Topic: traffic

Traffic comprises pedestrians, vehicles, ridden or herded animals, trains, and other conveyances
that use public ways (roads) for travel and transportation.

Traffic laws govern and regulate traffic, while rules of the road include traffic laws and informal
rules that may have developed over time to facilitate the orderly and timely flow of traffic.
Organized traffic generally has well-established priorities, lanes, right-of-way, and traffic control
at intersections.

Traffic is formally organized in many jurisdictions, with marked lanes, junctions, intersections,
interchanges, traffic signals, or signs. Traffic is often classified by type: heavy motor vehicle
(e.g., car, truck), other vehicle (e.g., moped, bicycle), and pedestrian. Different classes may share
speed limits and easement, or may be segregated. Some jurisdictions may have very detailed and
complex rules of the road while others rely more on drivers' common sense and willingness to
cooperate.

Organization typically produces a better combination of travel safety and efficiency. Events
which disrupt the flow and may cause traffic to degenerate into a disorganized mess include road
construction, collisions, and debris in the roadway. On particularly busy freeways, a minor
disruption may persist in a phenomenon known as traffic waves. A complete breakdown of
organization may result in traffic congestion and gridlock. Simulations of organized traffic
frequently involve queuing theory, stochastic processes and equations of mathematical physics
applied to traffic flow.

Etymology and types

The word traffic originally meant "trade" (as it still does) and comes from the Old Italian verb
trafficare and noun traffico. The origin of the Italian words is unclear. Suggestions include
Catalan trafegar "decant", an assumed Vulgar Latin verb transfricare 'rub across', an assumed
Vulgar Latin combination of trans- and facere 'make or do', Arabic tafriq 'distribution', and
Arabic taraffaqa, which can mean 'seek profit'. Broadly, the term covers many kinds of traffic
including network traffic, air traffic, marine traffic and rail traffic, but it is often used narrowly to
mean only road traffic.

Rules of the road

Rules of the road and driving etiquette are the general practices and procedures that road users
are required to follow. These rules usually apply to all road users, though they are of special
importance to motorists and cyclists. These rules govern interactions between vehicles and with
pedestrians. The basic traffic rules are defined by an international treaty under the authority of
the United Nations, the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. Not all countries are signatory
to the convention and, even among signatories, local variations in practice may be found. There
are also unwritten local rules of the road, which are generally understood by local drivers.
As a general rule, drivers are expected to avoid a collision with another vehicle and pedestrians,
regardless of whether or not the applicable rules of the road allow them to be where they happen
to be.In addition to the rules applicable by default, traffic signs and traffic lights must be obeyed,
and instructions may be given by a police officer, either routinely (on a busy crossing instead of
traffic lights) or as road traffic control around a construction zone, accident, or other road
disruption.

These rules should be distinguished from the mechanical procedures required to operate a
vehicle; see Driving.

Closely related articles:

Rules of the Road (Ireland)

Rules of the road in China

Directionality

Traffic heading in inverse ways ought to be isolated so as to not hinder each other's way. The
most essential guideline is whether to utilize the left or right half of the street.

Traffic regulations

In many countries, the rules of the road are codified, setting out the legal requirements and
punishments for breaking them.

In the United Kingdom, the rules are set out in the Highway Code, which includes not only
obligations but also advice on how to drive sensibly and safely.

In the United States, traffic laws are regulated by the states and municipalities through their
respective traffic codes. Most of these are based at least in part on the Uniform Vehicle Code,
but there are variations from state to state. In states such as Florida, traffic law and criminal law
are separate; therefore, unless someone flees the scene of an accident or commits vehicular
homicide or manslaughter, they are only guilty of a minor traffic offense. However, states such
as South Carolina have completely criminalized their traffic law, so, for example, one is guilty of
a misdemeanor simply for travelling 5 miles over the speed limit.

Organized traffic
Priority (right of way)

Vehicles often come into conflict with other vehicles and pedestrians because their intended
courses of travel intersect, and thus interfere with each other's routes. The general principle that
establishes who has the right to go first is called "right of way", or "priority". It establishes who
has the right to use the conflicting part of the road and who has to wait until the other does so.
Signs, signals, markings and other features are often used to make priority explicit. Some signs,
such as the stop sign, are nearly universal. When there are no signs or markings, different rules
are observed depending on the location. These default priority rules differ between countries, and
may even vary within countries. Trends toward uniformity are exemplified at an international
level by the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, which prescribes standardized traffic
control devices (signs, signals, and markings) for establishing the right of way where necessary.

Crosswalks (or pedestrian crossings) are common in populated areas, and may indicate that
pedestrians have priority over vehicular traffic. In most modern cities, the traffic signal is used to
establish the right of way on the busy roads. Its primary purpose is to give each road a duration
of time in which its traffic may use the intersection in an organized way. The intervals of time
assigned for each road may be adjusted to take into account factors such as difference in volume
of traffic, the needs of pedestrians, or other traffic signals. Pedestrian crossings may be located
near other traffic control devices; if they are not also regulated in some way, vehicles must give
priority to them when in use. Traffic on a public road usually has priority over other traffic such
as traffic emerging from private access; rail crossings and drawbridges are typical exceptions.

Uncontrolled traffic

Uncontrolled traffic comes in the absence of lane markings and traffic control signals. On roads
without marked lanes, drivers tend to keep to the appropriate side if the road is wide enough.
Drivers frequently overtake others. Obstructions are

common.

Intersections have no signals or signage, and a particular road at a busy intersection may be
dominant – that is, its traffic flows – until a break in traffic, at which time the dominance shifts
to the other road where vehicles are queued. At the intersection of two perpendicular roads, a
traffic jam may result if four vehicles face each other side-on.

Turning

Drivers often seek to turn onto another road or onto private property. The vehicle's blinking turn
signals (commonly known as "blinkers" or "indicators") are often used as a way to announce
one's intention to turn, thus alerting other drivers. The actual usage of directional signals varies
greatly amongst countries, although its purpose is to indicate a driver's intention to depart from
the current (and natural) flow of traffic well before the departure is executed (typically 3 seconds
as a guideline).

This will usually mean that turning traffic must stop and wait for a breach to turn, and this might
cause inconvenience for drivers that follow them but do not want to turn. This is why dedicated
lanes and protected traffic signals for turning are sometimes provided. On busier intersections
where a protected lane would be ineffective or cannot be built, turning may be entirely
prohibited, and drivers will be required to "drive around the block" in order to accomplish the
turn. Many cities employ this tactic quite often; in San Francisco, due to its common practice,
making three right turns is known colloquially as a "San Francisco left turn". Likewise, as many
intersections in Taipei City are too busy to allow direct left turns, signs often direct drivers to
drive around the block to turn.

Turning rules are by no means universal. For example, in New Zealand (a drive-on-the-left
country) between 1977 and 2012, left turning traffic had to give way to opposing right-turning
traffic wishing to take the same road (unless there were multiple lanes, but then one must take
care in case a vehicle jumped lanes). New Zealand abolished this particular rule on 25 March
2012, except at roundabouts or when denoted by a Give Way or Stop sign. Although the rule
caused initial driver confusion, and many intersections required or still require modification, the
change is predicted to eventually prevent one death and 13 serious injuries annually.

On roads with multiple lanes, turning traffic is generally expected to move to the lane closest to
the direction they wish to turn. For example, traffic intending to turn right will usually move to
the rightmost lane before the intersection. Likewise, left-turning traffic will move to the leftmost
lane. Exceptions to this rule may exist where for example the traffic authority decides that the
two rightmost lanes will be for turning right, in which case drivers may take whichever of them
to turn. Traffic may adapt to informal patterns that rise naturally rather than by force of authority.
For example, it is common for drivers to observe (and trust) the turn signals used by other drivers
in order to make turns from other lanes. If several vehicles on the right lane are all turning right,
a vehicle may come from the next-to-right lane and turn right as well, in parallel with the other
right-turning vehicles.

Intersections

In most of Continental Europe, the default rule is to give priority to the right, but this may be
overridden by signs or road markings. There, priority was initially given according to the social
rank of each traveler, but early in the life of the automobile this rule was deemed impractical and
replaced with the priorité à droite (priority to the right) rule, which still applies. At a traffic circle
where priorité à droite is not overridden, traffic on what would otherwise be a roundabout gives
way to traffic entering the circle. Most French roundabouts now have give-way signs for traffic
entering the circle, but there remain some notable exceptions that operate on the old rule, such as
the Place de l'Étoile around the Arc de Triomphe. Priority to the right where used in continental
Europe may be overridden by an ascending hierarchy of markings, signs, signals, and authorized
persons.

In the United Kingdom, priority is generally indicated by signs or markings, so that almost all
junctions between public roads (except those governed by traffic signals) have a concept of a
major road and minor road. The default give-way-to-the-right rule used in Continental Europe
causes problems for many British and Irish drivers who are accustomed to having right of way
by default unless otherwise indicated. A very small proportion of low-traffic junctions are
unmarked – typically on housing estates or in rural areas. Here the rule is to "proceed with great
care" i.e. slow the vehicle and check for traffic on the intersecting road.

Other countries use various methods similar to the above examples to establish the right of way
at intersections. For example, in most of the United States, the default priority is to yield to
traffic from the right, but this is usually overridden by traffic control devices or other rules, like
the boulevard rule. This rule holds that traffic entering a major road from a smaller road or alley
must yield to the traffic of the busier road, but signs are often still posted. The boulevard rule can
be compared with the above concept of a major and minor road, or the priority roads that may be
found in countries that are parties to the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals.

Perpendicular intersections

Also known as a "four-way" intersection, this intersection is the most common configuration for
roads that cross each other, and the most basic type.

If traffic signals do not control a four-way intersection, signs or other features are typically used
to control movements and make clear priorities. The most common arrangement is to indicate
that one road has priority over the other, but there are complex cases where all traffic
approaching an intersection must yield and may be required to stop.

In the United States, South Africa, and Canada, there are four-way intersections with a stop sign
at every entrance, called four-way stops. A failed signal or a flashing red light is equivalent to a
four-way stop, or an all-way stop. Special rules for four-way stops may include:

In the countries that use four-way stops, pedestrians always have priority at crosswalks – even at
unmarked ones, which exist as the logical continuations of the sidewalks at every intersection
with approximately right angles – unless signed or painted otherwise.

Whichever vehicle first stops at the stop line – or before the crosswalk, if there is no stop line –
has priority.

If two vehicles stop at the same time, priority is given to the vehicle on the right.

If several vehicles arrive at the same time, a right-of-way conflict may arise wherein no driver
has the legal right-of-way. This may result in drivers informally signaling to other drivers to
indicate their intent to yield, for example by waving or flashing headlights.In Europe and other
places, there are similar intersections. These may be marked by special signs (according to the
Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals), a danger sign with a black X representing a
crossroads. This sign informs drivers that the intersection is uncontrolled and that default rules
apply. In Europe and in many areas of North America the default rules that apply at uncontrolled
four-way intersections are almost identical:

Rules for pedestrians differ by country, in the United States and Canada pedestrians generally
have priority at such an intersection.

All vehicles must give priority to any traffic approaching from their right,

Then, if the vehicle is turning right or continuing on the same road it may proceed.

Vehicles turning left must also give priority to traffic approaching from the opposite direction,
unless that traffic is also turning left.
If the intersection is congested, vehicles must alternate directions and/or circulate priority to the
right one vehicle at a time.

Protected intersection for bicycles

A number of features make this protected intersection. A corner refuge island, a setback crossing
of the pedestrians and cyclists, generally between 1.5–7 metres of setback, a forward stop bar,
which allows cyclists to stop for a traffic light well ahead of motor traffic who must stop behind
the crosswalk. Separate signal staging or at least an advance green for cyclists and pedestrians is
used to give cyclists and pedestrians no conflicts or a head start over traffic. The design makes a
right turn on red, and sometimes left on red depending on the geometry of the intersection in
question, possible in many cases, often without stopping.This type of intersection is common in
the bicycle-friendly Netherlands.

Pedestrian crossings

Pedestrians must often cross from one side of a road to the other, and in doing so may come into
the way of vehicles traveling on the road. In many places pedestrians are entirely left to look
after themselves, that is, they must observe the road and cross when they can see that no traffic
will threaten them. Busier cities usually provide pedestrian crossings, which are strips of the road
where pedestrians are expected to cross.

The actual appearance of pedestrian crossings varies greatly, but the two most common
appearances are: (1) a series of lateral white stripes or (2) two longitudinal white lines. The
former is usually preferred, as it stands out more conspicuously against the dark pavement.

Some pedestrian crossings accompany a traffic signal to make vehicles stop at regular intervals
so pedestrians can cross. Some countries have "intelligent" pedestrian signals, where the
pedestrian must push a button in order to assert his intention to cross. In some countries,
approaching traffic is monitored by radar or by electromagnetic sensors buried in the road
surface, and the pedestrian crossing lights are set to red if a speed infringement is detected. This
has the effect of enforcing the local speed limit. See Speed Limits below.

Pedestrian crossings without traffic signals are also common. In this case, the traffic laws usually
states that the pedestrian has the right of way when crossing, and that vehicles must stop when a
pedestrian uses the crossing. Countries and driving cultures vary greatly as to the extent to which
this is respected. In the state of Nevada the car has the right of way when the crosswalk signal
specifically forbids pedestrian crossing.

Some jurisdictions forbid crossing or using the road anywhere other than at crossings, termed
jaywalking. In other areas, pedestrians may have the right to cross where they choose, and have
right of way over vehicular traffic while crossing.

In most areas, an intersection is considered to have a crosswalk, even if not painted, as long as
the roads meet at approximate right angles. The United Kingdom and Croatia are among the
exceptions.
Pedestrian crossings may also be located away from intersections.

Level crossings

A level crossing is an at-grade intersection of a railway by a road. Because of safety issues, they
are often equipped with closable gates, crossing bells and warning signs.

Speed limits

The higher the speed of a vehicle, the more difficult collision avoidance becomes and the greater
the damage if a collision does occur. Therefore, many countries of the world limit the maximum
speed allowed on their roads. Vehicles are not supposed to be driven at speeds which are higher
than the posted maximum.

To enforce speed limits, two approaches are generally employed. In the United States, it is
common for the police to patrol the streets and use special equipment (typically a radar unit) to
measure the speed of vehicles, and pull over any vehicle found to be in violation of the speed
limit. In Brazil, Colombia and some European countries, there are computerized speed-
measuring devices spread throughout the city, which will automatically detect speeding drivers
and take a photograph of the license plate (or number plate), which is later used for applying and
mailing the ticket. Many jurisdictions in the U.S. use this technology as well.

A mechanism that was developed in Germany is the Grüne Welle, or green wave, which is an
indicator that shows the optimal speed to travel for the synchronized green lights along that
corridor. Driving faster or slower than the speed set by the behavior of the lights causes the
driver to encounter many red lights. This discourages drivers from speeding or impeding the
flow of traffic. See related traffic wave and Pedestrian Crossings, above.

Overtaking

Overtaking (or passing) refers to a maneuver by which one or more vehicles traveling in the
same direction are passed by another vehicle. On two-lane roads, when there is a split line or a
dashed line on the side of the overtaker, drivers may overtake when it is safe. On multi-lane
roads in most jurisdictions, overtaking is permitted in the "slower" lanes, though many require a
special circumstance. See "Lanes" below.

In the United Kingdom and Canada, notably on extra-urban roads, a solid white or yellow line
closer to the driver is used to indicate that no overtaking is allowed in that lane. A double white
or yellow line means that neither side may overtake.

In the United States, a solid white line means that lane changes are discouraged and a double
white line means that the lane change is prohibited.

Lanes
When a street is wide enough to accommodate several vehicles traveling side-by-side, it is usual
for traffic to organize itself into lanes, that is, parallel corridors of traffic. Some roads have one
lane for each direction of travel and others have multiple lanes for each direction. Most countries
apply pavement markings to clearly indicate the limits of each lane and the direction of travel
that it must be used for. In other countries lanes have no markings at all and drivers follow them
mostly by intuition rather than visual stimulus.

On roads that have multiple lanes going in the same direction, drivers may usually shift amongst
lanes as they please, but they must do so in a way that does not cause inconvenience to other
drivers. Driving cultures vary greatly on the issue of "lane ownership": in some countries, drivers
traveling in a lane will be very protective of their right to travel in it while in others drivers will
routinely expect other drivers to shift back and forth.

Designation and overtaking

The usual designation for lanes on divided highways is the fastest lane is the one closest to the
center of the road, and the slowest to the edge of the road. Drivers are usually expected to keep
in the slowest lane unless overtaking, though with more traffic congestion all lanes are often
used.

When driving on the left:

The lane designated for faster traffic is on the right.

The lane designated for slower traffic is on the left.

Most freeway exits are on the left.

Overtaking is permitted to the right, and sometimes to the left.When driving on the right:

The lane designated for faster traffic is on the left.

The lane designated for slower traffic is on the right.

Most freeway exits are on the right.

Overtaking is permitted to the left, and sometimes to the right.Countries party to the Vienna
Convention on Road Traffic have uniform rules about overtaking and lane designation. The
convention details (amongst other things) that "Every driver shall keep to the edge of the
carriageway appropriate to the direction of traffic", and the "Drivers overtaking shall do so on
the side opposite to that appropriate to the direction of traffic", notwithstanding the presence or
absence of oncoming traffic. Allowed exceptions to these rules include turning or heavy traffic,
traffic in lines, or situation in which signs or markings must dictate otherwise. These rules must
be more strictly adhered to on roads with oncoming traffic, but still apply on multi-lane and
divided highways. Many countries in Europe are party to the Vienna Conventions on traffic and
roads. In Australia (which is not a contracting party), traveling in any lane other than the "slow"
lane on a road with a speed limit at or above 80 km/h (50 mph) is an offence, unless signage is
posted to the contrary or the driver is overtaking.

Many areas in North America do not have any laws about staying to the slowest lanes unless
overtaking. In those areas, unlike many parts of Europe, traffic is allowed to overtake on any
side, even in a slower lane. This practice is known as "passing on the right" in the United States
and "overtaking on the inside" and "undertaking" in the United Kingdom.

When referring to individual lanes on dual carriageways, one does not consider traffic travelling
the opposite direction. The inside lane (in the British English sense, i.e. the lane beside the hard
shoulder) refers to the lane used for normal travel, while the middle lane is used for overtaking
cars on the inside lane. The outside lane (i.e. closest to oncoming traffic) is used for overtaking
vehicles in the middle lane. The same principle lies with dual carriageways with more than three
lanes.

U.S.-state-specific practices

In some US states (such as Louisiana, Massachusetts and New York), although there are laws
requiring all traffic on a public way to use the right-most lane unless overtaking, this rule is often
ignored and seldom enforced on multi-lane roadways. Some states, such as Colorado, use a
combination of laws and signs restricting speeds or vehicles on certain lanes to emphasize
overtaking only on the left lane, and to avoid a psychological condition commonly called road
rage.

In California, cars may use any lane on multi-lane roadways. Drivers moving slower than the
general flow of traffic are required to stay in the right-most lanes (by California Vehicle Code
(CVC) 21654) to keep the way clear for faster vehicles and thus speed up traffic. However, faster
drivers may legally pass in the slower lanes if conditions allow (by CVC 21754). But the CVC
also requires trucks to stay in the right lane, or in the right two lanes if the roadway has four or
more lanes going in their direction. The oldest freeways in California, and some freeway
interchanges, often have ramps on the left, making signs like "TRUCKS OK ON LEFT LANE"
or "TRUCKS MAY USE ALL LANES" necessary to override the default rule. Lane splitting, or
riding motorcycles in the space between cars in traffic, is permitted as long as it is done in a safe
and prudent manner.

One-way roadways

In order to increase traffic capacity and safety, a route may have two or more separate roads for
each direction of traffic. Alternatively, a given road might be declared one-way.

High-speed roads

In large cities, moving from one part of the city to another by means of ordinary streets and
avenues can be time-consuming since traffic is often slowed by at-grade junctions, tight turns,
narrow marked lanes and lack of a minimum speed limit. Therefore, it has become common
practice for larger cities to build roads for faster through traffic. There are two different types of
roads used to provide high-speed access across urban areas:

The controlled-access highway (freeway or motorway) is a divided multi-lane highway with

fully controlled access and grade-separated intersections (no cross traffic). Some freeways are
called expressways, super-highways, or turnpikes, depending on local usage. Access to freeways
is fully controlled; entering and leaving the freeway is permitted only at grade-separated
interchanges.

The limited-access road (often called expressway in areas where the name does not refer to a
freeway or motorway) is a lower-grade type of road with some or many of the characteristics of a
controlled-access highway: usually a broad multi-lane avenue, frequently divided, with some
grade separation at intersections.Motor vehicle drivers wishing to travel over great distances
within the city will usually take the freeways or expressways in order to minimize travel time.
When a crossing road is at the same grade as the freeway, a bridge (or, less often, an underpass)
will be built for the crossing road. If the freeway is elevated, the crossing road will pass
underneath it.

Minimum speed signs are sometimes posted (although increasingly rare) and usually indicate
that any vehicle traveling slower than 40 mph (64 km/h) should indicate a slower speed of travel
to other motor vehicles by engaging the vehicle's four-way flashing lights. Alternative slower-
than-posted speeds may be in effect, based on the posted speed limit of the highway/freeway.

Systems of freeways and expressways are also built to connect distant and regional cities,
notable systems include the Interstate highways, the Autobahnen and the Expressway Network
of the People's Republic of China.

One-way streets

In more sophisticated systems such as large cities, this concept is further extended: some streets
are marked as being one-way, and on those streets all traffic must flow in only one direction.
Pedestrians on the sidewalks are generally not limited to one-way movement. Drivers wishing to
reach a destination they have already passed must return via other streets. One-way streets,
despite the inconveniences to some individual drivers, can greatly improve traffic flow since they
usually allow traffic to move faster and tend to simplify intersections.

Congested traffic
In some places traffic volume is consistently, extremely large, either during periods of time
referred to as rush hour or perpetually. Exceptionally, traffic upstream of a vehicular collision or
an obstruction, such as construction, may also be constrained, resulting in a traffic jam. Such
dynamics in relation to traffic congestion is known as traffic flow. Traffic engineers sometimes
gauge the quality of traffic flow in terms of level of service.

In measured traffic data, common spatiotemporal empirical features of traffic congestion have
been found that are qualitatively the same for different highways in different countries. Some of
these common features distinguish the wide moving jam and synchronized flow phases of
congested traffic in Kerner's three-phase traffic theory.

Rush hour

During business days in most major cities, traffic congestion reaches great intensity at
predictable times of the day due to the large number of vehicles using the road at the same time.
This phenomenon is called rush hour or peak hour, although the period of high traffic intensity
often exceeds one hour. Since the advent of car radios, radio programming during rush hour is
likely to be called drive time.

Congestion mitigation
Rush hour policies

Some cities adopt policies to reduce rush-hour traffic and pollution and encourage the use of
public transportation. For example, in São Paulo, Manila and in Mexico City, each vehicle has a
specific day of the week in which it is forbidden from traveling the roads during rush hour. The
day for each vehicle is taken from the license plate number, and this rule is enforced by traffic
police and also by hundreds of strategically positioned traffic cameras backed by computerized
image-recognition systems that issue tickets to offending drivers.

In the United States and Canada, several expressways have a special lane (called an "HOV Lane"
– High Occupancy Vehicle Lane) that can only be used by cars carrying two (some locations-
three) or more people. Also, many major cities have instituted strict parking prohibitions during
rush hour on major arterial streets leading to and from the central business district. During
designated weekday hours, vehicles parked on these primary routes are subject to prompt
ticketing and towing at owner expense. The purpose of these restrictions is to make available an
additional traffic lane in order to maximize available traffic capacity. Additionally, several cities
offer a public telephone service where citizens can arrange rides with others depending on where
they live and work. The purpose of these policies is to reduce the number of vehicles on the
roads and thus reduce rush-hour traffic intensity.

Metered freeways are also a solution for controlling rush hour traffic. In Phoenix, Arizona and
Seattle, Washington, among other places, metered on-ramps have been implemented. During
rush hour, traffic signals are used with green lights to allow one car per blink of the light to
proceed on to the freeway.

Pre-emption

In some areas, emergency responders are provided with specialized equipment, such as a Mobile
Infrared Transmitter, which allows emergency response vehicles, particularly fire-fighting
apparatus, to have high-priority travel by having the lights along their route change to green. The
technology behind these methods has evolved, from panels at the fire department (which could
trigger and control green lights for certain major corridors) to optical systems (which the
individual fire apparatus can be equipped with to communicate directly with receivers on the
signal head). In certain jurisdictions, public transport buses and government-operated winter
service vehicles are permitted to use this equipment to extend the length of a green light.During
emergencies where evacuation of a heavily populated area is required, local authorities may
institute contraflow lane reversal, in which all lanes of a road lead away from a danger zone
regardless of their original flow. Aside from emergencies, contraflow may also be used to ease
traffic congestion during rush hour or at the end of a sports event (where a large number of cars
are leaving the venue at the same time). For example, the six lanes of the Lincoln Tunnel can be
changed from three inbound and three outbound to a two/four configuration depending on traffic
volume. The Brazilian highways Rodovia dos Imigrantes and Rodovia Anchieta connect São
Paulo to the Atlantic coast. Almost all lanes of both highways are usually reversed during
weekends to allow for heavy seaside traffic. The reversibility of the highways requires many
additional highway ramps and complicated interchanges.

Intelligent transportation systems

An intelligent transportation system (ITS) is a system of hardware, software, and operators-in-

the-loop that allow better monitoring and control of traffic in order to optimize traffic flow. As
the number of vehicle lane miles traveled per year continues to increase dramatically, and as the
number of vehicle lane miles constructed per year has not been keeping pace, this has led to
ever-increasing traffic congestion. As a cost-effective solution toward optimizing traffic, ITS
presents a number of technologies to reduce congestion by monitoring traffic flows through the
use of sensors and live cameras or analysing cellular phone data travelling in cars (floating car
data) and in turn rerouting traffic as needed through the use of variable message boards (VMS),
highway advisory radio, on board or off board navigation devices and other systems through
integration of traffic data with navigation systems. Additionally, the roadway network has been
increasingly fitted with additional communications and control infrastructure to allow traffic
operations personnel to monitor weather conditions, for dispatching maintenance crews to
perform snow or ice removal, as well as intelligent systems such as automated bridge de-icing
systems which help to prevent accidents.

See also
References
Further reading
May, Adolf. Traffic Flow Fundamentals. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1990.

2010 Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. ISBN 0-
309-06681-6,

Taylor, Nicholas. The Contram dynamic traffic assignment model TRL 2003

B. S. Kerner, The Physics of Traffic, Springer, Berlin, New York, 2004

B. S. Kerner, Introduction to Modern Traffic Flow Theory and Control: The Long Road to
Three-Phase Traffic Theory, Springer, Berlin, New York, 2009

Traffic Monitoring: A Guidebook Federal Highway Administration

Vanderbilt, Tom. Traffic: Why We Drive the Way We Do (and What It Says About Us). Knopf,
New York, 2008.

External links
Road Transport in the European Union

Institute of Road Transport Engineers (IRTE)

The Greenroads Rating System

Interactive Map of Traffic for every major UK Road

SCATS Traffic Management Theory Archived 9 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine

Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW

SCATS Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Traffic System