refer to the graph, student tardiness may usually be
caused by either traffic or public transportation malfunctions. Let us for a minute, try and trace
the web of influence that transcends the student’s personal sphere. Let us then ask, why is
traffic in Metro Manila so congested? One of its sources would likely be the state of the urban
population in the city. Why are there so many people living in Metro Manila? Well, we could
trace three social roots: First, it may be because of the Filipino Families’ lack of basic
knowledge in family planning. One that we could also link to the opposing views of the church
and long-standing Christian values embedded into Filipino families’ traditions, social norms.
Because of the inadequacy of knowledge in this subject, a surge in the population may be
expected. More so, (2) there is also the issue of migration, not from country to country but from
rural to urban. Many Filipinos flock into urban centers with the prospect of finding a sustainable
job to match their standard of living. Why are they migrating? One probable cause is the
unbalanced discourse on development. As traditional livelihoods found in rural areas continue to
become unsustainable and harder some Filipinos decide to settle inside cities to find jobs. Why
is this? As technology advanced people are finding new innovative ways to work and get paid.
These kinds of jobs are usually found in urban centers. This may also be attributed to the in
flock of Transnational Companies who enter the country to provide people with jobs through
either services or manufacturing processes conducted in infrastructures that are usually located
within the city. This exercise merely demonstrates the networked system of relations that exist
within the contemporary world. For a true scholar of society to understand it , he must broaden
his horizon to trace the interlocked webs of relations and understand how his personal problems
are also consequences of larger social issues.

The Approach to this Course: Interdisciplinary

Our study of Globalization and the

Contemporary World must be inherently
interdisciplinary. Using the illustration above
we notice that the conclusions of different
experts are different from each other all
though they are studying the same thing. Why
do you think they differ in conclusions?
Because of their parochial perspective, they
do not consider each part as a member of a
larger whole. With an interdisciplinary
approach, we could paint an accurate picture
of the various globalizing processes. Our study of the process of globalization must then be
inherently interdisciplinary so that we will be able to accurately understand the social, economic,
political, and cultural processes that shape its structures. We will be able to see the whole
elephant as it is and conclude a more accurate diagnosis of current events and the world in
general.
Defining Globalization

Let us first clarify what it is not. As opposed to popular/ activist definition globalization is
not neoliberal globalization or market globalism. Market Globalism or Neoliberal Globalization
specifically conceptualize how neoliberal policies desire to create an international framework for
economies to raise profit by minimizing the cost of investment. Globalization on the other hand,
according to Steger, refers to the expansion and intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world time and world space. Fulcher and Scott (2007) on the other hand,
defined Globalization as a complex of interrelated processes, which have in common the idea
that relationships and organizations have increasingly spread across the world. Globalization is
a process that has destroyed distance in the sense that its processes are no longer limited to
geographic boundaries. Moreover, with the intensified social relations that have linked people
across the globe, men have a greater awareness of the events that are continually happening in
the world.

Attributes of Globalization

1. Various Form of Connectivity

- These are forms of connections that may be economic, political, or cultural. For
example, the Philippines and Vietnam as both members of the ASEAN ( Association
of Southeast Asian Nations) engaging with trade with each other may be considered
as an economic form of connectivity. On the other hand, the friendship or courtship
of Ed and Rose forged within the platforms of social media sites may also be a form
of connectivity that transcend world space and time.
2. Expansion and Stretching of Social Relations

- An example of this is the expanding function of NGO ( non-government

organization) in protecting the rights and dignity of Overseas Filipino Workers abroad
( OFWs). Migrante International, for instance, is a non-government organization
based on the Philippines that seeks to form a global alliance because of its mission
to safeguard the rights and wellbeing of Filipinos who are working abroad.
3. Intensification and Acceleration of Social Exchanges and Activities

- As we have already stated, the intensification of social relations and consciousness

across world time and world space is one of the key components of globalization.
The stated intensification of social relations is largely attributed to the advanced
technologies that are invented to improve human communication. For example, in
the past, it would take two to three days before a message may be received by
another person in the next city due to the slow-paced transportation of mail. With the
discovery of Facebook and many social media sites, communication is instant and
easily accessible from our fingertips. This is an example of how globalization has
restructured our concept of time and space. Usually, due to the slow-paced mailing
system, the further the receiver of the message is the longer it would take to
communicate its content. However, with the invention of the World Wide Web and
various social media platforms, our messages could reach other people, no matter
the distance in mere seconds. Another example would be the screening of live
television. No matter where you are in the world, you could all share the same
experience of watching a Pacquiao fight through our televisions and computers. This
is how globalization reshaped our concept of time and space. We seemingly are
liberated more from its constraints.
4. Occurs Subjectively

- Lastly, Globalization occurs subjectively in the sense that we are more conscious of
the world we are living in. We live in a network where we could trace the various
forms of social connectivity that shape our perception of the world and at the same
time influence our actions within it. For example, we now think about the world; we
voice out our opinions and our position in social issues that do not necessarily
involve us. We are affected by campaigns such as the #BlackLivesMatters that
happened in the United States to end police brutality against African Americans. We
grieve and pray for the Australians who lost their homes in the forest fires that
torched their houses. We do our part to alleviate climate change because we
become more conscious that there are also problems without passports that demand
our collective actions.

Nation-State, Nations, and Nationalism

With the intensified social relations reaching across the globe, it is expected that there
has been an increasing rate of interdependence between nations from different parts of the
world. Let us first define the Nation-State. It is considered as a political unit that has:

1. A National Citizen (People)

2. A National Territory (Land)
3. A National Administration (Government)

The State

The State is considered to be the main political actor inside the global political and economic
arena. It is based on the objective realities that define a country. Meaning, it is measurable and
quantifiable in the sense that the citizens are numbered, its territories have bounds and the
national government is recognized and defined by the constitution of the land.

The Nation

On the other hand, the concept of nation is based on the idea that a political unit
corresponds to nations. It is somewhat subjectively defined through the people’s sense of
collective or communal identity. It is what Max Weber considers as a “community of sentiment”
with a specific sentiment of solidarity in the face of other groups. Whereas, Benedict Anderson
considers it an “Imagined Community.” He considers it as such because this sense of
community is not necessarily defined by the objective provision of the law or the constitution.

__________________________________________________________________________

ESSAY 1
Instruction: In this section of the module, your general knowledge and understanding of
the subject so far will be tested. Please answer the following questions in a 150-word
essay.

What is Globalization and How does it occur subjectively?

1. Why should we use the interdisciplinary approach in studying Globalization?

2. Why do we need to exercise our sociological imagination to make sense of the
contemporary world?
3. Explain the difference between the State and The Nation.

___________________________________________________________________________

Read:

 Mills, C.W. (1967). The Promise.

 Berger, P.L. (2004). Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective.
 Claudio, L.E., & Abinales, P.N. (2018). Lesson 1 & 2. In The Contemporary World (pp. 2-25).
Quezon City: C & E Publication. (MAIN TEXT)
 Hoogvelt, A. (2001). Globalization. In Globalization and The Post Colonial World: The New
Political Economy of Development. 2nd ed. Houndmills: Palgrave
SECTION 1: UNDERSTANDING THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

UNIT 2: Understanding Global Inequalities

Introduction:

What is global inequality and why does it exist? This section of the course desires to
answer this question in light of the contemporary theories and studies that will be discussed in
class. Specifically, it will examine the source of global inequalities and their effects. The theories
that will be discussed in class will give the students a clear understanding of the structures of
global inequalities and their social, economic, and political consequences.

___________________________________________________________________________

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this unit students must be able to:

4. Understand and apply theories on examining world inequalities

5. Examine contemporary problems in light of the theories discussed in class
6. Demonstrate critical thinking in comprehending contemporary realities in light of global
economic relationships.

Sections of the Unit:

4. The History of Colonialism

5. The Consequence of Colonialism
6. Theories on Global Inequalities

___________________________________________________________________________

The History of Colonialism

According to Francis Moore Lappe and Joseph Collins, the world is only divided into two:
Minority of Nations and Majority of Nations. The Minority of Nations represents the countries
that prioritize agricultural and industrial revolution. Whereas, the majority of nations are the
countries that remain primitive and underdeveloped. This expresses the conditions of global
inequality in the contemporary world. Francis Moore Lappe and Joseph Collin desire to
understand why some nations are not able to feed themselves. They traced its cause to the
history of colonialism. Colonialism according to Moore and Collins destroyed the already and
initially built cultural patterns of production and change. For them, hunger and
underdevelopment must always be thought of as a process. The reason why so many countries
remain to be in poverty and underdeveloped is its history of colonialism. Lappe and Collins
further express the reasons why colonialism destroyed the initial built cultural pattern of
production.

1. Colonial Mind

This is the mentality of the colonizers who colonize other people to be their subjects.
The colonizers see agriculture in the subjugated lands as primitive and backward.
Because of this, their process of colonization is not only justified but they see it as a
necessary process. John Stuart Mill, an English economist, philosopher, and
colonizer-apologist argued that, “ Colonies should not be thought of as civilizations or
countries, but as agricultural establishments whose sole purpose is to supply the
larger community to which it belongs.”

b. Forced Peasant Production

As Walter Rodney recounts in his book, "How Europe Underdeveloped Africa," cash
crops were often grown literally under the threat of guns and whips. The
communities that were colonized by neighboring countries were forced to plant cash
crops instead of food crops. The initial practice of planting food crops was for the
sole purpose of feeding the community; whereas, due to the desire of the colonizing
nation to gain profit through the peasant’s production of crops, they were forced to
plant cash crops. This are the crops that are planted for its market value. They are
planted not on the basis of its ability to feed the populace but rather its price in the
global market. Because of this change the people were no longer dependent to their
own practice of production. More so, the colonial government ensured to continue
this peasant production of cash crops in two ways:

i. Taxation- This was the most preferred colonial technique

to force Africans to grow cash crops. The colonial administration
simply put taxes on cattle land, houses and even to the people
themselves.

ii. Marketing Board- this emerged in the 1930s in Africa. It

was defined as an organization set up by the government to
regulate the buying and selling of a certain commodity such as
coffee, cotton and cocoa. Within a special area. These marketing
boards of Africa were only the institutionalized rendition of what is
the essence of colonialism, which is the extraction of wealth.

c. Plantation- The second approach was direct takeover of the land either by the
colonizing government or by private foreign interests. Some farmers were forced
to work in plantations fields through either enslavement or economic coercion.
d. Suppressing Peasant Farmers - The colonial government formulated a policy of
keeping the price of imported food low through removal of tariffs and subsidies.
Peasants were told that they do not need to grow their own food, for they can
always buy it cheaply through imported goods. However, the cheap food imports

In conclusion, Francis Moore Lappe and Collins answered, why people can’t feed
themselves? It is as they expressed the result of a history of colonialism that has destroyed
the initial pattern of production. Colonialism Forced peasants to replace food crops with
cash crops that were expropriated at very low rates. More so the colonial government, took
over the best agricultural land for export crop plantations and then forced the most able-
bodied workers to leave the village fields to work as slaves or for very low wages on
plantations. Policies that were also implemented encouraged a dependence on imported
food; and blocked native peasant cash crop. Cash produced by settlers or foreign firms

The Consequence of Colonialism

Colonialism as expressed to be a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation

of one people to another remains in contemporary forms as many scholars would argue. It is
usually called as Neocolonialism. Neocolonialism is an indirect form of control through
economic or cultural dependence. Continued control of former colonies through ruling native
elites compliant with neocolonial powers, populations that are exploited for their labor and
resources in order to feed an insatiable appetite. Neocolonialism is defined as the continuing
active control exercised by the past colonizer government to control the affairs of the newly
independent state. It perpetuates a system where great powers (usually the past colonizer
countries) maintain their exploitative relationship with past colonies. This covert and indirect
form of control creates a system of dependency. The metropolitan centers in seeking to be
even more developed, “underdevelop” the peripheries through trade exploitation. The
peripheral countries ( usually bearing the mark of colonial history) is extremely vulnerable to
fluctuations in price and demand. The products they market usually have a higher ratio of
competition. It is because many other neighboring countries produce the same products.
According to Harold Nyikal in his article- “ Neocolonialism in Africa: The Economic Crisis in
Africa and the Propagation of The Status Quo By the World Bank /IMF and WTO,”
Neocolonialism is colonialism in its modern dress. Western countries masked under the
pretext of economic support for Africa , directly enforced or institutionalized in the World
Bank, the International Monetary Fund ( IMF) and the World Trade Organization ( WTO) .
The policies that are implemented in Africa because of the loan conditionalities with this
institutions chained it to western economies to continue to be dependent upon them. Their
discourse on development prevents self help programs and perpetuate the continuing
relationship of dependence.

Neoliberal Globalization

Neoliberal globalization is the main driving system that continue systems of exploitation.
It is generally marked by three essential characteristics:
1. Economic Liberalization- it is characterized by the flooding of the local market
with imported goods that destroy the local industries and livelihood of the populace.
Because of this, poverty and unemployment increase because locally produced
goods suffer from the unfair competition brought about by the cheaper imports from
the global market. The consequence of economic liberalization may be expressed in
the state of Food Insecurity in the Philippines. Under the WTO Agreement on
Agriculture (AOA) the Philippines is required to allow the progressive importation of
rice ( 1% of domestic consumption in 1995, 2% in 2000 and 4% by 2004). More so,
the unregulated market cause the transnational corporations and richer foreign
nations to control the local market, forcing local production and local entrepreneurs
out of the market.

2. Deregulation – the price of the products sold in the local markets of the peripheral
states are no longer regulated by the government. Many commodities and products
consumed by local consumers are privatized.

3. Privatization- This is the core of IMF/WB’s structural adjustment policies. Trade

liberalization and market deregulation also lead to the privatization of public utility.
This eliminates public subsidies on social services and public sector corporations.
Privatization of state owned water utilities was one of the conditions for loan in the
1995-1997 structural adjustment of IMF. Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage
System was privatized.

4. Labor Export- More so, the exportation of labor force becomes the government’s
strategy to pay debt ad regulate unemployment. In 2000 , Philippines become one of
the most top labor exporter. This had also led to the feminization of migrant labor,
since majority of Filipino women comprise majority of the export labor

5. International Division of Labor – Under the old international division of labor,

underdeveloped areas were incorporated into the world economy principally as
suppliers of mineral and agricultural commodities. As developing economies are
merged into the world economy, more production takes place in these economies.

Theories on Global Inequality

World System Theory

Immanuel Wallerstein argues that nations co-exist in a world economy- a large

geographic zone where there is a division of labor, exchange of basic goods and constant
flow of capital and labor. In this kind of world structure capitalism strives. Capitalism as
Wallerstein simply defines is an economic system based on the private ownership ofthe
means of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism
include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price
system, and competitive markets. The World-Economy and a Capitalist System coexist
because of the international division of labor. A capitalist system cannot exist within any
framework except that of a world-economy. This international division of labor can be
illustrated through these categories:

The World System Theory argues

that there are three kinds of states that would
explain why global inequality exists. Countries
that are classified under the category of core-
exploit other countries for labor and raw
materials. Whereas, countries classified under
the semi-periphery category is a mixture of both.
And the Periphery countries provide the labor
and raw materials to core countries. These
countries usually have a colonial history that
have damaged the structures of their local
economy. In our context for example, America is the core state and the Philippines is the
peripheral state. We export raw materials (i.e. electronic parts) to America, which they, in
turn, process into a product because they are the ones who have capital (i.e. cellphones).
Then sell it back to us. The core countries dominate and exploit the peripheral countries for
labor and raw materials. The peripheral countries are dependent on core countries for
capital. This theory simply emphasizes the social structure of global inequality.

Dependency Theory

The dependency theory explains the economic development of states. The theory was
developed in the 1950s. to explain how both the development and the underdevelopment of
countries are related in the international system. It in itself is a mixture of various theories
that also include Wallerstein’s world system theory. This theory simply answers why there
are countries that are por and some rich. Economically, it argues that neoliberal policies
continue the system of dependence that chain developing countries’ economic status to the
developed countries. This is why developing countries remain poor. They fit in the mold of
the economic hierarchy of the world economy. The core
countries , 1st world countries perpetuate their dominance
through resource bondage. Where instead of the practice
of self help- where developing countries produce goods
and resources for themselves, they are covertly coerced
through the neoliberal policies and loan conditionalities
established by the World Bank, World Trade Organization
and the International Monetary Fund. These countries
continue to be dependent to the core countries since
synonymously the core countries need the infinite supply of
raw material sand cheap labor that these peripheral
countries provide to maintain their economic status.

ESSAY 2

Instruction: In this section of the module, your general knowledge and understanding
of the subject so far will be tested.

· Write a short paper (1,000 words min) that addresses the contemporary condition
of the Philippines by applying both the dependency theory and the world system
theory. By doing so, students must apply the theories discussed in this module to
shed light on the present circumstance of the country’s economy. Students are
advised to use newspaper articles to try and make sense of the Philippine’s
position in the world economy.

Read:

 Andre Gunder (1966). In Robert L. Rhodes (ed.) (1970).Imperialism and underdevelopment: A

reader. New York: Monthly Review Press, pp. 4-17.
 Claudio, L.E., & Abinales, P.N. (2018). Lesson 3. In The Contemporary World (pp. 26-38). Quezon
City: C & E Publication. (MAIN TEXT)
 Hoogvelt, A. (2001). Neocolonialism, modernization, and dependency. In Globalization and The
Post Colonial World: The New Political Economy of Development. 2nd ed. Houndmills: Palgrave