Reflective analysis: Techniques for

facilitating reflection
Jennifer Osmond and Yvonne Darlington

This paper describes a number of techniques for facilitating reflective critical

analysis as a means of eliciting in-depth reflections on practice. The authors have
previously used similar techniques in the research context, to assist practitioners to
identify and analyse the basis of their work with clients. The techniques presented
in this paper have been adapted for use in social work education, including in
class-based and field education contexts, and to professional supervision.

Skolnick 1992; Yelloly & Henkel 1995;

Keywords
Fook 1996, 1999; Gould & Taylor 1996;
knowledge, reflection, techniques.
Nathan 2002). One of the key benefits is
its usefulness in uplifting a practitioner’s
Introduction implicit theories of action (Fook 1996).
Recent directions in social work have
Reflective practice has long been a core
seen reflection enfolded within a critical
aspect of educational and supervisory
discourse, giving emphasis to power
practice in social work. The importance
relations and social structures.
and value of utilising reflection has
‘A critically reflective approach therefore
been discussed by a number of writers
relies upon knowledge which is generated
(Argyris & Schon 1974; Schon 1983; Papell
both empirically and self-reflectively, and in
& Skolnick 1992; Yelloly & Henkel 1995;
a process of interaction, in order to analyse,
Fook 1996, 1999; Gould & Taylor 1996;
resist and change constructed power
Brockbank & McGill 1998). Reflection has
relations, structures and ways of thinking’
been used as a means of establishing and
(Fook 1999; p. 202).
evaluating social work purpose, planning,
One of the most valuable features of
assessment, intervention and evaluation
the critical reflective approach is its ability
processes (Harrison 1987; Papell &
to transcend and engage with difference –
in that different knowledge, ideas,
Jennifer Osmond is Lecturer, School of Human Services speculations, feelings and theories can be
and Centre for Work, Leisure and Community Research ascertained reflectively from a range of
Logan Campus, Meadowbrook Griffith University,
Australia. positions. The approach we are taking in
Email: [email protected] this paper is located within a broad critical
Yvonne Darlington is Senior Lecturer, School of Social approach, focusing on techniques that
Work and Applied Human Sciences, The University of
Queensland, Australia. facilitate dialogue with self and others.
Email: [email protected] We are explicitly concerned with both

Australian Social Work/March 2005, Vol. 58, No. 1 3

cognitive and affective dimensions of participants would make statements
practice. While reflection is highly relevant such as ‘this is really hard ’, ‘I’m finding it
to both macro and micro levels of practice, difficult answering that because I’m not
the techniques we describe are specifically used to thinking about my practice in
relevant for students and practitioners in this way ’, and ‘that’s a hard question,
direct service delivery. never thought about that before ’
The specific techniques described here (Osmond 2001; p. 300).
have been used by the authors in two We have previously reported on the
research studies, as a means of eliciting usefulness of including a reflective
in-depth reflections on practice. These approach to case analysis as part of
studies were Darlington et al. (2002), an professional supervision (Darlington et al.
examination of child protection workers’ 2002). Here we specifically describe
understandings of physical child abuse a range of techniques that could be
and Osmond (2001), an investigation incorporated into supervision. These
of social workers’ use of knowledge in techniques are equally applicable to
practice. Both of these studies were social work education, particularly in
conducted with statutory child protection field placement supervision, and in
workers and used a number of qualitative university-based preparation for field
reflective approaches to elicit and examine placement, to assist students to develop
the knowledge and/or theories guiding critical, reflective practice. We aim to
participants’ professional practice. We provide sufficient detail for supervisors
became interested in the application of to be able to adapt the techniques
these techniques to education and suggested to their own supervisory
professional supervision when listening context.
to research participants’ spontaneous
responses to the methods used. All the
participants, to a greater or lesser extent,
saw the importance and value of reflective
Techniques for facilitating
approaches that helped them to understand
reflection
more comprehensively what knowledge Approaches to facilitating reflective
guided their practice. critical analysis have been discussed
Participants frequently stated that this under different guises. For instance,
level of analysis of their practice was not Scott (1990) covers a number of the
routine, and for some, attention to these techniques reviewed here when identifying
issues was nonexistent. Participating in the methods for acquiring practice wisdom.
research process was seen as a ‘luxury ’, Likewise, some of the techniques have
‘something for me ’, ‘an opportunity to talk been recognised as strategies for
about and think about myself ’, ‘a time to articulating practice or alternatively
think about what I do ’ (Osmond 2001; seen as therapeutic tools (Fook, Ryan &
p. 300). This is not to suggest that Hawkins 2000; Osmond 2001). Our
participants found the questions and intention is to clarify how these different
level of enquiry easy. On many occasions, techniques can be employed in the

4 Australian Social Work/March 2005, Vol. 58, No. 1

supervision and education context, so • Case analysis questions
as to stimulate reflective critical analysis • Exploring differences and presenting
in practitioners and students. contingencies
The discussion commences with • Before-and-after questions and prompts.
questions and prompts that we have found
useful for stimulating reflection. Following
Case analysis questions
this, a number of broader processes or
techniques are described that invite a By case analysis questions we mean
critical, reflective stance. These questions prompts that can assist a practitioner to
and techniques are not prescriptive, and critically reflect on a case. The questions
we welcome suggestions for further provided below were specifically developed
refinement, modification and discussion. for child protection workers. However,
Facilitating reflection in oneself or another these could easily be modified and
should be a flexible process. The danger adapted to different practice contexts
of rigid adherence to any technique is that and situations.
the reflective session may be experienced • Tell me briefly about the case
as an interrogation, rather than a facilitative • Who is involved (generate a
enquiry of practice. genogram)?
• How do you think ‘x’ felt about the
incident/issue/situation?
• How do you think ‘x’ understood or
Reflective questions and explained the incident/issue/situation?
prompts • Where do you think ‘x’ generated their
Fook (1996) and Fook et al. (2000) have ideas or explanations from?
previously detailed a number of different • How do you feel about the specific
questions that can be useful for facilitating incident/issue/situation?
reflection. For example: ‘how does what • How do you understand or explain the
happened in my incident compare with incident/issue/situation?
what I intended to do, or what I assumed I • Where do you think you have
was doing; was the theory I claimed to be generated your ideas and explanations
using, different from what was implied by from?
my actions and interpretations? Did my This set of questions can then be
actions fit my theory?; . . . what needs to repeated for each of the persons
be changed about my assumptions, theory, involved in the case situation, including,
actions, interpretations, skills, as a result for example, the worker, the parents,
of these reflections?’ (Fook et al. 2000; each of the children, or other professionals
p. 233). In continuing with this theme and involved in the case who may have
thereby offering supervisors additional a different construction of what is
choices, we have identified a number happening.
of other questions or prompts that are Key aspects of these questions are first,
effective for facilitating reflective critical attention to both affective and cognitive
analysis, namely: aspects of experience, and second,

Australian Social Work/March 2005, Vol. 58, No. 1 5

specific attention to the feelings and Exploring differences and other
thoughts of all people involved in the contingencies
situation, including, for example, all
members of a family as well as the By ‘difference’ questions we are
worker. This sequence enables a referring to questions that provide
systematic process that considers all alternative contingencies. These
the players and discourages quick questions assist in identifying what
decisions about who or what should factors practitioners may be primarily
be the primary focus. considering in a case. For instance,
Although relatively simple, these participants in Darlington et al.’s
questions are valuable in the supervisory (2002) study were asked how their
context in a number of ways. First, they explanations of abuse would have
assist workers to reflect and articulate their differed if:
current knowledge of a case or situation. • The mother/father was the identified
Second, they facilitate the identification of abuser?
gaps or areas of minimal knowledge. For • The child was younger/older?
example, in Darlington et al.′s (2002) • The family was more/less isolated?
study a number of participants had not • The family lived in a rural community?
considered nor sought the perceptions • The abuse was less ‘serious’?
or interpretations of particular family • Only one/more children in the family
members. This had obvious implications had been abused?
for participants’ assessments and • There had/had not been other forms of
subsequent interventions. Third, they abuse identified?
facilitate the exploration of clients’ and • There had/had not been a previous
workers’ sources or origins of knowledge history of abuse?
and ideas. This proved to be a useful line • If this was a one off/ongoing situation
of enquiry in our research as it stimulated of abuse?
the tracing of participants’ knowledge. These questions are particularly
Workers could see for themselves where useful for: (i) identifying how workers
their ideas had originated. Interestingly, may dominantly see something (that is,
for a number of participants this led to a are there common factors/issues that
critical appraisal of particular ideas or particular workers lean towards when
opinions that were based on personal making assessments?); (ii) assisting
rather than empirical understandings. workers to see other possibilities;
Finally, they provide the opportunity for (iii) eliciting unformulated or speculative
practitioners to reflect and consider the ideas that can be further tested
cognitive and emotive dimension of (knowledge generation); (iv) challenging
their practice. A number of participants workers on firmly held ideas; and (v)
commented that very little opportunity assisting workers to broaden the insights
was given in supervision to consider the gained through detailed analysis of one
emotional reactions that emerged from case to other situations they may be
undertaking statutory work. involved with.

6 Australian Social Work/March 2005, Vol. 58, No. 1

Before and after questions • You said ‘xyz’ – can you tell me about
that?
These types of questions are particularly
• Consider your language, what do you
useful for enquiring into practitioners’
think that suggests?
‘working’ ideas and frames of reference,
The principal advantage of this type of
in the context of social work purpose,
questioning is that it taps into practitioners’
planning, assessment, intervention and
on-the-spot and current understandings.
evaluation. They can be used prior
Particularly if employed just prior to or after
to seeing a client, just after, and in
a practice event, it reduces the limitations
supervision sessions. They are
of retrospective analysis and selective
particularly effective when incorporated
recall. This provides the opportunity to
as part of the think-aloud and reflective
immediately challenge, extend, affirm or
recall processes that are discussed later.
redirect practice behaviour. Once workers
become familiar with using these questions
Before seeing a client
in the supervision context, and convinced
• What are your thoughts before seeing of their utility in their practice, they may
this client? also be encouraged to use the questions
• What are your feelings before seeing themselves, as part of their ongoing
this client? practice reflection and self-evaluation.
• Do you have any plans or purposes for We now examine a number of broader
this interview? processes that can stimulate reflective
critical analysis. Many of the questions
After seeing a client just described are core components of
• What are your thoughts now? these techniques.
• What did you make of that?
• How do you understand this client
situation or issue?
• What does this interview, report, etc.
Pictorial representation
suggest about what was influencing your Gould (1996) with reference to Lakoff
understandings/practice? (1987) identifies how one characteristic
• Were you having any internal thoughts, of human reason is imaginative thought.
feelings or reactions during the interview ‘Thought is imaginative, and it is through
that you did not share with the client? metaphor, metonymy and mental imagery
What were they? that we transcend the limitations of direct
• The idea that you have just experience to enable abstract thought and
expressed, how have you come to creativity’ (Gould 1996; p. 64). Gould
know that? considered this premise in relation to
• What would you have liked to have reflective practice and subsequently
seen happen? argued that a key role for educators,
• When you did ‘x’ what was that about? and we add supervisors, is to assist
(e.g. touched the client, nonverbal practitioners to articulate and appraise
behaviour) personal and professional images that

Australian Social Work/March 2005, Vol. 58, No. 1 7

are embedded with assumptions. ‘The practice ideas and knowing cannot
premise which underlies this argument is always be fully expressed via written
that linguistic and pictorial images are and spoken communication. Given this,
media through which our individual and strategies are required that can assist
collective senses of reality are constructed’ workers to explicitly express their
(Gould 1996; p. 64). implicit or tacit understandings
We have used pictorial representation (Polanyli 1967; Imre 1985; Osmond
exercises to facilitate research participants’ 2001). Although complete translation
reflection on knowledge in practice. and/or conversion is never exhaustive
Specifically, Osmond (2001) requested or complete (Durrance 1998), attempts
participants to draw a picture of how their can be made to faithfully describe,
knowledge was organised and used in express, portray and represent tacit
relation to a specific case. Similarly, understandings in an approximated or
Darlington et al. (2002) asked participants partial form (Molander 1992). Therefore,
to visually represent how their theories it is useful to incorporate techniques
about physical child abuse influenced (such as pictorial representation) into
their practice. supervisory practice so as to elicit and
Although some participants initially ‘hear’ the tacit dimension of practice,
expressed hesitation about having to as critical analysis of practice
visually represent their practice, this understandings requires attention
soon subsided as they commenced the to both tacit and explicit understandings
task. Participants engaged easily in (Osmond 2001).
explaining and commentating on their Second, pictorial representation is
pictorial representations. In both studies, useful in the supervisional context because
participants commented on how enjoyable of its inherent novelty. Any activity that is
and informative the pictorial sessions were. undertaken regularly carries the risk that it
This technique provided us with a unique becomes dull, repetitive and predictable.
level of insight about practice, as the Pictorial representation can instantly ‘liven
diagrams were an excellent medium for up’ a supervisory session that has become
stimulating discussion on knowledge or routine.
theory use in practice. As facilitators we
were able to probe via reference to their
diagrams notions of practice behaviour
that may not have been identified
Think-aloud, observation
from other techniques. For example,
and reflective recall
in Osmond’s (2001) study it was first Three techniques found to be helpful for
detected from analysing participants’ stimulating critical reflection on current,
pictorial representations that they had a active practice are: think-aloud, observation
‘core’ set of knowledge that they applied of practice and reflective recall. We briefly
to every practice encounter. review each technique before suggesting
In the supervision context this technique how they can be used together to facilitate
is useful for two reasons. First, at times critical reflection.

8 Australian Social Work/March 2005, Vol. 58, No. 1

Think-aloud (2001) observed practitioner–client
interactions in her research. Specifically
Thinking aloud is a process that consists
she noted the following dimensions:
of requesting people to think-aloud while
• The questions and statements made
solving a problem and analysing the
by the practitioner during the observed
resulting verbal protocols (van Someren
session and associated contextual topic
et al. 1994). The method aims to reveal the
issues (i.e. a focus on what is said and
cognitive processes and accompanying
what is happening at the time)
knowledge utilised when problem-solving.
• The nonverbal behaviour of the
Thinking aloud as a process has its basis
practitioner during the sessions
in cognitive-behavioural theory, which
• The practitioner’s style and process
assumes that ‘affective and behavioural
during the interview (i.e. a focus on how
responses are mediated by thought
topics/issues were discussed)
processes, both conscious and
• Any impressions the observer had
unconscious’ (Davison et al. 1997;
about knowing-in-action (Schon 1983).
p. 950).
These dimensions are not exhaustive
In a standard think-aloud protocol
but do offer a number of focus points for
approach, researchers or supervisors
supervisors when observing practice
request that participants verbalise all of
with the aim of facilitating reflection and
their thoughts and considerations while
introspection following a practice event.
actually solving a problem (Ericsson &
Simon 1984; Davison et al. 1997). In other
words, the participant articulates their Reflective recall
problem solving process concurrently with
Reflective recall involves using recorded
the solving of the problem. The limitations
observations (made during an observed
associated with retrospective analysis
session by a supervisor) as a stimulus for
are reduced as participants provide a
discussion (Osmond 2001). The use of
step-by-step demonstration of how they
information recorded in this manner has
would address an issue or problem
been influenced by Interpersonal Process
(Ericsson & Simon 1984). This technique
Recall, a technique that has been used as
has recently been used by Drury-Hudson
a supervision tool for counsellors (Kagan &
(1999) to examine social workers’
Krathwohl 1967; Kagan & Kagan 1990).
decision-making related to removing
Interpersonal Process Recall involves
a child from home.
video-recording a practitioner–client
session and using that recording as a
Observation stimulus for discussion. Its advocates
contend that having an effective stimulus
By observation, we are referring can assist an individual to ‘relive’ an
to the unobtrusive observation of experience and explore in-depth thoughts,
practitioner–client interactions through feelings and meanings of their behaviour.
having someone watch and note down what Further, it is focused on stimulating recall
is occurring in a practice event. Osmond rather than on critiquing performance.

Australian Social Work/March 2005, Vol. 58, No. 1 9

It assumes that practitioners have a wealth Sequencing these techniques in this
of information that they may not have order should provide useful insights into
considered or made explicit. practice behaviour for both supervisor and
If video-recording practitioner–client supervisee. Many of the participants in
interactions is not possible or is seen as Osmond’s (2001) study commented very
too invasive or obtrusive, we suggest positively about this process, with some
modifying the Interpersonal Process identifying that they had gained a level
Recall technique. For example, Osmond of awareness about their practice not
(2001) adapted this method and used previously achieved. Participants appeared
her observation notes as prompts to to value the opportunity to reflect on current
explore the content of practitioners’ practice because of its immediacy in
understandings as events unfolded. terms of case planning. They could see
At various points in the interview, portions for themselves their knowledge strengths
of the recorded narrative would be read and knowledge gaps.
out loud and the practitioner questioned
about what was influencing them at that
practice point.
Think-aloud, observation of practice
Knowledge mapping
and reflective recall can be used together Another technique that can facilitate
to facilitate critical reflection on current, reflective, critical analysis is knowledge
active practice. They are particularly mapping (Osmond 2001). This technique
useful if integrated and sequenced in is particularly useful for identifying the
the following order: knowledge a practitioner is drawing upon
1 Practitioner requested to share any in a case. It is strongly based on concept
specific plans or purposes prior to an mapping but with some distinct differences.
interview (think-aloud). Concept mapping has been regarded
2 Practitioner requested to share any as a useful educational tool for enhancing
thoughts or feelings prior to an interview meaningful learning and critical thinking
with a client (think-aloud). (Novak 1990; All & Haven 1997; Daley
3 Observation of practitioner–client et al. 1999), and has been used in expert
interaction by supervisor (observation). systems research as a knowledge
4 Practitioner requested to share any acquisition technique (Zaff et al. 1993).
thoughts, impressions and feelings Concept maps ‘are graphic or pictorial
immediately following an interview (think- arrangements of the key concepts that
aloud). deal with a specific subject matter. These
5 Segments of the interview raised by maps are useful tools that can be utilised
both practitioner and supervisor for to represent the structure of knowledge in
discussion (reflective recall). a form that is psychologically compatible
6 Observational field notes (recorded by with the way human beings construct
supervisor) used as a stimulus for deeper meaning’ (All & Havens 1997; p. 1210).
discussion about practice understandings They provide a medium in which an
(reflective recall). individual can represent their knowledge

10 Australian Social Work/March 2005, Vol. 58, No. 1

(formal and perceptual) about a particular process but differs in its span of focus.
subject domain. The knowledge map process focuses
Zaff et al. (1993) noted that the specifically on the types and sequence of
theoretical foundation of concept mapping knowledge used in a case, whereas
can be traced to Quillian’s (1968) work on with concept mapping, cognitive and
semantic networks in which knowledge is decision-making processes are also
seen to be ‘represented by concepts, obtained.
and that the acquisition of additional The knowledge map process involves
knowledge (i.e. learning) is based upon requesting a participant to select a recent
the ability to take the basic concepts client interview that they are very familiar
already possessed, and combine them with. They are then requested to describe
as needed to represent any additional the client problem or issue of focus.
information to be added to the network’ Following this, two phases to the
(Zaff et al. 1993; p. 93). The underlying knowledge map exercise occur.
epistemology of concept mapping is The first phase involves a participant
that new knowledge is interpreted and detailing all of their thoughts, ideas,
acquired in the light of existing knowledge feelings, reactions and considerations
(All & Haven 1997). that had occurred during the session of
The methodology of concept mapping focus. This is concurrently recorded by
involves requesting an individual to visually the supervisor on a large piece of paper
represent all the goals, purposes, issues, or a whiteboard so the participant can
considerations, decisions and knowledge literally ‘see’ how the information is being
involved in solving or understanding a represented and interpreted. This allows
particular problem. This usually occurs both the supervisor and the supervisee to
via a number of sessions. The concept seek clarification, make amendments or
map is constructed on the first occasion, add additional information, and results
with further clarification or additional in a chronology of how the event unfolded,
information being sought in subsequent with the participant’s associated ideas,
sessions. The mapping process is regarded thoughts and feelings.
as a window into the dynamic process of Once the session has been fully
what another is thinking in relation to a described by a participant, the second
specific subject. It can be a valuable phase of the knowledge map session
technique for: ‘(i) transferring information occurs. This involves using the scribed
from one individual to another; (ii) map as an ‘external memory’ in order to
identifying the key ideas within a given stimulate reflection by a participant on
subject; (iii) providing a formalism the forms of knowledge they have been
that is closely analogous to the mental using. This involves beginning at the start
organisation of the individual being of the map and repeating back to the
mapped; and (iv) summarising a given participant what they have been
cognitive domain’ (Zaff et al. 1993; p. 95). considering, thinking or feeling at that
The technique of concept mapping time and then requesting the knowledge
theoretically informs the knowledge map underpinning their understandings at

Australian Social Work/March 2005, Vol. 58, No. 1 11

that point. This occurs for every concept a number of reflective techniques, in order
that has been recorded in Phase One of to facilitate and strengthen supervisees’
the mapping exercise. This approach is capacities to examine their knowledge
best used as an interactive process, with use in practice. If one technique is not
supervisor and supervisee both able to meaningful to a supervisee, then other
clarify any issues as they arise. techniques are available. This means that
Besides being an effective supervision the knowledge elicitation or reflective
technique for facilitating the identification process is not constrained but open to
of knowledge being used in a case, individual difference. A wealth of insights
this technique is useful for identifying may well be elicited that could not possibly
knowledge imbalance. By knowledge be obtained from one method alone.
imbalance, we are referring to situations In conclusion, we have presented a
where knowledge use becomes skewed. number of processes and techniques
An example of this could be a practitioner that we have found useful in eliciting
who predominantly calls upon one type of practitioners’ critical reflection on their
knowledge as a basis for their practice work. We have used these approaches in
decisions or actions. The knowledge map the child protection context but consider
will show pictorially if particular forms of they have wider application. Supervisors in
knowledge are dominating practice any practice setting play an important role
behaviour. For instance, in Osmond’s in encouraging clear and accountable
(2001) study it became clear to one practice, and the use of tools for
participant, via the knowledge map, enhancing critical reflection can be
that her personalised understandings an effective way of promoting such
were dominating her practice decisions at practice. Like others (Gould & Taylor
the expense of other types of knowledge 1996; Fook et al. 2000), we consider it
(e.g. theory and empirical research). important to continue to develop and
explore different options for critical
reflection.
Although it cannot be suggested that
Conclusion supervisional effort which focuses on
The questions and techniques offered in knowledge justifications/explanations
this paper do not exhaust the possibilities will necessarily lead to better practice,
for facilitating reflective, critical analysis. it seems fair to say that steps in this
For example, repertory grid technique direction will heighten the probability of
(see Gould 1996), critical incident improved practice. If workers routinely
technique (see Sadique 1996; Fook consider why they are undertaking or
et al. 2000) and personal narratives suggesting the actions they are taking in
(see Fook et al. 2000; Osmond 2001) knowledge terms, a level of reflective,
are additional techniques that could critical thinking about client states can
be employed. only be enhanced. Although resistance
We recommend that supervisors and could be encountered from some
field educators become proficient in using practitioners, from our experience in

12 Australian Social Work/March 2005, Vol. 58, No. 1

the field and from informal discussions ERICSSON KA & SIMON HA (1984), Protocol Analysis.
The MIT Press, Cambridge.
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