TM 5-55

TECHNICAL MANUAL

CARPENTER

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARM

IULY 19
*TM 5-551 B

Technical Manual HEADQUARTERS

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
No. 5-551B Washington, D. C, 19 July 1971

CARPENTER

Paragraph Pane

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION . 1-1, 1-2 1-1

2. CONSTRUCTION PRINT READING
Section I. Work drawings 2-1—2-7 2-1—2-9
II. Light and heavy wood framing . -.- - 2-8, 2-9 2-9 2-14
Chapter 3. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
Section I. Methods of frame construction 3-1 3-4 3-1
II. Lumber 3-5-3-7 3-2-3-4
III. Construction hardware - ---- 3-8—3-14 3-5—3-12
IV. Joints and splices . 3-15-3-23 3-14-3-16
Chapter 4. BILLS OF MATERIALS ---- ---- 4-1—4-4 4-1^1-3
5. BUILDING LAYOUT AND FOUNDATION - 5-1—5-11 5-1—5-7
6. FORMS FOR CONCRETE . --- 6-1—6-13 6-1—6-7
7. FRAME CONSTRUCTION
Section I. Floor frames and floor coverings -- . '-1—7-8 7-1—7-12
II. Walls and wall coverings . . . . 7-9—7-18 7-13—7-25
III. Door frames, window frames, and other wall openings - - - - 7-19—7-21 7-25—7-30
IV. Stairways 7-22—7-24 7-33,7-34
Chapter 8. ROOF SYSTEM AND COVERINGS
Section I. Roofing - - - - 8-1—8-8 8-1—8-13
II. Reroofing 8-9—8-16 8-17—8-23
Chapter 9. ACCESSORIES
Section I. Doors - 9-1-9-9 9-1-9-8
II. Windows 9-10-9-15 9-10-9-13
m. Screens - 9-16-9-18 9-15-9-17
Chapter 10. NONSTANDARD FIXED BRIDGE
Section I. Introduction 10-1. 10-2 10-1, 10-2
II. Substructure 10-3-10-7 10-2-10-4
III. Superstructure 10-8— 10-9—
10-14 10-11
Chapter 11. TIMBER PILE WHARVES
Section L Installation of piles ... 11-1—11-8 11-1—11-5
II. Wharf superstructure -- - 11-9— 11-7—
11-19 11-13
Appendix A. REFERENCES - - A_1
B. ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS - 8-1
C. CONVERSION TABLES C_1
D. MANPOWER ESTIMATES—CARPENTRY D-1
Glossary Glossary I
Index Index 1

•Thh manual tupcrwdn TM 5-460, 21 April 1960.

i
TM 5-55 IB

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

W. C. WESTMORELAND,
General, United States Army,
Official: Chief of Staff.
VERNE L. BOWERS
Major General, United States Army,
The Adjutant General.

Distribution :
Active Army
ACSI (2) OCE (2)
DCSPER (2) OS Maj Comd (5)
DCSLOG (2) USASETAF (5)
DCSOPS (2) Instl (1)
CORC (2) PMS Sr Div Units (1)
CRD (1) Br Svc Sch (2)
COA (1) USAES (150)
CINFO (1) USMA (1)
TIG (1) USATC (2) except
TJAGSA (1) USATCFLW (175)
CONARC (5) MDW (1)
CNGB (2) Engr Cen (2)
ARADCOM (2) Engr Bde (2)
ARADCOM Rgn (1) Engr Gp (2)
USACDC (2) Engr Bn (2)
Armies (5) Engr Co (2)
NG : State AG (3) Units,—same as active Army except allowance is one (1) copy each unit.
USAR: Same as active Army except allowance is one (1) copy each unit.
For explanation of abbreviations used, see AR 310-50.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402- Price $2.60
Stock No. 008-020-00487-1/Catalog No. O 101.11 :5-551B
TM 5-551 B

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1-1. Purpose and Scope in MOS career group 51 is described in AR 611-

This manual provides guidance and reference 201.
data needed in the training of the carpenter in
his military occupational specialty (MOS) 51B,
a part of MOS career group 51. It covers only the 1-2. Comments
technical phases of that skill. It assumes that he Users of this manual are encouraged to submit
is generally familiar with the tools used by the recommended changes to improve the manual.
construction and utilities worker (MOS 51 A), Comments should be keyed to the specific para
also a part of career group 51. This manual pro graph in which the change is recommended. Rea
vides information on construction print reading, sons will be provided for each comment to insure
construction techniques, the preparation and use complete evaluation. Comments should be pre
of bills of materials, building layout, forming for pared using DA Form 2028 (Recommended
concrete, frame and finish carpentry, and bridge Changes to Publications) and forwarded directly
and wharf building, and the materials used in to the Commandant, US Army Engineer School,
their construction. The entire pattern for soldiers Fort Belvoir, Va., 22060.
i

i
TM 5-55 IB

CHAPTER 2

CONSTRUCTION PRINT READING

Section I. WORKING DRAWINGS

2-1 . Introduction
a. Working drawings plus specifications are the
main sources of information for supervisors and
technicians responsible for the actual work of DOUBLE HUNG DOUBLE WOOD CASEMENTS AND VENT J%
construction. The construction working drawing WINDOW
gives a complete graphic description of the struc WINDOWS IN EXTERIOR MASONRY WALLS
ture to be erected, the construction site, the ma ©
terials to be used, and the construction method
to be followed. Most construction drawings con
sist of orthographic views (right angles and DOUBLE HUNG CASEMENT OPEN CASEMENT OPEN
perpendicular lines). A set of working drawings WINDOW OUT-NO MULUON IN AND MULLION
includes both general and detail drawings. Gen WINDOWS IN EXTERIOR FRAME WALLS
eral drawings consist of plans and elevations, ®
while detail drawings consist of sections and
detail views.
b. Site plans, elevations, floor plans, sections, SLIDING DOOR-
OPEN OUT OPEN RIGHT
and details are described in this section together DOORS IN EXTERIOR WALLS
with the most common architectural symbols ®
and material conventions in military use.

2-2. Architectural Symbols and Material

Conventions
a. Architectural Symbols. Architectural sym • DOOR IN
bols on construction plans show the type and lo EXTERIOR W- 4-WING TYPE
OPEN IN REVOLVING DOOR
cation of doors, windows, and other features. OTHER DOOR CONVENTIONS
They have the same general shape as the feature ©
itself and show any motion that is supposed to
occur. Figure 2-1 shows several of these symbols.
Figure 2-1. Window, door, and wall symbols.
b. Material Conventions. Material conventions
are symbols that show the type of material used 2-3. Site Plans
in the structure. Appendix B illustrates those a. A site plan (also called plot plan) shows all
for the more common types of materials. The necessary property lines and locations, contours
symbol selected normally represents the material and profiles, building lines, location of structures
in some way where possible. For example, the to be constructed, existing structures, approaches,
symbol for wood shows the grains in the wood. finished grades, existing and new utilities such as
It is not always possible to use a common charac sewer, water, gas, and the like. Figure 2-2 shows
teristic of the material for the symbol. The car a typical site plan. Appropriate outlines show
penter should know all these symbols for materi the location of the new facility. The site plan
als to help him read a construction print. A sym has a north-pointing arrow to indicate site north
bol should always be checked if there is any (not magnetic north). Each facility has a num
I doubt about its meaning. ber (or code letter) to identify it in the schedule

2-1
TM 5-551 B

SCHEDULE OF FACILITIES
NO ITEM OTY SIZE OR
UNIT
BUILDINGS
1 ARMY EXCHANGE 1 60' k 120'
2 CRAFTS SHOP i 60* 120
J iLIBRARY 1 40'» 80'
K1lil4*L1^CAiWiB•1'JH*UaL,^H 1 60' i 120'

OTHER CONSTRUCTION DEPARTMENT OF ARMY

5 ATHLETIC COURTS 2 60» 120 OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS
Sump fire protection 1 lO.OOOGol
WATER TANK IO,500Gal
7 ROAD- 22'WlDE-t2lone)6 MACADAIv 0 1 5 MILE RECREATION BUILDING-60' i 120'
SITE AREA 11,2 ACRES -— SITE PLAN

Figure 2-2. Typical site plan.

of facilities. The contour lines show the elevation (The coordinate reference lines on figure 2-2
of the earth surfaces; all points on a contour are centerlines of the roads surrounding the area.) I
have the same elevation. Distances are given All distances in a plan view simply give the hori
between principal details and reference lines. zontal measurement between two points and do

2-2
TM 5-55 IB

not show terrain irregularities. The sizes of pro Construction materials may be shown on the
posed facilities are given in the schedule of fa elevation. It may also show the ground level sur
cilities. rounding the structure, called the grade. When
more than one view is shown on a drawing sheet,
b. Examine the site plan shown in figure 2-2
each view is given a title. If any view has a
to see what information can be obtained from it.
scale different from that shown in the title block,
For example, the contour lines show that the
the scale is given beneath the title of that view.
ground surface of the site area slopes. The plan
locates and identifies each facility. Most of the b. The centerline symbol of alternate long and
facilities are spaced at least 60 feet apart, while short dashes in an elevation shows finished floor
the library (facility No. 3) and the recreation lines. Foundations below the grade line are shown
building (facility No. 4) must be only 15 feet by the hidden line symbol of short, evenly spaced
apart. Besides being the smallest of the four dashes. Note in figure 2-3 that the footings are
buildings, the library is closest to the road; that shown below grade.
is, the east wall of the library is 20 feet from c. Elevations show the locations and kind of
the centerline of the road, while the other doors and windows. Each different type window
buildings are 30 or 60 feet from the centerline. shown in the elevations is marked (in figure 2-3,
the three types of windows are marked W-1,
2-4. Elevations W-2, and W-3). These identifying marks refer
a. Elevations are drawings that show the to a particular size window whose dimensions are
front, rear, or side view of a building or structure. given in a table known as the window schedule.
Sample elevation views are given in figure 2-3. In some cases, the rough opening dimensions of

EB EE3
.STAGE FL-w , ,
FIN GRADE

SIDE ELEVATION
(OPPOSITE SIDE SIMILAR)
RIDGE
VENTILATOR

-PORTABLE STEPS
FIN STAGE FL-
FIN FLOOR
^-FIN GRADE

BACK ELEVATION FRONT ELEVATION

DEPARTMENT OF ARMY
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS
RECREATION BUILDING -60'» 120'
ELEVATIONS

Figure S-3. Elevation views.

2-3
TM 5-55 IB

2-4
TM 5-551 B

2-5
TM 5-551 B

windows are given on the drawing. Note that Basically, the lines with small circles show wir
the recreation building shown in figure 2-3 has ing for electrical outlets; appropriate symbols
two double doors on each side and a double door show the plumbing fixtures. These features are
at each end. The elevation also shows that at important to the carpenter from the standpoint
the end of the building with loading platform, of coordination. He may have to make special
the door is at the level of the stage floor and all provisions, at various stages of construction, for
the other doors are at grade level. the placement of electrical or plumbing fixtures.
These provisions should be studied on the floor
2-5. Floor Plans plan and coordinated with the electrician, plumb
a. A floor plan is a cross-sectional view of a er, and foreman.
building. The horizontal cut crosses all openings c. Figure 2-6 shows how a stairway is drawn
regardless of their height from the floor. The in a plan and how riser-tread information is
development of a floor plan is shown in figure given. The symbol shows the direction of the
2-4. Note that a floor plan shows the outside stairs from the floor shown in the plan and the
shape of the building; the arrangement, size, and amount of risers in the run. For example, 17 DN
shape of the rooms; the type of materials; and followed by an arrow means that there are 17
the length, thickness, and character of the build risers in the run of stairs going from the floor
ing walls at a particular floor. A floor plan also shown on the plan to the floor below in the di
includes the type, width, and location of the doors rection indicated by the arrow. The riser-tread
and windows; the types and locations of utility diagram provides height and width information.
installations; and the location of stairways. A The standard for the riser, or height from step-
typical floor plan is shown in figure 2-5. to-step, is from 6 1/2 to 7 1/2 inches. The tread
b. Read the floor plan shown in figure 2-5 and width is usually such that the sum of riser and
note the features of the recreation building. tread is about 18 inches (a 7-inch riser and 11-

UP 17 RISERS DOWN 17 R SERS

PLAN

SCALE
fete !' t t

RISER -TREAD DIAGRAM

Figure 2-6. Stairway and steps.

2-6
TM 5-551 B

inch tread is standard). On the plan, the dis a 15-riser stairway located in a 12- by 18-foot
tance between the riser lines is the width of the room. Entrances to this room will be from the
tread. auditorium through a single door opening into
the room. At the top of the stairway, a single
d. By examining the floor plan (fig. 2-5) it is
door opens into the projection room. The wall of
seen that the interior of the building will consist
the projection room that faces the stage (inside
of an auditorium, a lobby with a P.X. counter,
wall) has three openings. Note that no windows
a men's toilet, a women's toilet, a projection room
are shown for the sides of the building where the
on a second level above the lobby, two dressing
projection room is located, but are shown at the
rooms, and a stage. The stage may not be appar
main level.
ent but, by noting the steps adjacent to each
dressing room, it can be seen that there is a e. The symbols shown in figure 2-7 are typical
change in elevation. The elevation view, as in representations of exterior and interior walls.
figure 2-3, will show the stage and its elevation. Note how the material conventions are used in
The plan gives the dimensions of the areas speci the makeup of the symbols for masonry, brick,
fied. Note that all building entrances and/or exit and concrete walls. The carpenter should become
doors are the same type (1D) and that all win familiar with these symbols, which can be found
dows are the double-hung type. All interior sin in appendix B.
gle doors (2D) are the same and two double
doors (3D) open into the lobby from the audi 2-6. Sections
torium. The projection room will be reached via a. A section shows how a structure looks when

6"|—
MASONRY FACE
6"

T
STUDS
FACE
FURRING H OF STUDS

PLASTER

MASONRY WALLS FRAME WALL BRICK VENEER

EXTERIOR WALLS

PLASTER
3" FURRING

2".4",ef-N|

BRICK OR CONCRETE STUD GYPSUM

TILE
INTERIOR WALLS

Figure 2-7. Typical wall symbols.

2-7
TM 5-55 IB

EXTERIOR DOOR DETAILS

Sheathing

(X 4 1 71 «ryvi
/,I> n TRUSSED
LATHe3 RAFTER

INSULATION BOARD
SHEATHING DOUBLE HEADER
TRIM
/ DRIP CAP *
F ' f L-j TRIM

l"X 2" l"X 4" GUIDE FRAME

STOP —
l"X 3"
PANEl DOOR
SLIDING SASH

HEAD
l"X 3"
-l"X 4" GUIDE
TRIM
I SHEATHING 4 SHEATHING
INSULATION
■1X4 GUIDE
l"X 2" THRESHOLD —
I " X 3" 7f PANEL DOOR -mm DOUBLE JAMB
SLIDING SASH TRIM
FRAME
JAMB
I" X 3" • I ' X 4 GUIDE

TRIM FRAME
I
PANEl DOOR - TRIM
10" BEVEL l' HARDPRESSED
THRESHOLD — FINISHED FLOOR
SIDING — FIBERBOARD
SUB. FLOOR
SILL "
2 X4' STUD TRIM JOIST
l" X 6" BASE
SUB -FLOOR
ELEV 810 0-7 FIN FLOOR -i SILL

2"X6" PLATE
kTE —-"jF 1 Figure 2-9. Typical door details.
2"X6" JOIST
general drawing. The section provides informa
tion on height, materials, fastening and support
0 6"l' 2' 3' 4' systems, and concealed features.
SECTION A-A 111 I I ~~1
NO 14 b. Of primary importance to construction su
pervisors and to the craftsmen who do the actual
Figure 2-8. Typical wall section. building are the wall sections. These show the
construction of the wall as well as the way in
cut vertically by a cutting plane. It is drawn to which structural members and other features are
a large scale showing details of a particular con joined to it. Wall sections extend vertically from
struction feature that cannot be given in the the foundation bed to the roof. A typical wall

2-8
TM 5-551 B

WINDOW DETAILS

STUD
INSULATION
DOUBLE HEADER
TRIM HINGE

SASH TRIM

TRANSOM CHAIN FILLER BLOCK

SHEATHING
GIRT
HEAD
SILL

TRIM EAVE DETAIL

DOUBLE JAMB

SASH

STOP
SILL - ROOFING
PAPER

BATTEN TRIM INSULATION

JAMB ROOFING PAPER
SHEATHING
INSULATION
FACE BOARD
DRIP BOARD
FILLER PIECE
BATTEN TRIM
ROOFING PAPER
INSULATION

Figure 2-10. Typical window and eave details.

section with the parts identified by name and/or but are simply noted by a code. The construction
size is illustrated in figure 2-8. of doors, windows, and eaves is usually shown
in detail drawings. Figure 2-9 shows some typical
2-7. Details door framing details and figure 2-10 shows that
Details are large scale drawings which show fea of window wood framing and an eave detail for
tures that do not appear (or appear on too small a simple type of cornice. Other details which
a scale) on the plans, elevations, and sections. are customarily shown are sills, girder and joist
Details do not have a cutting-plane indication, connections, and stairways.

Section II. LIGHT AND HEAVY WOOD FRAMING

2-8. Light Wood Framing for theater of operations type buildings usually
Framing is the rough timberwork of a building. show details of all framing. Light framing is
It includes exterior walls, flooring, roofing, beams, used in barracks, bathhouses, administration
trusses, partitions, and ceilings. Working prints buildings, light shop buildings, hospital build-

2-9
TM 5-551 B

CONCRETE PIER TIMBER PIER WOOD PIER

© © ©

Figure 2-11. Typical foundation walls, piers,

footings, and girder details.

^-10
TM 5-55 IB

2-11
TM 5-551 B

3-12
TM 5-551 B

SIDE PANEL-FRAMING DETAILS

©
Figure 2-U. Typical wall panels—framing details.

230-321 O - 77 - 2 2-13
TM 5-55 IB

ings, and similar structures. placed either on edge or flat depending upon the
type of window used.
a. The types of foundation walls, footings, and
girder details normally used in standard theater d. The makeup of various trussed rafters is
of operations type construction are shown in shown in figure 2-14. A 40-foot trussed rafter
figure 2-11. The various details for overall fram showing a partition bearing in the center is shown
ing of a 20-foot-wide building showing ground in ©, figure 2-15. This figure shows the splices
level and including window openings, braces, required, bracing details, stud and top plate at
splices, and nomenclature of framing are shown one end of rafter, and size of members. The typ
in figure 2-12. ical 20-foot truss rafter is shown in ®, figure
2-15. The use of filler blocks to keep the brace
b. Figure 2-13 illustrates floor framing details members in a vertical plane is needed since the
showing footings, posts, girders, joists, rein rafter and bottom chord are nailed together
forced section of floor for heavy loads, section rather than spliced. The rafter tie is placed on
views covering makeup of certain sections, scabs the opposite side from the vertical brace. Usually
for joining girders to posts, and post bracing de the splice plate for the bottom chord, if one is
tails as placed for cross sections and longitudinal needed, is placed on the side on which it is planned
sections. On a construction print the type of to nail the rafters so that it can also serve as a
footings and size of the various members are filler block. A modified truss rafter is shown in
shown. In some cases the lengths are given while ®, figure 2-15. This type of truss is used only
in others the bill of materials which accompanies when specified in plans for certain construction.
the print specifies the required lengths of the It will not be used in areas subject to high wind
various members. velocities or moderate to heavy snowfall. In this
c. Wall framing details for end panels are type of trussed rafter, the bottom chord is placed
shown in ©, figure 2-14. The height of panels is on the rafters at a height above the top plate.
usually shown and from this height the length
of wall studs is determined by deducting the 2-9. Heavy Wood Framing
thickness of the top or rafter plate and the bot Heavy wood framing consists of framing mem
tom plate. The space between studs is given in the bers at least 6 inches in dimension (timber con
drawing as well as height of girt from bottom struction). Examples of this type of framing can
plate, type of door opening, if any, and window be found in heavy roof trusses, timber trestle
opening. Details for side panels, ©, figure 2-14, bridges, and wharfs. The major differences be
cover the same type of information as listed for tween light and heavy framing are the size of
end panels. For window openings, the details timber used and the types of fasteners used. Fas
specify whether the window is hinged to swing teners for both light and heavy framing will be
in or out or whether it is to be a sliding panel. covered in a later chapter. Figure 2-16 shows
Studs placed next to window openings may be the framing details for a heavy roof truss.

2-14
TM 5-551 B

2"X4" KNEE> 2"X4" VERTICAL BRACE

BRACE
2" X 6"
2"X6" SPLICE BRACE
PLATE\
2" X 8" SPLICE
PLATE

2"X4'
STUD

2"X4" FILLER
BLOCK

2"X4" TOP
PLATE

2"X8" SPLICE PLATE

2" X 6" BOTTOM CHORD

20' TYPICAL TRUSS RAFTER

©
l"Xe» VERTICAL BRACE d>» —..^ l"X 6" RAFTER TIE 2"X4" BRACE

2" X 4" TOP PLATE

NOTE:
THIS TRUSS RAFTER WILL ONLY BE USED IN
2"X 4" STUD PLACE OF TYPICAL TRUSS RAFTER WHEN SPECIF
ICALLY CALLED FOR ON PLANS
20' MODIFIED TRUSS RAFTER

Figure 2-15. Trussed rafter details.

2-15
TM 5-551 B

NAILS «d EXCEPT
WHERE OTHERWISE NOTCO
ft Across macin« ca bay

A/ PLAT e
/ ^ . . u.;vl|.LY,.> f
Vnrtiof-<f(rt«TiWMtR£CEiniMft OCCURS) SPLICE

TRUSSED RArTER
SYMMETRICAL A&OUT
ytit stuo

© TYPICAL LIGHT ROOF TRUSS

?Xlfx*-d'3ftXC
IIIIZ-O PUX PLATES /" 4"x »fx 2 -tf FILLER I TTH.«L
tfxtfxr-r TtPCAt r-l-UI^II-O
,-i-4"xt/x r«X
crullers
CHOflO FILER

*-4X«"xi'.2"NAILEA Tt»

-KNEE I— 2"xB*X2'-4" SPLICE PLATES sVrfxs'-K)'

MACE SPLICE PLATES
BOTTOM CMORO

TYPICAL HEAVY ROOF TRUSS

Figure 2-16. Typical heavy roof trusses.

2-16
TM 5-551 B

CHAPTER 3

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Section I. METHODS OF FRAME CONSTRUCTION

3-1 . Methods d. Carrying Material to the Cutting and Erect

The method of erecting buildings directly affects ing Parties.
the time, labor, and material needed. The methods
If a party completes its task before the building
may be divided into two types.
is completed, it is assigned a new task. For ex
a. Built in Place. In this method each piece ample, if the party laying out the foundation
is separtely erected in its proper place. completes its work before erection of the build
ing is begun, it is assigned a new duty such as
b. Panel Method. In this method a complete
cutting rafters. Parts are built in the following
section is built up as a unit and then set in the
order: footings, piers, sills, joists, floor, soles,
building in the proper place. It is used exten
studs, plates, girts, rafters, bracing, siding,
sively because it makes for greater speed, better
sheathing, roofing, doors, windows, steps, and
control over working parties and better use of
inside finish (if used).
manpower. It also allows the use of a standard
list of sizes for each similar section; standard
3-4. Procedures, Panel Method
plans shown in TM 5-302 further simplify con The panel method (preassembly method) requires
struction. careful planning before the actual construction.
Most Army buildings are now built by this meth
3-2. Factors Considered in Selection of od, as follows :
Method to be Used
Construction planning permits an orderly series a. Before measuring and cutting lumber, the
of operations and prevents duplication of effort number and size of sections that are alike should
and waste of material. Factors considered in be determined from the blueprint. This insures
planning are construction plant layout, distribu the correct numbers of each piece. The carpenter
tion of material, number of skilled and semiskilled assigns a crew to cut and assemble one section.
men available, and number and type of units to In most cases, a template is built as a guide for
be constructed. From a list of the various sepa assembling the section. It should be built square,
rate operations required, an estimate of the total correct in size, and level.
number of man-hours needed is made. This esti b. The number and size of each piece in a sec
mate forms the basis for determining the number tion is given to the man in charge of the cutting
and type of men needed and for organizing the party. The cutting party cuts the timber to the
erection crew or crews. Arrangements for assem
correct length with a handsaw or power saw. The
bling the necessary materials at the job site and length is measured by the use of square and
for doing the preliminary cutting and assembly tape. After one piece has been cut, it may be used
are made in advance.

3-3. Procedures, Built-in-Place Method

When using the built-in-place method, the officer
in charge of construction divides the men into <L /. STOP BLOCKS ^—/
working parties, whose duties may be as fol POSITION OF PATTERN FOR MARKING OTHER TIMBER
lows:
a. Laying Out the Foundation.
b. Grading and Excavating. V £..r (<: ../ 7
c. Laying Out and Cutting Various Sizes' of
Material. Figure 3-1. Marking a pattern.

3-1
TM 5-55 IB

as a pattern for marking the remaining pieces. The girts, sole, and plate are nailed to the studs
The pattern is set up by nailing two blocks to with 16- or 20-penny nails. If insulation board is
the piece of correct size, one near each end, as used, it and the wall sheathing are put on the
shown in figure 3-1. These blocks act as stops section before it is taken out of the template.
to hold the pattern in place on the timber to be By applying the wall finish before raising the
marked. Several cutting and assembling parties section, no scaffold or ladders need be used.
may be used at one time on different types of d. The erecting party sets the sections into
sections. place, braces them temporarily, and nails them
c. The plate and sole are placed in the template together. The end section should be first, and it
with the studs and girts between; then the door may be erected on graded earth. The sidewall
and window posts, if any, are placed (fig. 3-2). sections are next and should be erected so as to
keep the two walls even. The rafter party can
TEMPLATE BLOCKS^ ^TEMPLATE then place the rafters on the walls. Parties should
be set up as follows : layout party, cutting party,
D 0 D | D n D 0 assembling party, carrying party, erecting party
TOP for sidewalls, erecting party for rafters, sheath
PLATE ing party, roofing party, and door-and-window
r i party.
GIRT SOLE e. The preassembly method of erection may
STyos
SPLICE PLATE be used for all types of small buildings and large
D D ] D tuuo D | 0 D 0 warehouses. When this method is used for large
buildings, cranes are used to place sections too
TEMPLATE^~ heavy to be handled by hand. Where machinery
is used, caution in fastening the cable or rope
Figure 3-2. Template for framing walls. avoids damaging the section.

Section II. LUMBER

3-5. Description Table 3-1. Nominal Sizes and Standard Sizes of

Lumber varies greatly in structural characteris Lumber
tics. A carpenter must learn about wood so that Nominal size (1n.) American standard (in.)
he can choose the most suitable material for a 1x3. 25/32 x 2 5/8
particular job. This section describes the various 1x4 25/32 x 3 5/8
types of lumber for construction carpentry, its 1x6... 25/32 x 5 5/8
use, the standard sizes, and the methods of meas 1 x8 25/32 x 7 1/2
uring lumber quantities in terms of board feet— 1 x 10 25/32 x 9 1/2
1 x 12 25/32 x 11 1/2
the units in which it is procured and ordered. 2x4 15/8 x 3 5/8
a. Size. Lumber is usually sawed into standard 2x6 15/8 x 5 5/8
size, length, width, and thickness. This permits 2x8 15/8 x 71/2
2 x 10 15/8 x 91/2
uniformity in planning structures and in order 2 x 12 16/8 x 11 1/2
ing materials. Table 3-1 lists the common widths 3x8 2 5/8 x 71/2
and thicknesses of wood in rough and in dressed 3 x 10 2 5/8 x 9 1/2
dimensions in the United States. Standards 3 x 12 .- 2 5/8 x 111/2
have been established for dimension differences 4 x 12 3 5/8 x 11 1/2
between the quoted size of lumber and its stand 4 x 16 3 5/8 x 151/2
6 x 12 5 1/2 x 11 1/2
ard sizes when dressed. Quoted sizes refer to di 6 x 16 51/2 x 15 1/2
mensions prior to surfacing. These dimension 6 x 18 51/2 x 17 1/2
differences must be taken into consideration. A 8 x 16 71/2 x 151/2
good example of the dimension difference is the 8 x 20 71/2 x 191/2
common 2 x 4. As may be seen in table 3-1, the 8 x 24 - 71/2 x 231/2
familiar quoted size 2 x 4 is the rough or nominal
dimension but the actual dressed size is 1 5/8 by b. Grade. Lumber as it comes from the sawmill
3 5/8 inches. is divided into three main classes: yard lumber,

3-2
TM 5-55 IB

structural material, and factory and shop lumber. ber is cut into those standard sizes required for
Only yard lumber will be considered here. It is light framing, including 2 x 4, 2 x 6, 2 x 8,
classified on a quality basis into sizes, shapes, and 2 x 10, 2 x 12 pieces and all other sizes required
qualities needed for ordinary construction and for framework, with the exception of those sizes
general building purposes. It is subdivided into classed as structural lumber: that is, 5 inches
classifications of select lumber and common lum and thicker in least dimensions. Although 1 to
ber. No. 3 common are used for framing, No. 2 com
(1) Select lumber. Select lumber is of good mon is most often used and is therefore most
appearance and finishing, and is identified by the often stocked and available in lumber yards in
following grade names : the common sizes used for various framing mem
(a) Grade A. Grade A is suitable for nat bers. However, the size of lumber needed may
ural finishes and practically clear. vary with the design of the building (light frame,
(b) Grade B. Grade B is suitable for nat heavy frame) and the design of the particular
ural finishes, of high quality, and generally clear. member (beams or girders, for example). Such
(c) Grade C. Grade C is adapted to high sizes are made from single pieces of structural
quality paint finishes. timber, or built up as required. When lumber
(d) Grade D. Grade D is suitable for requirements are specified in a materials list,
paint finishes between higher finishing grades the symbols listed under the column "Type" (or
and common grades, and has somewhat the na "dressed") show the number of surfaces or edges
ture of both. of the lumber which have been planed. SIS shows
(2) Common lumber. Common lumber is that the piece has been surfaced on one side;
suitable for general construction and utility pur S2S, surfaced on two sides; S1E, surfaced on one
poses and has the following grade names : edge; S2E, surfaced on two edges; S1S1E,
(a) No. 1 common. No. 1 common is suit S1S2E, S2S1E, or S4S show combinations of
able for use without waste; it is sound and tight- surfaced edges and sides.
knotted; and it may be considered watertight
6. Walls. The exterior wall of a frame struc
lumber.
ture usually has three layers: sheathing, build
(b) No. 2 common. No. 2 common is less
ing paper, and siding. Sheathing lumber is 1 x 6
restricted in quality than No. 1 but of the same
or 1 x 8 of No. 1, No. 2, or No. 3 common soft
general quality. It is used for framing, sheathing,
wood, but No. 2 is most often used. It may be
and other structural forms where the stress or
plain, tongued and grooved, or shiplapped. Sid
strain is not too great.
ing lumber may be B and better, C, D, No. 1
(c) No. 3 common. No. 3 common permits
or No. 2 grade, and varies in size from y% x 4 to
some waste with prevailing grade characteristics
less than in No. 2. It is used for such rough work
as footings, guardrails, and rough flooring.
(d) No. U common. No. 4 common permits
waste, is of low quality, and may have coarse
features, such as decay and holes. It is used for
sheathing, subfloors, and roof boards in the
cheaper types of construction, but its most im
portant industrial outlet is for boxes and crates.
BEVEL SIDING DROP SIDING BEVEL SIDING
(e) No. 5 common. No. 5 common is not (LAP) (TONGUE 8 GROOVE) (SUP LAP)
produced in some species of lumber. The only
requirement is that it must be usable. It is used STANDARD SIZES IN SIDING LUMBER
for boxes, crates, and dunnage. 4" BEVEL SIDING
5" BEVEL SIDING
3-6. Types and Standard Sizes of Lumber
6" BEVEL SIDING
a. Frame. The building frame is the wood
form constructed to support the finished mem 8" BEVEL SIDING (SUP LAP)
bers of the structure. It includes posts, girders ■——j^^J l0" BEVEL SIDING
(beams), joists, subfloor, sole plates, girts, knee BEVEL SIDING
braces, and rafters. Softwoods are usually used DROP SIDING
for lightwood framing and all other construction
carpentry described in this manual. Yard tim Figure 3S. Types of Biding.

3-3
TM 5-551 B

1 x 12. C grade is most often used. The two prin

cipal types of siding lumber are bevel and drop.
Plain or clapboard siding is often used but has a
tendency to warp and separate. For standard 6'-0"
sizes in siding lumber, see figure 3-3. Siding is PCGES X THICKNESS (INCHES) X WPTH (WCHES) X LENGTH (FEET) ■ BD-FT
usually procured in bundles consisting of a given 12
number of square feet per bundle. I X 2 x io X 6 • 10 BD-FT

3-7. Computation of Board Feet

a. Dimensions. Sizes of softwood or building Figure 3-4. Board feet computation.
construction lumber are standardized for con
venience in ordering and handling. Building ma If all three dimensions are in inches, divide by
terials sizes run 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 feet 144 instead of 12.
in length, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 inches in width, Example: Find the number of board feet in a
and 1, 2, and 4 inches in thickness. The actual piece of lumber 2 inches thick, 10 inches wide,
width and thickness of dressed lumber are con and 18 inches long.
siderably less than the standard, or quoted, width
1 x 2 x 10 x 18 2i/2 bd ft
and thickness. For the relative difference between
144
standard or nominal, and actual sizes of con
struction lumber, see table 3-1. Hardwoods, c. Tabular Method. The standard essex board
which have no standard lengths or widths, run measure table (fig. 3-5), on the back of the
1/4, 1/2, 1, 1 1/4, 1 1/2, 2, 2 1/2, 3, and 4 inches blade of the framing square, is a quick aid in
in thickness. Plywoods are usually 4x8 and vary computing board feet. In using the board meas
in thickness from 1/8 to 1 inch. Stock panels are ure table, all computations are made on the basis
usually available in widths of 48 inches and of 1-inch thickness. The inch markings along the
lengths varying in multiples of 16 inches up to outer edge of the blade represent the width of a
8 feet. Panel lengths run in 16-inch multiples board 1 inch thick. The third dimension, length,
because the accepted spacing for studs and joists is provided in the vertical column of figures un
is 16 inches. The amount of lumber required is der the 12-inch mark. The compute the number
measured in board feet. A board foot is a unit of board feet in a piece of lumber 4 inches thick,
measure representing an area of 1 square foot 8 inches wide, and 14 feet long, find the number
and a thickness of 1 inch actual or nominal size. 14 in the vertical column under the 12-inch mark.
The number of board feet in a piece of lumber Then follow the guideline under the figure 14
can be computed by the arithmetic method or laterally across the blade until it reaches the
by the tabular method.

b. Arithmetic Method. To determine the num

ber of board feet in one or more pieces of lumber,
the following formula is used :
Pieces X Thickness in inches x Width in inches X
Length in feet
12
Example 1: Find the number of board feet in a
piece of lumber 2 inches thick, 10 inches wide,
and 6 feet long (fig. 3-4).
Figure 3-5. Essex board measure table.
1 x 2 x 10 x 6
10 bd ft figure on that line directly under the inch mark
12
corresponding to the width of the piece. Under
Example 2: Find the number of board feet in the 8-inch mark on the guideline indicated by
10 pieces of lumber 2 inches thick, 10 inches the 14, the figures 9 and 4 appear. The figure to
wide, and 6 feet long. the left of the vertical line represents feet and
10 x 2 x 10 x 6 that on the right represents inches. In this case,
100 bd ft these figures mean that there are 9 and 4/12 or
12

3-4
TM 5-55 IB

9 1/3 board feet in a piece of lumber 14 feet long, estimated rapidly by the use of table 3-2 or table
8 inches wide, and 1 inch thick. To convert this 3-3.
figure to the proper number of board feet in a Table 3-2. Rapid Calculation of Board Measure.
piece of the same width and length but 4 inches
Width Thickness Board feet
thick, as is the piece under discussion, simply
multiply the proper answer for a board 1 inch 3" 1" or less 1/4 of the length
4" 1" or less 1/3 of the length
thick by 4. The proper total number in this case 6" 1" or less 1/2 of the length
is 37 1/3 board feet. 9" 1" or less 3/4 of the length
d. Rapid Estimation of Board Feet by Use of 12" 1" or less Same as the length
15" 1" or less 1 1/4 of the length
Tables. Rapid estimation of board feet can be

Table 3-3. Board Feet

Nominal Actual length in feet
(in.) 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 u
1 x 2 1 2/3 2 21/3 2 2/3 3 31/2 3 2/3 4
1 x 3 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4 4 1/2 5 5 1/2 6
1x4 2 3/4 3 1/3 4 4 2/3 5 1/3 6 6 2/3 7 1/3 8
1x5 4 1/6 5 5 5/6 6 2/3 7 1/2 8 1/3 9 1/6 10
1 x 6 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1x7 5 5/8 7 8 1/6 9 1/3 10 1/2 112/3 12 5/6 14
1 x 8 5 1/3 6 2/3 8 9 1/3 10 2/3 12 13 1/3 14 2/3 16
1 x 10 6 2/3 8 1/3 10 11 2/3 13 1/3 15 16 2/3 18 1/3 20
1 x 12 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
11/4x4 4 1/6 5 5 5/6 6 2/3 7 1/2 8 1/3 9 1/6 10
11/4x6 6 1/4 7 1/2 8 3/4 10 11 1/4 121/2 13 3/4 15
11/4x8 8 1/3 10 112/3 13 1/3 15 16 2/3 18 1/3 20
1 1/4 x 10 10 5/12 12 1/2 14 7/12 16 2/3 18 3/4 20 5/6 22 11/12 25
1 1/4 x 12 12 1/2 15 17 1/2 20 22 1/2 25 27 1/2 30
11/2x4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11/2x6 6 7 1/2 9 10 1/2 12 13 1/2 15 16 1/2 18
11/2x8 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
1 1/2 x 10 10 12 1/2 15 17 1/2 20 221/2 25 27 1/2 30
1 1/2 x 12 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
2x4 51/3 6 2/3 8 9 1/3 10 1/3 12 13 1/3 14 2/3 16
2x6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
2x8 10 2/3 13 1/3 16 18 2/3 21 1/3 24 26 2/3 291/3 32
2 x 10 13 1/3 16 2/3 20 23 1/3 26 2/3 30 33 1/3 36 2/3 40
2 x 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
3x6 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
3x8 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
3 x 10 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
3 x 12 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
4 x 4 10 2/3 13 1/3 16 18 2/3 21 1/3 24 26 2/3 29 1/3 32
4x6 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
4x8 21 1/3 26 2/3 32 37 1/3 42 2/3 48 53 1/3 58 2/3 64
4 x 10 26 2/3 33 1/3 40 46 2/3 53 1/3 60 66 2/3 73 1/3 80
4 x 12 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96

Section III. CONSTRUCTION HARDWARE

3-8. General many types of nails, classified according to use
The fasteners used for frame construction is the and form. The wire nail is round, straight,
theater of operations are made of metal. They pointed, and varies in size, weight, shape of head,
are classified as nails, screws, bolts, driftpins, type of point, and finish. The following rules are
corrugated fasteners, and timber connectors. followed in using nails :
(1) The nail should be at least three times
3-9. Nails as long as the thickness of wood it is intended to
a. Use. The standard nail used by the Army hold. Two-thirds of the length of the nail is
carpenter is made from steel wire. There are driven into the second piece for proper anchorage ;

3-5
TM 5-551 B

one-third anchors the piece being fastened. They fasten flexible roofing and resist continuous
(2) Nails should be driven at an angle exposure to weather. If shingles or roll roofing is
slightly toward each other and placed to provide put on over old roofing, the roofing nails must
the greatest holding power. Nails driven with the be long enough to go through the old material
grain do not hold as well as nails driven across and secure the new. Asphalt roofing must be
the grain. fastened with corrosion resistant nails, never
(3) A few nails of proper type and size, with plain nails. Nailing is begun in the center
properly placed and properly driven, will hold of the shingle, just above the cutouts or slots,
better than a great many driven close together. to avoid buckling.
(4) Nails are the cheapest and easiest fas (5) Cut nails (5, fig. 3-6). Cut nails are
teners to be used. Screws of comparable size wedge shaped with a head on the large end.
provide more holding power; bolts provide still They are often used to nail flooring because they
more. are of very hard steel and have good holding
b. Types. power.
(1) Common wire nails (1, fig. 3-6). Com c. Sizes. Nail sizes are designated by the term
mon wire nails and box nails are the same except "penny". This term applies to the length of the
that the wire sizes are one or two numbers nail (1 penny, 2 penny, etc.), which is the same
smaller for a given length of the box nail than for all types. The approximate number of nails
they are for the common nail. The common wire per pound varies according to the type and size.
nail is used for housing-construction framing. The wire gage number varies according to type.
(2) Finishing nails (2, fig. 3-6). The finish Figure 3-7 explains the term "penny" for each
ing nail is made from finer wire and has a of the nails referred to in this section. The "d"
smaller head than the common nail. It may be next to the numbers in the "Size" column is the
set below the surface of the wood and leaves abbreviation of "penny" and should be read "2
only a small hole easily filled with putty. It is penny", "3 penny", etc. Table 3-4 gives the gen
generally used for interior or exterior finishing eral size and type of nail preferred for specific
work and for finished carpentry and cabinetmak- uses.
ing.
(3) Scaffold or form vails (3, fig. 3-6). The 3-10. Screws
scaffold, form, or staging nail (as it is some Screws instead of nails are more expensive in
times called) appears to have two heads. The time and money but sometimes necessary for sup
lower head (shoulder) permits the nail to be erior results. Screws provide more holding power
driven securely home while the upper head pro than nails, can be easily tightened to draw
jects above the wood to make it easy to pull. material securely together, are neater in appear
The scaffold nail is not meant to be permanent. ance, and may be withdrawn without damaging
(4) Roofing nails (4, fig. 3-6). Roofing nails the material. The common wood screw is usually
are round-shafted, diamond-pointed, galvanized made of unhardened steel, stainless steel, alumi
nails of relatively short length and large heads. num, or brass. The steel may be bright finished
or blued, or zinc, cadmium, or chrome plated.
Wood screws are threaded from a gimlet point
© © for approximately 2/3 of the length of the screw
and are provided with a slotted head for use of
COMMON WIRE MOLDING OR FINISHING a screwdriver.
NAIL
a. Types and Uses.
©
nini'•n J jj (1) Wood screws (1, fig. 3-8). Wood screws
are designated according to head style. The most
SCAFFOLD OR FORM ROOFING common types are flathead, ovalhead, and round
NAIL NAIL
head with either slotted or phillips heads. To
prepare wood for receiving the screws, a pilot
cr hole the diameter of the screw is bored in the
piece of wood that is to be fastened (fig. 3-9).
CUT NAIL Then a smaller, starter hole is bored in the piece
of wood that is to act as anchor or hold the
Figure 3-6. Types of nails. threads of the screw. The starter hole is drilled

3-6
TM 5-55 IB

Figure 3-7. Sizes of nails.

with a diameter less than that of the screw wood screw and have coarser threads which ex
threads and to a depth 1/2 or 2/3 the length of tend from a cone or gimlet point slightly more
the threads to be anchored. This assures accur than half the length of the screw. Squarehead
acy in placing the screws, reduces the possibility and hexagonhead lag screws are usually placed
of splitting the wood, and reduces the time re with a wrench. They are used when ordinary
quired. Properly set slotted and phillips flat- wood screws would be too short or too light and
head and ovalhead screws are countersunk spikes would not be strong enough. For sizes of
enough to permit a covering material to be used. lag screws, see table 3-7. Combined with ex
Slotted roundhead and phillips roundhead screws pansion anchors, they are used to frame timbers
are not countersunk, but driven firmly flush with to existing masonry.
the surface. The slot of the roundhead screw is (3) Expansion shields. Expansion shields
left parallel with the grain of the wood. (expansion anchors) are inserted in a predrilled
(2) Lag screws (2, fig. 3-8). The Army hole, usually in masonry, to provide a gripping
name for lag screws is lag bolt, wood screw type. base or anchor for a screw, bolt, or nail. The
They are longer and heavier than the common shield may be obtained separately or may include

3-7
TM 5-55 IB

Table 3-4. Size, Type, and Use of Nails

Size Lk'th (in.) Diam (in.) Remarks Where used
2d 1 .072 Small head Finish work, shop work.
2d 1 .072 Large flathead Small timber, wood shingles, lathes.
3d .08 Small head Finish work, shop work.
3d m .08 Large flathead Small timber, wood shingles, lathes.
4d i% .098 Small head Finish work, shop work.
4d im> .098 Large flathead Small timber, lathes, shop work.
5d i% .098 Small head Finish work, shop work.
5d i% .098 Large flathead Small timber, lathes, shop work.
6d 2 .113 Small head Finish work, casing, stops, etc., shop work.
6d 2 .113 Large flathead Small timber, siding, sheathing, etc., shop work.
7d 2% .113 Small head Casing, base, ceiling, stops, etc.
7d 2% .113 Large flathead Sheathing, siding, subflooring, light framing.
8d 2Vi .131 Small head Casing, base, ceiling, wainscot, etc., shop work.
8d .131 Large flathead Sheathing, siding, subflooring, light framing, shop work.
8d 1V4 .131 Extra-large flathead Roll roofing, composition shingles.
9d 2% .131 Small head Casing, base, ceiling, etc.
9d 2% .131 Large flathead Sheathing, siding, subflooring, framing, shop work.
1Od 3 .148 Small head Casing, base, ceiling, etc., shop work.
1Od 3 .148 Large flathead Sheathing, siding, subflooring, framing, shop work.
12d 3V4 .148 Large flathead Sheathing, subflooring, framing.
16d 3% .162 Large flathead Framing, bridges, etc.
20d 4 .192 Large flathead Framing, bridges, etc.
30d 4 V2 .207 Large flathead Heavy framing, bridges, etc.
40d 5 .225 Large flathead Heavy framing, bridges, etc.
50d 5% .244 Large flathead Extra-heavy framing, bridges, etc.
60d 6 .262 Large flathead Extra-heavy framing, bridges, etc.
1 This chart applies to wire nails, although it may be used to determine the length of cut nails.

the screw, bolt, or nail. After the expansion 3-11. Bolts

shield is inserted in the predrilled hole, the fas Bolts are used when great strength is required
tener is driven into the hole in the shield, wedging or when the work must be frequently disassem
it firmly against the surface of the hole. bled. Nuts are usually used for fastening, and
(4) Sheet metal screws. For the assembly sometimes washers are used to protect the sur
of metal parts, sheet metal screws are used. These face of the material they fasten. Bolts are se
screws are made regularly in steel and brass lected for a specific use in terms of length, dia
with four types of heads: flat, round, oval, and meter, threads, style of head, and type. Washers
fillister, as shown in that order in 3, figure 3-8. between the nut and a wood surface or between
b. Wood Screw Sizes. Wood screw sizes vary both the nut and the head and their opposing
from 1/4 to 6 inches. Screws up to 1 inch in surfaces will avoid marring the surfaces and per
length increase by eighths, screws from 1 to 3 mit additional torque in tightening.
inches increase by quarters, and screws from 3 to a. Carriage Bolts. Carriage bolts come in three
6 inches increase by half-inches. Screws vary types: bolt, square neck (1, fig. 3-10); bolt,
in length and size of shaft. Each length is made finned neck (2, fig. 3-10) ; and bolt, ribbed neck
in a number of shaft sizes identified by a (3, fig. 3-10). They have roundheads that are not
number that shows relative differences in the made to be driven. They are threaded only part
diameter of the screws. Proper nomenclature of of the way up the shaft; usually the threads are
a screw includes the type, material, finish, length, two to four times as long as the diameter of the
and screw size number which indicates the wire bolt. In each type of carriage bolt, the upper
gage of the body, drill or bit size for the body part of the shank, immediately below the head
hole, and drill or bit size for the starter hole. grips the materials in which the bolt is inserted
Tables 3-5 and 3-6 provide size, length, gage, and keeps it from turning when a nut is
and applicable drill and auger bit sizes for screws ; tightened down on it or removed. The finned type
table 3-7 gives lengths and diameters of lag has two or more fins extending from the head
screws. to the shank. The ribbed type has longitudinal

3-8
FLAT OVAL ROUND SQUARE HEXAGON
HEAD HEAD HEAD HEAD HEAD

0 WOOD SCREWS 0 LAG SCREWS

FILLISTER
HEAD
FLAT ROUND OVAL
HEAD HEAD HEAD

0 METAL SCREWS

B
I DIAMETER
OF
HEAD
BODY
A SLOTTED B PHILLIPS DIAMETER

Figure 3-8. Types of screws.

COUNTERSUNK HOLE
PILOT HOLE V,
C5T

STARTER HOLE

Figure 3-9. Sinking a screw properly.

3-9
TM 5-55 IB

Table 3-5. Screw Sizes and Dimensions

Size numbers
Length (in.)
01 2 3 4 r, 6 7 8 9 111 1 1 13 1 1 lr, 16 17 18 20 22 24 28
V* X X X
% X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X
% .- X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
% X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
% X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
1 X X X X X X X X X X" X X X X X X X
IV* X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
1%. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
1% X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
2 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
2V* -- X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
2V2 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
2% X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
3 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
3% X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
4 X X X X X X X X X X X X X' X
4V2 X X X X X X X X X
5 X X X X X X X X X
6 X X X X X X X X
Gage and diameter
Steel wire gage 17 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6% 6 5
Diameter (inches) .054 .072 .080 .091 .105 .120 .135 .148 .162 .177 .184 .192 .207
Steel wire gage 4% 4 3 2% 2 1 '2 0 00 00% 000 0000
Diameter (inches) .216 .225 .243 .253 .262 .283 .306 .331 .362 .393

Table 3-6. Drill and Auger Bit Sizes for Wood Screws
Screw size No. l 2 3 4 s 6 7 g 9 10 12 14 16 18
Nominal screw .073 .086 .099 .112 .125 .138 .151 .164 .177 .190 .216 .242 .268 .294
Body diameter 5 3 3 7 1 9 5 11 11 3 7 15 17 19
64 32 32 64 8 64 32 64 64 16 32 64 64 64
Drill size 5 3 7 7 1 9 5 11 3 3 7 1 17 19
Pilot hole 64 32 64 64 8 64 32 64 16 16 32 4 64 64
Bit size 4 4 5 5
Drill size 1 1 5 5 3 7 7 1 1 9 5 3 13
Starter hole 16 16 64 64 32 64 64 8 8 64 32 16 64
Bit size 4

Table 3-7. Lag Screw Sizes bored to permit the head of the bolt to fit flush
Diameters (inches) with or below the surface of the material being
Lengths (inches) fastened. The bolt is then driven through the
1/4 3/8, 7/16, 1/2 5/8, 3/4 7/8, 1
1 hole with a hammer. Carriage bolts are chiefly
X X
1% X X X for wood-to-wood use but may also be used for
2, 2%, 3, 3Mt, etc., 7%, X X X X wood-to-metal. If used for wood-to-metal appli
8 to 10. cation, the head should be fitted to the wood item.
11 to 12 X X X Metal surfaces are sometimes predrilled and
13 to 16 X X countersunk to permit the use of carriage bolts
metal-to-metal. Carriage bolts can be obtained
ribs, splines, or serrations on all or part of a from 1/4 inch to 1 inch in diameter, and from
shoulder located immediately beneath the head. 3/4 to 20 inches long (table 3-8). A common
Holes bored to receive carriage bolts are bored to flat washer should be used with carriage bolts
be a tight fit for the body of the bolt and counter- between the nut and the wood surface.

3-10
TM 5-55 IB

©j$—|
<Om> -y
HEXAGON HEAD-HEXAGON NUT
SQUARE OR COMMON
0
SQUARE HEAD-SQUARE NUT
©
Figure 3-11. Machine bolts.

FINNED NECK length of the body, over part of the body, or

over most of the body. They are generally used
with square nuts and applied metal-to-metal,
© wood-to-wood, or wood-to-metal. If flatheaded,
they are countersunk; if roundheaded, they are
drawn flush to the surface.
RIBBED NECK

Figure 3-10. Carriage bolts.

b. Screw, Cap (Machine Bolts) . Machine bolts ROUND HEAD

(fig. 3-11) are made with cut National Fine or
National Coarse threads extending in length from
twice the diameter of the bolt plus 1/4 inch (for
bolts less than 6 inches in length), to twice the FLAT HEAD
diameter of the bolt plus 1/2 inch (for bolts
over 6 inches in length). They are precision made Figure 3-12. Stove bolts.
and generally applied metal-to-metal where close
tolerance is desirable. The head may be square, Table 3-9. Machine Bolt Size
hexagon, double hexagon, rounded, or flat coun
tersunk. The nut usually corresponds in shape Diameters (inches)
Lengths (inches)
to the head of the bolt with which it is used. 14. H 'At V4. S %. %. 1 VA. IV,
Machine bolts are externally driven only. The % X
proper machine bolt is selected on the basis of 1,1% X X X
1%, 2, 2V4 X X X X
head style, length, diameter, number of threads 3, 3%, 4, 4%, etc., X X X X X
per inch, and coarseness of thread. The hole 9%, 10 to 20.
through which the bolt is to pass is bored to the 21 to 25 - X X X
same diameter as the bolt. Machine bolts are 26 to 39 X X
made in diameters from 1/4 inch to 3 inches
and may be obtained in any length desired (table d. Expansion Bolts. An expansion bolt (fig.
3-9). 3-13) is a bolt used together with an expansion
shield to provide anchorage in substances in
Table 3-8. Carriage Bolt Sizes
which a threaded fastener is useless. The shield,
Diameters (inches)
Lengths (inches) 3/16. 1/4.
5/16. 8/8 7/16. 1/2 9/16. 6/8 8/4 SHIELD
\ X
1 X X
1% X X X
1%, 2, 2V4, etc., 9%, X X X X
10 to 20.
EXPANSION
BOLT
c. Stove Bolts. Stove bolts (fig. 3-12) are less
precisely made than machine bolts. They are
made with either flat or round slotted heads
and may have threads extending over the full Figure 3-13. Expansion bolts.

3-11
TM 5-551 B

or expansion anchor (para 3-106(3)), inserted

in a predrilled hole expands when the bolt is
driven into it and becomes wedged firmly in the
hole, providing a secui-e base for the grip of the
fastener.

3-12. Driftpins ©RIDGES ^ RIDGES AT

Driftpins (called driftbolt for supply purposes) PARALLEL SLIGHT ANGLE
are long, heavy, threadless bolts used to hold
heavy pieces of timber together (fig. 3-14).

<= -. D

Figure 3-H. Driftpins (driftbolts).

a. Types. Driftpins have heads and vary in
diameter from 1/2 to 1 inch, and in length from
18 to 26 inches. (T) METHOD OF USE
b. Uses. To use the driftpin, a hole slightly
smaller than the diameter of the pin is made Figure 3-15. Corrugated fasteners and their uses.
in the timber. The pin is driven into the hole
and is held in place by the compression action c. Use. Corrugated fasteners are used in a
of the wood. number of ways ; to fasten parallel boards to
gether, as in fastening tabletops; to make any
3-13. Corrugated Fasteners type of joint ; and as a substitute for nails where
Corrugated fasteners are one way to fasten joints nails may split the timber. The fasteners have
and splices in small timber and boards. They are a greater holding power than nails in small tim
used particularly in the miter joint (joints and ber. The proper method of using the fasteners
splices are discussed in the next section). They is shown in 3, figure 3-15.
are made of sheet metal of 18 to 22 gage with
alternate ridges and grooves; the ridges vary 3-14. Timber Connectors
from 3/16 to 5/16 inch, center to center. One end Timber connectors are metal devices for increas
is cut square; the other end is sharpened with ing the joint strength in timber structures. Ef
beveled edges. ficient connections for either timber-to-timber
a. Types. There are two types of corrugated joints or timber-to-steel joints are provided by
fasteners: one with ridges running parallel (1, the several types of timber connectors. The
fig. 3-15), the other with ridges running at a right type is determined mostly by the kind of
slight angle to one another (2, fig. 3-15). The joint to be made and the load to be carried.
latter type tends to compress the material since The connectors eliminate much complicated
the ridges and grooves are closer at the top than framing of joints. They simplify the design of
at the bottom. heavy construction; they give greater efficiency
of material ; they reduce the amount of timber
b. Size. These fasteners are made in several and hardware used ; and they save much time and
different lengths and widths. The width varies labor.
from 5/8 to 1 1/8 inches, while the length varies a. Types. Split rings are made of low-carbon
from 1/4 to 3/4 inch. The fasteners also are steel and have 2 1/2- and 4-inch diameters. They
made with different numbers of ridges, ranging are used between two timber faces for heavy
from three to six ridges per fastener. construction. The fit into grooves which are cut

1
TM 5-551 B

Figure 3-16. Split ring and its installation.

Figure 3-17. Method of cutting grooves.

u
Figure 3-19. Installation of toothed ring.

half the depth of the ring into each of the timber

faces (fig. 3-16). The grooves are made with a
special bit used in an electric, air, or hand drill
(fig. 3-17). The tongue-and-groove split in the
ring permits ring bearing simultaneously against
the cone wall and outer wall of the groove into
Figure 3-18. Toothed ring. which the ring is placed. The inside bevel and

3-13
230-321 O - 77 - 3
TM 5-551 B

mill edge make installation into and removal two timber frames for comparatively light con
from the groove easier. struction and are embedded into the contact
b. Uses. Toothed rings are corrugated and faces of the joint members by means of pressure
toothed, and are made from 16-gage plate low- (fig. 3-19).
carbon steel (fig. 3-18). They are used between

Section IV. JOINTS AND SPLICES

3-1 5. General
a. The weak points in a structure usually oc
cur where there are connections between mater
ials. The existence of such weak points is usually
a sign of faulty workmanship, since connections
can be made so that the strength of the structure
at these points is not weakened at all.
b. All connections between pieces of timber STRAIGHT BUTT JOINTS
are classified as either joints or splices. Joints
are connections between two pieces of timber
which come together at an angle. Splices are
connections between two pieces of timber which
extend in the same line.

3-16. Types of Joints OBLIQUE BUTT JOINT MITER BUTT JOINT

The types of joints most commonly used in car
pentry are the butt and lap joints (fig. 3-20).
The butt joint is constructed by placing the end
of one board on another board in such a way
that the boards are at an angle (usually a right
angle), forming a corner. The lap joint is con
structed by overlapping two pieces of wood and
securing them to form a joint, or by cutting
away corresponding portions (usually half) in
equal lengths from the thickness of two boards
and then joining them in such a way that they
overlap and form a corner. The various types
of joints are discussed in the following para
graphs.

3-17. Butt Joints

a. Straight Butt Joint. The straight butt joint
is formed by bringing the square-cut end of one Figure 3-20. Butt and lap joint*.
board against the square face of another (1
and 2, fig. 3-20). The butt end of one board one or two end-grain parts, the connection will
should be square and the face of the other smooth be no stronger than the characteristics of the
so that the pieces fit perpendicular to each other. end-grain parts. A butt joint is therefore the
Nails or screws are used to hold the two pieces weakest type of joint. This is especially true if
together. Properly selected screws will hold such the joint is of two pieces of wood only.
a joint securely. However, for framing, butt b. Oblique Butt Joint. The oblique butt joint
joints are secured by 8- or 10-penny nails which is formed by bringing the end of one board, cut
are toenailed to strengthen the joint. Toenailing to form the desired angle against the face of
is done by driving the nail diagonally through another board with which it is to be joined (3,
both pieces. End grain is the weakest part of a fig. 3-20). Bracing is a typical application for
piece of wood when used in joint connections. this joint. This joint should not be used where
Since a butt joint connection is made at either great strength is required. The strength of the

3-14
TM 5-551 B

joint depends upon the nailing; the size of the cular strength is required of the joint. The most
nails used depends entirely upon the size of the common locked joints are lap dovetail (5, fig.
timber. Nails should be toenailed as in the case 3-21), through single dovetail (6, fig. 3-21),
of the straight butt joint and not too many nails open mortise and tenon (7, fig. 3-21), and
should be used. through mortise and tenon (8, fig. 3-21).
c. Miter Butt Joint. The miter butt joint is
formed by bringing the mitered ends of two
boards together to form the desired angle (4,
fig. 3-20). The miter butt joint is usually used
at corners where the straight butt joint is not
satisfactory. To make a miter joint, the angle
of cut is the same for both pieces. To form a
right-angle miter joint (the most commonly used
miter joint), each piece is cut at a 45-degree DADO JOINT RABBET JOINT JOMT
angle so that when the pieces are joined they
will form a 90-degree angle. The miter joint is
used mostly in framing but is a very weak joint
and is not to be used where strength is important.

3-18. Lap Joints

a. Plain Lap Joint. The plain lap joint is
formed by laying one board over another and
securing the two by means of screws or nails
(5, fig. 3-20). This is the simplest and most often
used method of joining in framing and construc
tion. This joint is as strong as the fasteners
and material used.
6. Half-Lap Splice Joint. The half-lap splice
joint is constructed by cutting away portions
(usually half) in equal lengths from the thick OPEN MORTISE THROUGH MORTISE
ness of two boards and joining them in such a TENON JOINT TENON JOWT
way that the cutaway portions overlap to form
the joint (6, fig. 3-20). The half-lap is a relatively Figure 3-21. Dado, rabbet, dovetail, and mortise
strong, easily made joint. Overlapping surfaces and tenon joint*.
must fit snugly and smoothly. Saw on the waste
side of the gage line when cutting out the laps 3-20. Splices
Splices connect two or more pieces of timber so
to avoid cutting laps oversize by the thickness
they will be as strong as a single timber of the
of the kerf. Several useful variations of the half-
same length and the joint will be as strong as
lap are cross lap (7, fig. 3-20), middle lap (8,
the unjoined portions. The type of splice used
fig. 3-20), and mitered half-lap (9, fig. 3-20).
is determined by the way in which the spliced
timber is to be subjected to the stress and strain
3-19. Other Useful Joints
(fig. 3-21) it must support. Timbers subjected to direct
longitudinal stress (1, fig. 3-22) as vertical sup
a. Dado and Rabbet. The dado is a rectangular,
ports or in exerting pressure require splices de
square-bottomed groove cut in wood, and a rab
signed to resist compression. Timbers subjected
bet is a corner cut out of an edge of a piece of
to transverse and angular stresses when used as
wood. Both the dado and the rabbet are used to
trusses, braces, or joists require splices designed
form the following joints: dado joint (1, fig.
to resist tension (2, fig. 3-22). Timbers used as
3-21), rabbet joint (2, fig. 3-21), dado-rabbet
horizontal supports require splices designed to
joint (3, fig. 3-21), and stopped dado (4, fig. 3-
resist bending (3, fig. 3-22). Splices for resisting
21).
compression are usually worthless for tension or
b. Dovetail, Mortise, and Tenon. Locked joints bending; therefore, splices should be made to
give added strength at the cost of added work meet the conditions for which they are to be
and workmanship and are not used unless parti used. The carpenter should know each type of

3-15
TM 5-55 IB

splice and should be able to make and apply

each properly.

LONGITUWNAL 0

Figure S-22. Splice stresses.

3-21. Compression Resistant Splices

General. Compression resistant splices support
weight or exert pressure and will resist com
pression stress only. The butt splice and the
halved splice are the most common types of com
pression resistant splices.
a. Butt Splice. The butt splice is constructed
by butting the squared ends of two pieces of
timber together and securing them in this posi
tion by means of two wood or metal pieces fas
tened on opposite sides of the timber (1 and
2, fig. 3-23). The two short supporting pieces
keep the splice straight and prevent buckling.
Metal plates used as supports in constructing
Figure 3-23. Compression, tension, and bending
a butt splice are called fishplates (1, fig. 3-23).
splices.
Wood plates are called scabs (2, fig. 3-23). Fish
plates are fastened in place with bolts or screws. tending to buckle the member in a predictable
Bolts, nails, or corrugated fasteners may be used direction. Tension splices are designed to provide
to secure scabs. If nails are used with scabs, they the greatest practicable number of bearing sur
are staggered and driven at an angle away from faces and shoulders within the splice to resist the
the splice. Too many nails, or nails that are buckling tension.
too large, will weaken a splice.
a. Square Splice. The square splice is a modi
b. Halved Splice. The halved splice is made by fication of the compression halved splice. Notches
cutting away half the thickness of equal lengths are cut in the tongues or laps to provide an addi
from the ends of two pieces of timber and fitting tional locking shoulder (4, fig. 3-23). The square
the complementary tongues or laps together. The splice may be fastened with nails or bolts or
laps should be long enough to have enough bear may be greatly strengthened by the use of fish
ing surfaces. Nails or bolts may be used to fasten plates or scabs.
the halved splice (3, fig. 3-23). In order to give
this type of splice resistance to some tension 6. Plain Splice. A hasty substitute for the
as well as compression, fishplates or scabs may square splice is the long plain splice (5, fig. 3-23).
be used as with the butt splice. A long overlap of the two pieces is desirable to
provide adequate bearing surface and enough
room for fasteners to make up for the lack of
3-22. Tension Resistant Splices shoulder lock.
In tension members such as trusses, braces, and
joists, the joint undergoes stress that is exerted 3-23. Bend Resistant Splices
in more than one direction and creates a tension a. General. Horizontal timbers supporting

3-16
TM 5-55 IB

weight undergo stress at a splice which results upper tongue (bearing surface) is squared to
in a compression of the upper part that has a butt against the square of the complementary
tendency to crush the fibers and in a tension of lap (6, fig. 3-23) to offer maximum resistance
the lower part that tends to pull the fibers apart. to crushing, and the lower tongue is beveled.
Bend resistant splices resist both compression A scab or fishplate may be fastened along the
and tension; they combine the features of the bottom of the splice to resist the tendency of the
compression and tension splices. pieces to separate. In any case where it is not
b. Construction. The bend resistant splice is desirable to lap or halve the timber ends for a
constructed by cutting oblique complementary splice subject to tension, a butt joint secured by
laps in the ends of two pieces of timber. The fishplates may be used.

3-17
TM 5-55 IB

CHAPTER 4

BILLS OF MATERIALS

4-1. Definition where no bills of materials accompany field

a. A bill of materials is a list of all materials prints, they must be drawn up by the construc
needed to complete a structure. It includes item ting forces; thus, a carpenter should be able to
number (parts and materials), name, descrip work with or develop bills of materials. Reason
tion, unit of measure, quantity and, where called able accuracy can best be obtained by having
for, the stock size and number, and sometimes the separate bills of materials prepared by at least
weight. two estimators. They can then be compared and
6. Bills of materials are based on takeoffs and one copy corrected or both used to make up a
estimates of the materials needed. They are usu final bill of materials.
ally made up by the draftsman when he pre
pares the original drawings ; the carpenter simply 4-2. Materials Takeoff List
uses them when ordering materials. However, a. The first step in preparing a bill of mater-

rrCfLOORINO
ft Ct io'-o" joist's. • 7-0 O C
7^ SPllCC f« 6^7-0'
'*«*POST EACH J0I5T-

WOOD FLOOR
TYPE-l
SUBSTRUCTURE Built-in-Pl*ce-Con«truetion

Figure 4-1. 20-foot wide TO building substructure.

TM 5-55 IB

Table 4-1. Materials Takeoff List for 2ff x 4ff TO Building

No of Unit Length No. per
Item Name or use of piece piece* in place Size Length length Quantity
1. Footers 45 Pc 1'-5" 2x6 10' 7 7
2. Spreaders 30 Pc 1'-4" 2x6 8' 6 5
3. Foundation post 15 Pc 3'-0" 6x6 12' 4 4
4. Scabs 20 Pc 1'-O" 1x6 8' 8 3
5. Girders 36 Pc 1O'-O" 2x6 10' 1 36
6. Joists 46 Pc 1O'-O" 2x6 1C 1 46
7. Joist splices 21 Pc 2'-0" 1x6 8' 4 6
8. Block bridging 40 Pc 1'-10%" 2x6 8' 4 10
9. Closers 12 Pc 1O'-O" 1x8 10' 1 12
10. Flooring 800 BF RL 1x6 RL -- --

ials is to prepare a materials takeoff list. This length in place can be divided into the commer
is an individual listing of all parts of the build cial lengths in inches. This will give the number
ing, "taken off" the plans, usually by an actual of pieces that can be obtained from each com
tally and checkoff of the items shown, noted, or mercial length, plus the amount of waste per
specified on the drawings and specifications. Both commercial length. For example, the length in
architectural and engineering plans provide the place of the footers is 1-5", or 17". Dividing 17"
names and sizes of the various items which are into 96", the 8' commercial length, an answer of
to be listed. five pieces 1'5" long with 11" waste is obtained.
In a 10' piece, dividing 17" into 120" gives seven
b. Figure 4-1 shows the plan for the sub pieces 1'-5" long with 1" waste. When there is
structure of a 20 foot wide building. Table 4-1 only 1" waste or no waste at all, that commer
is a materials takeoff list prepared for the plans cial length can be used without going further.
in figure 4-1. This list contains all parts of the
Since seven pieces 1'-5" long are obtained from
building, starting with its bottom and working
each 1O'-O" stock and since 45 pieces 1'-5" long
upward until all its parts are listed.
are needed, seven 2" x 6" x 1O'-O" pieces are
c. Look at the first item on the materials ordered to give the required 45 pieces 1'-5" long.
takeoff list as an example. The item number is Four extra 1'-5" lengths of 2' x 6" will be left,
followed by the name of the item. Next is the but they may be used elsewhere on the job.
total number of pieces needed to make up the
item. In the example there are 15 posts in a 4-3. Materials Estimate List
20' x 40' building. With three pieces needed for a. The materials estimate list puts into
each footer, a total of 45 pieces are needed. The a shorter form the information on the materials
length in place is the actual length of the member takeoff list, adds an allowance for waste and
after it has been cut and is ready to be nailed breakage, and makes an estimate of quantities
in place. The length in place of the footer is 1 - of materials known to be necessary but which
5". The size refers to the quoted size of the may not have been placed on the drawings, such
lumber, such as 2 x 4 or 2 x 6. Since 2x6 stock as nails, cement, concrete-form lumber and tie
is being used in the example, that dimension is wire, temporary bracing or scaffold lumber, and
put into the size column. The commercial length so on.
refers to the standard lengths available from the
lumber yard or depot, such as 8', 10', and 12' b. The first step in preparing the materials
long pieces of stock. estimate list (table 4-2) is to consoliate the
information on the takeoff list. This means to
d. It must be decided which length is the group all pieces of the same size and length in a
most economical to use in making the footers, logical order. For example, start with the largest
which are built from 45 pieces of 2 x 6 x 1'-5". size lumber that can be found on the material |
If the standard lengths of 8'-0", 1O'-O", and 12'- takeoff list. Add together all the pieces of that
0" are changed to 96", 120", and 144", the same size and length that appear anywhere on

4-2
TM 5-55 IB

Table U-S. Materials Estimate List

Takeoff Waste Additional Total b.m.
Item Size & length Unit Quantity allowance requirements quantity
1 6 X 6 X 12 Pc 4 1 None 5 180
2 2 x 6 x 10 Pc 89 9 None 98 980
3 2x6x8 Pc 15 2 3 for temporary bracing 20 160
4 1 x 8 x 10 Pc 12 2 None 14 91
5 1x6x8 Pc 9 2 2 for batter boards 13 52
6 1 x 6 x RL BF 800 160 None 960 960
7 16d lb — 36 nailSr framing 36
8 8d lb --- 23 nails, flooring 23 ---

the list. This gives the total number of pieces of (1) For flooring and sheathing, and other
that particular size and length that will be needed 1-inch material, the following formula is used:
for the project. Continue in this way with the
d \y in
next smaller size of lumber, and work down to No. of lb (2d to 12d, sheathing) » -jx ^Qfi
the smallest size and length of material.
(2) For framing materials which are 2
c. To each total number of pieces of one length inches or more, the following formula is used:
and size, the waste factor must be added. For
flooring, sheathing, and other 1 inch material, d b.m.
No. of lb (12d to 60d, framing) TX~100
add a waste allowance of 20 percent to the total
number of pieces. For all other materials 2 inches
and larger, add 10 percent to the total number.
Bill of Materials
In the next column, estimate the amount of addi The actual bill of materials is the final step.
tional requirements for materials not shown Although the materials estimate list contains all
on the plans. Add up the total quantity for each of the information on all the material needed
size and length of material, and then convert for the project, it contains much information of
it to board feet, using one of the methods given little interest to the depot personnel, so it is
in paragraph 3-7. simplified into the bill of materials format shown
d. The sizes and pounds of nails needed should in table 4-3. This is the document submitted to
be added to the list. Two nail formulas are used supply personnel to requisition the material. The
for estimating the number of pounds of nails rest of the building would be analyzed in the
needed : same way.

Table i-S. Bills of Materials

Item Quantity Unit Size & length b.m. Description or where used
1. 6 Pc 6" x 6" x 12' 180 Posts
2. 98 Pc 2" x 6" x 10' 980 Footing, girder, joist
3. 20 Pc 2" x 6" x 8' 160 Spreader, bridging
4. 14 Pc 1" x 8" x 10, 94 Closers
5. 13 Pc 1" x 6" x 8' 52 Scabs, splices
6. 960 BF 1 x 6 x RL 960 Flooring
7. 36 lb 16d ... Nails, framing
8. 23 lb 8d --- Nails, area coverage
9.
10.

4-3
(
TM 5-55 IB

CHAPTER 5

BUILDING LAYOUT AND FOUNDATION

5-1 . Introduction a. Sledge Hammer or Maul. The sledge ham

Layout means the actions performed in preparing mer or maul is used to sink corner stakes or bat
the materials and work area before beginning ter board posts.
construction. As soon as the construction site
has been selected, layout may begin. b. Post-Hole Auger. The post hole auger is
used to dig the holes required to set posts properly
in some soils.
5-2. Tools and Materials
Tools and materials used in layout must be care c. Hand Saw. The hand saw is used to cut
fully selected. The most commonly used are as batter boards and posts.
follows : figure 5-1.
d. Chalkline. A chalkline is a white, twisted
mason's line consisting of a reel, line,' and chalk.
It is coated with chalk and stretched taut be
tween points to be connected by a straight line,
just off the surface. When snapped, the line makes
a straight guideline.
e. Tracing Tape. Tracing tape is a cotton tape
approximately 1 inch wide. It is generally in a
200-foot length for laying out excavation or
foundation lines.
/. Ax or Hatchet. The ax or hatchet is used
to sharpen batter boards and stakes.
g. Hammer. The hammer is used for building
batter boards.
h. Posts and Stakes. Batter board posts are
made from 2 x 4 or 4 x 4 material; corner
stakes, from 4 x 4's. Batter boards are made from
1 x 4 or 1 x 6 pieces.
i. Carpenter's Level. The carpenter's level (4,
fig. 5-1) determines levelness of surface and
sights level lines. It may be used directly on the
surface or used with a straightedge (fig. 5-1).
Levelness is determined by the bubbles suspended
within glass tubes parallel to one or more sur
faces of the level.
j. Straightedge. The straightedge usually has
a handhole, a bottom edge at least 30 inches long
used as a leveling surface, and a top edge 8 to
10 inches long used as a working surface. It
may be used with the level to increase the area
checked (5, fig. 5-1). It is most often used to
lay out straight lines between points close enough
I together to use the edge as a ruler.
Figure S-1. Layout tools. k. Line Level. The line level has a spirit bubble

5-1
TM 5-55 IB

to show levelness; it can be hung from a line LEVEL VIAL

(6, fig. 5-1). Placement halfway between the
points to be leveled gives the greatest accuracy.
I. Engineer's Transit or Leveling Instrument.
The engineer's transit establishes reference
points or grade lines which permit building up or
down with accuracy as to vertical level. It lo
PEEP SIGHT
cates corners and lays out lines for buildings or
excavation.
(1) Engineer's transit. The engineer's tran
sit has an adjustable tripod and head. It measures
horizontal or vertical angles (fig. 5-2).

MIRROR GLASS COVER—i

It* % >••*»• |<

INDEX LINE-
LEVELING INSTRUMENT

Figure 5-3. Leveling instrument.

do so on the job. TM 5-232 and TM 5-233 pro
vide information needed in the use of this in
strument. The following guidance will help those
who wish to review the procedure.
a. Set up the transit directly over station
mark (A) (fig. 5-4), the point from which lay
out is sighted. A bench mark (B) may be pro
vided by surveying engineers as a point of refer
ence. The bench mark may be on the foundation
of an adjacent building or a buried stone marker.
If bench marks have been established in the area
and the architect's drawings have been created
specifically for that particular area, the bench
mark will appear on the drawings and the plans

Figure 5-2. Engineer's transit.

(2) Locator's hand level. The locator's hand
level measures approximately differences in ele
vation and can establish grades over limited dis
tances (fig. 5-3). The landscape, level bubble,
and index line are seen in the tube.

5-3. Use of the Engineer's Transit

The carpenter ordinarily does not use the en
gineer's transit but many of them learn how to Figure 5-4. Layout of a plot with a transit.

5-2
TM 5-55 IB

will be oriented to that point. If no bench mark

A
exists, a post may be driven into the ground to
provide this reference point. This post can es 90*
tablish floor levels, foundation levels, or any
definite point of elevation. When setting up the
engineer's transit or leveling instrument, a plumb
bob may be used to center the instrument di
rectly over the selected station mark.
b. Adjust the tripod so that it rests firmly on
the ground with the sighting tube at eye level.
Figure 5-5. Laying out a right angle with an
Level up the head of the instrument by turning
engineer's transit.
the leveling screws, so that the sight tube and
head are level when turned in any direction.
Once set up, all contact with the legs of the tripod 5-4. Staking Out
When the location and alinement of a building
should be avoided.
have been determined, a rectangle comprising the
c. Place a leveling rod (C) upright on any exterior dimensions of the structure is staked out.
point to be checked, and sight through the sight If the building is other than rectangular, a rec
tube of the instrument at the leveling rod. In tangle large enough to comprise the major out
accurate work, a spirit level may be attached to line of the irregular structure is staked out and
the leveling rod. An assistant should hold the the irregularities plotted and proved by smaller
leveling rod, and should move the target on the rectangles within or without the basic form.
rod up or down until the crossline on the target
comes in line with the crosshair sights in the 5-5. Laying Out a Rectangle Without a
sighting tube. Transit
If the construction is parallel to an identifiable
d. To obtain the difference in elevation between
line that may be used as a guide, staking out
two points, such as the surveyor's bench mark
may be accomplished without a builder's transit.
(B) and the target point (D), hold the rod on
If a clearly defined line which construction is to
the point (B) and take a rod reading. This will
parallel is present (AB) (fig. 5-6) and the maxi
be the length of the bottom of the rod below
mum outer perimeter of the building area (AC,
the line of sight. Take a rod reading at point (D).
CD, DB) is known, proceed in the following
The difference between the two rod readings is
manner :
the difference.
e. To establish a level for the depth of an
excavation or for the level of foundation walls,
measure equal distances at all corners from these
target points to the desired elevations (H, I, J,
and K).
/. To lay out a right angle with an engineer's
transit, set up the transit directly over the line
(use plumb bob) at the point where the right
angle is to occur (A, fig. 5-5). Sight a refer
ence point on that line (B) to be sure the
transverse axis of the engineer's transit is paral
lel to the line. Turn the eyepiece end of the sight
tube to the left until the scale indicates that an
arc of 90° has been completed. Establish a level
ing rod in position along this line of sight at the
desired distance. A line extended from the level
ing rod (D) to the point from which the sight
was taken will be perpendicular to the base line
and will form a right angle at the point at which Figure 5-6. Laying out a rectangle without use of
they bisect (DAB). transit.

5-3
TM 5-55 IB

a. Measure away from the front line (AB) b. Set up the engineer's transit at point C
along the side lines (AC and BD) the distances and establish point D, a front corner of the
(AO and BO) desired to the dimension of the project.
project that is to run parallel to the front line.
c. Set up the engineer's transit at a point E
b. Stretch a line tightly from point O to O. a greater distance along line AB from point C
This line will mark out what will be frontage of than the intended length of the project. Set a
the project. stake at F, the same distance from AB as D.
CD and EF are equal.
c. Measure in from lines AC and BD along line
OO, one-half the difference between the length d. Establish the front line of the project by
of OO and the desired length of the project. marking off the length of the project DG along
The points (X and X) will constitute the front the established line DF. The two front corners
corners of the project. of the project will be located at D and G.
d. The two distances, OX and XO, establish e. With engineer's transit at point C, shoot E
the distance E and F. Extending lines from the and then swing the transit 90 degrees and sight
two front corners, X and X, parallel to AC and along this position to establish H, the rear corner
BD at the distances established as E and F for of the project.
the required depth of the project provides the
/. With the engineer's transit set up at G,
side lines of the project XG and XH. sight D and swing the transit sight tube 90 de
e. Joining the extreme ends of side lines XG grees and shoot I, the other rear corner of the
and XH will provide the rear line of the project. project.
/. After the four corners (X, X, G, and H) g. To prove the work, set up the transit at I
have been located, drive stakes at each corner. and take a sighting on H. If IH is equal to DG,
Batter boards may be erected at these points the work is correct. If it is not, the work must be
either after all the stakes have been set or while repeated until correct.
they are being set. Dimensions are determined
accurately during each step. 5-7. Laying Out an Irregularly Shaped
Project
g. If the building is not rectangular, several Where the outline of the building is not a rec
lines such as OO may be run and appropriate tangle, the procedure in establishing each point
adjacent rectangles constructed from these lines is the same as described above, but more points
in the same fashion as indicated above. have to be located and the final proving of the
work is more likely to reveal a small error. It is
5-6. Laying out a Simple Rectangle With usually advisable with an irregularly shaped
an Engineer's Transit or Leveling building to lay out first a large rectangle which
Instrument will comprise the entire building or a greater part
a. Working from an established line AB (fig.
of it. This is shown in 2, figure 5-7, as the
5-7) such as a road or street line, property
rectangle HOPQ. Having once established this
line, or an established reference line, select a point
accurately, the remaining portion of the layout
to represent the lateral limit for a front corner
will consist of small rectangles, each of which
of the project.
can be laid out and proved separately. The other
© © rectangles as LMNP, ABCQ, DEFG, and LJKO
are illustrated in 2, figure 5-7.

5-8. Batter Boards

a. Staking Procedure. At the points at which
the various corners of the project are located,
a corner stake is driven to mark the exact spot
(fig. 5-8). If the area must be excavated for a
foundation, the excavating will disturb the pegs.
Batter boards are therefore set up to preserve
definite and accurate building lines to work to
Figure 5-7. Laying out regular and irregular ward or from. This is done by stretching heavy
projects. cord or fine wire from one batter board to the
TM 5-551 B

BATTER BOARD boards should be at the exact height of the top

f5^ of the foundation, it may be desirable to adjust
the height by nailing the boards to the stakes
after the stakes have been sunk. Right-angle
batter boards may be nailed at close to perpen
TRACING TAPE dicular by the use of a framing square and
should be leveled by means of a carpenter's
level before they are secured. When the final
BATTER BOARD adjustments have been made for accuracy and
squareness, saw cuts may be made or nails
driven into the tops of the boards to hold the
lines and keep them in place. Separate cuts or
nails may be used for the building line, the
foundation line, footing line, and excavation
CORNER STAKE lines. These grooves permit the removal and re
placement of the lines in the correct position.

5-9. Extending Lines

BATTER J~ The following procedure applies to a simple lay
1 1 - BOARD ^ \\i out (fig. 5-9) and must be amended to apply to
I 1 POSTS V different or more complex layout problems :
l
a. After locating and sinking stakes A and B,
\\ / erect batter boards 1, 2, 3, and 4. Extend the
V STRAIGHT BATTER BOARDS
chalkline X from batter board 1 over stakes A
RIGHT ANGLE BATTER BOAROS
and B to batter board 3.
1 b. After locating and sinking stake C, erect
batter boards 5 and 6. Extend the chalkline Y
from batter board 2 over stakes A and C to
batter board 6.
c. After locating and sinking stake D, erect
batter boards 7 and 8. Extend chalkline Z from
batter board 5 over stakes C and D to batter
board 7.
d. Extend line O from batter board 8 over
Ik- stakes D and B to batter board 4.
e. Where foundation walls are wide at the
bottom and extend beyond the outside dimensions
of the building, the excavation must be larger
Figure 5-8. Batter boards. than the size laid out. To lay out dimensions for
this excavation, measure out as far as required
other to define the lines of excavations. from the building line on each batter board,
6. Locating Batter Boards. Right-angle bat and stretch lines between these points and out
ter boards are erected 3 or 4 feet outside each side the first layout.
corner stake (fig. 5-8). Straight batter boards /. The lines may be brought to an approximate
are erected 3 or 4 feet outside of the line stakes right angle where they cross by holding a plumb
set at points provided for the extension of founda bob over the corner layout stakes and adjusting
tion lines (fig. 5-8) which intercept side lines. the lines until they touch the plumb bob line
c. Construction of Batter Boards. Batter board perfectly.
stakes may be 2 x 4's, 2 x 6's, or 4 x 4's. Right- g. The lines should be checked by means of a
angle batter boards usually are two 1x6 boards line level, or carpenter's level.
and three stakes. They can be nailed or bolted to
the stakes either before or after they are sunk. 5-10. Squaring Foundation Lines
Batter boards are firmly anchored. Since the There are two methods for squaring extended

5-5
TM 5-55 IB

UNE OF EXCAVATION PRELIMINARY

r-O" OUTSIDE OF WALL *«--'- STAKE

Figure 5-9. Laying out building lines from batter

boards.

lines commonly used by the carpenter: the 6-8-10 was 12 feet). Adjust the lines until FG equals 10
method and the diagonal method. feet if the other two measurements used are 6
feet and 8 feet, or 20 feet if the other two are
a. 6-8-10 Method (fig. 5-9). After lines have 12 feet and 16 feet.
been extended and are in place, measure the
distance EF (6 feet or a multiple thereof, b. The Diagonal Method (fig. 5-9). If the lay
such as 12 feet). Measure off EF (to a distance out is rectangular, line H and I cutting the rec
of 8 feet if the previous figure used was 6 feet, tangle from opposing corners will form two tri
or to a distance 16 feet if the previous figure angles. If the rectangle is perfect, these lines will

5-6
TM 5-55 IB

be equal in length and the corners perfectly laid up with or without mortar; if strength
square. If lines H and I are not equal in length, and stability are desired, mortar must be used.
adjust the corners by moving the lines right or (2) Coursed rubble. Coursed rubble is as
left until H and I are equal. sembled of roughly squared stones in such a man
ner as to produce approximately continuous hor
5-1 1 . Foundations izontal bed joints.
Foundations vary according to their use, the (3) Random rubble. This is the crudest of
bearing capacity of the soil, and the type of all types of stonework. Little attention is paid
material available. The material may be cut stone, to laying the stone in courses. Each layer must
rock, brick, concrete, tile, or wood, depending contain bonding stones that extend through the
upon the weight which the foundation is to sup wall. This produces a wall that is well tied to
port. Foundations may be classified as wall or gether.
column (pier) foundations. b. Column or Pier Foundations. Column or
a. Wall Foundations. Wall foundations are built pier foundations save time and labor. They may
solid for their total length when heavy loads be constructed from masonry or wood. The piers
are to be carried or where the earth has low or columns are spaced according to the weight
supporting strength. These walls may be made of to be carried. In most cases, the spacing is from
concrete, rock, brick, or cut stone, with a footing 6 to 10 feet. Figure 5-11 shows the different types
at the bottom (fig. 5-10). Because of the time, of piers with different types of footing. Wood
labor, and material required to built it, this type piers are generally used since they are installed
of wall will be used in the theater of opera with the least time and labor. Where wood piers
tions only when other types cannot be used. are 3 feet or more above the ground, braces are
Steel rod reinforcements should be used in all necessary (fig. 5-12).
concrete walls.

STUDS

CONCRETE RUBBLE COURSED RANDOM

REINFORCED MASONRY RUBBLE RUBBLE

Figure 5-10. Foundation walls.

(1) Rubble masonry. Rubble stone masonry

is used for walls both above and below ground © © ©
and for bridge abutments. In military construc
tion, it is used when form lumber or masonry
units are not available. Rubble masonry may be Figure 5-11. Column and piers.

I
5-7
230-321 O . 77 - 4
TM 5-55 IB

Figure 5-12. Braced piers, sills, girders, and

joist construction.
TM 5-551 B

CHAPTER 6

FORMS FOR CONCRETE

6-1. Use Tongue-and-groove lumber makes a more water

Forms are a major part of concrete construction tight joint, which reduces warping.
work. They must support the plastic concrete (3) Plywood can be used economically for
until it hardens. Forms protect the concrete, wall and floor forms if made with waterproof
assist in curing it, and support any reinforcing glue and marked for use in concrete forms. Ply
rods or conduit embedded in it. wood is warp resistant and can be used more
often than other lumber. It is made in thicknesses
6-2. Design of 1/4, 3/8, 9/16, 5/8, and 3/4 of an inch and in
Forms for concrete must be tight, rigid, and widths up to 48 inches. The 8-foot lengths are
strong. If not tight, loss of mortar may cause a most commonly used. The 5/8- and 3/4-inch thick
honeycomb effect or loss of water may cause nesses are most economical; thinner plywood
sand streaking. The forms must be braced enough requires solid backing to prevent deflection. The
to stay in alinement. Special care is needed in 1/4-inch thickness is useful for curved surfaces.
bracing and tying down forms, such as for re
6. Waterproof cardboard and other fiber ma
tainer walls, where the mass of concrete is
terials are used for round concrete columns and
large at the bottom and tapers toward the top.
other preformed shapes. Forms are made by
In this type of construction and in the first pour
gluing layers of fiber together and molding them
for walls and columns, the concrete tends to lift
to the right shape. The advantage is that fabrica
the form above its proper elevation. TM 5-742,
tion at the job site is not necessary.
Concrete and Masonry, gives formulas and tables
for designing forms of proper strength.
6-4. Oiling
a. Oiling. Before concrete is placed, forms are
6-3. Construction Materials treated with oil or other coating material to
Forms are generally constructed from one of four
prevent the concrete from sticking. The oil
different materials : earth, metal, wood, and fiber.
should penetrate the wood and prevent water
The carpenter usually constructs wood and fiber
absorption. A light-bodied petroleum oil will do.
forms.
On plywood, shellac is more effective than oil.
a. Wood. Wood forms are the most common in If forms are to be reused, painting helps preserve
building construction; they are economical, easy the wood. Occasionally, lumber contains enough
to handle, easy to produce, and adaptable to tannin to cause softening of the concrete sur
many shapes. Form lumber can be reused for face; if so, the form surface should be treated
roofing, bracing, or similar purposes. with whitewash or limewater before the oil
(1) Lumber should be straight, strong, and is used.
only partially seasoned. Kiln-dried timber tends b. Wetting. If form oil is not available, wet
to swell when soaked with water. Swelling may ting with water may be substituted to prevent
cause bulging and distortion. If green lumber sticking but only in an emergency.
is used, allowance should be made for shrinkage
or it should be kept wet until the concrete is in
6-5. Form Removal
place. Softwoods (pine, fir, and spruce) are the Forms should be built so as to permit easy re
most economical, light, easy to work, and gen moval without danger to the concrete. When nec
erally available. essary to wedge against the concrete, only wood
(2) Wood coming in contact with concrete wedges should be used rather than a pinchbar or
should be surfaced (smooth) on the side to other metal tool. Forms should not be jerked
wards the concrete and on both edges. The edges off after wedging has been started at one end
may be square, shiplap, or tongue and groove. to avoid breaking the edges of the concrete.

6-1
TM 5-55 IB

Forms to be reused should be cleaned and oiled length as the thickness of the wall and placed
immediately. Nails should be removed as forms between the forms. They are not nailed but held
are stripped. in place by friction because they must be removed
before the concrete hardens. A wire is attached
6-6. Components of Wall Forms to the spreaders to pull them out of the form
Figure 6-1 shows the various parts of a wall after the concrete has put enough pressure on
form. These parts are described as follows : the walls to permit easy removal.
g. Tie Wires. Tie wires hold the forms secure
against the lateral pressure of unhardened con
crete. Double strands are always used.

WALE
6-7. Construction of Wall Forms
jS5^ TIE WIRE a. Wall panels should be about 10 feet long so
SHEATHING they can be easily handled. Panels are made by
STRONGBACK
nailing the sheathing to the studs. Sheathing is
normally 1-inch (13/16 inches dressed) tongue
and groove lumber or 3/4-inch plywood. Figure
6-2 shows how panels are connected: figure 6-3
BRACE STAKE - shows details for the corner of a wall.
b. Figure 6-4 shows how to use a wood strip
Figure 6-1. Form for a concrete wall. as a wedge when curtain walls and columns are
placed at the same time. In removing the forms,
a. Sheathing. Sheathing forms the surface of
the wedge is removed first.
the concrete. It should be smooth, especially if
the finished surface is to be exposed. Since con
crete is plastic when placed in the form, sheath
ing should be watertight. Tongue-and-groove
lumber or plywood gives a watertight surface.
SHEATHING
b. Studs. The weight of the concrete causes
the sheathing to bulge if it is not reinforced. 16D DOUBLEHEADED NAIL
Vertical studs make the wall form rigid. They
are generally made from 2x4 or 3x6 lumber. Figure 6-2. Method of connecting wall form panels
together.
c. Wales (waters). Studs also require reinforc
ing when they extend more than 4 or 5 feet.
Double wales give this reinforcing; they also tie B ^ } V Z Z ZZ3
prefabricated panels together and keep them in
a straight line. They run horizontally and are OUTER SIDE PANEL
lapped at the corners.
d. Braces. Many types of braces give the forms
stability. The most common brace is a horizontal ZZ2ZZT
member and a diagonal member nailed to a stake 1TT1
and to a stud or wale. The diagonal member
should make a 30-degree angle with the horizontal
member. Additional bracing may be strongbacks
(vertical members) behind the wales or in the ~IN»IO« END PA.HU.
corner formed by intersecting wales. Braces are
not part of the form design and are not con
sidered as providing additional strength. Figure 6S. Details of corner of wall form.
e. Shoe Plates. The shoe plate is nailed into c. Ties keep wall forms together as the con
the foundation or footing and must be carefully crete is poured; figures 6-5 and 6-6 show two
placed to maintain the wall dimensions and aline- ways of doing this. Figure 6-5 shows how to use
ment. Studs are tied into the shoe. wire ties, which are for low walls only or when
/. Spreaders. Spreaders are cut to the same tie rods are not available. The wire should be No.

6-2
TM 5-551 B

1/ '

COLUMN

PLAN VIEW OF THE WALL

STUDS SHEATHING /

PLAN VIEW OF THE WALL FORM /

WEDGE BUTTS AGAINST COLUMN FORM

- IN STRIPPING, WEDGE IS REMOVED FIRST

ELEVATION OF WALL FORM

Figure 6-4. Wall form for curtain walls.

8 or No. 9 gage, soft, black, annealed iron wire, spreaders one after another as the concrete level
but barbed wire can be used in an emergency. rises in the forms.
Tie spacing should be the same as the stud spac e. Figure 6-6 shows a tie rod and spreader
ing, but never more than 3 feet. Each tie is combination. After the form is removed, each
formed by looping the wire around a wale, bring rod is broken off at the notch. If appearance is
ing it through the form, crossing it inside the important, the holes should be filled with a mortar
form walls, and looping it around the wale on the mix.
opposite side. The tie wire is made taut by twist
ing it with a wedge.
6-8. Foundation and Footing Forms
d. Spreaders keep the wall forms together as a. Footing Forms. When possible, earth is ex
the concrete is placed. Spreaders must be placed cavated to form a mold for concrete wall footings.
near each tie wire; they are removed as the If wood forms are needed, the four sides are
forms are filled so they will not become embedded built in panels. Panels for two opposite sides are
in the concrete. Figure 6-7 shows how to remove made at exact footing width (a, figure 6-8) ;
spreaders. A wire fastened to the bottom spreader the other pair (b, figure 6-8) have two end cleats
passes through a hole drilled in each spreader on the inside spaced the length of the footing
above it. Pulling on the wire will remove the plus twice the sheathing thickness. The 1-inch
TM 5-55 IB

Figure 6-5. Wire ties for form walls.

thick sheathing is nailed to vertical cleats spaced leakage of mortar. All reinforcing bars must be
on 2-foot centers. Two-inch dressed lumber should placed before the wire is installed.
be used for the cleats. (3) For forms 4 feet square or larger, stakes
(1) Panels are held in place with form nails are driven as shown in figure 6-8. These stakes
until the tie wire is installed; nails should be and 1x6 boards nailed across the top prevent
driven from the outside part way so they can be spreading. Panels may be higher than the re
quired depth of footing since they can be marked
easily removed.
on the inside to show the top of the footing. If
(2) Tie wires are wrapped around the cen the footings are less than 1 foot deep and 2 feet
ter cleats. Wire holes on each side of the cleat square, forms can be constructed of 1-inch sheath
should be less than 1-inch diameter to prevent ing without cleats as shown in figure 6-9.

6-4
TM 5-55 IB

Figure 6-6. Tie rod and spreader for wall form.

WIRE FOR PULLING Figure 6-8. Typical large footing form.

UP SPREADERS

SPREADER

FOKM SIDES NAILED IN POSITION

Figure 6-9. Small footing forms.

HOLE FOR WIRE
OFF CENTER

FORM

Figure 6-7. Removing wood spreaders.

b. Footing and Pier Forms. When placing a
footing and a small pier at the same time, the
form is built as shown in figure 6-10. Support
for the upper form must not interfere with the
Figure 6-10. Footing and pier form.
placement of concrete in the lower form. This is
done by nailing 2 x 4 or 4 x 4 pieces to the lower ings. The sides are 2-inch lumber held in place
form as shown. The top form is then nailed to by stakes and apart by spreaders. The short brace
these pieces. shown at each stake holds the form in line.

c. Wall Footings. Figures 6-11 and 6-12 show 6-9. Column Forms
how to construct and brace forms for wall foot- Figure 6-13 shows elements of column forms.

6-5
TM 5-55 IB

a. Components. Sheathing runs vertically to

save the number of sawcuts; corner joints are
firmly nailed to insure water-tightness. Batten
are narrow strips of boards (cleats) placed di
rectly over the joints to fasten the several pieces
of vertical sheathing together.
6. Construction. Figure 6-13 shows a column
and footing form. The column form is erected
after the steel reinforcing is assembled and tied
to dowels in the footing. The form should have
a cleanout hole in the bottom to help remove
debris. The lumber removed to make the cleanout
Figure 6-11. Wall footing form.

SPREADER NAILED TO FORM SIDES

Figure 6-12. Bracing the wall footing form.

holes should be nailed to the form so it can be to the bottom but held in position by continuous
put back in the hole before concrete is placed. strips. Crosspieces nailed on top serve as spread
ers. After erection, the slab panel joints hold the
6-10. Beam and Girder Forms beam in place.
Figure 6-14 shows a beam form. The type of
b. Assembly. Beam and girder assembly is
construction depends on whether the form is to
shown in figure 6-15. The beam bottom butts
be removed in one piece or whether the bottom
up tightly against the side of the girder and
is to be left until the concrete is strong enough
rests on a 2 x 4 nailed to the girder side. Details
to remove the shoring. Beam forms receive little
in the figure show the clearances for stripping
bursting pressure but must be shored at close
and allow for movement caused by the weight
intervals to prevent sagging.
of the concrete. The 4x4 posts are spaced to
a. Construction. The bottom has the same support the concrete and are wedged at bottom
width as the beam and is in one piece the full or top for easy removal.
width. Form sides are 1-inch tongue and groove
material and lap over the bottom as shown in 6-11. Floor Forms
figure 6-14. The sheath is nailed to 2 x 4 struts Floor panels are built as shown in figure 6-16.
placed on 3-foot centers. A 1 x 4 piece is nailed The 1-inch tongue and groove sheathing or 3/4-
along the struts to support the joists for the inch plywood is nailed to 1 x 4 cleats on 3-foot
floor panel. The sides of the form are not nailed centers. These panels are supported by 2 x 6

6-6
TM 5-551 B
ANCHOR »OlT
blocks. The back of the panel is shored with
4x4 pieces as shown. The 2x6 cleats nailed
to the shoring should rest on wedges to make
adjustment easy and to make removal of the posts
easy. The side stringers are 2 x 12 pieces cut as
required for the tread and risers. The riser should
be 2-inch material beveled as shown.

6-13. Safety Precautions

The following safety rules apply to form con
struction and removal.
a. Construction.
(1) Consider protruding nails as the prin
cipal source of accidents on form work.
(2) Inspect tools frequently.
(3) Place mud sills under shoring that rests
on the ground.
(4) On elevated forms, take care to protect
men on scaffolds and on the ground.
(5) Do not raise large form panels in heavy
Figure 6-13. Form for a concrete column. gusts of wind.
(6) Brace all shoring securely to prevent
joists. Spacing of joists depends on the thickness collapse of form work.
of the concrete slab and the span of the beams.
If the slab spans the distance between two walls, 6. Stripping.
the panels are used in the same manner as when (1) Permit only workmen doing the strip
beams support the floor slab. ping in the immediate area.
(2) Do not remove forms until the concrete
6-12. Stair Forms has set.
Figure 6-17 shows a method for building stair
forms up to 3 feet in width. The sloping wood (3) Pile stripped forms immediately to
platform forming the underside of the steps avoid congestion, exposed nails, and other haz
should be 1-inch tongue and groove sheathing. ards.
This platform should extend 12 inches beyond (4) Cut wires under tension with caution
each side of the stairs to support stringer bracing to avoid backlash.

6-7
TM 5-551 B

CHAMFER
STRIP

Figure 6-11,. Beam and girder forms.

6-8
wi fliss-s

iiviaa jo sisod iv i

eunBij -gj-g ftjqiuassy 'sjivjap tuvaq puv j,ooj/ •avu,of

TM 5-551 B

Figure 6-17. Stairway form.

Figure 6-16. Form for floor slab.

6-10
TM 5-551 B

CHAPTER 7

FRAME CONSTRUCTION

Section I. FLOOR FRAMES AND FLOOR COVERINGS

7-1 . Framing framing can be done while staking out and squar
After the foundation is built and the batter- ing is being completed. When the skeleton is far
boards placed, the carpenter builds the frame enough along, boards can be nailed on without
work. The framework includes the beams, trusses, need for cutting if they are standard 8-, 10-,
foundation walls, outside walls, flooring, parti 12-, 16-, or 18-foot lengths. The better skilled
tions, roofing, and ceiling. men should construct the frame. With good
organization, a large force of men can be kept
a. Light Framing. Light framing is used in
busy during framing.
barracks, bathhouses, administration buildings,
c. Expedient Framing. Expedient framing de
light shop buildings, hospitals, and similar build
pends on the conditions. The ideas below may
ings. Figure 7-1 shows some details for a 20-foot-
suggest other expedients.
wide building; the ground level; window open
(1) Light siding. Chicken wire and water
ings, braces, and splices; and names the framing
resistant bituminous paper can be sandwiched to
parts.
provide adequate temporary framing in temperate
b. Light Frame Construction. Much of the climates.

CORNER BRACE SEE

TOP PLATE - DETAIL
TRUSSED RAFTER -
SPLICE PLATE
CORNER POST-
KNEE BRACE -

-GIRT
OPENING
.STUD
• JOIST
GIRDER
' SILL
FOOTING
• BELOW
GROUND

TRUSSED RAFTER DETAIL FOOTING DETAIL

Figure 7-1. View of a light frame building

substructure.

7-1
TM 5-55 IB
TM 5-551 B

(2) Salvaged framing. Salvaged sheet metal

SUBFLOOR
such as corrugated material or gasoline cans can (D SOLE
be used as siding in the construction of emer 2X4 PLATE DRAFT- STOP HEADER
STUDS, JOIST
gency housing. TUDS
SILL PLATE
(3) Local timber. Poles trimmed from sapl SOLE
ings or bamboo can be constructed into reasonably FRESH PLATE
MORTAR
sound framing. Such materials may be secured
JOISTS
with native vines as a further expedient.
ANCHOR BOLT SILL PLA"
(4) Wood substitute framing. Adobe soil,
CONCRETE
straw, and water puddled to proper consistency BRICK BEAM FILL FOUNDATION
can be used for form walls, floors, and founda
tions. A similar mixture may be used to form
sun-dried bricks for construction use.
(5) Excavations. Proper excavation and
simple log cribbing may be covered with sod and
carefully drained to provide adequate shelter. SOLE ® STruos
PL m
d. Heavy Framing. Heavy frame buildings are ' SUBFLOOR
more permanent, generally warehouses, depots, HEADER
and shops. Figure 7-2 shows the details of heavy SILL PLATE
frame construction.
JOISTS JOIST
CONCRETE JOIST
7-2. Sills FOUNDATION FRESH MORTAR
a. Types. The sill (fig. 7-1) is the foundation
that supports all the building above it. It is the FOUNDATION
WALL
first part of the building to be set in place. It
rests directly on the foundation piers or on the
ground; it is joined at the corners and spliced
when necessary. Figure 7-3 shows the most com
mon sills. The type used depends on the type of
construction uf ed in the frame.
(1) Box sills. Box sills are used often with
the very common style of platform framing,
either with or without the sill plate. In this type
of sill (1 and 2, fig. 7-3), the part that lies on
the foundation wall or ground is called the sill
Figure 7-3. Types of sills.
plate. The sill is laid edgewise on the outside
edge of the sill plate. are single heavy timbers or built up of two or
(2) T-sills. There are two types of T-sill
more pieces of timber. Where heavy timber or
construction; one commonly used in dry, warm
built-up sills are used, the joints should occur
climates (3, fig. 7-3), and one commonly used in
over piers. The size of the sill depends upon the
less warm climates (4, fig. 7-3). Their construc
load to be carried and upon the spacing of the
tion is similar except that in the latter case the
piers. The sill plates are laid directly on graded
joists are nailed directly to the studs, as well as
earth or on piers. Where earth floors are used,
to the sills, and headers are used between the
the studs are nailed directly to the sill plate.
floor joists.
(3) Braced framing sill. The sill shown in
5, figure 7-3, is generally used in braced-framing 7-3. Girders
construction. The floor joists are notched out and The distance between two outside walls is often
nailed directly to the sill and studs. too great to be spanned by a single joist. When
(4) Built-up sills. Where built-up sills are two or more joists are needed to cover the span,
used, the joints are staggered (1, fig. 7-4). The intermediate support for inboard joist-ends is
corner joints are made as shown in 2, figure provided by one or more girders. A girder is a
7-4. large beam that supports other smaller beams
b. Sill Requirement for Piers. If piers are used or joists.
in the foundation, heavier sills are used. They a. Construction. A girder may be made up of

7-3
TM 5-55 IB

\ ' ■ 1 m
PLAN VIEW OF GRDER SHOWING
METHOD OF STAGGERING JOINTS

Figure 7-5. Built-up girder.

d. Use of Ledger Board. A girder with a ledge
board upon which the joists rest is used where
vertical space is limited. This arrangement is
useful in providing more headroom in basements.

©
Figure 7-4. Sill fabrication.

several beams nailed together with 16d common

nails; or it may be solid wood, steel, reinforced
concrete, or a combination of these materials.

6. Design Requirements. Girders carry a very

large proportion of the weight of a building. They
must be well designed, rigid, and properly sup
ported at the foundation walls and on the col
umns. Precautions must be taken to avoid or
counteract any future settling or shrinking that
might cause distortion of the building. The
girders must also be installed so that they will
properly support joists.
c. Illustration. Figure 7-5 shows a built-up
girder. A shows the two outside masonry walls,
B the built-up girder, C the joists, and D the
support columns which support the girder B.
Notice that the joists rest on top of the girder.
This type of girder is commonly used in house
construction. It is generally made of three planks
spiked together (fig. 7-5) with 16d common nails. Figure 7-6. Joist-to-girder attachment.

7-4
TM 5-55 IB

e. Joist Hangers. A girder over which joist the foundation walls, and the center man re
hangers have been placed to carry the joists is presents the girder; therefore, the girder carries
also used where there is little headroom or where one-half of the weight, while the other half is
the joists carry an extremely heavy load and equally divided between the outside walls. How
nailing cannot be relied on. These girders are ever, the girder may not always be located half
illustrated in figure 7-6. way between the outer walls. To explain this, the
same three men will lift two planks which weigh
/. Size Requirements. The principles which
5 pounds per foot. One of the planks is 8 feet
govern the size of a girder are—
long and the other is 12 feet long. Since the total
(1) The distance between girder posts.
length of these two planks is the same as before
(2) The girder load area.
and the weight per foot is the same, the total
(3) The total floor load per square foot on
weight in both cases is 100 pounds.
the girder.
(3) One of the outside men is supporting
(4) The load per linear foot on the girder.
one-half of the 8-foot plank, or 20 pounds. The
(5) The total load on the girder.
man on the opposite outside end is supporting
(6) The material to be used.
one-half of the 12-foot plank, or 30 pounds. The
g. Size Determination. A girder should be man in the center is supporting one-half of each
large enough to support any ordinary load placed plank, or a total of 50 pounds. This is the same
upon it; any size larger than that is wasted ma total weight he was lifting before. A general rule
terial. The carpenter should understand the ef that can be applied when determining the girder
fect of length, width, and depth on the strength load area is that a girder will carry the weight
of a wood girder before attempting to determine of the floor on each side to the midpoint of joists
its size. which rest upon it.
h. Depth. When the depth of a girder is j. Floor Load. After the girder load area is
doubled, the safe load is increased four times. known, the total floor load per square foot must
In other words, a girder that is 3 inches wide be determined in order to select a safe girder
and 12 inches deep will carry four times as much size. Both dead and live loads must be considered
wight as a girder 3 inches wide and 6 inches in finding the total floor load.
deep. In order to obtain greater carrying capa (1) The first type of load consists of all
city through the efficient use of material, it is weight of the building structure. This is called
better to increase the depth within limits than the dead load. The dead load per square foot of
it is to increase the width of the girder. The floor area, which is carried to the girder either
sizes of built-up wood girders for various loads directly or indirectly by way of bearing parti
and spans may be determined by using table tions, will vary according to the method of con
7-1. (LOCATED IN BACK OF CHAPTER) struction and building height. The structural
t. Load Area. The load area of a building is parts included in the dead load are—
carried by both foundation walls and the girder. Floor joists for all floor levels.
Because the ends of each joist rest on the girder, Flooring materials, including attic if it is
there is more weight on the girder than there is floored.
on either of the walls. Before considering the Bearing partitions.
load on the girder, it may be well to consider a Attic partitions.
single joist. Suppose that a 10-foot plank weigh Attic joists for top floor.
ing 5 pounds per foot is lifted by two men. If Ceiling lath and plaster, including basement
the men were at opposite ends of the plank, they ceiling if it is plastered.
would each be supporting 25 pounds. (2) For a building of light-frame construc
tion similar to an ordinary frame house, the dead
(1) Now assume that one of these men lifts load allowance per square foot of all the structural
the end of another 10-foot plank with the same
parts must be added together to determine the
weight as the first one, and a third man lifts the
total dead load. The allowance for average sub-
opposite end. The two men on the outside are floor, finish floor, and joists without basement
each supporting one-half of the weight of one
plaster should be 10 pounds per square foot. If
plank, or 25 pounds apiece, but the man in the
the basement ceiling is plastered, an additional
center is supporting one-half of each of the two 10 pounds should be allowed. When girders (or
planks, or a total of 50 pounds. bearing partitions) support the first floor parti
(2) The two men on the outside represent tion, a load allowance of 20 pounds must be

7-5

130-321 O - 77 - 5
TM 5-551 B

allowed for ceiling plaster and joists when the

attic is unfloored. If the attic is floored and used
for storage, an additional 10 pounds (per sq ft)
should be allowed.
(3) The second type of load to be considered
is the weight of furniture, persons, and other
movable loads which are not actually a part of
* the building but are still carried by the girder.
This is called the live load. Snow on the roof
is considered a part of the live load. The live FLOOR JOISTS
load per square foot will vary according to the
use of the building and local weather conditions.
Figure 7-7. Girder load area.
The allowance for the live load on floors used
for living purposes is usually 30 pounds per
piece girder of 2-inch planks should be spiked
square foot. If the attic is floored and used for
on both sides with 16d common nails. The nails
light storage, an additional 20 pounds per square
should be located near the bottom, spaced ap
foot should be allowed. The allowance per square
proximately 2 feet apart near the ends and 1 foot
foot for live loads is usually governed by spe
apart in the center. A three-piece girder should
cifications and regulations.
be nailed in the same way as a two-piece girder.
(4) When the total load per square foot of
(2) Regardless of whether the girder is
floor area is known, the load per linear foot on
built-up or solid, it should be of well-seasoned
the girder is easily figured. Assume that the
material. For a specific total girder load and span,
girder load area of the building shown in figure
the size of the girder will vary according to the
7-7 is sliced into 1-foot lengths across the girder.
kinds of wood used. The reason for this variation
Each slice represents the weight supported by 1
is that some kinds are stronger than others.
foot of the girder. If the slice is divided into 1-foot
units, each unit will represent 1 square foot of
the total floor area. The load per linear foot of
girder is determined by multiplying the number
of units by the total load per square foot. Note
in figure 7-7 that the girder is off center. There
fore, the joist length on one side of the girder
is 7 feet (one-half of 14 feet) and the other side is
5 feet (one-half of 10 feet), for a total distance
of 12 feet across the load area. Since each slice
is 1 foot wide, it has a total floor area of 12
square feet. Now, if we assume that the total
floor load for each square foot is 70 pounds, COLUMN
multiply the length times the width (7' x 12')
to get the total square feet supported by the
girder (7' x 12' = 84 sq ft) .
84 sq ft
x 70 lb per sq ft (live and dead load)
5,880 lb total load on girder

k. Material. Wooden girders are more common

9
than steel in small frame-type buildings. Solid
timber may be used or they may be built up
by using two or more 2-inch planks. Built-up
girders have the advantage of not warping as
easily as solid wooden girders and are less likely
to have decayed wood in the center.
(1) When built-up girders are used, the
pieces should be securely spiked together to pre
vent them from buckling individually. A two- Figure 7-8. Half-lap and butt joints.

7-6
TM 5-551 B

I. Splicing. To make a built-up girder, select masonry footing. The base at this point is coated
straight lumber free from knots and other de with asphalt to prevent rust or rot.
fects. The stock should be long enough so that
no more than one joint will occur over the span
between footings. The joints in the beam should
be staggered, with care taken to insure that the
planks are squared at each joint and butted
tightly together. Sometimes a half-lap joint is
used to join solid beams. In order to do this
correctly, the beam should be placed on one edge
so that the annual rings run from top to bottom.
The lines for the half-lap joint are then laid out
as illustrated in figure 7-8, and the cuts are
made along these lines. The cuts are then checked
with a steel square to assure a matching joint.
To make the matching joint on the other beam,
proceed in the same way and repeat the process.
(1) The next step is to tack a temporary
strap across the joint to hold it tightly together.
Now drill a hole through the joist with a bit
about 1/16 inch larger than the bolt to be used.
Fasten together with a bolt, washer, and nut.
(2) Another type of joint is called the
strapped butt joint. The ends of the beam should
be cut square, and the straps, which generally are
18 inches long, are bolted to each side of the
beams.
m. Supports. When building small houses
where the services of an architect are not availa
ble, it is important that the carpenter have some
knowledge of the principles that determine the
proper size of girder supports.
(1) A column or post is a vertical member Figure 7-9. Solid wood column with metal bearing
designed to carry the live and dead loads im cap.
posed upon it. It may be made of wood, metal, (3) When locating columns, it is well to
or masonry. The wooden columns may be solid avoid spans of more than 10 feet between columns
timbers or may be made up of several wooden that are to support the girders. The farther apart
members spiked together with 16d or 20d com the columns are spaced, the heavier the girder
mon nails. Metal columns are made of heavy must be to carry the joists over the span be
pipe, large steel angles, or I-beams. tween the columns.
(2) Regardless of the material used in a (4) A good arrangement of the girder and
column, it must have some form of bearing plate supporting columns for a 24- x 40-foot building
at the top and bottom. These plates distribute is shown in figure 7-10. Column B will support
the load evenly over the cross sectional area of one-half of the girder load existing in the half of
the column. Basement posts that support girders the building lying between the wall A and column
should be set on masonry footings. Columns C. Column C will support one-half of the girder
should be securely fastened to the load-bearing load between columns B and D. Likewise, column
member at the top and to the footing on which D will share equally the girder loads with column
they rest at the bottom. Figure 7-9 shows a C and the wall E.
solid wooden column with a metal bearing cap n. Girder Forms. Girder forms for making con
drilled to provide a means of fastening it to the crete girders and beams are constructed from
column and to the girder. The bottom of this 2-inch-thick material (fig. 7-11) dressed on all
| type of column may be fastened to the masonry sides. The bottom piece of material should be
footing by a metal dowel inserted in a hole constructed in one piece to avoid the necessity of
drilled in the bottom of the column and in the cleats. The bottom piece of the form should never

7-7
TM 5-551 B

GIRDER*

COLUMN 8 COLUMN C COLUMN D

o
CM

•lO'O"- •10'0"- •lO'O"-

10' 0"

• WALL A WALL E .

-40' 0"

Figure 7-10. Column spacing.

overlap the side pieces. The side pieces must 2 or 3 inches thick. Joists as small as 2 by 6
always overlap the bottom. The temporary cleats inches are sometimes used in light buildings.
shown in figure 7-11 are tacked on to prevent the These are too small for floors with spans over 10
form from collapsing when handled. feet but are frequently used for ceiling joists.
Joists usually carry a uniform load of materials
7-4. Floor Joists and personnel. The latter loads carry a uniform
Joists are the wooden members that make up
the body of the floor frame. The flooring or BUILDING FINISH
subflooring is nailed to them. They are usually PAPER

TEMPORARY CLEAT
OR SPREADER

BEAM OPENING

TEMPORARY
CLEATS JOISTS BRIDGING

1 x 6 CLEATS POST

Figure 7-11. Girder and beam form. Figure 7-1S. Floor joists.

7-8
TM 5-55 IB

load of materials and personnel. The latter loads be used. Two-inch material should not be used for
are "live loads"; the weight of joists and floors joists more than 12 inches apart.
is a "dead load". The joists carry the flooring
directly on their upper surface and they are sup 7-5. Connecting Joists to Sills, Girders,
ported at their ends by sills, girders, bearing and l-Beams
partitions, or bearing walls (fig. 7-12). They a. Joining to Sills. In joining joists to sills,
are spaced 16 or 24 inches apart, center to center ; be sure that the connection is able to hold the
sometimes the spacing is 12 inches, but where load that the joists will carry. A joist resting
such spacing is necessary, heavier joists should upon the sill is shown in 1, figure 7-13. This
method (of several methods) is most commonly
used because it provides the strongest possible
joint. The methods shown in 2 and 3, figure
7-13, are used where it is not desirable to use
joists on top of the sill. The ledger plate (e
below) should be securely nailed and the joist
should not be notched over one-third of its depth
to prevent splitting (4, fig. 7-13).
b. Joining to Girders. In the framing of the
joists to the girders, the joists must be level.
Therefore, if the girder is not the same height
as the sill, the joist must be notched as shown
in 3, figure 7-13. If the girder and sill are of the
same height, the joist must be connected to the
sill and girder to keep the joist level. In placing
joists, always have the crown up since this coun
teracts the weight on the joist; in most cases
there will be no sag below a straight line. Over
head joists are joined to plates as shown in 1
and 2, figure 7-14. The inner end of the joist
rests on the plates of the partition walls. When
a joist is to rest on plates or girders, either
the joist is cut long enough to extend the full
width of the plate or girder, or it is cut so as to
meet in the center of the plate or girder and is
connected with a scab. Where two joist ends lie
side by side on a plate, they should be nailed
together. Joists may also be joined to girders by
using ledger strips (3 and 4, fig. 7-14) .
c. Iron Stirrups. One of the strongest supports
for the joists is straps or hangers (iron stir
rups) as shown in 5 of figure 7-13.
d. I-Beams. The simplest and probably the
best way to carry joists on steel girders is to
rest them on top, as shown in 6, figure 7-13,
provided headroom is not too much restricted.
If there is a lack of headroom, use the method
shown in 5, figure 7-13.
e. Use of Ledger Plates (fig. 7-14). In con
IRON STIRRUP necting joists to girders and sills where piers are
used, a 2 by 4 is nailed to the face of the sill or
girder, flush with the bottom edge; this is called
a "ledger plate" (1, fig. 7-14). These pieces
I © © should be nailed securely with 20-penny nails
Figure 7-13. Sill and joist connections. about 12 inches apart. Where 2 by 4 or 2

7-9
TM 5-55 IB

Figure 7-14. Ledger plates.

by 8 joists are used, it is better to use 2 by 2's to angle. Always nail the top of the bridging with
prevent the joists from splitting at the notch. 8- or 10-penny nails. Do not nail the bottom of
When joists are 10 inches deep and deeper, 2 by the bridging until the rough floor has been laid,
4's may be used without reducing the strength of in order to keep the bridging from pushing up
the joists. If a notch is used, joist ties may be any joist which might cause an unevenness in
used to overcome this loss of strength. These ties the floor.
are short 1 by 4 boards nailed across the joist;
the ends of the boards are flush with the top 6. Construction. Bridging is of two kinds:
and bottom edge of the joists. solid (or horizontal) bridging (1, fig. 7-15) and
cross bridging (2, fig. 7-15). Cross bridging is the
one most generally used; it is very effective and
7-6. Bridging requires less material than horizontal bridging.
a. General. When joists are used over a long Cross bridging looks like a cross and consists of
span, they have a tendency to sway from side to pieces of lumber, usually 1 by 3 or 2 by 3 inches
side. Floor frames are bridged in order to stiffen in size, cut in diagonally between the floor joists.
the floor frame, to prevent unequal deflection of Each piece is nailed to the top of each joist and
the joists, and to enable an overload joist to re forms a cross (x) between the joists. These
ceive some help from the joists on either side of pieces between joists should be placed as near to
it. A pattern for the bridging stock is obtained each other as possible. Bridging should be nailed
by placing a piece of material between the joists and the bottoms left until the subfloor is laid.
as shown in figure 7-15, then marking and saw This permits the joists to adjust themselves to
ing it. When sawed, the cut will form the correct their final positions. The bottom ends of bridging

7-10
TM 5-55 IB

JOIST TAIL BEAM

Figure 7-15. Types of bridging.

may then be nailed, forming a continuous truss
across the whole length of the floor and prevent
ing any overloaded joist from sagging below the
others. Cutting and fitting the bridging by hand
Figure 7-16. Floor openings.
is a slow process; a power saw should be used if
it is available. After joists have once been placed,
a pattern may be made and used to speed up the
process of cutting. On joists over 8 feet long, one
line of bridging should be placed and on joists
over 16 feet long, two lines.

7-7. Floor Openings

a. General. Floor openings for stairwells, ven
tilators, and chimneys are framed by a combina
tion of headers and trimmers (fig. 7-16).
Headers run at right angles to the direction of
the joists and are doubled. Trimmers run parallel
to the joists and are actually doubled joists. The
joists are framed to the headers where the
headers form the opening frame at right angles
to the joists. These shorter joists, framed to the
headers, are called tail beams, tail joists, or
header joists. The number of headers and trim
mers needed at any opening depends upon the
shape of the opening, whether it is a simple
rectangle or contains additional angles; upon the
direction in which the opening runs in relation
to the direction in which the joists run; and
upon the position of the opening in relation to
partitions or walls. Figure 7-16 gives examples
of openings, one of which runs parallel to the Figure 7-17. Double headers and double trimmers.

7-11
TM 5-551 B

joist and requires two headers and one trimmer, shows the method of laying a subfloor. Prefer
while the other runs at right angles to the run ably it is laid before the walls are framed so that
of the joists and, therefore, requires one header it can be used as a floor to work on while framing
and two trimmers. The openings shown in figure the walls.
7-17 are constructed with corner angles supported
b. Finish Floors.
in different ways. The cantilever method requires
(1) General. A finish floor in the theater of
that the angle be fairly close to a supporting
operations, in most cases, is of 3/4-inch material,
partition with joists from an adjacent span that
square edged (fig. 7-19) or tongued and grooved
run to the header.
(fig. 7-20), and varying from 3 1/4 to 7 1/4 inches
b. Construction. To frame openings of the type wide. It is laid directly on floor joists or on a
shown in figure 7-18, first install joists A and C, subfloor and nailed with 8-penny common nails
then cut four pieces of timber that are the same in every joist. When laid on a subfloor, it is
size as the joists with their length corresponding best to use building paper between the two floors
to the distance between the joists A and C at the to keep out dampness and insects. In warehouses,
outside wall. Nail two of these pieces between where heavy loads are to be carried on the floor,
the joists at the desired distances from the ends 2-inch material should be used. The flooring, in
of the joists; these pieces are shown as headers this case, also is face-nailed with 16- or 20-penny
Nos. 1 and 2, figure 7-18. Install short joists nails. It is not tongued and grooved and ranges
X and Y, as shown. The nails should be 16- or in width from 4 to 12 inches. The joints are made
20-penny nails. By omitting headers Nos. 3 and on the center of the joist.
4 and joists B and D, the short joists X and Y
(2) Wood floors. Wood floors must be strong
can be nailed in place through the header and
enough to carry the load. The type of building
the headers can be nailed through the joists A
and the use for which it is intended determines
and B into its end. After the header and short
the general arrangement of the floor system,
joists have been securely nailed, headers Nos. 3
and 4 are nailed beside Nos. 1 and 2. Then joist
B is placed beside joists A and joist D beside C,
and all are nailed securely.

7-8. Subfloors and Finish Floors

a. Subfloors. After the foundation and basic
framework of a building are completed, the floor
is constructed. The subfloor, if included in the
plans, is laid diagonally on the joists and nailed
with 8- to 10-penny nails. The floor joists form Figure 7-19. Methods for nailing square-edged
a framework for the subfloor. Subflooring boards flooring.
8 inches wide or over should have three or more
nails per joist. Where the subfloor is over 1 inch
thick, larger nails should be used. Figure 5-12

Figure 7-SO. Methods for nailing tongued-and-

Figure 7-18. Floor opening construction. grooved flooring.

7-12
TM 5-551 B

thickness of the sheathing, and approximate spac by availability. Duckboard is widely used for
ing of the joists. shower flooring; earthen floors are common and
(3) Concrete floors. Concrete floors may be conserve both materials and labor if the ground
constructed for shops where earthen or wood site is even without extensive grading. Rush or
floors are not suitable such as in repair and as thatch floors are primarily an insulating measure
sembly shops for airplanes and heavy equipment and must be replaced frequently.
and in certain kinds of warehouses. These floors (5) Supports. In certain parts of the floor
are made by pouring concrete on the ground frame, in order to support some very heavily con
after the earth has been graded and tamped. centrated load or a partition wall, it may be neces
This type of floor is likely to be damp unless sary to double the joist or to place two joists to
protected. Drainage is provided, both for the gether (fig. 7-21).
floor area and for the area near the floor, to
prevent flooding after heavy rains. The floor
should be reinforced with steel or wire mesh.
Where concrete floors are to be poured, a founda
tion wall may be poured first and the floor poured
after the building is completed. This gives pro
tection to the concrete floor while it sets.
(4) Miscellaneous types of floors. Miscel
laneous floors may include earth, adobe brick,
duckboard, or rushes. Use of miscellaneous floor
ing is usually determined by a shortage of con
ventional materials, the need to save time or
labor, the extremely temporary nature of the BLOCKING .
facilities, or the special nature of the structure.
The selection of material is usually determined Figure 7-S1. Reinforced joists.

Section II. WALLS AND WALL COVERINGS

7-9. General
Wall framing (fig. 7-22) is composed of regular DOUBLE TOP PLATE STUDS .HEADER
studs, diagonal bracing, cripples, trimmers, head
ers, and fire blocks and is supported by the floor
sole plate. The vertical members of the wall
framing are the studs, which support the top
plates and all of the weight of the upper part of
the building or everything above the top plate
line. They provide the framework to which the
wall sheathing is aniled on the outside and which
supports the lath, plaster, and insulation on the
inside. LOWER CRIPPLES BRACING
-DOUBLE TOP PLATE

7-10. Wall Components

Walls and partitions which are classed as framed 2" X 4" STUDS
SPACED v ,
constructions (fig. 7-23) are composed of struc «" O.C. >J STUOS
tural elements which are usually closely spaced,
slender, vertical members called studs. These are
arranged in a row with their ends bearing on a
long horizontal member called a bottom plate or CONCRETE
sole plate, and their tops capped with another FOUNDATION
.—I l;l * Id 1:1 1:1 H <■> IjL,
plate, called a top plate. Double top plates are
used in bearing walls and partitions. The bear ANCHOR ns\i
BOLTS▼*» SOLEc PLATE
at ATi
ing strength of stud walls is determined by the
strength of the studs. Figure 7-S2. Typical wall frame details.

7-13
TM 5-55 IB

side of the other (4, fig. 7-24). This type is

f X 8" X 18" RAFTER TIE used extensively in the theater of operations
where no inside finish is needed.

PLATE
© END RftNEL - FRAMING DETAILS CO 0 0
WINDOW OPENING
Figure 7-24. Corner post construction.

b. T-Posts. Whenever a partition meets an

outside wall, a stud wide enough to extend be
yond the partition on both sides is used; this
provides a solid nailing base for the inside wall
finish. This type of stud is called a T-post (fig.
7-25) and is made in the following different
ways:
(1) A 2 by 4 may be nailed and centered on
the face side of a 4 by 6 (1, fig. 7-25).
PLATE (2) A 2 by 4 may be nailed and centered on
© SIDE PANEL - FRAMING DETAILS two 4 by 4's nailed together (2, fig. 7-25).
(3) Two 2 by 4's may be nailed together
Figure 7-23. Typical wall construction showing with a block between them and a 2 by 4 centered
openings. on the wide side (3, fig. 7-25).
(4) A 2 by 4 may be nailed and centered
a. Corner Posts. The studs used at the corners
on the face side of a 2 by 6, with a horizontal
of frame construction are usually built up from
bridging nailed behind them to give support and
three or more ordinary studs to provide greater
stiffness (4, fig. 7-25).
strength. These built-up assemblies are corner-
partition posts. The corner posts are set up, c. Partition and Double T-Posts. Where a par
plumbed, and temporarily braced. The corner tition is finished on one side only, the partition
posts (fig. 7-24) may be made in the following post used consists of a simple stud, set in the
ways: outside wall, in line with the side of the partition
(1) A corner post may consist of a 4 by 6
with a 2 by 4 nailed on the board side, flush
with one edge, as shown in figure 7-24. This
type of corner is for a 4-inch wall. Where walls
are thicker, heavier timber is used.
(2) A 4 by 4 may be used with a 2 by 4
nailed to two of the adjoining sides, shown in 2,
figure 7-24.
(3) Two 2 by 4's may be nailed together
with blocks between and a 2 by 4 flush with one
edge, shown in 3, figure 7-24. © (T> © ©
(4) A 2 by 4 may be nailed to the edge of
another 2 by 4, the edge of one flush with the Figure 7-S5. T-post construction.

7-14
TM 5-55 IB

wall, and finished as stud A in 1, figure 7-26. one corner the distances the studs are to be set
These posts are nailed in place along with the apart. Studs are normally spaced 12, 16, and
corner post. The exact position of the partition 24 inches on centers, depending upon the type
walls must be determined before the posts are of outside and inside finish. Where vertical sid
placed. Where the walls are more than 4 inches ing is used, studs are set wider apart since the
thick, wider timber is used. In special cases, for horizontal girts between them provide nailing
example where partition walls cross, a double surface.
T-post is used. This is made by using methods (2) When it is desirable to double the post
in 6(1), (2), or (3) above, and nailing another of the door opening, first place the outside studs
2 by 4 to the opposite wide side, as shown in into position and nail them securely. Then cut
2, 3, and 4, figure 7-26. short studs, or filler studs, the size of the open
d. Studs. ing, and nail these to the inside face of the
(1) After the sills, plates, and braces are outside studs as shown in figure 7-27. In making
in place, and the window and door openings are a window opening, a bottom header must be
laid out, the studs are placed and nailed with framed; this header is either single or double.
two 16- or 20-penny nails through the top plate. When it is doubled, the bottom piece is nailed
Then the remaining or intermediate studs are to the opening studs at the proper height and the
laid out on the sills or soles by measuring from top piece of the bottom header is nailed into
place flush with the bottom section. The door
header is framed as shown in figure 7-27. The
filler stud rests on the sole at the bottom.
e. Girts. Girts are always the same width
as the studs and are flush with the face of the
stud, both outside and inside. Girts are used in
hasty construction where the outside walls are
covered with vertical siding. Studs are placed
from 2 to 10 feet apart, with girts, spaced about
4 feet apart, running horizontally between them
(fig. 7-27). The vertical siding acts in the same
way as to studs and helps to carry the weight
of the roof. This type of construction is used
extensively in the theater of operations.

/. Top Plate and Sole Plate.

(1) Top plate. The top plate ties the stud
ding together at the top and forms a finish for
the walls; it furnishes a support for the lower
ends of the rafters (fig. 7-22). The top plate
serves as a connecting link between the wall and
the roof, just as the sills and girders are con
necting links between the floors and the walls.

TOPHEADEFK

FILLER
STUDS
GIRT
BOTTOM
HEADER

SHORT
STUDS
® ® ©

Figure 7-26. Partition posts. Figure 7-27. Door and window framing.

7-15
TM 5-55 IB

The plate is made up of one or two pieces of ble, both interior partitions and exterior walls
timber of the same size as the studs. In cases should be bridged alike.
where the studs at the end of the building extend (2) Horizontal bridging. Horizontal bridg
to the rafters, no plate is used at the end of the ing is nailed between the studs horizontally and
building. When it is used on top of partition halfway between the sole and the plate (2, fig.
walls, it is sometimes called the cap. Where the 7-29). This bridging is cut to lengths which
plate is doubled, the first plate or bottom sec correspond to the distance between the studs at
tion is nailed with 16- or 20-penny nails to the the bottom. Such bridging not only stiffens the
top of the corner posts and to the studs. The wall but also will help straighten studs.
connection at the corner is made as shown in 1,
figure 7-28. After the single plate is nailed se 7-11. Partitions
curely and the corner braces are nailed into place, Partition walls divide the inside space of a build
the top part of the plate is then nailed to the ing. These walls in most cases are framed as part
bottom section with 16- or 20-penny nails either of the building. Where floors are to be installed
over each stud, or spaced with two nails every after the outside of the building is completed,
2 feet. The edges of the top section should be the partition walls are left unframed. There are
flush with the bottom section and the corner two types of partition walls : the bearing, and the
joints lapped as shown in 1 and 2, figure 7-28. non-bearing types. The bearing type supports
(2) Sole plate. All partition walls and out ceiling joists. The nonbearing type supports only
side walls are finished either with a 2 by 4 or itself. This type may be put in at any time after
with a piece of timber corresponding to the thick
ness of the wall; this timber is laid horizontally
on the floor or joists. It carries the bottom end DIAGONAL BRIDGING"
of the studs (fig. 7-22). This timber is called the
"sole" or "sole plate". The sole should be nailed
with two 16- or 20-penny nails at each joist that
it crosses. If it is laid lengthwise on top of a
girder or joist, it should be nailed with two nails
every 2 feet.
g. Bridging. Frame walls are bridged, in
most cases, to make them more sturdy. There are
two methods of bridging :
(1) Diagonal bridging. Diagonal bridging
is nailed between the studs at an angle (1, fig.
7-29). It is more effective than the horizontal
type since it forms a continuous truss and tends
to keep the walls from sagging. Whenever possi-

DOUBLE PLATE

SINGLE PLATE

CORNER POST
HORIZONTAL BRIDGING

®
Figure 7-28. Plate construction. Figure 7-29. Types of wall bridging.
T_16
TM 5-55 IB

the other framework is installed. Only one cap

or plate is used. A sole plate should be used in
every case, as it helps to distribute the load over
a larger area. Partition walls are framed the same
as outside walls, and door openings are framed
as outside openings. Where there are corners
or where one partition wall joins another, corner
posts or T-posts are used as in the outside walls;
these posts provide nailing surfaces for the in
side wall finish. Partition walls in the theater of
operations one-story building may or may not
extend to the roof. The top of the studs has a
plate when the wall does not extend to the roof;
but when the wall extends to the roof, the studs
are joined to the rafters.

7-12. Methods of Plumbing Posts and

Straightening Walls
a. General. After the corner post, T-post, and
intermediate wall studs have been nailed to the
plates or girts, the walls must be plumbed and
straightened so that the permanent braces and
rafters may be installed. This is done by using a
level or plumb bob and a chalkline.
6. Plumbing Posts'.
(1) To plumb a corner with a plumb bob, Figure 7SO. Plumbing a post.
first attach to the bob a string long enough to
extend to or below the bottom of the post. Lay
a rule on top of the post so that 2 inches of the
rule extends over the post on the side to be
plumbed ; then hang the bob-line over the rule so
that the line is 2 inches from the post and ex
tends to the bottom of it, as shown in 1, figure
7-30. With another rule, measure the distance
from the post to the center of the line at the bot
tom of the post; if it does not measure 2 inches,
the post is not plumb. Move the post inward or
outward until the distance from the post to the
center of the line is exactly 2 inches. Then nail
the temporary brace in place. Repeat this pro
cedure from the other outside face of the post.
The post is then plumb. This process is carried
out for the remaining corner posts of the build
ing. If a plumb bob or level is not available, a
rock, a half-brick, or some small piece of metal
may be used instead.
(2) An alternate method of plumbing a post Figure 7-31. Straightening a wall.
is illustrated in 2, figure 7-30. Attach the plumb
bob string securely to the top of the post to be serting the second block between the plumb bob
plumbed, making sure that the string is long string and the bottom of the post (gage block No.
enough to allow the plumb bob to hang near the 2). If the entire face of the second block makes
bottom of the post. Use two blocks of wood iden- contact with the string, the post is plumb.
I tical in thickness as gage blocks. Tack one
block near the top of the post between the plumb c. Straightening Walls (fig. 7-31). Plumb one
bob string and the post (gage block No. 1), in- corner post with the level or plumb bob and nail

7-17
TM 5-551 B

temporary braces to hold the post in place (b with the surface. The studs are always cut to let
above). Repeat this procedure for all corner posts. in the braces; the braces are never cut. Usually
Fasten a chalkline to the outside of one post at 1 by 4's or 1 by 6's are used, set diagonally
the top and stretch the line to the post the same from top plates to sole plates.
as for the first post. Place a small 3 '4-inch block b. Cut-in Bracing (2, fig. 7-32). Cut-in brac
under each end of the line as shown in figure ing is toenailed between studs. It usually con
7-31 to give clearance. Place temporary braces at sists of 2 by 4's cut at an angle to permit toe
intervals small enough to hold the wall straight. nailing, inserted in diagonal progression between
When the wall is far enough away from the line studs running up and down from corner posts
to permit a 3/4-inch block to slide between the to sill or plates.
line and the plate, the brace is nailed. This pro
cedure is carried out for the entire perimeter c. Diagonal Sheathing (3, fig. 7-32). The
of the building. Inside partition walls should be strongest type of bracing is sheathing applied
straightened the same way. diagonally. Each board acts as a brace of the
wall. If plywood sheathing 5/8-inch thick or more
7-13. Braces is used, other methods of bracing may be
Bracing is used to stiffen framed construction omitted.
and make it rigid. The purpose of bracing may be
to resist winds, storm, twist, or strain stemming
7-14. Exterior Walls
from any cause. Good bracing keeps corners The exterior surfaces of a building usually con
square and plumb and prevents warping, sagging, sist of vertical, horizontal, or diagonal sheathing
and shifts resulting from lateral forces that and composition, sheet-metal, or corrugated roof
would otherwise tend to distort the frame and ing. However, in theaters of operation the ma
cause badly fitting doors and windows and the terials are not always available and substitutes
cracking of plaster. There are three commonly must be provided. Concrete block, brick, rubble
used methods of bracing frame structures : stone, metal, or earth may be substituted for
re. Let-In Bracing (1, fig. 7-32). Let-in bracing wood in treeless regions. In the tropics, impro
is set into the edges of studs so as to be flush vised siding and roofs can be made from bamboo
and grasses. Roofing felt, sandwiched between
two layers of light wire mesh, may serve for
wall and roof materials where climate is suit
able. Refer to TM 5-302 for details on substi
tute, expedient, and improvised construction.
a. Sheathing. Sheathing is nailed directly onto
the framework of the building. Its purpose is
to strengthen the building, to provide a base
wall onto which the finish siding can be nailed,

WALL SHEATHING NAILED WALL SHEATHING NAILEO

ON HORIZONTALLY ON DIAGONALLY

Figure 7-33. Diagonal and horizontal wooden

Figure 7-32. Common types of bracing. sheathing.

7-18
TM 5-551 B

to act as insulation, and in some cases to be a use is mostly with wood siding that can be nailed
base for further insulation. Some of the common directly through the sheathing and into the studs.
types of sheathing include— Gypsum sheathing is fireproof, water resistant,
(1) Wood, 11/16-inch thick by 6, 8, 10, or and windproof; does not warp nor absorb wa
12 inch wide of No. 1 common square or ter; and does not require the use of building
matched-edge material. It may be nailed on hori papers.
zontally or diagonally (fig. 7-33). (3) Plywood as a wall sheathing (fig. 7-
(2) Gypsum board wall-sheathing, 1/2 inch 34) is highly recommended by its size, weight,
thick by 24 inches wide and 8 feet long. stability, and structural properties, plus the
(3) Fiberboard, 25/32 inch thick by 24 by ease and speed of application. It adds consider-
48 inches wide and 8, 9, 10, and 12 feet long.
(4) Plywood, 5/16, 3/8, 1/2, 5/8 inches thick
by 48 inches wide and 8, 9, 10, and 12 feet long.
b. Application.
(1) Wood wall sheathing comes in almost
all widths, lengths, and grades. Generally,
widths are from 6 to 12 inches, with lengths
selected for economical use. Almost all solid
wood wall sheathing used is 13/16 inches thick
and either square or matched edge. This material
may be nailed on horizontally or diagonally
(fig. 7-33). Diagonal application adds much
greater strength to the structure. Sheathing
should be nailed on with three 8-penny common
nails to each bearing if the pieces are over 6
inches wide. Wooden sheathing is laid on tight,
with all joints made over the studs. If the sheath
ing is to be put on horizontally, it should be
started at the foundation and worked toward the
top. If it is to be put on diagonally, it should be
started at the corners of the building and worked
toward the center or middle of the building.
(2) Gypsum board sheathing (fig. 7-34) is
made by casting a gypsum core within a heavy
water-resistant fibrous envelope. The long edges
of the 4- by 8-foot boards are tongued and
grooved. Each board is a full 1/2 inch thick. Its

BOAROS

Figure 7-34. Gypsum and plywood sheathing. Figure 7S5. Vertical and horizontal wooden siding.

7-19
TM 5-551 B

ably more strength to the frame than does di fitted against the edges.
agonally applied wood boards. When plywood (2) Drop siding (fig. 3-3). Drop siding is
sheathing is used, corner bracing can be omitted. designed to be used as a combination of sheath
Large size panels save the time required for ap ing and siding, or with separate sheathing. It
plication and still provide a tight, draft-free in comes in a wide variety of face profiles and
stallation of high insulation value. Minimum is either shiplapped or tongued and grooved.
thicknesses of plywood wall sheathing is 5/16 If used as a combined sheathing and siding
inch for 16-inch stud spacing and 3/8 inch for material, tongue and grooved lumber is nailed
24-inch stud spacing. The panels should be in directly to the studs with the tongue up. When
stalled with the face grain parallel to the studs. sheathing is not used, the door and window cas
A little more stiffness can be gained by install ings are set after the siding is up. If sheathing
ing them across the studs, but this requires more is first used and then building paper is added,
cutting and fitting. Use 6-penny common nails drop siding is applied like beveled siding, after
for 5/16-, 3/8-, and 1/2-inch panels and 8-penny the window and door casings are in place.
common nails for 5/8- and 13/16-inch panels. (3) Corrugated metal sheets. Corrugated
Space the nails not more than 6 inches on cen metal is used extensively as a wall cover since
ter at the edges of the panels and not more than little framing, time, and labor are required to
12 inches on center elsewhere. install it. It is applied vertically and nailed to
c. Vertical Wooden Siding. This type of cov girts with the nails placed in the ridges. Sheath
erage is nailed to girts. The cracks are covered ing can be used behind the iron with or without
with wood strips called battens. The sheathing building paper. Since tar paper used behind metal
is nailed securely with 8- or 10-penny nails. The will cause the metal to rust, a resin-sized paper
vertical sheathing requires less framing than should be used.
siding since the sheathing acts as a support for (4) Building paper.
the plate. To make this type of wall more weather (a) Building paper is of several types, the
proof, some type of tar paper or light roll roofing most common of which is the resin-sized. It is
may be applied over the entire surface and fas generally red or buff in color (sometimes black)
tened with roofing nails and battens (fig. 7-35). and comes in rolls, usually 36 inches wide. Each
roll contains 500 square feet and weighs from
d. Horizontal Wood Siding. Wood siding is cut 18 to 50 pounds. Ordinarily, it is not waterproof.
to various patterns and sizes to be used as the Another type is heavy paper saturated with a
finished outside surface of a structure. The sid coaltar product, sometimes called sheathing
ing for outside wall coverings should be of a paper. It is waterproof and protects against heat
decay-resisting species that will hold tight at the and cold.
joints and take and hold paint well. It should by (6) In wood-frame buildings to be cov
all means be well seasoned lumber. Siding is ered with either siding, shingles, or iron, build
made in sizes ranging from 1/2 inch to 3/4 inch ing paper is used to protect against heat, cold,
by 12 inches. There are two principal types of or dampness. Building paper is applied hori
siding (fig. 3-3) : beveled siding and drop sid zontally along a wall from the bottom of the
ing. structure upward and nailed with roofing nails
(1) Beveled siding (fig. 3-3). Beveled sid at the laps. Thus the overlapping of the paper
ing is made with beveled boards thin at the helps water runoff. Care must be taken not to
top edge and thick at the butt. It is the most tear the paper. The waterproof type paper is
common form of wood siding and comes in 1 used also in the built-up roof where the roof is
inch for narrow widths, and 2 inches and over nearly flat. Several layers are used with tar
for the wide types. They are usually nailed at between each layer.
the butt edge and through the tip edge of the
board below. Very narrow siding is quite often 7-15. Interior Walls and Partitions
nailed near its thin edge like shingles. It is a. Wall and Partition Coverings. Wall and par
nailed to solid sheathing over which building tition coverings are divided into two general
paper has been attached. Window and door cas types—wet wall material, generally plaster; and
ings are first framed. The siding butts are put dry wall material including wood, plaster board,
against the edges of these frames. Corners may plywood, and fiberboard. Only dry wall material
be mitered, or the corner boards may be first will be covered in this manual.
nailed to the sheathing and then the siding is b. Dry Wall Materials. Dry wall material—

7-20
TM 5-55 IB

gypsumboard, fiberboard, or plywood, usually angle (fig. 7-37) and scribe (mark) it to in
comes in sheets 1/2 inch thick and 4x8 feet dicate the surface peculiarities.
in size, but may be obtained in other sizes. It (ft) Saw the scrap material along the
is normally applied in either single or double scribed line.
thickness with panels placed as shown in figure (c) Place the scribed strip on the wall-
7-36. When covering both walls and ceilings, board to be used. Keep the straight edge of the
always start with the ceiling (para 7-17). An scrap material parallel with the edge of the
nular ringed nails should be used for applying wallboard. Scribe the good piece of wallboard.
finished-joint drywall to reduce nail popping. (d) Saw the wallboard along the scribed
( 1 ) Apply dry wall as follows : line.
(a) Start in one corner and work around (3) Cut panels by sawing, or by scoring
the room. Make sure that joints break at the with an awl and snapping over a straight edge
centerline of a stud. (fig. 7-38). Cut with finish side up to avoid
(6) Use 1/2-inch thick recessed-edge wall- damaging surface. Cut openings for pipe and
board and span the entire height of the wall if electrical receptacles with a keyhole saw. Nail
possible. panels to wall studs with 13-gage nails, 8 inches
(c) Use 13-gage nails, 1 5/8 inches long. on centers. All panel end joints must center on
Start nailing at the center of the board and studs. Cover nails with cement. Joints may be
work outward. Space the nails 3/8 inch in from left open, beveled, lapped, filled, covered with
the edge of the board and about 8 inches apart. battens or moldings, or treated with cement and
Dimple nails below surface of panel with a ball- tape. The treatment of joints varies slightly
peen hammer. Be careful not to break the sur with different materials. Generally, all cracks
face of the board by the blow of the hammer. over 1/8 inch must be filled with special crack
(d) Procedures for cutting and sealing filler before joint cement is applied. The cement
wallboard are covered in (3) below. is spread over joints with a plasterer's trowel.
(2) Fit dry wall materials to rough or un Apply the cement evenly and thin (feather)
even walls as follows : edges on surface of wall panel. Fill channels in
(a) Place a piece of scrap material in the recessed edges with cement, carrying it 1 inch
past channel edges. At corners, apply cement in
WHERE WALLS ARE NOT MORE THAN 8 FT HIGH a channel-wide band and feather edges. Press
perforated tape into wet cement and smooth
tape down with trowel. Clean off excess cement.
STUDS At corners, fold tape down center before ap
plying, and smooth each side of corner sepa
rately when applied. When cement is dry, apply
FIRST LAYER PARALLEL SECOND LAYER OR FACE
TO THE STUDS AT RIGHT ANGLES TO STUDS a second coat of thinned cement to hide tape.

SCRIBED LINE
WHERE WALLS ARE MORE THAN 8 FT HIGH FOLLOWING CONTOUR
OF WALL
1 1 r—1
1
STVJDS 1
.J_ _ .
l
i
FIRST LAYER HORIZONTAL FACE LAYER PARALLEL TO STUDS
JOINTS STAGGERED USE FULL LENGTH BOARDS FROM
USE 12 FT BOARDS FLOOR TO THE CEILING

THE SKETCH AT THE RIGHT

SHOWS PROPER CUTTING AND
FITTING OF THE FACE LAYER
WHERE DOORS AND WINDOWS
ARE IN WALL. WHEREVER
PRACTICAL, VERTICAL END STUDS
JOINTS ON SIDE WALLS sc:rap BEING
SHOULD BE PLACED ABOVE SCRIBED FOR USE
DOOR AND WINDOW OPENINGS, AS TEMPLATE FOR
TO REDUCE THE JOINT TREAT- CUTTING WALLBOARD
TO A MINIMUM.
Figure 7S7. Fitting single-piece wallboard to
Figure 7S6. Placing wallboard. uneven walls.

7-21

2 30-321 O - 77 - 6
TM 5-551 B

Feather the edges carefully to preserve flat ap tice to strike the nailheads one extra blow for
pearance of wall. When the final coat is dry, setting. This makes a slight depression (ham
smooth the joint with sandpaper. mer mark) which holds the cement around the
r. Sheetrock. Sheetrock sheets are very brit nailhead.
tle and require careful handling to prevent d. Wood Paneling. Plywood panels are used
breakage. Approximately 1 1/4 inches of a sheet's extensively as interior wall covering and can
edge is made 1/16 inch thinner than the body of be obtained on the market in sizes from 1/4 to
the sheet. When two sheets are placed side by 3/4 inch thick; 36 to 48 inches wide; and 60,
side, their edges form a recess to receive perfo 72, 84, or 96 inches long. Plywood gives a wall
rated paper tape and gypsum cement which a wood finish surface. If desired, the less expen
conceals the joints between the sheets. A 1/8- sive plywoods can be used and covered with
inch space between the edges of the sheets helps paint or wallpaper or can be decorated in the
to hold the filler cement in place. The sheets same way as plastered surfaces. These panels
are usually fastened in place with blued nails are usually applied vertically from floor to ceil
which have an oversize head and are 11/2 inches ing and fastened with 4d finishing nails. Special
long. The nails along the edges are covered with strips or battens of either wood or metal may be
perforated tape and cement. Nails are spaced used to conceal the joints when flush joints are
about 5 inches apart and 3/8 inch from the edge. used. Joints can also be treated with moldings,
Those in the middle of the sheets are spaced 8 or either in the form of battens fastened over the
9 inches apart and are set below the surface joints or applied as splines between the panels.
to receive the filler cement. It is common prac-
7-16. Moldings
The various interior trims of a building should
have a definite architectural relationship in the
design to that of the doors, windows, and the
general architecture of the building.
a. Base Molding. Base molding serves as a
finish between the finished wall and floor. It is
available in several widths and forms. Two-
piece base consists of a baseboard topped with
a small base cap (A, fig. 7-39). When plaster is
not straight and true, the small base molding
will conform more closely to the variations than
will the wider base alone. A common size for this
type of baseboard is 5/8 by 3 1/4 inches or
wider. One-piece baseboard is 5/8 by 3 1/4 inches
or wider. One-piece base varies in size from
7/16 by 2 1/4 inches to 1/2 by 3 1/4 inches and
wider (Band C, fig. 7-39). Although a wood
member is desirable at the junction of the wall
and carpeting to serve as a protective "bumper",
wood trim is sometimes eliminated entirely. Most
baseboards are finished with a base shoe, 1/2 by
3/4 inch in size (A, B, and C, fig. 7-39). A
single-base molding without the shoe is some
times placed at the wall-floor junction, especially
where carpeting might be used.
b. Installation of Base Molding. Square-edged
baseboard should be installed with a butt joint
at inside corners and a mitered joint at outside
corners (D, fig. 7-39). It should be nailed to each
stud with two eightpenny finishing nails. Molded
single-piece base, base moldings, and base shoe
Figure 7-38. Cutting wallboard. should have a coped joint at inside corners and

7-22
TM 5-551

BASE CAP

INSIDE CORNER

COPE

A, Squort-.dg. ba.m; B, narrow ranch bat.; C, widt ranch bott,

D, installation; E, cop*.
Figure 7-39. Base molding.

a mitered joint at outside corners. A coped joint Smaller pieces of fiberboard (tiles) require fur
is one in which the first piece is square-cut ring strips (wooden strips nailed across joints)
against the plaster or base and the second mold to which they are attached.
ing coped. This is done by sawing a 45° miter
a. Gypsumboard.
cut and with a coping saw trimming the molding
(1) Nailing to ceiling. iThe 4-foot by 8-foot
along the inner line of the miter (E, fig. 7-39). boards are nailed to the ceiling with 5-penny-
The base shoe should be nailed into the subfloor
nails through 1/2-inch thick gypsum or 4-penny
with long slender nails and not into the base
nails through 3/8-inch gypsum. The nails are
board itself. Thus, if there is a small amount of spaced 5 to 7 inches apart, off center, and driven
shrinkage of the joists, no opening will occur
about 1/16 inch below the surface of the board.
under the shoe.
(2) Cutting panels and treatment of joints.
7-17. Ceiling Covering The cutting of the panels and the treatment of
In present-day construction, dry, rigid wall- joints are the same as those of walls and parti
boards are used instead of laths and plaster to tions (para 7-15b(3).
cover ceilings, as well as walls (para 7-15). The
most common drywall finishes are gypsumboard, (3) Brace for paneling ceiling. A brace is
fiberboard, and plywood. Sheets of gypsumboard constructed and used (fig. 7-40) to raise and
and fiberboard are attached directly to the joists. hold a panel in place to aid in fitting and nailing

7-23
TM 5-551 B

UNDERSIDE OF SUBFLOOt

PIECES

Figure 7-41. Furring strips on ceiling joists.

RAISING CEILING PANEL

Figure 7-40. Brace for raising and holding ceiling

panels.

the wallboard to the ceiling. Eight inch nail

spacing is used in nailing the panels to the joists. Ctlllng moldings; A, Initollallon (Insido femtrl; 8
b. Fiberboard. Fiberboard sheets are obtained crown molding; C, smell crown molding.
in thicknesses from }/2 to 2 inches. The joints
Figure 7-42. Ceiling molding.
between the sheets may be covered with batten
strips of either wood or fiberboard to further im (2) Furring strips. For fiberboard tiles that
prove its appearance. When fiberboard sheets need solid backing, furring strips are placed at
must be cut, a special fiberboard knife is recom right angles across the bottom of the joists and
mended to obtain a smooth cut. short furring pieces are placed along the joists
between the furring strips, as shown in figure
(1) Tiles. Fiberboard sheets are also made
7-41.
in small pieces called tiles which are often used
for covering ceilings. These tiles may be square (3) Tile installed in metal channels. Metal
or rectangular to fit standard joist spacing. channels are nailed to furring strips and the
They may be made with a lap joint which per tiles are slid into them horizontally. In lowering
mits blind nailing or stapling through the edge. ceilings, usually in older buildings, metal chan
They may also be of tongue-and-groove construc nels are suspended on wire to "drop" a ceiling
tion fastened in place with 2-penny box nails below the original ceiling. Some large (2 x 4-ft)
driven through special metal clips. panels are installed in individual frames.

7-24
TM 5-551 B

7-18. Ceiling Molding partially conceal any unevenness of the plaster

Ceiling moldings are sometimes used at the junc and make painting easier where there are color
tion of wall and ceiling for an architectural ef changes (B, fig. 7-42). For gypsum dry-wall
fect or to terminate dry-wall paneling of gypsum- construction, a small simple molding might be
board or wood (A, fig. 7-42). As in the base desirable (C, fig. 7-42). Finish nails should be
moldings, inside corners should also be cope- driven into the upper wallplates and also into
jointed. This insures a tight joint and retains a the ceiling joists for large moldings when pos
good fit if there are minor moisture changes. A sible.
cutback edge at the outside of the molding will

Section III. DOOR FRAMES, WINDOW FRAMES, AND

OTHER WALL OPENINGS

7-19. Doors a. Door Frames.

Door and window openings in exterior walls gen (1) Before the exterior covering is placed
erally require headers. Regular studs are nor on the outside walls, the door openings are pre
mally placed 16 inches on center apart. Extra pared for the frames. To prepare the openings,
studs are added at the sides of all such openings. square off any uneven pieces of sheathing and
Openings should allow 1/2 inch between the back wrap heavy building paper around the sides and
at jambs and framing member for the plumbing top. Since the sill must be worked into a por
and leveling of jambs. tion of the rough flooring, no paper is put on the
floor. Position the paper from a point even with
the inside portion of the stud to a point about 6
l"X4"XI-0"
inches on the sheathed walls and tack it down
with small nails.
(2) Outside door frames are constructed in
several ways. In most hasty construction, the
frames will be as shown in figure 7-43. This type
requires no construction of frame because the
studs on each side of the opening act as a frame.
The outside finish is applied to the wall before
the door is hung. The casing is then nailed to
the sides of the opening which is set back the
width of the stud. A 3/4- by 3/4-inch piece is
nailed over the door to act as a support for the
drip cap and is also set back the width of the
stud. Hinge blocks are nailed to the casing where
the hinges are to be placed. The door frame is
now complete and ready for the door to be hung.
Figure 7-43 shows the elevation of a single out
side door.
(3) Inside door frames, like outside frames,
are constructed in several ways. In most hasty
construction, the type shown in figure 7-44 is
used. The interior type is constructed like the
outside type, except that no casing is used on
inside door frames. Hinge blocks are nailed to
the inside wall finish, where the hinges are to
be placed, to provide a nailing surface for the
hinge flush with the door. Figure 7-44 shows the
elevation of a single inside door. Both the outside
and inside door frames may be modified to suit
BATTEN DOOR climatic conditions.
SCREEN DOOR
b. Door Jambs. Door jambs (fig. 7-46) are
Figure 7-1,9. Single outside door. the linings of the framing of door openings.

7-25
TM 5-551 B

(5) From the lower edge of the dado, meas

l"X 6" FIBER ure a distance equal to the height of the door
BOARD- plus the clearance wanted under it. Mark and cut
1 square.
LATCH 2-0"
BLOCK HINGE BLOCK (6) On the oposite jamb do the same, only
l"X4"X6" 2"X4"X I'-O" make additions or subtractions for the varia
FOR 10" T- HINGES
tion in the floor, if any.
(7) Now nail the jambs and jamb heads
together with 8-penny common nails through the
S'-IO" dado into the head jamb.
SHEATHING
(8) Set the jambs into the opening and
place small blocks under each jamb on the sub-
floor just as thick as the finish floor will be. This
is to allow the finish floor to go under.
ELEVATION SECTION (9) Plumb the jambs and level the jamb
INTERIOR DOORS head.
(10) Wedge the sides with shingles between
the jambs and the studs, to aline, and then nail
securely in place.
LATCH BLOCK

HINGE BLOCK TOP PLATE

2"X4" X I'-O"

. LATCH' .
[■ 3'-C"X T-0"—«|
PLANS OF INTERIOR DOORS

Figure 7-44. Single inside door.

Casings and stops are nailed to the door jambs

and the door is hung from them. Inside jambs
are made of 3/4-inch stock and outside jambs of
1 3/8-inch stock. The width of the stock will vary
with the thickness to the walls. Inside jambs
are built up with 3/8- by 1 3/8-inch stops nailed
to the jamb, while outside jambs are usually
rabbeted out to receive the door. Jambs are made
and set as follows :
(1) Regardless of how carefully rough open
ings are made, be sure to plumb the jambs and
level the heads, when jambs are set.
(2) Rough openings are usually made 2 1/2
inches larger each way than the size of the door
to be hung. For example, a 2-foot 8-inch by 6-foot
8-inch door would need a rough opening of 2 feet
10 1/2 inches by 6 feet 10 1/2 inches. This extra
space allows for the jambs, the wedging, and the
clearance space for the door to swing.
(3) Level the floor across the opening to de
termine any variation in floor heights at the
point where the jambs rest on the floor.
(4) Now cut the head jamb with both ends
square, having allowed width of the door plus
the depth of both dadoes and a full 3/16 inch for
door clearance. Figure 7-45. Door jamb and door trim.

7-26
TM 5-55 IB

(11) Take care not to wedge the jamb un doubled and trussed. At the bottom of the open
evenly. ing, the bottom header or rough sill is inserted.
(12) Use a straightedge 5 or 6 feet long in a. Window Frames. These are the frames into
side the jambs to help prevent uneven wedging. which the window sashes are fitted and hung.
(13) Check jambs and head carefully, be They are set into the rough opening in the wall
cause jambs placed out of plumb will have a
framing and are intended to hold the sashes in
tendency to swing the door open or shut, de place. The rough window opening is made at
pending on the direction in which the jamb is
least 10 inches larger each way (width and
out of plumb. height) than the window glass (pane) size to be
c. Door Trim. Door trim material is nailed used. If the sash to be used is, for instance, a two-
onto the jambs to provide a finish between the light window, 24 by 26 inches, add 10 inches to
jambs and the wall. It is frequently called "cas the width (24 inches) to obtain the total width
ing" (fig. 7-45). Sizes vary from 1/2 to 3/4 inch of 34 inches for the rough opening. Add the up
in thickness, and from 2 1/2 to 6 inches in width. per and lower glasses (26 inches each) and an
Most trim has a concave back, to fit over uneven additional 10 inches for the total height of the
plaster. In mitered work, care must be taken to rough opening, 62 inches. These allowances are
make all joints clean, square, neat, and well standard and provide for weights, springs, bal
fitted. (If the trim is to be mitered at the top ances, room for plumbing and squaring, and for
corners, a miter box, miter square, hammer nail regular adjustments.
set, and block plane will be needed.) Door open
b. Double-Hung Window. The double-hung
ings are cased up as follows : window (fig. 7-47) is made up of two parts: an
(1) Leave a margin of 1/4-inch from the
upper and a lower sash, which slide vertically
edge of the jamb to the casing all around. past one another. Screens can be located on the
(2) Cut one of the side casings square and
outside of a double-hung window without inter
even at the bottom, with the bottom of the jamb. fering with its operation, and ventilators and
(3) Cut the top or mitered end next, allow
window air conditioners can be placed with the
ing 1/4-inch extra length for the margin at the
window mostly closed. However, for full ventila
top. tion of a room, only one-half of the area of the
(4) Nail the casing onto the jamb and even
window can be used, and any current of air
with the 1/4-inch margin line, starting at the
top and working toward the bottom.
(5) Use 4-penny finishing nails along the
jamb side and 6-penny or 8-penny case nails
along the outer edge of the casings.
(6) The nails along the outer edge will need
to be long enough to go through the casing and
into the studs.
(7) Set all nailheads about 1/8 inch below
the surface of the wood with a nail set.
(8) Now apply the casing for the other side
and then the head casing.

7-20. Windows
Windows are generally classified as sliding, dou
ble hung, and casement (fig. 7-46). All windows,
whatever the type, consist essentially of two
parts, the frame and the sash. The frame is made
up of four basic parts: the head, the jambs
(two), and the sill. The sash is the framework
which holds the glass in the window. Where the
openings are provided, studding must be cut
away and its equivalent strength replaced by
doubling the studs on each side of the opening
to form trimmers and inserting a header at the
top. If the opening is wide, the header should be Figure 7-46. Types of windows.

7-27
TM 5-551 B

HEAD SASH PULLEY

JAMB PULLEY STILE

GROOVEO TO APRON
RECEIVE SIDING

Figure 7-U7. Double-hung window.

passing across its face is to some extent lost to studs and the pulley stile forms the box for
the room. counterweights which balance the window sash.
(1) The box frame (fig. 7-47) consists of The weight box is divided by a thin strip known
a top piece or yoke, two side pieces or jambs as the pendulum, which separates the weights
called pulley stiles, and the sill. The yoke and for the two sash units. In the stiles near the sill
pulley stiles are dadoed into the inner and outer is an opening for easy access to the weights. This
pieces (rough casing), forming an open box with opening has a removable strip which is part of
the opening toward the studs and headers. The the stile and channel for the lower sash (fig.
rough casing provides nailing surface to the 7-47).
studs and headers forming the plaster stop. The (3) Yoke and stile faces are divided by a
outside rough casing is also a blind stop for parting strip which is dadoed into them, but re
sheathing which should fit snugly against it, movable so that the upper sash can be taken out.
with building paper lapping the joint. The strip forms the center guide for the upper
(2) The 2-inch space between the framing and lower sash, while the outerrough casing.

7-28
TM 5-551 B

projecting slightly beyond the stiles and yoke, thick. The additional rabbet is usually 15/16 or
forms the outer guide. The inner guide for the 1 3/16 inches wide, depending on whether the
sash is formed by a strip or stop, usually with a screen or storm sash is 7/8 or 1 1/8-inch thick.
molding form on the inner edge. This stop is re (2) Outswinging casement windows have
movable to permit the removal of the lower sash. the rabbet for the sash on the outer edges of the
(4) At the upper parts of the stiles, two frame, the inner edge being rabbeted for the
pulleys on each side (one for each sash) are screen. Sill construction is like that for a double-
mortised flush with the stile faces for the hung window, with the stool much wider and
weight cord or chain. forming a stop for the bottom rail. Casement-
(5) The sill is part of the box frame and window frames are of a width to extend to the
slants downward and outward. It usually has one sheathing face on the weather side and to the
or two 1/4-inch brakes, one occurring at the point plaster face on the room side (fig. 7-48) .
where the lower sash rests on the sill, and an (3) When there are two casement windows
other near the outer edge to form a seat for in a row in one frame, they may be separated
window screens or storm sash. These brakes pre by a vertical double jamb called a mullion, or the
vent water, dripping on the sill, from being stiles may come together in pairs like a french
blown under the sash. The underside of the sill, door. The edges of the stiles may be a reverse
near its outer edge, is grooved to receive the rabbet; a beveled reverse rabbet with battens,
edge of siding material to form a watertight one attached to each stile; or beveled astragals
seal. (T-shaped molding), one attached to each stile.
(6) On the room side of the sill is another The battens and astragals insure better weather-
piece, the stool, which has a rabbet on its under tightness. The latter are more resistant to loos
side into which the sill fits. The stool edge pro ening through use. Two pairs of casement sash
jects from the will, forming a horizontal stop in one frame are hinged to a mullion in the
for the lower sash. The stool is part of the in center (fig. 7-48).
terior trim of the window, made up of side and (4) Inswinging casement-window frames
top casings and an apron under the stool. The are like the outswinging type with the sash rab
framed finished side and top casings are on the bet cut in the inner edge of the frame (fig. 7-48).
weather face. A drip cap rests on top of the out The sill construction is slightly different, being
side head casing and is covered with metal flash of one piece (similar to that of a door sill) with
ing to form a watertight juncture with the sid
ing material.
c. Hinged or Casement Windows. There are
basically two types of casement windows, the
outswinging and the inswinging types, and these
may be hinged at the sides, top, or bottom. The
casement window which opens out requires the
window screen to be located on the inside with
some device cut into its frame to operate the
casement. Inswinging casements, like double-
hung windows, are clear of screens, but they
are extremely difficult to make watertight, par
ticularly against a driving rainstorm. Casements OUTSWINGING CASEMENT INSWINGING CASEMENT
have the advantage of their entire area being WINDOW WINDOW
opened to air currents, with the added advan
tage of catching a parallel breeze and slanting
it into a room.
(1) Casement windows are considerably
less complicated in their construction, being
simple frames and sash. The frames are usually
made of planks 1 3/4 inch thick with rabbets cut
in them to receive the sash. Usually there is an
additional rabbet for screens or storm sash. The
frames are rabbeted 1/2 inch deep and 1 1/2 or A MULLION MAY SEPARATE CASEMENTS
1 7/8 inches wide for sash 1 3/8 or 1 3/4 inches Figure 7-48. Casement windows.

7-29
TM 5-55 IB

a rabbet cut for a screen or storm sash toward

the front edge, and the back raised where the
sash rail seats. This surface is rabbeted at its STUO
back edge to form a stop for the rail which is INSULATION
also rabbeted to mesh. SHEATMNG
(5) Sills in general have a usual slope of DOUBLE HEADER
BATTEN TRIM
about 1 in 5 inches so that they shed water TRIM
quickly. They are wider than the frames, extend
ing usually about inches beyond the sheathing.
They also form a base for the outside finished
casing.
(6) The bottom sash rail of an inswinging
casement window is constructed differently from
the outswinging type. The bottom edge is rab
beted to mesh with the rabbet on the sill, and a
drip molding is set in the weather face to prevent
rain from being blown under the sash.
d. Window Frames In hasty construction, mill-
work window frames are seldom used. The win
dow frames are mere openings left in the walls
with the stops all nailed to the stud. The sash
may be hinged to the inside or the outside of
the wall or constructed so as to slide. The latter
type of sash is most common in Army construc
tion because it requires little time to install.
Figure 7-49 shows the section and plan of a
window and window frame of the type used in
the field. After the outside walls have been fin
ished, a 1 by 3 is nailed on top of the girt at the
bottom of the window opening to form a sill. A
1 by 2 is nailed to the bottom of the plate and
on the side studs which acts as a top for the STUO
window sash. One guide is nailed at the bottom
FILLER BLOCK
of the opening flush with the bottom of the girt,
and another is nailed to the plate with the top GIRT SILL
edge flush with the top of the plate. These guides
Figure 7-49. Detail of wall section with window
are 1 by 3's, 8 feet long. Stops are nailed to the frame and sash.
bottom girt and plate, between the next two
studs, to hold the sash in position when open (fig. (1) Cut a hole through the sheet metal
7-49). where the stovepipe is to penetrate.
(2) Mark a circle on the metal 1/2-inch
7-21. Other Wall Openings larger in diameter than the pipe and then make
another circle within this circle with a diameter
a. Stovepipes. Stovepipes carried outside a
building through a side wall eliminate the need 2 inches less than the diameter of the first.
for flashing and waterproofing around the pipe (3) With a straightedge, draw lines
(fig. 7-50). The opening should be cut in an through the center of the circle from the circum
area selected to avoid cutting studs, braces, ference. These marks should be from 1/2 to 3/4
plates, and so on. Sheathing must be cut back in inch apart along the outer circumference.
a radius 6 inches greater than that of the pipe. (4) Cut out the center circle, then cut to
Safety thimbles or other insulation must be used the outside of the circle along the lines drawn.
on the inside and outside of the sheathing. Sheet After the lines have been cut, bend the metal
metal insulation may be constructed and used as strips outward at a 45° angle and force the pipe
a single insulator on the outside. Make openings through the hole to the desired position. Very
as follows : little water will leak around this joint.

7-30
TM 5-55 IB

SIDE ELEVATION SECTION A -A

CUT ALONG
THESE LINES 2 LESS THAN
LARGE CIRCLE
SHEET METAL

r- STOVE PIPE

> RFNT
BENT METAL
STRIPS

DIAMETER OF
PIPE PLUS l/2" SHEATHING

METAL FLASHING

Figure 7-60. Preparation of wall opening for

stovepipe.

b. Ventilators. Adequate ventilation is neces (6) Cornice ventilators (2).

sary to prevent condensation in buildings. Con (c) Gable louvers (3).
densation may occur in the walls, in the crawl (d) Flat-roof ventilators (4).
space under the structure, in basements, on win (e) Crawl-space ventilation (5).
dows, and so on. Condensation is most likely to (/) Ridge ventilators (6).
occur in structures during the first 6 to 8 months (2) Upper structure ventilation. One of the
after a building is built and in extreme cold most common methods of ventilating is by the
weather when interior humidity is high. Proper use of wood or metal louver frames. There are
ventilation under the roof allows moisture-laden many types, sizes, and shapes of louvers. The
air to escape during the winter heating season following are facts to consider when building or
and also allows the hot dry air of the summer installing the various kinds of ventilation :
season to escape. The upper areas of a structure (a) The size and number of ventilators
are usually ventilated by the use of louvers or are determined by the size of the area to be
ventilators. ventilated.
(1) Types of ventilators (fig. 7-51). Types (6) The minimum net open area should
of ventilators used are as follows : be 1/4 square inch per square foot of ceiling
(a) Roof louvers (1). area.

7-31
TM 5-55 IB

LOUVEREO
FRONT
DIRECTION
OF
AIR FLOW

SCREENED LOUVER

INSULATION
FLAT ROOF VENTILATOR

METAL
SUPPORTS

DIRECTION
OF
AIR FLOW

ROOFING FELT I" SHEATHING

r PLATE
lHX6" SIDE LATH

ROOFING FELT
2'X4" STUD
2"X4" RAFTER
|"X8" RAFTER TIE l"X6" VERTICAL
RIDGE VENTILATOR DETAIL

Figure 7-51. Types of ventilators.

(c) Most louver frames are usually 5 vers should be placed as near the top of the gable
inches wide. as possible.
(d) Back edge should be rabbeted out for (3) Crawl-space ventilation. Crawl spaces
a screen or door, or both. under foundations of basementless structures
(e) Three-quarter-inch slats are used and should be well ventilated. Air circulation under
spaced about 1 3/4 inches apart. the floors prevents excessive condensation that
(/) Sufficient slant or slope to the slats causes warping, swelling, twisting, and rotting
should be provided to prevent rain from driving of the lumber. These crawl-space ventilators are
in. usually called "foundation louvers" (5, fig. 7-51).
(fir) For best results, upper structure lou They are set into the foundation at the time it is

7-32
TM 5-55 IB

being- built. A good foundation vent should be on the same basis as that used for upper structure
equipped with a copper or bronze screen and louvers—1/4-inch for each square foot of under-
adjustable shutters for opening and closing the floor space.
louver. The sizes for the louvers should be figured

Section IV. STAIRWAYS

7-22. Steps and Stairs of the stair framing and the finished trim of the
Stairwork is made up of the framing on the entire staircase.
sides, known as stringers or carriages, and the
steps, known as treads. Sometimes pieces are a. The step or stair stringer may be made of
framed into the stairs at the back of the treads; 2 by 4's, with triangular blocks nailed to one
these pieces are known as risers. The stringers edge to form the stringer. The blocks are cut
or carriages may consist of materials 2 or 3 from 2 by 6's and nailed to the 2 by 4, as shown
inches thick and 4 or more inches wide in 1, figure 7-52. The step stringers are fas
which are cut to form the step of the stairs. tened at the top and bottom as shown in 2, fig
Blocks (fig. 7-52) may also be nailed on to form ure 7-52. Figures 7-52 and 7-53 show the foun
the steps. There are usually three stringers to dation and give the details of the sizes of the
a stair, one at each of the two outer edges and step treads, handrails, the methods of installing
one at the center. The floor joists must be prop them, and the post construction. This type of
erly framed around the stair well, or wellhole, step is most common in field construction.
in order to have enough space for the erection 6. When timbers heavier than 2 by 4's are used
for stringers, they are laid out and cut as shown
in figure 7-54.

7-23. Stairway Framing

a. To frame simple, straight string stairs, take
a narrow piece of straight stock, called a story
pole, and mark on it the distance from the lower

GIRDER SUBFLOOR
POST

Figure 7-52. Step construction. Figure 7-53. Details of complete stair construction.

7-33
TM 5-55 IB

JOISTS

Figure 7-54. Method of laying out stair stringers.

floor to the upper floor level. This is the lower

room height, plus the thickness of the floor
joists, and the rough and finished flooring. It
is also the total rise of the stairs. If it is kept
in mind that a flight of stairs forms a right
angled triangle (fig. 7-55), with the rise being
the height of the triangle, the run being the
base of the triangle, and the length of the
stringers being the hypotenuse of the triangle,
it will help in laying out the stair distances.
Set dividers at 7 inches, the average distance
from one step to another, and step off this dis
tance on the story pole. If this distance will TOTAL RUN lO'-IO"
not divide into the length of the story pole
evently, adjust the divider span slightly and Figure 7-55. Principal parts of stair construction.
again step off this distance on the story pole.
Continue this adjusting and stepping off until stringer stock (fig. 7-54). These figures will be
the story pole is marked off evently. The span of about 7 inches and 10 inches, respectively, since
the dividers must be near 7 inches and repre the ideal run and rise totals 17 inches. Lay off
sents the rise of each step. Count the number the run and rise of each step on the stringer
of spaces stepped off evenly by the dividers, on stock equal to the number of risers previously
the story pole. This will be the total number of obtained by dividing the story pole into equal
risers in the stairs. spaces. The distance of the height, base, and
hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle are thus
6. Measure the length of the wellhole for the
obtained.
length of the run of the stairs. This length may
also be obtained from the details on the plans.
The stair well length forms the base of a right-
7-24. Check on Design of Risers and
angled triangle. The height of the triangle and
Treads
the base of the triangle have now been obtained. a. Rules. The following are two rules of thumb
c. To obtain the width of each tread, divide that may be used to check the dimensions of
the number of risers, less one—since there is risers and treads :
always one more riser than tread—into the run (1) Riser + tread = between 17 and 19
of the stairs. The numbers thus obtained are to inches.
be used on the steel square in laying off the (2) Riser x tread = between 70 and 75
run and rise of each tread and riser on the inches.

7-34
TM 5-55 IB

b. Check. If the sum of the height of the riser the height of the riser and the width of the
and the width of the tread ((1) above) falls tread equals between 70 and 75 inches, the de
between 17 and 19 inches, and the product of sign is satisfactory.

7-35
TABLE 7-1

SIZES OF BUILT-UP WOOD GIRDERS FOR VARIOUS LOADS AND SPANS

Based on Douglas Fir 4— SQUARE Guide- Line FRAMINIG

Deflection Not Over 1/360 Of Span-Allowable Fiber Stress

1600 lbs. per sq. in.

LENGTH OF SPAN
LOAD PER
6'-0" 7'-0" 8'-0" 9'-0" 10'-0"
LINEAR
FOOT OF NOMINAL SIZE OF GIRDER REQUIRED
GIRDER
750 6x8 In. 6x8 In. 6x8 In. 6x10 In. 6x10 In.
900 6x8 6x8 6x10 6x10 8x10
1050 6x8 6x10 8x10 8x10 8x12
1200 6x10 8x10 8x10 8x10 8x12
1350 6x10 8x10 8x10 8x12 10x12
1500 8x10 8x10 6x12 10x12 10x12
1650 8.10 8x12 10x12 10x12 10x14
1800 8x10 8x12 10x12 10x12 10x14
1950 8x12 10x12 10x12 10x14 12x14
2100 8,12 1Cx12 10x14 12x14 12x14
2250 10x12 10x12 10x14 12x14 12x14
2400 10x12 10x14 10x14 12x14
2550 10x12 1Cx14 12x14 12x14
2700 1px12 10x14 12x14
2850 10x14 12x14 12x14
3000 10x14 12x14
3150 10x14 12x14
3300 12x14 12x14

The 6-in. girder is figured as being made with three pieces 2 in. dressed to 1*5/8 in. thickness
The 8-ln. girder Is figured as being made with four pieces 2 in. dressed to 1-5/8 in. thicknett.
The 10-ln. girder Is figured as being made with five pieces 2-in. dressed to 1-5/8 in. thickness.
The 12-ln. girder Is figured as being made with six pieces 2 in. dressed to 1-5/8 In. thickness.
Note—For solid girders multiply above loads by 1. 1 30 when 6-inch girder is used; 1 . 150 when 8-tn.
girder is used; 1.170 when 10-in. girder Is used and 1.180 when 1 2-in. girder is used.

BOLSTER

HARDWOOD BOLSTER USED

TO PREVENT CRUSHING OF
GIRDER
TM 5-55 IB

CHAPTER 8

ROOF SYSTEM AND COVERINGS

Section I. ROOFING

8-1 . Ceilings if needed, may be placed without affecting the

Ceiling joists form the framework of the ceiling spacing of the prime joists. The selection of the
of the room. They are usually lighter than floor ceiling joists and their installation are much the
joists, but large enough and strong enough to same as those of floor joists. They are placed
resist bending and buckling, and to remain parallel with the rafters and extend in a con
rigid. Ceiling joists are generally installed 16 tinuous line across the structure. The ceiling
inches apart on centers, starting at one side of joists are nailed to both the plates and the raft
the building and continuing across. Extra joists, ers, if possible, and lapped and spiked over bear
ing partitions. Joists that lie beside rafters
on a plate are cut at the same slope as the pitch
of the rafter, flush with the top of the rafter.
RAFTER They are installed crown or camber up. For de
ATTIC JOIST tails, see figure 8-1.

PLATE

TOENAIL THE
CEILING JOISTS
TO THE WALL
ONE METHOD OF BRACING ATTIC PLATES
PLATE.

NAIL THE JOISTS

TO THE RAFTERS"
DOUBLE PLATES' PLASTER
NCEILING JOISTS
STUDS •
SOLE PLATE

BUILT- UP PLATE SUPPORTING

JOIST AND ROOF RAFTERS

Figure 8-1. Ceiling joists. Figure 8-2. Types of roofs.

8-1
230-321 O - 77 - 7
TM 5-551 B

8-2. Roofs what the joists do for the floor and what the
a. General. The primary object of a roof in studs do for the wall. Rafters are inclined mem
any climate is to keep out the rain and the cold bers spaced from 16 to 48 inches apart which
or heat. The roof must be sloped so as to shed vary in size, depending on their length and the
water. In areas of heavy snows, roofs must be distance at which they are spaced. The tops of
constructed more rig-idly to bear the extra weight. the inclined rafters are fastened in one of the
They must also be strong enough to withstand various common ways determined by the type of
high winds. The most commonly used types of roof. The bottoms of the rafters rest on the plate
roof construction are as follows: member which provides a connecting link be
(1) Gable roof (1, fig. 8-2). The gable roof tween wall and roof and is really a functional
has two roof slopes that meet at the center, or part of both. The structural relationship between
ridge, to form a gable. It is the most common rafters and wall is the same in all types of roofs.
roof because it is simple, economical and may be The rafters are not framed into the plate but are
used on any type structure. simply nailed to it, some being cut to fit the plate
(2) Lean-to or shed roof (2, fig. 8-2). This while others, in hasty construction, are merely
near-flat roof is used where large buildings are laid on top of the plate and nailed in place. Raf
framed under one roof, where hasty or temporary ters may extend a short distance beyond the wall
construction is needed, and where sheds or ad to form the eaves and protect the sides of the
ditions to buildings are erected. The pitch of the building.
roof is in one direction only. The roof is held up c. Roofing Terms.
by the walls or posts on four sides; one wall or (1) Basic triangle. The basic principle in
the posts on one side are" higher than those on volved in roof framing is the right triangle,
the opposite side. shown in figure 8-3. When framing a roof, the
(3) Hip roof (3, fig. 8-2). The hip roof has basic right triangle is formed by the horizontal
four sides or slopes running toward the center lines, or run, the rise (or altitude), and the
of the building. Rafters at the corners extend length of the rafter (the hypotenuse). Any part
diagonally to meet at the center, or ridge. Into of the triangle can be computed if the other two
these rafters, other rafters are framed. parts are known. Use the equation that states
(4) Gable and valley roof (4, fig. 8-2). This the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle
roof is a combination of two gable roofs inter is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides.
secting each other. The valley is that part where Stating this formula in roofing terms, rafter
the two roofs meet, each roof slanting in a dif
length = Vrun2 + rise2.
ferent direction. This roof is seldom used, since
(2) Bird's mouth. The bird's mouth is a cut
it is complicated and requires much time and
out near the bottom of a rafter which fits over
labor to construct.
the top plate as shown at 2 of figure 8-4. This
b. Rafters. Rafters make up the main body of is the most common cut for fitting a rafter to
the framework of all roofs. They do for the roof the plate. The cut which fits the top of the plate

RIOGE

BUILDINO LINE PLATE

Figure 8-3. Right triangle.

fi-2
TM 5-55 IB

Figure X-i. Cute on bottom end of rafters.

is called the seat, while the cut for the side of (4) Horizontal line. A horizontal line is one
the plate is called the heel. level with the building foundation.
(3) Cut of roof. The cut of a roof is the rise (5) Line length. Line length as used in roof
in inches and the unit of run (12 inches) (1, fig. framing is the hypotenuse of a triangle whose
8-5). base is the total run and whose altitude is the
total rise (1, fig. 8-5).
(6) Overhang. The overhang (8, fig. 8-6)
ROOF PITCH
12 is that portion of a rafter which extends beyond
RISE IN INCHES the outside edge of the plate or walls of a building.
VARIABLE)
When laying out a rafter, this portion is an ad
dition to what is considered the length of a rafter
and is figured separately. The overhang is often
referred to as the lookout, eave, or tailpiece.
J UNIT(irr
•irun Of I
-TOTAL RUN- (7) Pitch. Pitch signifies the amount that
-juNIT OF SPAN (2<f)j« a roof slants. Units, or amount, of pitch are
-SPAN-
expressed as ratios. There are two methods of
FRAMING SQUARE\^^ 24" RISE PER 12" RUN (24-12 PITCH) indicating pitch. Using the first method, the pitch
is indicated as a ratio of the rise to the span of a
roof. This ratio is stated as a fraction, as shown
3/4 PI 18" RISE PER 12' RUN (18 12 PITCH| in 2, figure 8-5. The units of span and rise must
5/8 PITCH. be the same (inches or feet), and the fraction
1/2 PITCH _I5"-RISE_PER I2"RUN (15-12 PITCH|
5/12 PITCH is reduced to its lowest common denominator.
1/3 PITCH- 12" RISE PER 12" RUN (12-12 PITCH) With the second method, pitch is stated as the
I /4 PITCH. 10" RISE PER 12" RUN (10-12 PITCH) ratio of rise (in inches) to (or per) 1 foot of span
1/6 PITl 8* RISE PER 12* RUN (8-12 PITCHI
(12 inches). Using this method, 4, 6, or 8 inches
6" RISE PER 12" RUN (6-12 PITCH]
4" RISE PER 12" RUN (4-12 PITCH| rise per foot of span would give a pitch of 4-12,
6-12, or 8-12, as shown in 2, figure 8-5. Further
examination of figure 8-5 shows that a roof with
1/2 pitch can also be said to have 12-12 pitch.
(8) Plate. This is the wall framing member
(2, fig. 8-6) that rests on the top of the wall
studs. It is sometimes called the rafter plate be
cause it is the framing member upon which the
rafters rest.
(9) Plumb line. A plumb line (3, fig. 8-5)
is the line formed by the cord on which the plumb
bob is hung.
(10) Rafter types. There are four types of
Figure 8-5. Pitch of roof. rafters: common, hip, valley, and jack. The com

8-3
TM 5-55 IB

(?) VALLEY RAFTER

(7) VALLEY JACK RAFTERS (4) HIP RAFTER
(7) RIDGE

(2) PLATE
(?) OVERHANG
COMMON RAFTER

(?) HIP JACK RAFTERS

(T) PLATE BIRD'S MOUTH

Figure 8-6. Identification of roof framing terms.

mon rafters (3, fig. 8-6) are the framing mem (15) Total run. Total run (1, fig. 8-5) always
bers which extend at right angles from the plate refers to the level distance over which any rafter
line to the ridge of the roof. They are called passes. For the ordinary rafter, this would be
common rafters because they are common to all one-half the span distance.
types of roofs and are used as the basis for lay (16) Unit of run. The unit of measurement,
ing out other types of rafters. Hip rafters are 1 foot or 12 inches, is the same for the roof as
roof members which extend diagonally from the for any other part of the building. By the use of
corner of the plate to the ridge as shown in 4, this common unit, the framing square is employed
figure 8-6. Valley rafters (5, fig. 8-6), extend in laying out large roofs (fig. 8-5).
from the plate to the ridge along the lines where
two roofs intersect. Jack rafters are a part of a
8-3. Rafter Layout
common rafter. There are three kinds of jack Rafters must be laid out and cut with slope,
rafters: the hip jack (6, fig. 8-6), the valley length, and overhang exactly right so that they
jack (7, fig. 8-6), and the cripple jack. The hip will fit when placed in the roof.
jack rafter extends from the plate to the hip
rafter, while the valley jack rafter extends from a. Scale or Measurement Methods. The carpen
the ridge to the valley rafter. A cripple jack ter first determines the length of the rafter and
rafter is placed between a hip and valley rafter. the length of the piece of lumber from which the
This rafter is also part of a common rafter but rafter may be cut. If he is working from a roof
touches neither the ridge of the roof nor the plan, he learns the rafter lengths and the width
rafter plate. of the building from it. If no plans are available,
(11) Ridge. The ridge (1, fig. 8-6) is the the width of the building must be measured with
highest horizontal roof member which helps to a tape.
aline the rafters and tie them together at the (1) To determine the rafter length, first
upper end. find one-half of the distance between the outside
(12) Rise. The rise of a rafter is the vertical, plates. This distance (total run) is the horizontal
or plumb, distance that a rafter extends upward distance which the rafter will cover. The amount
from the plate (fig. 8-3). of rise per foot has yet to be considered. If the
(13) Span. The span of any roof (fig. 8-3) building to be roofed is 20 feet wide, half the
is the shortest distance between the two opposite span will be 10 feet. For example, the rise per
rafter seats. foot is to be 8 inches. To determine the approxi
(14) Total rise. The total rise (1, fig. 8-5) mate overall length of a rafter, measure on the
is the vertical distance from the plate to the top steel carpenter square the distance between 8
of the ridge. on the tongue and 12 on the blade, because 8 is

8-4
TM 5-55 IB

the rise and 12 is the unit of run. This distance cut and mark it on the timber. Hold the square
is 14 5/12 inches, and represents the line length in the same manner with the 8 mark on the
of a rafter with a total run of 1 foot and a rise tongue directly over the 12-foot and 1/6 inch
of 8 inches. Since the run of the rafter is 10 feet, mark. Mark along the tongue of the square to
multiply 10 by the line length for 1 foot. The an give the plumb cut for the seat (2, fig. 8-7).
swer is 144 2/12 inches, or 12 feet and 1/6 inch. Next measure off, perpendicular to this mark,
The amount of overhang, normally 1 foot, must the length of overhang along the timber and
be added if an overhang is to be used. This makes make a plumb cut mark in the same manner,
a total of 13 feet for the length of the rafter, but keeping the square on the same edge of the tim
since 13 feet is an odd length for timber, a 14-foot ber (3, fig. 8-7). This will be the tail cut of the
timber is used. rafter; often the tail cut is made square across
(2) After the length has been determined, the timber.
the timber is laid on sawhorses, ("saw benches"), (3) The level cut or width of the seat is
with the crown or bow (if it has any) as the top the width of the plate, measured perpendicular
side of the rafter. If possible, select a straight to the plumb cut, as shown in 4, figure 8-7. Using
piece for the pattern rafter. If a straight piece the try square, square lines down on the sides
is not available, have the crown toward the per from all level and plumb cut ilnes. Now the rafter
son laying off the rafter. Hold the square with is ready to be cut (5, fig. 8-7).
the tongue in the right hand, the blade in the
b. Step-Off Method. If a building is 20 feet
left, the heel away from the body, and place the
8 inches wide, the run of the rafter would be
square as near the upper end of the rafter as
10 feet 4 inches, or half the span. Instead of
possible. In this case, the figure 8 on the tongue
using the above method, the rafter length may
and 12 on the blade are placed along the edge
be determined by "stepping it off" by successive
of timber which is to be the top edge of the
steps with the square as shown in figure 8-8.
rafter as shown in 1, figure 8-7. Mark along the
Stake the same number of steps as there are feet
tongue edge of the square, which will be the
in the run, which leaves 4 inches over a foot. This
plumb cut at the ridge. Since the length of the
4 inches is taken care of in the same manner as
rafter is known to be 12 feet and 1/6 inch, meas
the full foot run; that is, with the square at the
ure the distance from the top of the plumb
last step position, make a mark on the rafters at
the 4-inch mark on the blade, then move the
square along the rafter until the tongue rests
at the 4-inch mark (1, fig. 8-8). With the square
held for the same cut as before, make a mark
along the tongue. This is the line length of the
rafter. The seat-cut and hangover are made as

~V**<
* \ / 7^
."

a ■=h-A—* &
"
© ©
Figure 8-7. Rafter layout—scale or measurement
method. Figure 8-8. Rafter layout—step-off method.
TM 5-551 B

described in a above (2, 3 and 4, fig. 8-8). When with a run of 1 foot and a rise of 13 inches. To
laying off rafters by any method, be sure to re- find the line length of a rafter with a total run
check the work carefully. When two rafters have of 10 feet 4 inches, multiply 17.69 inches by
been cut, it is best to put them in place to see 10 1/3 and divide by 12 so as to get the answer
if they fit. Minor adjustments may be made at in feet. The 17.69 inches times 101/3 equals
this time without serious damage or waste of 182.79 inches, which is divided by 12 to equal
material. 15 3/12 feet. Therefore 15 feet 3 inches is the
(2) To use the table for laying out rafters, line length of the rafter. The remaining proce
the width of the building must first be known. dure for laying out the rafters after the length
Suppose the building is 20 feet 8 inches wide has been determined is described in a above.
and the rise of the rafters is to be 13 inches (3) The second type of rafter table (fig.
per foot of run. The total run of the rafter will 8-10) appears on the back of the blade of some
be 10 feet 4 inches. Look in the first line of figures ; squares. This shows the run, rise, and the pitch
under the 13-inch mark appears the number of rafters of the seven most common pitches of
17.69, which is the length in inches of a rafter roof. The figures are based on the length of the

Figure 8-9. Rafter table method (type 1 ).

mTTTT

Figure 8-10. Rafter table method (type 2).

I. TM 5-55 IB

horizontal measurement of the building from the a run 12 feet, find 1/6 in the table, and follow
center to the outside. The rafter table and the the same line of figures to the right until directly
outside edge of the back of the square, both the beneath the figure 12. Here appear the numbers
body and tongue, are in twelfths. The inch marks 12, 7, 10, which is the rafter length required and
may represent inches or feet, and the twelfth which represents 12 feet 7 inches, and 10/12 of
marks may represent twelfths of an inch or an inch. They are written as follows: 12 feet,
twelfths of a foot. The rafter table is used in 7 10/12 inches. For a pitch of one-half (or a rise
connection with the marks and figures on the of one-half the width of the building) and a run
outside edge of the square, At the left end of of 12 feet, the rafter length is 16, 11, 6, or 16
the table are figures representing the run, the feet, 11 6/12 inches.
rise, and the pitch. In the first column, the figures (6) If the run is over 23 feet, the table
are all 12. These may be used as 12 inches or 12 is used as follows: using a run of 27 feet, find
feet as they represent the run of 12. The second the length for a run of 23 feet, then find the
column of figures represents various rises. The length for 4 feet and add the two. The run for
third column of figures, in fractions, represents 23 feet with a pitch of one-fourth is 25 feet,
the various pitches. 8 5/12 inches. For 4 feet, the run is 4 feet, 5 8/12
c. Table Method, Using Rafter Table on Fram inches. The total run for 27 feet is 30 feet, 2 1/2
ing Square. The framing square may have one inches. When the run is in inches, the rafter
or two types of rafter tables on the blade. One table reads inches and twelfths instead of feet
type gives both the line length of any pitch or and inches. For example, if the pitch is one-half
rafter per foot of run and the line length of any and the run is 12 feet, 4 inches, add the rafter
hip or valley rafter per foot of run. The difference length of a 12-foot run to that of a rafter length
in length of the jack rafter spaced 16 or 24 in of 4-inch run, as follows: for a run of 12 feet
ches (on center) is also shown in the table. and one-half pitch, the length is 16 feet, 11 6/12
Where the jack rafter, hip, or valley rafter needs inches. For a run of 4 inches and one-half pitch,
side cuts, the cut is given in the table. The other the length is 5, 7, 11. In this case the 5 is inches,
type of table gives the actual length of rafter the 7 is twelfths, and the 11 is 11/12 of 1/12,
for a given pitch and span. which is nearly 1/12. Add it to the 7 to make it
(1) The first type of table (fig. 8-9) appears 8, making a total of 5 8/12 inches, then add the
on the face of the blade. It is used to determine two lengths together. This sum is 17 feet, 5 2/12
the length of the common, valley, hip, and jack inches. The lengths that are given in the table
rafters, and the angles at which they must be are the line lengths ; the overhang must be added.
cut to fit at the ridge and plate. To use the table, After the length of the rafter has been found,
the carpenter first must know what each figure the rafter is laid out as explained in (a) above.
represents. The row of figures in the first line (c) When the roof has an overhang, the
represents the length of common rafters per foot rafter is usually cut square to save time. When
of run, as the title indicates at the lefthand end the roof has no overhang, the rafter cut is plumb,
of the blade. Each set of figures under each inch but no notch is cut in the rafter for a seat. The
division mark represents the length of rafter per level cut is made long enough to extend across
foot of run with a rise corresponding to the num the plate and the wall sheathing. This type of
ber of inches over the number. For example, rafter saves material, although little protection
under the 16-inch mark apears the number 20.00 is given to the side wall.
inches. This number equals the length of a rafter
with a run of 12 inches and a rise of 16 inches.
8-4. Timber Trusses
Under the 13-inch mark appears the number 17.69
a. Definition. A truss is a framed or jointed
inches which is the rafter length for a 12-inch run
structure composed of straight members con
and a 13-inch rise. The other five lines of figures nected only at their intersections in such a way
in the table will not be discussed as they are
that if the loads are applied at these intersections
seldom used in the theater of operations.
the stress in each member is in the direction of its
(a) These three columns of figures show length.
that a rafter with a run of 12 and a rise of 4 6. Types. The web members of a truss divide
has one-sixth pitch, 12 and 6 has one-fourth it into triangles. The various types of trusses
pitch, and 12 and 12 has one-half pitch. To use used in building construction are shown in figure
this scale for a roof with one-sixth pitch (or the 8-11. The members indicated by heavy lines
rise of one-sixth the width of the building) and normally carry tensile stresses for vertical loads.

8-7
TM 5-55 IB

B-8
TM 5-55 IB

KNEE BRACES WILL BE ON RAFTERS AT EACH

PANEL JOINT, ON TWO RAFTERS AT CENTER
OF EACH 20' PANEL AND ON RAFTERS AT
EACH SlDfc OF CENTER RAFTER OF 24' PANELS.

Figure 8-12. Truss and knee braces.

Sometimes the top chords of these trusses are (9) Height of truss is the vertical distance
slightly sloping in one or two directions for at midspan from the joint center at the ridge
roof drainage, but this does not change the type of a pitched truss, or from the centerline of the
of truss. The necessary number of subdivisions top chord of a flat truss, to the centerline of the
or panels depends upon the length of the span bottom chord.
and the type of construction. (10) Span length is the horizontal distance
c. Truss Terms. between the joint centers of the two joints lo
(1) Bottom chord is a member which forms cated at the extreme ends of the truss.
the lower boundary of the truss.
d. Use. Timber trusses are used for large spans
(2) Top chord is a member which forms the
to provide wide unobstructed floor space for such
upper boundary of the truss.
(3) Chord member is a member which forms large buildings as shops and hangars. The Howe
and Fink trusses (fig. 8-11) are most commonly
part of either the top or bottom chord.
(4) Member is the component which lies used. Sometimes small buildings are trussed to
between any adjacent joints of a truss; it can save material; these small trusses act as rafters
be of one or more pieces of structural material. and give the roof rigidity.
(5) Web member is a member which lies e. Support. Trusses are supported by bearing
between the top and bottom chords. walls, posts, or other trusses. To brace a truss
(6) Joint is any point in a truss where two to a wall or post, knee braces are used as shown
or more members meet and is sometimes called a in figure 8-12. These braces tend to make a truss
'•panel point". of the entire building by tying the wall to the roof.
(7) Panel length is the distance between
any two consecutive joint centers in either the /. Layout. In laying out a truss (fig. 8-13),
top or bottom chords. first get the material to a level spot of ground
(8) Pitch is the ratio of the height of truss where workbenches will be approximately level.
to the span length. Obtain from the blueprints the measurement of

8-9
TM 5-551 B

all pieces that are to be used in the truss. Lay 8-5. Roof Trusses
out the length on the different sizes of timber a. Assembling Rafters Into Trusses. Rafters
and cut them accurately. After all the lengths of are usually assembled into trusses, as shown in
different sizes of material for truss have been 1, 2, and 3, figure 8-14. Two rafters are con
cut, lay the pieces in their correct position to nected at the top by using a collar tie well nailed
form a truss and nail them together temporarily. into both rafters. Before any ties or chords are
After the truss is assembled in this way, lay out nailed, the rafters should be spread at the lower
the location of all holes to be bored, then recheck end to equal the width of the building. This is
the measurements to be sure that they are cor done by using a template, or by measuring the
rect; after this is done, bore the holes to the size distance between the seat cuts with a tape. A 1-
called for on the print, using a brace and bit or by 6-inch or 2- by 4-inch chord is nailed across
the woodborer which accompanies the air com the rafters at the seat cut to tie them together.
pressor. They should be bored perpendicular to This chord forms a truss with the two rafters.
the face of the timber. After the holes have been A hanger or vertical member (4, fig. 8-14) of 1
bored, the truss is dismantled and the nails with by 6 is nailed to the rafter joint and extends to
drawn. the chord at midpoint, thus tying the rafter to
g. Assembly. The assembling of a truss after the chord. If no additional bracing is needed, the
it has been cut and bored is simple. In most truss is set in place on the plates. If additional
cases, timber connectors are used where the dif bracing is needed, a knee brace is nailed to the
ferent members of the truss join. The truss is chord. The knee brace forms an angle of 45° with
again assembled as it was for boring holes, with the wall stud. For easier erection, the knee brace
the timber connectors in place. The bolts are then may be omitted until the rafter truss is set in
placed in the holes and tightened, a washer being place.
placed at the head and nut ends of each bolt. b. Use of Template. Rafter framing constructed
Straight and sound timber should be used in without the use of ridgeboards may be rapidly
trusses to avoid weak places. completed by use of a truss assembly jig or tem
plate. The template is laid out (5 and 6, fig. 8-14)
h. Purlins. Purlins are used in roof construc
to form a pattern conforming to the exact ex
tion to support the sheet metal where corrugated
terior dimensions of the truss. Lay out a template
sheet metal is used, or to support the sheathing
as follows : (5, fig. 8-14).
when roofs are framed with trusses. In small
roofs, short purlins are inserted between the (1) Measure and mark a straight line on a
selected surface, the exact length of the joists
rafters and nailed through the rafters as shown
which will form the chord of the truss. This is
in figure 7-2. Where heavy trusses are used, the
the baseline A.
purlins are continuous members which rest on
(2) From the center of the baseline and at
the trusses and support the sheathing. This type
right angles to it, lay out a line the length re
of purlin is used only in large buildings. In small
quired to form the leg of a right triangle, the
buildings, such as barracks, mess halls, and small
base of which is half the length of the baseline,
warehouses, 2 by 4's are used for purlins, with
A, and the hypotenuse, B, which is the length of
the narrow side up.
the rafter measured as indicated. This is the
centerline C.
(3) Nail 2- by 4- by 8-inch blocks flush with
the ends of baseline A and centerline C as shown.
Mark centerline on center jig blocks.
(4) Start assembly by setting a rafter in the
jig with plate cut fitted over jig block at one end
of baseline. Peak is flush with centerline on peak
L SECTION OF TRUSS
UPPER CHORD jig block. Nail a holding block outside rafter at
4'-5' •[■ s'-e'-^— s'-ar—f. 4'H"—\ point D.
ffftttti *i ut Q" ti (5) Assemble trusses in the following order:
I lay one 2- by 4-inch joist or chord in place across
base blocks. Lay two 2- by 4-inch rafters in place
LOWER CHORD over joist. Center one end of a 1- by 6-inch hanger |
under rafter peak. Center rafters against peak
Figure 8-13. Selection of truss. block. Nail through rafters into hanger with six

8-10
TM 5-551 B

1-11
TM 5-55 IB

8-penny nails. Line up one end of chord. Nail (2) Rest one end of a truss assembly, peak
through rafter with 16-penny nails. Line up other down, on an appropriate mark on top plate on
end of chord. Nail as above. Center bottom of one side of structure (1, fig. 8-15).
hangers on top of chord and nail with 8-penny (3) Rest other end of truss on opposing mark
nails. on top plate on other side of structure (2, fig. 8-
c. Placement of Trusses. After the rafters 15).
have been assembled into trusses, they must be (4) Rotate assembly into position by means
placed on the building. The first set of rafters of a pole or rope (3, fig. 8-15).
may be assembled in the end section of the build (5) Line up rafter faces flush against marks
ing or at the center as shown in figure 8-15. The and secure.
rafter trusses are raised by hand into position (6) Raise, aline, and nail three assemblies
and nailed into place with 16-penny nails. These into position. Nail temporary 1- by 6-inch braces
trusses are temporarily braced to the end section across these three assemblies (4, fig. 8-15) and
of the building until the sheathing is applied. other assemblies as they are brought into posi
Temporary workbenches may be built for the tion. Check rafter spacing at peaks as braces are
workers to stand on while erecting these trusses ; nailed on.
this will save time. The knee braces are not used (7) Braces may be used as a platform when
on every rafter truss unless needed. The trusses raising those trusses for which there is too little
are installed as follows : room to permit rotation.
(1) Mark proper positions of all truss as
semblies on top plate. The marks must show the 8-6. Bracing of Rafters
exact position on the face of all rafters (south a. General. In small roofs which cover only
or north, etc.). narrow buildings and in which the rafters are
short, there is no need for interior support or
bracing. In long spans, the roof would sag in the
middle if it were not strengthened in some way.
To support long rafters, braces or other types of
supports must be installed.
6. Types.
(1) Collar beams. A collar beam or tie is a
piece of stock (usually 1 by 4, 1 by 6, or 1 by 8)
fastened to a pair of rafters in a horizontal posi
tion between the plate and the ridge of the roof.
This beam tends to keep the building from spread
ing. The lower the collar beam or chord, the better
it fulfills its purpose. This type of bracing is
used on small roofs where no ceiling joists are
used and the building is not wide enough to re
quire a truss.
(2) Truss. In wide buildings, where the
joists or chords must be spliced and there is no
support underneath, the rafter and joists sup
port one another as shown in figure 8-16.

8-7. Roof Openings

a. General. Major roof openings are those
which interrupt the normal run of rafters or other
roof framing. Such openings may be for ventila
tor, chimney, or trap door passage or for sky
light or dormer windows.
6. Construction. Roof openings are framed by
headers and trimmers (fig. 8-17). Double headers
are used at right angles to the rafters, which are
set into the headers in the same way as joists
Figure 8-15. Erection of rafter trusses. in floor opening construction. Trimmers are ac

8-12
TM 5-55 IB

ROOF PITCH

Figure 8-16. Truss or rafter support detail.

tually double rafter construction in roof open pitched-roof structures. Built-up roofing is used
ings. Nailing strips may be added if needed. mainly on flat or nearly flat roofs.
b. Asphalt and Asbestos-Cement Roofing. As
8-8. Roof Covering phalt roofing comes in rolls (usually 36 inches
a. General. Asphalt and asbestos-cement roof wide, called rolled roofing), in rolled strips (usu
covering are the types most frequently used on ally 15 inches wide), in flat strips (usually 12
inches wide and 36 inches long), and as individual
separate shingles. The type most commonly used
is the flat strip, often called a strip shingle. A
12 x 36 square-butt strip shingle is shown in fig
ure 8-18. This shingle should be laid 5 inches to
the weather, meaning that 7 inches of each course
should be overlapped by the next higher course.
The lower, exposed end of a shingle is called the
butt. The shingle shown in figure 8-18 has a
square butt, divided into three tabs. Various other
butt shapes are manufactured. Asbestos-cement
roofing usually consists of individual shingles,
12-inch by 24-inch which is the size most com
monly used.
c. Laying Asphalt Roofing.
(1) The first essential in covering a roof is
to erect a scaffold to a height which will bring
the eaves about waist-high to a man standing on
the scaffold.
(2) Before any roof covering is applied, the
roof sheathing must be swept clean and carefully
inspected for irregularities, cracks, holes, or any
other defects. No roofing should be applied unless
Figure 8-17. Roof opening construction. the sheathing boards are absolutely dry.

8-13
TM 5-551 B

•36"

•7" LAP

5' TO *EATiER

TAB TAB NOTCH

Figure 8-18. A 12 x 36 square-butt asphalt

strip shingle.

STARTER COURSE

GUIDE LINE OR
CHALK LME

"ROOFING FELT
UNDERLAY

Figure 8-19. Laying an asphalt shingle roof.

(3) An underlay of roofing felt is first ap course of shingles, each course which follows is
plied to the sheathing. Roofing felt usually comes begun by stretching a guide line or snapping a
in 3-foot-wide rolls, and it should be laid with a chalk line from edge to edge to position the
4-in. lap as indicated. course.
(4) Before work begins, bundles of shingles (6) Figure 8-19 shows the method of laying
should be distributed along the scaffold. There a 12 x 36 asphalt strip-shingle roof. Strip shin
are 27 strips in a bundle of 12 x 36 asphalt strip gles should be nailed with 1-inch coppper or hot-
shingles, and three bundles will cover 100 square dipped galvanized roofing nails, two to each tab;
feet, this means six nails to each full strip. Nails
(5) After the first course at the eaves (called should be placed about 6 1/2 inches from the butt
the starter course) is laid by inverting the first edges to insure that each nail will be covered

8-14
TM 5-55 IB

by the next course (blind nailing) and driven (2) Ridge lines and hip lines tend naturally
through two courses. to shed water, and these lines are therefore only
(7) An asbestos-cement roof is laid in about moderately subject to leakage. A strip of felt
the same way as the asphalt strip shingles. paper, applied as shown in figure 8-21 usually
makes a staisfactory flashing for a ridge or hip.
d. Shingles at Hips and Valleys. One side of a
The ridge or hip is then finished as shown in fig
hip or valley shingle must be cut at an angle to
ure 8-21. Squares are made by cutting shingles
obtain an edge line which will match the line
into thirds. The squares are then blind-nailed to
of the hip or valley rafter. One way to cut these
the ridge or hip as shown.
shingles is to use a pattern made as follows. Select
a piece of 1 x 6 about 3 feet long. Determine the
unit length of a common rafter in the roof. Set
the framing square back up on the piece to the
unit run of a common rafter on the tongue and
the unit length of a common rafter on the blade,
as shown in the top view of figure 8-20. Draw a
line along the tongue. Saw the piece along this
line, and use it as a pattern to cut the shingles as
shown in the bottom view of figure 8-20.
e. Flashing.
(1) Places especially liable to leakage in
roofs and outside walls are made watertight by
the installation of flashing. Flashing consists of
sheets or strips of a watertight, rustproof mater
ial (such as galvanized sheet or sheet copper
alloy for valleys and felt for hips), installed so
as to deflect water away from places that are Figure 8-21. Hip or ridge flashing and finish on
liable to leakage. The places in a roof most liable asphalt strip-shingle roof.
to leakage are the lines along which adjoining
roof surfaces intersect (such as the lines fol SPLASH RIB
lowed by ridges, hips, and valleys), and the lines
of intersection between roof surfaces and the
walls of dormers, chimneys, skylights, and the
like.

Figure 8-22. Open valley flashing.

(3) Since water gathers in the valleys of a

roof they are highly subject to leakage. Valley
flashing varies with the manner in which the
valley is to be finished. There are two common
types of valley finish, known as the open valley
and the closed valley.
(a) Figure 8-22 shows part of an open
valley. The roof covering does not extend across
the valley. The flashing consists of a prefabricated
Figure 8-20. Laying out pattern for cutting hip piece of galvanized iron, copper, zinc, or some
and valley shingle. similar metal, with a splash rib or ridge down

8-15
TM 5-551 B

the center and a smaller crimp along each of

the edges. The flashing is nailed down to the
valley with nails driven in the edges, outside the
crimps, as shown. Great care must be taken not
to drive any nails through the flashing inside of
the crimps. Puncturing the flashing inside the
crimps is very likely to cause leakage.
(b) In the closed valley the roof covering
extends across the valley. Sheet metal flashing is
cut into small sheets measuring about 18 inches x
10 inches, called shingle tins. This flashing is laid
under each course of shingles, along the valley,
as the course is laid. After the first course of the
double course at the eaves is laid, the first sheet
of flashing is placed on top of it. The second
course is laid over the first course, and a sheet of
flashing is then laid over this one so that the
metal is partly covered by the next course. This
procedure is continued all the way up the valley.
(4) Shingle tins measuring about 5 inches
x 7 inches are used in a similar way to lay flashing
up the side walls of dormers, chimneys, skylights,
and the like (fig. 8-22). Each tin is bent at a
right angle so that part of the tin extends up the
side wall and the rest lies flat on the roof covering. Figure 8-2U- Applying built-up roofing.
Flashing of this type is called side flashing. In (a) Rosin paper is a felt paper filled with
addition to the side flashing, a dormer, chimney, rosin compound. It usually is pale red.
or skylight has a strip of flashing called an apron (b) Kraft paper is a light brown paper
(fig. 8-23) along the bottom of the outer wall or which is usually glazed.
face. A chimney or skylight has a similar strip, (c) Sisal kraft consits of two layers of
called the saddle flashing, along the bottom of the glazed kraft with a center section of sisal and
inner wall or face. embedded in a black bituminous compound and
/. Built-Up Roofing Material. laminated by heat and pressure.
(1) The following building papers are used (2) Roofing felt is a felt paper that has been
on a built-up roof. Their purpose is to prevent saturated with a bituminous compound (heavy
the seepage of bitumen through roof sheathing pitch or asphalt oils) and is used as a roof cover
on which a built-up roof has been applied (fig. ing. The basic ingredients are usually either as
8-24). bestos or rag felts. The size of roll may vary
from 32 to 36 inches wide. Weights for built-up
roofing vary from 15 to 55 pounds per square.
The 15-pound felt is most commonly used because
of its light weight.
(3) A binder is used to bond the roofing
felt together and form a watertight seal (fig. 8-
24). Asphalt and coal tar are the two main types
of bituminous binders used. Deterioration of built-
up roofs is caused by the drying out of the binder.
If this did not happen, a built-up roof would last
indefinitely. Asphalt, the preferred of the two
binders, is used on roofs which have up to 6 inches
of slope per foot (1/4 pitch). It has a melting
point of 350 to 400° F. A roof covered with as
phalt should be protected with a covering of slag,
gravel, or other protective material. Tar has a
Figure 8-23. Vertical wall flashing. lower melting point (300 to 350° F.) than as

8-16
TM 5-551 B

phalt and thus will move more easily. Therefore, causing blowoffs. The gravel stop also prevents
it is not recommended for roofs having a slope of the loss of gravel or slag from areas near the
more than 3 inches per foot (1/8 pitch). edge of the roof. The flashing flange of the gravel
(4) Aggregate, crushed stone, or gravel stop or edge strip is placed over the last ply of felt
from 1/4 to 5/8 inch in diameter is embedded in and should extend at least 4 inches on the roof. It
a coat of asphalt or tar to hold the roof covering should be nailed securely to the roof deck and
down. It also prevents the binding from disinte double-felt stripped, and then the finished coat
grating under the effects of the sun. of bitumen and surfacing or cap sheet should
(5) Gravel stops and metal edge strips. Gra be applied. The lip of the gravel stop should ex
vel stops (slag or gravel surfaced roofs) and tend a minimum of 3/4 inch above the roof deck
metal edge strips (smooth-surfaced built-up and the lip of the edge strip should be a maximum
roofs) finish off all exposed edges and eaves to of 1/2 inch above the deck. Both should be se
prevent wind from getting under the edges and curely fastened to the fascia board.

Section II. REROOFING

8-9. Asphalt-Shingle Roofs nails so the entire roof deck is smooth (fig. 8-
a. Material. The following two types of as 25).
phalt-strip shingles are used for reroofing hospi (3) Where shingles are applied over smooth-
tals and mobilization type buildings with pitched surfaced roofings or over mineral-surfaced roof
roofs. These shingles are applied directly over the ing which does not match the shingles, apply an
existing roll roofings. 18-inch starting strip of mineral-surfaced roll
(1) Standard-weight shingles. The shingles roofing at the eaves. Use roofing surfaced with
should be four-tab, 10 by 36 inches in size, in granules of the same type and color as the shin
tended for a 4-inch maximum exposure. Weight gles. Before they are applied unroll the strips
per square (100 square feet) applied should be carefully and lay them on a smooth, flat surface
approximately 210 pounds. They are fastened with until they lie perfectly flat. In applying starter
1 1/4- or 1 1/2-inch nails with heads having a strips, nail them at the top at about 18-inch in
minimum diameter of 3/8-inch. Zinc-coated nails tervals so the lower edge, when bent down and
are best. nailed to the edge of the sheathing board, extends
(2) Thick-butt shingles. Thick-butt shingles about 3/4 inch beyond the edge of the board to
should be three-tab, 12 by 36 inches in size, in form a drip edge. Space nails in the edge of the
tended for a 5-inch maximum exposure. The en , sheathing board 6 inches apart. A starter strip
tire surface of the shingles should be covered need not be used if the shingles are the same color"
with mineral granules. The bottom pare of each as the existing roofing and the existing roofing is
shingle, including the part intended to be ex not buckled.
posed and a section at least 1 inch above the cut
out sections, should be thicker than the remainder c. Detailed Instructions for Applying Shin
of the shingle. Weight per square applied should gles.
be approximately 210 pounds. The shingles (1) Standard-weight, four-tab, 10- by 36-
should be fastened with 1 1/2- or 1 3/4-inch nails inch shingles.
with heads having a minimum diameter of 3/8
(a) Start the first course with a full shin
inch. Zinc-coated nails are best.
gle placed so one edge, which is cut off flush
6. Preparation of Roof Decks. These instruc with the tab, is flush with the side of the roof.
tions assume that the roof decks are covered with The bottoms of the tabs are placed flush with
smooth or mineral-surfaced asphalt-prepared the eaves. Place nails about 3/4 inch above each
roofing and that the shingles will be applied di cutout section (fig. 8-26) and in the same relative
rectly over the existing roofing. position at each end of the shingle. Use two nails
at every cutout. Nail at the center first, then
(1) Drive all loose and protruding nails in
above the cutout sections nearest the center, and
flush with the existing roll roofing. finally, at the ends. Nailing may start at one end
(2) Cut out all vertical and horizontal buck and proceed regularly to the other. Complete the
les or wrinkles in the existing roofing and nail first course with full width shingles applied so
down the edges with 3/4-inch or 1-inch roofing the ends barely touch each other.

8-17
210-321 O - 77 - 8
TM 5-55 IB

Figure 8-25. Flattening surface and nailing down

roofing to be repaired.

(6) Start the second course with a shingle ally on each side and nailed on 2-inch centers
from which half a tab has been cut. Place it so 3/4 inch from the edges.
the bottoms of the tabs are flush with the tops of
the cutout sections of the shingle in the first (b) Apply individual hip shingles as on
course. Complete this course with full-width shin the roof, starting at the lowest point and bending
gles. the shingle equally across the hip. Place one nail
on each side, about 3/4 inch above the section to
(c) Start the third course with a shingle
be exposed and about 3/4 inch from the edge.
from which one tab has been cut; the fourth
The shingles used to finish the hips should be kept
with one from which one and one-half tabs have
in line with the main roof courses. Expose stand
been cut, and so on, until eventually a full shingle
ard-weight shingles 4 inches and thick-butt shin
is used again.
gles 5 inches.
(2) Thick-butt, three-tab shingles. Follow
the same method described for standard shingles. (c) Finish ridges the same as hips, always
Always nail these shingles through the thick part working in the direction opposite that of the pre
about 3/4 inch above the cutout sections (fig. 8- vailing winds.
26). The importance of nailing through the thick
(d) Valleys. Construct valleys from two
part of asphalt shingles cannot be emphasized
layers of mineral-surfaced roll roofing surfaced
too strongly, because practically all difficulties ex
with granules of the same type and color as the
perienced with asphalt shingles on Army build
shingles. Apply the first layer, 18 inches wide,
ings have resulted from nailing the shingles too
with the mineral surfacing down. Lay the second
high. layer the full width of the roll with the weather
(3) Hips and ridges. side up. Lay each sheet so it is smooth, conform
(a) Finish hips and ridges with individual ing to the contour of the roof. Nail valley sheets
shingles furnished especially by the manufacturer at approximately 18-inch intervals to hold them
or with shingles cut from strip shingles. Hips in place until the remainder of the roofing is
and ridges may also be finished with a strip of applied. Follow manufacturers' instructions for
mineral-surfaced roofing 9 inches wide bent equ cutting the shingles at valleys.

8-18
TM 5-55 IB

RIDGES AND HIPS LAPPED,

SHINGLES BLIND-NAILED.
LAP AWAY FROM PREVAIL
ING WINDS

Figure 8-26. Replacement of roofa.

8-10. Asphalt-Prepared Roll Roofings is, with one row of nails on 12-inch centers,
a. Mineral-Surfaced Roll Roofings. Mineral- placed not more than 2 inches from the lower
surfaced, asphalt-prepared, two-ply roofing should edge, and with a second row on 12-inch centers,
consist of a layer of 15-pound asphalt-saturated staggered with respect to the -first and about 8
felt and two plies of roll roofing, cemented to inches above the first. Over the lower half of this
gether with hot asphalt. Cut roll roofing material sheet, apply a uniform coating of hot asphalt at
into lengths of 18 or 20 feet, stacked free from the rate of 30 pounds per square (100 square
wrinkles and buckles in protected piles, and main feet) and place the first sheet of roll roofiing in
tain it at a temperature of at least 50° F. for 24 the asphalt. Cover the entire roof area. Lap each
hours before laying. First, cover the roof areas successive sheet in such a way as to obtain a two-
with a layer of 15-pound asphalt-saturated felt, ply roofing, with a 2-inch headlap. Cement the
with all joints lapped 2 inches, and nail as re lower or mineral-surfaced portion of each sheet
quired to prevent blowing off during the applica with hot asphalt to the preceding sheet. Nail the
tion of roofing. Next, lay either plain unsurfaced edge through tin or fiber disks on 12-inch stag
roofing or mineral-surfaced roofing as a starter gered centers. Use two rows of nails. Place the
sheet. Lay this upside down, in dry condition, first row on 12-inch centers not more than 2
parallel to and at the eaves, and nail through tin inches above the mineral surfacing, and the sec
or fiber disks on 12-inch staggered centers; that ond row on 12-inch centers staggered with respect

8-19
TM 5-551 B

APPLICATION (NEW OF REPLACEMENT)

DOUBLE ROOFING
OVER RIDGE
4" 55-LB SMOOTH-SURFACED
r ROLL ROOFING

APPLY WOOD STRIPS

ONLY WHERE SPECIFIED

BLIND NAILED THROUGH

TIN OR FIBER DISCS
EXISTING ROOFING

BLIND-NAILED JOINTS TO BE
CEMENTED WITH HOT ASPHALT
OR COLD-APPLIED SEALING
COMPOUND.
AT EDGES AND EAVES
ROOFING TO BE
TURNED DOWN NEATLY
AND NAILED 6" OC

NOTES
1. MATERIAL FOR STEEP-SURFACE T O BUILDINGS WILL
BE SMOOTH-SURFACED, ASPHALT-PREPARED ROLL ROOF
ING CONFORMING TO FED SPEC.
2. BUCKLES WILL BE CUT OUT AND ROOF SHOWER
TACKED BEFORE REROOFING.
3. RIDGES AND HIPS WILL HAVE ROOFING DOUBLED.
FIRST LAYER TO BE BLIND-NAILED 6" OC ON BOTH SLOPES.
TOP LAYER TO BE CEMENTED IN PLACE.
REPAIR

TOP COAT
SMOOTH-SURFACED
4" FABRIC ROLL ROOFING
BASE COAT
COVER SEAMS AND NAILS
WITH BASE COAT OF ASPHALT
ROOF COATING. THEN 4"
STRIP OF ASPHALT-SAT
URATED FABRIC AND
TOP COATING. (FIBROUS
ADHESIVE COM
POUND, BRUSH
ING CONSIS
TENCY)

REPAIRS TO LARGE
DAMAGED AREAS;
REMOVE DAMAGED SEC
TION AND REPLACE,
USING FULL-WIDTH
SHEET LAPPED, CEMENT
ED, AND NAILED AS
REPAIRS TO SMALL DESCRIBED IN TEXT
DAMAGED AREAS:
OPEN LOWER SEAM VARIABLE COVERED EDGE OF
AND INSERT STRIP EXTEND TO EXISTING ROOF
AS SHOWN LOWER SEAM

Figure 8-27. Smooth surface roll roofing.

8-20
TM 5-55 IB

to the first and about 8 inches above the first. and cutting out all buckles and wrinkles. Then
Perform the work in such a way that no fasten apply a three-ply smooth-surfaced asphalt built-
ings or asphalt will show on the finished surface. up roof as follows :
Apply the asphalt immediately before unrolling (1) Lay one layer of 15-pound, asphalt-
the sheet of roofing. Do not apply the asphalt saturated felt over the entire surface. Lap each
more than 3 feet ahead of the roll. Step the edge sheet 3 inches horizontally and vertically and
of each sheet into the asphalt so that all laps are nail the laps on 12-inch centers. Also nail
securely sealed. Place the end laps 6 inches in through the center of each sheet on 12-inch
width, with the underlying edges nailed on 6-inch centers staggered with respect to the nails at the
centers, and asphalt-cement the overlying edges horizontal laps. Use nails long enough to pene
thereto and step down firmly. Place one ply of trate into the sheathing at least 3/4 inch. They
roofing at eaves and edges, turn down neatly, should be driven through tin or hard fiber disks.
and secure it with a wood member nailed on 8- (2) Mop the entire surface with a uniform
inch center. coating of hot asphalt, using 25 pounds per 100
b. Smooth-Surfaced Roll Roofing. Apply sin square feet.
gle-ply roll roofing for theater of operations con (3) Over this coating of asphalt, lay two
struction horizontally with at least 4-inch side additional layers of 15-pound, 36-inch, asphalt-
laps and 6-inch end laps (fig. 8-27). Nail the saturated felt, lapping each sheet 19 inches. Lap
underlying edges of laps through tin or fiber disks the ends of the sheets not less than 6 inches.
on 6-inch centers, and cement overlying laps with Nail these felts 1 inch from the back edge on
hot asphalt or an approved cold-applied sealing 12-inch centers through tin or hard fiber disks.
compound. Step down firmly on the edges to pro Use nails long enough to penetrate into the wood
vide proper adhesion. Double the roofing over the sheathing at least 3/4 inch.
ridge, with at least 4-inch laps. Turn roofing down (4) Mop each of these sheets the full width
neatly at eaves and edges and nail it in place on of the lap with hot asphalt, using 25 pounds per
6-inch centers. Before laying the roll-roofing ma 100 square feet.
terial, cut it into 18- or 20-foot lengths, stack (5) Apply a uniform mopping of hot asphalt
them free of wrinkles and buckles in protected over the entire surface, using 30 pounds per 100
piles, and maintain them at a temperature of at square feet of roof surface. If a slag or gravel-
least 50° F. for 24 hours. surfaced roof is desired for mobilization type
buildings, pour the surface coating on, using
45 pounds per 100 square feet. Into this coating,
8-11. Built-Up Roofs while hot, place 300 pounds of roofing slag or
a. Asphalt-Prepared Rolled Roofs. Reroof 400 pounds of roofing gravel per 100 square feet
buildings with roofs of relatively low pitch (less of roof surface.
than 2 inches per foot), that were originally (6) Materials needed per 100 square feet
roofed with asphalt-prepared roll roofings, with of roof surface :
smooth-surfaced asphalt built-up roofing, or (a) Asphalt—80 pounds.
with coal-tar-pitch built-up roofing, as described (6) Asphalt-saturated felt—45 pounds.
below. (7) Do not heat asphalt above 400 °F. Lay
(1) Use smooth-surfaced asphalt built-up felt while asphalt is hot.
roofing to reroof buildings with original smooth- (8) Apply layers of felt so they are free
surfaced roll roofing. from wrinkles or buckles.
(2) Mobilization type buildings with roofs (9) If the existing roofing is so rough that
of relatively low pitch (usually 1/2 inch per it is impossible to obtain a smooth surface by the
foot), originally roofed with wide-selvage method outlined above, remove the original roof
mineral-surfaced roll roofing, should be reroofed ing and apply a three-ply smooth-surfaced, as
with asphalt built-up roofing, or with coal-tar- phalt built-up roof; but substitute 30-pound as
pitch built-up roofing. If the roof is nearly flat phalt-saturated felt for 15-pound felt.
so water collects and stands, the latter type of
roofing is best. Asphalt roofs may be smooth or c. Coal-Tar Pitch Built-Up Roofs. Prepare the
mineral-surfaced. Coal-tar-pitch roofs must be roof surface as described in paragraph 8-96(1)
and (2) and apply a three-ply coal-tar-pitch
mi neral-su rfaced .
built-up roof as follows :
b. Asphalt Built-Up Roofs. Prepare the roof (1) Apply one layer of 15-pound, coal-tar-
deck by driving in all loose and protruding nails saturated felt over the entire roof surface and

8-21
TM 5-551 B

prepare it as described in 5(1) above. buildings are 20 or 22 inches long ; for small new
(2) Mop the entire surface with a uniform buildings, 16 or 18 inches long. Use slates of
coating of hot coal-tar pitch, using 30 pounds uniform length, in random widths, and punched
per 100 square feet. for a head lap of not less than 3 inches.
(3) Over this coating of coal-tar pitch lay d. Lay roof slates with a 3-inch head lap and
two additional layers of 15-pound coal-tar-satu fasten each slate with two large-head slating
rated felt 36 inches wide, lapping each sheet 19 nails. Drive the slating nails so their heads just
inches over the preceding sheet. If 32-inch felt touch the slate. Do not drive the nails "home."
is used, lap each sheet 17 inches. Nail the felt 1 The opposite is true of wood shingles; therefore,
inch from the back edge on 12-inch centers workmen accustomed to laying wood shingles
through tin or hard fiber disks. Use nails long must nail slate carefully. Bed all slates on each
enough to penetrate into the wood sheathing at side of hips and ridges within 1 foot of the top
least 3/4 inch. Lap the ends of the sheets at least and along gable rakes within 1 foot of the edge
6 inches. in an approved elastic cement. Match slate
(4) Mop each of these sheets the full width courses on dormer roofs with those on the main
of the lap with hot coal-tar pitch, using 25 roof. Lay slate with open valleys.
pounds per 100 square feet.
(5) Apply over the entire surface a uniform
8-13. Tile Roofs
pouring of hot coal-tar pitch, using 55 pounds a. Preparation. Before reroofing with tiles, re
per 100 square feet. While the pitch is hot, place store the roof deck as nearly as possible to its
over it 300 pounds of roofing slag or 400 pounds original condition by replacing defective boards
of roofing gravel per 100 square feet. and applying asphalt-saturated felt (30-pound
(6) Materials required per 100 square feet type) or prepared roofing. Lap the sheets not
of roof surface : less than 3 inches; turn them up on vertical
Coal-tar pitch: 110 pounds. surfaces not less than 6 inches and over ridges
Coal-tar-saturated felt: 45 pounds. and hips not less than 12 inches. Secure the
Roofing slag: 300 pounds, sheets along laps and exposed edges with large-
or head roofing nails spaced about 6 inches.
Roofing gravel: 400 pounds.
b. Roof Tiles. Tiles must be free from fire
(7) Do not heat the coal-tar pitch above
cracks or other defects that will impair the dur
375° F. and lay felt while it is still hot.
ability, appearance, or weather tightness of the
(8) Apply the layers of felt so they are
finished roof. Special shapes are provided for
free from wrinkles or buckles.
eaves starters, hips, ridges, top fixtures, gable
rakes, and finials. Special shapes for field tile
8-12. Slate Roofs at hips and valleys may be factory-moulded be
a. Very old slate roofs sometimes fail because fore burning or may be job-cut from whole tile
of failure of the nails used to fasten the slates. and rubbed down to clean, sharp lines. Roof tiles
In such cases, remove and replace the entire roof, for use on Army buildings are generally fur
including the felt underlay materials. Remove nished in one or more of the following types.
or drive in any protruding nails. Make every (1) Mission tiles are straight-barrel type,
effort to obtain a smooth, even deck similar to the moulded to a true arc of a circle, and machine-
original one. Apply 30-pound asphalt-saturated punched for one nail and a 3-inch head lap. Use
felt horizontally over the entire roof deck. Lap regular cover tile for ridges and hips and finish
the sheets not less than 3 inches; turn them up with plain mission finials. Eaves closures and hip
on vertical surfaces not less than 6 inches and starters are available. Approved sizes are gener
over ridges and hips not less than 12 inches. ally 8 inches wide by 14 to 18 inches long.
Secure the sheets along laps and exposed edges
(2) Spanish tiles are S-shaped and ma
with large-head roofing nails spaced about 6
chine-punched for two nails and a 3-inch head
inches.
lap. Eaves closures and hip starters are available.
6. Re-lay all original slates that are in good Use mission-type cover tiles for hips and ridges.
condition. Replace defective slates with new Approved sizes are generally 9 1/2 to 12 inches
slates of the same size, matching the original wide by 12 to 18 inches long.
as nearly as possible in color and texture. (3) Slab shingle tiles are flat, noninterlock-
c. Recommended slate sizes for large new ing type, punched for two nails and a 2-inch head

fi-22
TM 5-551 B

lap. Approved sizes are 6 to 10 inches wide, 15 asphalt-saturated felt or prepared roofing. Lay
inches long, and 1/2 inch thick. this covering in horizontal courses. Lap the
sheets not less than 3 inches; turn them up on
c. Laying Tile Roofs.
vertical surfaces not less than 6 inches and over
( 1 ) Mission and Spanish tiles.
ridges and hips not less than 12 inches. Secure
(a) Before starting to lay tiles, mop the
the sheets along laps and exposed edges with
wood nailing strips with hot asphalt and fill
large-head roofing nails spaced about 6 inches.
spaces back of cant strips with asphaltic cement.
Lay tiles with open valleys. Set eaves closures b. Laying Cement-Asbestos Shingles.
back 3 inches from the lower edge of eaves tiles. (1) Re-lay all cement-asbestos shingles that
Lay pan tiles with uniform exposures to the are in good condition. Replace defective shingles
weather. Lay cover tiles in a uniform pattern, with new shingles of the same size and matching
except where otherwise necessary to match exist the originals as nearly as possible in color and
ing roofs. Give all tiles a minimum lap of 3 texture.
inches and extend pan tiles 1 inch over rear (2) Lay each shingle with a 2-inch head
edge of gutter. Cut tiles so they meet projections lap and secure it with two large-head slating
with finished joints and point up with roofer's nails. Drive the nails so their heads just touch
cement. Waterproof the spaces between field tiles the shingles. Do not drive the nails "home" as
and wood nailing strips at ridges and hips with in laying wood shingles. Bed all shingles on each
a fill of roofer's cement. Fit all tiles properly side of hips and ridges within 1 foot of the top
and then secure them with nails long enough to and along gable rakes within 1 foot of the edge
penetrate at least 1 inch into the wood base. Fill in an approved elastic slater's cement. Project
spaces between pan and cover tiles in first row the shingles 1 inch over the rear edges of gutters.
at eaves solid with cement mortar composed of Lay shingles with 1-inch head lap on sides of
1 part portland cement, 3 parts fine sand, and dormers. Match the shingle courses on dormer
enough clean water to form a plastic mix. Wet all roofs with those on the main roof. Lay shingles
tiles before applying mortar, and then press them with open valleys.
firmly into the mortar bed. Match the tile courses
on dormer roofs with those on the main roof.
8-15. Metal Roofs
Cut surplus mortar off neatly. Point up all open To conserve critical materials, replace metal roofs
joints. Remove loose mortar from exposed sur with nonmetallic roofing materials.
faces.
(b) Where hurricane winds can be ex
8-16. Wood Shingles
pected, consider reinforcing tile roofs by laying a. When old roofing is removed :
all field tiles in portland cement mortar. To do
( 1 ) Restore the roof deck as nearly as possi
this, fill the ends of tiles at eaves, hips, ridges,
ble to its original condition by replacing all
rakes, and spaces beneath ridges solid with
rotted boards and pulling out or driving down
cement mortar and fill the full width of laps
all protruding nails.
between the tiles, both parallel and perpendicular
to the eaves, with cement mortar. (2) Install flashings and apply new
(2) Slab shingle tiles. Lay slab shingle tiles shingles.
with a 2-inch head lap and secure each tile with b. Apply new wood shingles directly over
two large-head roofing nails. Double the tiles at weathered wood-shingle roofs, if the existing
the eaves and project them 1 inch over the rear shingle roofs can be made smooth and can be
edge of gutters. Lay all tiles within 1 foot of nailed properly. Reroof over existing wood
hips, ridges, and abutting vertical surfaces in shingles as follows :
roofer's cement. Lay 10- or 12-inch tiles with (1) Nail down or cut off curled and warped
1-inch head lap on sides of dormers. Match the shingles, nail loose shingles securely, and remove
tile courses on dormer roofs with those on the or drive down protruding nails.
main roof. Lay tile roofs with open valleys. (2) Cut off the old first-course shingles at
the eaves just below the butts of the second
8-14. Cement-Asbestos Roofs course and replace them with a 1- by 3-inch or
a. Preparation. Before reroofing with cement- a 1- by 4-inch strip nailed flush with the eaves
asbestos shingles, restore the roof deck as nearly line.
as possible to its original condition by replacing (3) Cut back the shingles at the gable ends
defective boards and applying new 30-pound about 3 inches and replace them with a 1- by

8-23
TM 5-55 IB

2-inch, 1- by 3-inch, or 1- by 4-inch strip nailed valley flashings. Replace terne and galvanized
flush with the gable end. flashings. Reuse old flashings if they are in good
(4) Remove weathered shingles at the ridge condition.
and replace them with a strip of beveled siding, (7) Use the following nails in applying
thin edge down, to provide a solid base for nailing shingles over an existing roof: 5d box or special
the ridge shingles. Treat hips the same as ridges. overroofing nails, 14-gage, 1 3/4 inches long for
(5) Fill open valleys with wooden strips 16- and 18-inch shingles; and 6d, 13-gage, 2
level with the old shingle surface, or with a inches long for 24-inch shingles. One square of
narrow strip placed across the "V" of the valley roofing will need about 3 1/2 pounds of nails.
to act as a support for new flashings. (8) Apply new shingles as recommended by
(6) Inspect flashings carefully, including their manufacturer.

8-24
TM 5-551 B

CHAPTER 9

ACCESSORIES

Section I. DOORS

9-1. Job-Built Doors b. Interior Doors. The two general interior

a. Types. Doors, both exterior and interior, types are the panel and the flush doors (fig.
are classified as batten, panel, and flush (fig. 9-3). The louvered doors (fig. 9-3) are also
9-1). The batten door is the most commonly popular and are used as hinged or as sliding
used and most easily constructed type of job-built doors. Any hinged interior door should not open
door. It can be made in several ways, one of the or swing in the direction of a natural entry, or
simplest consisting of diagonal boards nailed swing into hallways, against a blank wall, or be
together as two layers, each layer at right angles obstructed by other swinging doors.
to the other. This type of door frequently is used
as the core for metal-sheathed fire doors. Another
type of batten door is made up of vertical boards
tongued and grooved or shiplapped and held rigid
by two to four crosspieces, ledgers, which may
or may not be diagonally braced. If two addi
tional pieces forming the sides of the door and
corresponding to the ledgers are used, these are SHEATHING
known as the frames.
DIAGONALLY
6. Construction. In hasty construction, the (j) BATTEN DOOR CONSTRUCTED
DOOR
carpenter makes a batten door from several 2
by 6 boards with ledgers and braces as shown
in 1, figure 9-1. The ledgers are nailed with their
CASING TOP RAIL
edge 6 inches from the ends of the door boards.
A diagonal is placed between the ledgers, be
ginning at the top ledger end opposite the hinge PANEL -STILE
side of the door and running to the lower ledger
diagonally across the door. If it is an outside door,
roofing felt is used to cover the boards on the
weather side. The ledgers are nailed over the
felt. Wooden laths are nailed around the edges
and across the middle of the door to hold the ® PANEL DOOR
roofing felt in place. In hanging these doors, one-
quarter of an inch clearance should be left around
the door to take care of expansion. T-strap hinges
are fastened to the ledgers of the door and to the
hinge blocks on the door casing or post (1, fig.
9-1).

9-2. Mill-Built Doors

a. Exterior Doors. The usual exterior door is
the panel type (1, fig. 9-2). It consists of stiles (7) FLUSH DOOR
(solid vertical members), rails (solid cross mem
bers), and filler panels. Figure 9-1. Types of doors.

9^1
TM 5-55 IB

1 TRADITIONAL PANEL
2 FLUSH
3 COMBINATION

Figure 9-2. Exterior doors.

I 2 34

1. FLUSH, 2, PANEL (FIVE CROSS), 3, PANEL (COLONIAL), A, LOUVERED, 5, FOLDING (LOUVERED).

Figure 9-3. Interior doors.

9-2
TM 5-551 B

9-3. Exterior Door Frames where the hinges are to be placed. The door
a. Before the exterior covering is placed on frame is now complete and ready for the door
the outside walls, the door openings are prepared to be hung.
for the frames. To prepare the openings, square c. The principal parts of a door frame are
off any uneven pieces of sheathing and wrap shown in figure 9-5. On an outside door, the out
heavy building paper around the sides and top. side casings and the sill are also considered as
Since the sill must be worked into a portion of parts of the door frame. A prefabricated outside
the rough flooring, no paper is put on the floor. door frame, delivered to the site assembled, looks
Position the paper from a point even with the like the right-hand view in figure 9-5.
inside portion of the stud to a point about 6 d. The starting point for door frame layout
inches on the sheathed walls and tack it down calculations is the size of the door (height,
with small nails. width, and thickness) as given on the door sched
b. In most hasty construction, the outside ule. Construction information on door frames is
doors will be as shown in figure 9-4. This type usually given in detail drawings like those shown
requires no frame, since the studs on each side in figure 9-6 and the left-hand view of figure
of the opening act as a frame. The outside finish 9-7. In the type of frame shown in figure 9-6
is applied to the wall before the door is hung. the door jambs (linings of the framing of door
The casing is then nailed to the sides of the openings) are rabbeted to a depth of 1/2 inches.
opening, set back the width of the stud. A 3/4- The rabbet prevents the door from swinging
by 3/4-inch piece is nailed over the door to sup through the frame when it is closed. Other types
port the drip cap and is also set back the width of frames instead of a rabbet use a strip of wood,
of the stud. Hinge blocks are nailed to the casing nailed to the inner faces of the jamb and called
a stop. The stop also serves as a basis for weather-
proofing the door. Most project drawings call for
exterior door jambs to be of the rabbeted type.

e. The side jambs of an entrance door are cut

to the height of the door, less the depth of the
head jamb rabbet (if any), plus the following:
(1) The diagonal thickness of the sill, plus
the sill bevel allowance (the sill bevel allowance
is shown in figure 9-5) .
(2) The thickness of the threshold, if any
(the distinction between the sill and the thres-

SIDE JAMB LUG

BATTEN DOOR
SCREEN DOOR

Figure 9-4. Single outside door. Figure 9-5. Principal parts of a door frame.

9-3
TM 5-551 B

INSIDE WALL

SECTION THROUGH SECTION THROUGH

HEAD JAMB SIDE JAMB

Figure 9-6. Typical door frame detail drawings.

hold is shown in the left-hand view of figure door frames may be modified to suit a climatic
9-7). condition.
(3) The thickness of the head jamb.
(4) The height of the side jamb lugs. 9-5. Door Jambs
/. The head jamb is cut to the width of the Casings and stops are nailed to the door jambs
door, less the combined depths of the side jamb (fig. 9-9) and the door is hung from them.
rabbets (if any), plus the combined depths of Inside jambs are made of 3/4-inch stock and
the head jamb dadoes (grooves). outside jambs of 1 3/8-inch stock. The width of
the stock will vary with the thickness of the
g. The casing layout depends on the way the
walls. Inside jambs are built up with 3/8- by
side and head casings are to be joined at the
1 3/8-inch stops nailed to the jamb, while outside
corners. The casings are usually set back about
jambs are usually rabbeted out to receive the
3/8 inch from the faces of the jambs.
door. Jambs are made and set as follows :
9-4. Interior Door Frames a. Regardless of how carefully rough openings
Inside door frames, like outside frames, are con are made, be sure to plumb the jambs and level
structed in several ways. In most hasty construc the heads, when jambs are set.
tion, the type shown in figure 9-8 is used. The b. Rough openings are usually made 2 1/2
interior type is constructed like the outside type inches larger each way than the size of the door
except that no casing is used on inside door to be hung. For example, a 2-foot 8-inch by
frames. Hinge blocks are nailed to the inside 6-foot 8-inch door would need a rough opening of
wall finish, where the hinges are to be placed, 2 feet 10 1/2 inches by 6 feet 10 1/2 inches. This
to provide a nailing surface for the hinge flush extra space allows for the jambs, the wedging,
with the door. Figure 9-8 shows the elevation of and the clearance space for the door to swing.
a single inside door. Both the outside and inside c. Level the floor across the opening to deter

9-4
TM 5-551 B

FINISH FLOOR

Figure 9-7. Sill installation.

mine any variation in floor heights at the point jambs and the studs, to aline, and then nail
where the jambs rest on the floor. securely in place.
d. Now cut the head jamb with both ends k. Take care not to wedge the jamb unevenly.
square, having allowed width of the door plus I. Use a straightedge 5 or 6 feet long inside
the depth of both dadoes and a full 3/16 inch the jambs to help prevent uneven wedging.
for door clearance. m. Check jambs and head carefully, because
e. From the lower edge of the dado, measure jambs placed out of plumb tend to swing the
a distance equal to the height of the door plus door open or shut, depending on the direction in
the clearance wanted under it. Mark and cut which the jamb is out of plumb.
square.
/. On the opposite jamb do the same, only 9-6. Door Trim
make additions or subtractions for the variation Door trim material is nailed onto the jambs to
in the floor, if any. provide a finish between the jambs and the
g. Now nail the jambs and jamb heads to plastered wall. It is the edge trim around interior
gether with 8-penny common nails through the door openings and the interior side of exterior
dado into the head jamb. doors and windows, frequently called "casing"
h. Set the jambs into the opening and place (fig. 9-9). Sizes vary from 1/2 to 3/4 inch in
small blocks under each jamb on the subfloor just thickness, and from 2 1/2 to 6 inches in width.
as thick as the finish floor will be. This is to allow Most trim has a concave back, to fit over uneven
the finish floor to go under. plaster. In mitered (beveled edges) work, care
i. Plumb the jambs and level the jamb head. must be taken to make all joints clean, square,
/. Wedge the sides with shingles between the neat, and well fitted. (If the trim is to be mitered

9-5
TM 5-55 IB

9-7. Door Stops

In fitting doors, the stops are usually temporarily
l"X 6' FIBER nailed in place until the door has been hung.
BOARD"" Stops for doors in single-piece jambs are gen
HflUJ 2'.0» erally 7/16 inch thick and may be 3/4 to 2 1/2
LATCH
BLOCK HINGE BLOCK inches wide. They are installed with a mitered
l"X4"X6 2"X4"X I'-O" joint at the junction of the side and head jambs.
FOR IO"T-HINGES
A 45° bevel cut at the bottom of the stop, about
1 to 1 1/2 inches above the finish floor, will elimi
7-0" nate a dirt pocket and make cleaning or re-
6-10 finishing of the floor easier (fig. 9-9).
SHEATHING
9-8. Hanging Mill-Built Doors
GROUND If mill-built doors are used, install them in the
OR-
FLOOR" finished door frames as described below.
ELEVATION SECTION a. Cut off the stile extensions, if any, and place
INTERIOR DOORS the door in the frame. Plane the edges of the
stiles until the door fits tightly against the hinge
side and clears the lock side of the jamb about
1/16 inch. Be certain the top fits squarely into
-LATCH
the rabbeted recess and that the bottom swings
LATCH BLOCK free of the finished floor about 1/2 inch. The
lock stile of the door must be beveled slightly so
HINGE BLOCK
2"X4" X I'-O" that the edge of the stile will not strike the edge
of the door jamb.
b. After proper clearances have been made,
-0"X 7'-0" tack the door in position in the frame and wedge
PLANS OF INTERIOR DOORS at the bottom (fig. 9-10). Mark positions of
hinges with a sharp pointed knife on the stile
Figure 9-8. Single inside door. and on the jamb. The lower hinge must be placed
slightly above the lower rail of the door and
at the top corners, a miter box, miter square, the upper hinge slightly below the top rail of
hammer, nail set, and block plane will be needed.) the door in order to avoid cutting out part of the
Door openings are cased up as follows : tenons of the door rails which are housed in the
stile. Three measurements are to be marked—the
a. Leave a margin of 1/2 inch from the edge
location of the butt on the jamb; the location of
of the jamb to the casing all around.
the butt on the door; and the thickness of the
6. Cut one of the side casings square and even
butt on both jamb and door.
at the bottom with the bottom of the jamb.
c. Door butts or hinges are mortised into door
c. Cut the top or mitered end next, allowing
and frame as shown in figure 9-11. Butt sizes
1/4-inch extra length for the margin at the top.
indicate the height of each leaf and the width
d. Nail the casing onto the jamb and even with of the pair when open. Use three butt hinges on
the 1/4-inch margin line, starting at the top and all full length doors, to prevent warping and
working toward the bottom. sagging. Place butts and mortise them with the
e. Use 4-penny finish nails along the jamb utmost accuracy so the door will open and close
side and 6-penny or 8-penny case nails along the properly and so the door, when open, will not
outer edge of the casings. strike the casing. The butt pin must project more
/. The nails along the outer edge must be long than half its thickness from the casing.
enough to go through the casing and plaster and d. Using the butt as a pattern, mark the
into the studs. dimensions of butts on the door edge and the face
g. Set all nailheads about 1/8 inch below the of the jamb.
surface with a nail set. e. Cut the marked areas, called gains, on the
h. Now apply the casing for the other side and door jambs and door to fit the butts. Use a 1-inch
then the head casing. chisel and mallet.

9-6
TM 5-551 B

FRAMING STUDS
-WALL PLATES PLASTER GROUND
SHINGLE WEOGE

STUDS

Figure 9-9. Door jamb and door trim.

f. Test the gains. The butts must fit snugly door and the other three halves on the jamb.
and exactly flush with the edge of the door and Place butts so that pins are inserted from the
the face of the jamb. top when the door is hung.
g. Screw three halves of the butt joints on the h. Set the door against the frame so the two

9-7
TM 5-55 IB

BUTT PLACE DOOR IN FRAME SIDE- CASING

MARK v| TO CHECK CLEARANCE SIDE^, ^STUD . ^
AND MARK BUTTS JAMB ^-^fc^FIB^RBbARD
1/16"

DOOR FLUSH
WITH JAMB
EDGE

1/16"
BUTT
BLOCKS • KNUCKLE
FOR CLEARANCE 1/16'

LOCATE AND SCORE CUT GAINS FOR DOOR BUTTS

HINGE POSITIONS
PARE THE
BOTTOM DOWN
WEDGES HOLD SMOOTH
DOOR IN POSITION MARK OFF
FOR MARKING GAINS '

IF NO THRESHOLD, CLEAR BY
AT LEAST 1/4". CLEAR
THRESHOLD BY 1/8"
LEAF

Figure 9-10. Wedging door, locating and scribing

hinge positions.

halves of the top butt engage. Insert the top pin.

Engage and insert pins in bottom and center SCRIBE ACROSS
butts. JAMB AND DOOR

9-9. Lock Installation Figure 9-11. Installing door butts.

Since types of door locks differ, follow the in is to house the entire case. Next, mark off the
stallation instructions that come with lock sets. position of the door knob hub and the position
After placing hinges in position, mark off the of the key. Then mark off the position of strike
position of the lock (fig. 9-12) on the lock stile, place on the jamb. Bore out the wood to house the
about 36 inches from the floor level. Hold the lock and strike chisel and mortises, clean, and
case of the mortise lock on the face of the lock then install the lock set. The strike plate should
stile and mark off, with a sharp knife, the area be flush or slightly below the face of the door
to be removed from the edge of the stile which jamb (fig. 9-13).

9-8
DEPTH OF FACEPLATE SCRIBE CENTER LINE
CHISEL SQUARE
-MARK LOCATION BORE HOLES
OF LOCK (ADD
A LITTLE FOR
I*- CLEARANCE)
0 LOCATE POSITION
. OF HOLES FOR
SPINDLE AND
k KEYHOLE

BORE
HOLES
TO INSERT LOCK
PROPER AND MARK
DEPTH SECONDARY
MORTISE

HORIZONTAL
POSITION OF
STRIKE PLATE
SLOT
TRANSFER
THIS DIMEN
SION TO JAMB

ADJUSTS TO DOOR THICKNESS

RIBBED NUT PIN-TUMBLER OR
DISC-TUMBLER
HOLDS LOCK CYLINDER
BODY TO DOOR
* BOLT ATTACHES
TO EITHER SIDE

Figure 9-12. Installation of lock.

FRAMING STUDS

SIDEJAMB

DOOR STOP

NAILS
STRIKE PLATE
(ROUT|

Figure 9-13. Installation of strike plate.

TM 5-551 B

Section I!. WINDOWS

9-10. Types of Windows each) and an additional 10 inches for the total
Windows are generally of the double hung and height of the rough opening, 62 inches. These
casement type (fig. 9-14). All windows, what allowances are standard and provide for weights,
ever the type, consist essentially of two parts, springs, balances, room for plumbing and squar
the frame and the sash. The frame is made up of ing, and for regular adjustments.
four basic parts: the head, the jambs (two), and b. In hasty construction, millwork window
the sill. Where openings (window) are desired, frames are seldom used. The window frames are
studding must be cut away and its equivalent mere openings left in the walls with the stops all
strength replaced by doubling the studs on each nailed to the stud. The sash may be hinged to
side of the opening to form trimmers and in the inside or the outside of the wall or con
serting a header at the top. If the opening is structed so as to slide. The latter type of sash is
wide, the header should be doubled and trussed. most common in Army construction because it
At the bottom of the opening, the bottom header requires little time to install. Figure 9-15 shows
or rough sill is inserted. the section and plan of a window and window
9-1 1 . Window Frames frame of the type used in the field. After the out
a. These are the frames into which the window side walls have been finished, a 1 by 3 is nailed
sashes are fitted and hung. They are set into the on top of the girt at the window opening to form
rough opening in the wall framing and are in a sill. A 1 by 2 is nailed to the bottom of the
tended to hold the sashes in place. The rough plate and on the side studs and acts as a top for
window opening is made at least 10 inches larger the window sash. One guide is nailed at the bot
each way (width and height) than the window tom of the opening flush with the bottom of the
glass size to be used. If the sash to be used is, for girt, and another is nailed to the plate with the
instance, a two-light window, 24 by 26 inches, top edge flush with the top of the plate. These
add 10 inches to the width (24 inches) to obtain guides are 1 by 3's. Stops are nailed to the bottom
the total width of 34 inches for the rough open girt and plate, between the next two studs, to
ing. Add the upper and lower glasses (26 inches hold the sash in position when open (fig. 9-15).

9-12. Double-Hung-Windows
The double-hung window (fig. 9-16) is made up
of an upper and a lower sash, which slide ver
tically past one another. Its frame construction
and operation are more involved than that of
casement windows. The double-hung window con
sists of the following:
a. The box frame consists of a top piece or
yoke; two side pieces or jambs called pulley stiles,
and the sill. The yoke and pulley stiles are da
doed into the inner and outer pieces (rough cas
ing), forming an open box with the opening
toward the studs and headers. The rough casing
provides nailing surface to the studs and headers
DOUBLE HUNG CASEMENT forming the plaster stop. The outside rough cas
ing is also a blind stop for sheathing which
should fit snugly against it, with building paper
lapping the joint.
b. The 2-inch space between the flaming studs
and the pulley stile forms the box for counter
weights which balance the window sash. The
weight box is divided by a thin strip known as
the pendulum, which separates the weights for
the two sash units. In the stiles near the sill is
CASEMENT an opening for easy access to the weights. This
Figure 9-1 4. Double hung and casement windows. opening has a removable strip which is part of

9-10
TM 5-551 B

HEAD SASH PULLEY

JAMB PULLEY STILE

GROOVED TO APRON
RECEIVE SIDING

Figure 9-16. Double-hung windows.

e. The sill is an integral part of the box frame

and slants downward and outward. It usually has
one or two 1/4-inch brakes, one at the point
where the lower sash rests on the sill, and another
Figure 9-15. Detail of wall section with window
frame and sash. near the outer edge to form a seat for window
screens or storm sash. These brakes prevent
the stile and channel for the lower sash (fig. water dripping on the sill from being blown
9-16). under the sash. The underside of the sill, near
c. Yoke and stile faces are divided by a parting its outer edge, is grooved to receive the edge of
strip which is dadoed into them, but removable siding material to form a watertight seal.
so that the upper sash can be taken out. The /. On the room side of the sill is another
strip forms the center guide for the upper and piece, the stool, which has a rabbet on its under
lower sash, while the outer rough casing, pro side into which the sill fits. The stool edge pro
jecting slightly beyond the stiles and yoke, forms jects from the sill, forming a horizontal stop for
the outer guide. The inner guide for the sash is the lower sash. The stool is part of the interior
formed by a strip or stop, usually with a molding trim of the window, made up of side and top
form on the inner edge. This stop is removable to casings and an apron under the stool. The framed
permit the removal of the lower sash. finished side and top casings are on the weather
d. At the upper parts of the stiles, two pulleys face. A drip cap rests on top of the outside head
on each side (one for each sash) are mortised casing and is covered with metal flashing to
flush with the stile faces for the weight cord or form a watertight juncture with the siding ma
chain. terial.

9-11
TM 5-55 IB

9-13. Hinged or Casement Windows

There are basically two types of casement win
dows, the outswinging and the inswinging types,
and these may be hinged at the sides, top, or
bottom. The casement window which opens out
requires the window screen to be located on the
inside with some device cut into its frame to
operate the casement, otherwise the window
screen must be hinged and swung up to operate
the window. Inswinging casements, like double-
hung windows, are clear of screens, but they
are extremely difficult to make watertight, par
ticularly against a driving rainstorm. This is
why most casement windows are constructed to
swing out. The following explains the construc OUTSWINGWG CASEMENT INSWINGING CASEMENT
tion of casement window frames. WINDOW WINDOW
a. The casement window frames (fig. 9-17)
are usually made of planks 1 3/4 inch thick with
rabbets cut in them to receive the sash. Usually
there is an additional rabbet for screens or storm
sash. The frames are rabbeted 1/2-inch deep and
1 1/2 or 1 7/8 inches wide for sash 1 3/8 or 1 3/4
inches thick. The additional rabbet is usually
15/16 or 1 3/16 inches wide, depending on
whether the screen or storm sash is 7/8 or 1 1/8
inch thick. A MULLION MAY SEPARATE CASEMENTS
b. Outswinging casement windows have the Figure 9-17. Casement windows.
rabbet for the sash on the outer edges of the
frame, the inner edge being rabbeted for the and the back raised where the sash rail seats.
screen. Sill construction is very much like that This surface is rabbeted at its back edge to form
for a double-hung window, with the stool much a stop for the rail which is also rabbeted to mesh.
wider and forming a stop for the bottom rail. e. Sills in general have a usual slope of about 1
Casement-window frames are wide enough to in 5 inches so that they shed water quickly. They
extend to the sheathing face on the weather side are wider than the frames, extending usually to
and to the plaster face on the room side (fig. the plaster line and about 1 1/2 inches beyond
9-17). the sheathing. They also form a base for the out
c. When there are two casement windows in side finishing casing.
a row in one frame, they may be separated by a /. The bottom sash rail of an inswinging case
vertical double jamb called a mullion, or the ment window is constructed differently than the
stiles may come together in pairs like a french outswinging type. The bottom edge is rabbeted
door. The edges of the stiles may be a reverse to mesh with the rabbet on the sill, and a drip
rabbet; a beveled reverse rabbet with battens, molding is set in the weather face to prevent
one attached to each stile; or beveled astragals rain from being blown under the sash.
(T-shaped molding), one attached to each stile.
The battens and astragals insure better weather- 9-14. Window Sashes
tightness. The latter are more resistant to loos a. Types of Job-Built Sashes. A window nor
ening through use. Two pairs of casement sash mally is composed of an upper and a lower sash.
in one frame are hinged to a mullion in the These sashes slide up and down, swing in or out,
center (fig. 9-17). or may be stationary. There are two general
d. Inswinging casement-window frames are types of wood sash—fixed or permanent; and
like the outswinging type with the sash rabbet movable. Fixed sashes are removable only with
cut in the inner edge of the frame. The sill con the aid of a carpenter. Movable sash may slide
struction is slightly different, being of one piece up and down in channels in the frame (double-
(similar to that of a door sill) with a rabbet cut hung), or swing in or out and be hinged at the
for a screen or storm sash toward the front edge, side (casement type). Sliding sashes are counter

9-12
TM 5-551 B

balanced by sash weights whose actual weight is

one-half that of each sash. Sashes are classified DRIP CAP TOP CASING
according to the number of pieces of glass, or SIDE CASING
lights—single or divided.
PANE
6. Construction. A sash can be made of 1- by TOP RAIL
3-inch material with Cel-O-glass or an equiva CROSS BAR
lent. Cel-O-glass comes in rolls and can be cut SASH
to any desired size. Two frames are made with
the glass substitute installed on one; the two MEETING RAIL
frames are then nailed together. The side pieces
are cut to a length equal to the height of the sash MULLION
less the width of one piece of material. The top BOTTOM RAIL
and bottom pieces are cut the same length as the SEE HEAD DETAIL LATH AND ROOFING FELT
window, less the width of the material. They are V^ HINGES NOT
l"X3"
fastened at the joints with corrugated metal DETAILED
fasteners. When the two frames are nailed to ,SEE SASH
gether, they should be turned so that the joints JAMB HEAD
DETAIL DETAIL
are not over each other. This staggers the joints MESH WIRE
and strengthens the sash. If the sash is too large CLOTH
for the glass substitute to cover, a muntin may SEE SILL HINGES NOT DETAILED
DETAIL ROOFING FELT
be placed in the sash to hold the glass substitute HELD IN PLACE
and should be fastened with corrugated metal BY LATH
fasteners. Where long sashes are made, a mun MESH WIRE CLOTH
tin should be placed in the center to give added WIRE CLOTH FRAME
strength. Figure 9-18 shows the window frame GLASS OR
SUBSTITUTE
and sash detail.
ADDED IF SASH
c. Window Sash Installation. IS OVER 3' -10"
SHEATHING
(1) Double-hung windoivs. Place the upper
sash in position and trim off a slight portion of SLIDE FOR SASH l*X2'
the top rail of the sash to insure a good fit. Then
tack the upper sash in position. Fit the lower r x 2*- rH v SHEATHING
sash in position by trimming off the stiles. Place SASH SILL
the lower sash in the opening and trim off, from JAMB DETAIL
the bottom rail, enough to permit the meeting DETAIL
rails (lower rail of supper sash and top rail of
bottom sash) to meet on the level. Figure 9-18. Window frame and sash detail.
(2) Sash weights. If sash weights are used,
remove each sash after it has been properly 9-15. Mill-Built-Sashes
fitted and weight each one. Select sash weights a. Types. Sashes are mill built of wood or
equal to half the weight of each sash and place steel. They are made for fixed or movable em
in position in the weight pocket. Measure proper placement and may be casement or doublehung
length of sash cord for lower sash and attach to as desired. The sash size is determined by the
the stile and weight on both sides. Adjust length size of the glass (fig. 9-20). Overall dimensions
of cord so that sash moves up and down easily are generally standard and made to fit standard
and the weight does not strike the pulley or rest construction frames. The thickness of sash is
on the frame. Install the cords and weights for usually 11/8, 1 3/8, or 1 3/4 inches. The 1 3/8
the upper sash and adjust the cord and weight inch sash generally is used in frame construction.
so that each cord and weight runs smoothly. In giving the size of a sash, the width of the
Close the pockets in the frame and install the glass is always given first, then the height, then
blind stop, parting stop, and bead stop (fig. 9- the number of pieces of glass, or lights. Thus a
18). sash might be spoken of as a 24 by 26 by 1 light.
(3) Sliding windows. Details of installation This means that the glass itself is 24 by 26
of sliding windows and the typical side wall sec inches and that there is only one piece of glass.
tion are shown in figure 9-19. However, the sash would be larger than 24 by 26

9-13
TM 5-551 B

PREPARED ROOFING 2"X4 RAFTER

SHEATHING 2" X 4" PLATE
CD CASEMENT
LATH WINDOWS
0- SINGLE
© 1 cd CD © (D- DOUBLE
(3) - TRIPLE

JUUL JUL BP
SUBSTITUTE innr inr i
GLASS
JUUL JUL
innr jffl
© © © ©

JUL JUUL DOUBLE OR

T inr innr CHECK RAIL SASH
JUL JUUL
TL JDUC
TYPICAL SIDE inr innr ©-8 OVER 8
WALL SECTION ®-6 OVER 6
© ©
©-4 OVER 4
SLIDING SASH GLASS SUBSTITUTE [JO unm ® - I OVER I
m DDLX © - 6 OVER 9
l"X3" STOP
GUIDE (D-8 0VER 12
STRIP
2"X4 ®- 4 OVER I
SHEATHING ® © ® (Q)-6 0VER I
ROOFING
FELT m @- 8 OVER I
* 16 MESH WIRE LATH @-2 OVER I
l"X2" ADJUSTABLE STOP
INSECT CLOTH ®-3 OVER I
SLIDING WINDOW ©-4 OVER I

Figure 9-19. Window sash installation. ® ® ©

inches because of the frame around the glass. Figure 9-20. Types and sizes of milled sashes.
For the frame of a two-light window with a
1 3/8-inch check rail, add 4 inches to the width (2) Adjust the length of the cord. The
and 6 inches to the length. length can be determined by placing the sash in
Example: A two-light window has a glass size its position and measuring. When the inside sash
of 24 by 26. Find the size of the window frame. is down in place, the weight for that sash should
Solution: 24 inches + 4 inches = 28 inches, or be near the top pulley. When the outside sash is
2 feet 4 inches, the width. 26 inches x 2 = 52 up in place, the weight for it should be down,
inches, 52 inches + 6 inches = 58 inches, or 4 not quite touching the bottom.
feet 10 inches, the length. Therefore, the window (3) Fit the outside top sash first. Do not
frame size for these sashes would be 2 feet 4 fit it too tightly; allow for swelling. Use a sharp
inches by 4 feet 10 inches. plane for squaring.
b. Installation. (4) Remove the parting bead on one side
(1) Prepare the sash cords, chains, or bal of the frame to put the sash into place. This is
ances that are to be used. If cords are used, tie the strip about 1/2 by 3/4 inch which is grooved
them to the weights, run them through the pul into the frame on each side separating the two
leys at the top, and tie a knot in the end of each. sashes.
This knot will be set in the side of the sash in a (5) Notch out each end of the check rail as
recess made to receive it. far as the parting bead extends beyond the frame.

9-14
TM 5-55 IB

DETAIL OF JAMB AND PARTING BEAD

CHECK RAIL OF
CHECK RAIL OF UPPER SASH
LOWER SASH
PARTING BEAD
INSIDE STOP
OUTSIDE STOP

INSIOE CASING OUTSIDE CASING

WINDOW FRAME JAMBS
CROSS SECTION OF WINDOW SASH AND JAMB

Figure 9-^1. Details of check rails for double-hung

window sash.
This should be done accurately to prevent bad that is always planed on to match the slant of the
fitting, which would either let in wind and cold window sill. The two check rails must come to
or, if too tight, cause the sash to slide with gether and be even at the middle of the window.
difficulty (fig. 9-21). If not, the window locks will not meet or be work
(6) When the sash is fitted, put it in place, able.
replace the parting beads, and attach sash cords (9) If the rails do not match, scribe off the
to the sides. necessary amount at the bottom, taking care to
(7) Plane and fit the inside bottom sash keep the same bevel on the bottom edge of the
next for easy operation. Fit the sides of it first. sash.
(8) After the sides have been fitted, set the (10) When the lower sash is fitted, put it in
sash in place and determine how much, if any, place, secure the sash cords, and check both
need come off the bottom, other than the bevel sashes for each operation.

Section III. SCREENS

9-16. Window Screens a. Construction. Window-screen sash is usu

Screen sash is usually 3/4-inch stock, but for large ally 13/4 or 21/4 inches wide. Screen may be
windows and doors 1 1/8-inch material frequently attached by stapling or tacking. Cut screen about
is used or 3/4-inch lumber is braced with a hori 1 inch wider and longer than the opening; cover
zontal member. the edges with molding; then rabbet the inside

9-15
TM 5-55 IB

-3-2-
FLAT_EYES AND HOOKS

o a—vj
<o
v>

l"X 2" PUSH BARS

•|6MESH WIRE
INSECT CLOTH IT
*2 MESH
HARDWARE CLOTH
70 6"-l0'
16 MESH CORRUGATED J* A3
WIRE CLOTH FASTENERS
m6
.CORRUGATED HINGE SLOCK
FASTENERS
6" T- HINGE 3.
ELEVATION
NOTE : COVER EXTERIOR FACE OF ALL EXTERIOR DOORS
WITH FELT AND LATH.
LAP STILES AND RAILS TO AVOID THRU JOINTS
1. APPLY WEIGHTS

BUILD SCREEN
CORRUGATED METAL STUD DOORS OF 2 THICK 3.
FASTENERS NESSES OF BOARDS STRETCH"
WITH WIRE CLOTH AND TACK
PLACED BETWEEN AT THIS END
2. TACK AT THIS END
4. REMOVE WEIGHTS a TACK
STUDS ASTRAGAL 10" T- HINGE
3 PCS
2"«4"xl'-0"

GUIDE BATTEN DOOR 8 SCREEN OOCP

STRIP
Figure 9-23. Door screen construction.
DIAGRAM OF
SLIDING WINDOW
GIRT- molding. Copper staples should be used for bronze
or copper screen, and cadmium staples for alum
Figure 9-22. Window-screen sash construction. inum screens.
9-17. Door Screens
edges about 3/8 by 1/2 inch, attach the screen in Door screens are made as shown in figure 9-23.
the rabbet, and nail 3/8 by 1/2 inch molding flush Two separate frames are made of 1 by 4 material
with face of sash. Figure 9-22 illustrates the con for the sides and top and of 1 by 6 material
struction of screen sashes using mesh wire cloth. for the bottom and middle pieces. The first frame
b. Joints. Window sashes may be made with is made of two side pieces the full length of the
open mortise, four tenons, with rails tenoned door; the crosspieces are the width of the door
into stiles; with half-lap corners; or with butt less the width of the two side pieces. This frame
joints or corrugated fasteners. In either of the is put together with corrugated metal fasteners,
first two cases, the joints may be nailed or glued. then the screen wire is applied. The second frame
c. Attaching Screen Material. When attaching is made with the crosspiece the full width of the
screen material, start at one end and tack or door. The side pieces are cut to correspond with
staple it with copper staples, holding the mate the distance between the crosspieces. The second
rial tightly. Then, hand-stretch the screen along frame is placed over the first frame and nailed
the side, working toward the other end and at securely. For push-and-pull plates, two short
tach, making sure that the weave is parallel to braces of 1 by 4 are nailed to the side opposite
the ends and sides. Tack the sides and apply the the hinge side.

9-16
TM 5-551 B

^-18. Hood or Canopy with the bottom of the end plate. The rafters
The hood or canopy is used in tropical climates to and braces are of 2 by 4's nailed with 8- or 10-
protect the screened opening at the ends of the penny nails. The sheathing is of the same mate-
buildings. It is framed to the end walls with short rial as the roof sheathing and is covered with
rafters which are nailed to the building with roll roofing. The hood should extend about 2 1/2
knee braces, as shown in figure 9-24. The rafters or 3 feet from the building,
are nailed to the wall, the bottom edge flush

Figure 9-24. Hood or canopy.

i
TM 5-551 B

CHAPTER 10
NONSTANDARD FIXED BRIDGE

Section I. INTRODUCTION

10-1. Definitions of a fixed bridge transmit the load directly to

a. Bridge. A bridge is a structure that carries the ground.
a roadway over a depression or an obstacle. A b. Nonstandard Fixed Highway Bridge. This
bridge completely supported by its two end sup is a semipermanent bridge constructed from local
ports (abutments) is called a single-span bridge. materials or class IV materials drawn from a
A bridge having one or more intermediate sup depot. It differs from standard bridges in that
ports (between the abutments is a multispan the latter are prefabricated bridges assembled at
bridge. Bridges may be classified in different the site. The most common nonstandard fixed
ways. Two general classifications, for example, highway bridges are the simple stringer type
are highway and railroad bridges. All supports (the stringers being natural logs), structural

ENO

I r iK-L— 'iwui

Figure 10-1. Nomenclature of nonstandard fixed

highway bridge.

10-1
TM $-551 B

grade timber, and structural steel. They may also or abutments. Stringers are the main load-carry
be constructed of any other suitable materials. ing members of the superstructure; they receive
the load from the flooring and transmit it to the
10-2. Nomenclature substructure.
A military bridge is generally considered as hav (2) Flooring. The flooring system consists
ing two principal parts: the lower part or sub of two parts: decking and tread. The decking is
structure, and the upper part or superstructure laid directly over the stringers at right angles
(fig. 10-1). to the centerline of the bridge. Often, every fifth
a. Substructure. The substructure consists of plank is extended to provide a bearing surface
the transverse supports for the superstructure; for handrail knee braces. The tread is laid par
that is, the supports which are built crosswise to allel to the centerline of the bridge and between
the direction of traffic. These supports are either the inside faces of the curbs.
abutments (end supports) or intermediate sup (3) Curbs. Curbs are wood members placed
ports (bents and piers). The substructure takes at both edges of the roadway to guide the wheels
the load directly from the stringers, which are of the vehicles. Curbs shown in figure 10-1 are
the lowermost members of the superstructure. installed on risers to permit surface water to
drain easily from the bridge floor.
b. Superstructure. The superstructure consists (4) Handrails. Railings supported by posts
of the stringers, flooring (decking and trends), along the sides of the bridge roadway guide ve
curbing, walks, handrails, and other items form hicle drivers and serve as a protective measure
ing that part of the bridge above the substruc for both vehicular and foot traffic.
ture. (5) Scabbing. Scabbing consists of short
(1) Stringers. Stringers rest on the span pieces used to join or splice structural members
the distance between the intermediate supports together.

Section II. SUBSTRUCTURE

10-3. Abutments of the following members: the bent cap which

There are two types of end supports or abut provides a bearing surface for the stringers and
ments : footing type and pile type. transmits the load to the piles, and the piles
a. Footing Type. The footing type abutment which transmit the load to the soil. Such piles
consists of footings, sill, and end dam. are known as bearing piles because they carry
(1) Footings. The footings transmit the superimposed loads. The support for the loads
load to the ground. They receive the load from may come either from column action, when the
the sill and distribute it over a sufficient area to tip of the pile bears on a firm stratum such as
keep the support from sinking into the ground. rock or hard clay, or from friction between the
(2) Sill. The sill receives the load from the pile and the soil into which it is driven. In both
stringers and transmits it to the footings. cases, earth pressure must provide some lateral
(3) End dam. The end dam, or bulkhead, is support, but transverse bracing is often used to
a wall of planks at the end of the bridge to keep brace the bent laterally.
the approach road backfill from caving in be b. Trestle Bent. The trestle bent (fig. 10-3) is
tween the stringers. similar to the pile bent except that the posts,
6. Pile Type. The pile type abutment has taking the place of piles, transmit the load from
three main parts: piles driven into the ground the cap to the sill, the sill transmits the load to
transmitting the load to the soil, a cap on top of the footings, and the footings transmit the load
the piles to receive the load from the stringers,
to the soil. The length of the posts will vary with
and sheeting fastened to the piles to hold the the height of the bridge above the gap to be
backfill in place. spanned. Transverse bracing similar to that used
10-4. Intermediate Supports with the pile bent is provided.
The most common intermediate supports are c. Pile-Bent Pier. The pile pier (fig. 10-4) is
bents and piers. Table 10-1 is a general guide composed of two or more pile bents. The common
for selecting types of piers to be used for various cap in this case transmits the load to the corbels.
conditions. Corbels are the short, stringer-like members that,
a. Pile Bent. The pile bent (fig. 10-2) consists in turn, transmit the load to the individual bent

10-2
TM 5-55 IB

Table 10-1. Guide to Selection of Pier Type for Various Conditions

Type Combined span length Ground to grade height Remarks

Timber crib pier To 50' To 12' Highway bridges only. Designed for vertical load
only. Steel or timber stringers.
Timber trestle bent To 3C To \V - Highway bridges only. Designed for vertical loads
only. Steel or timber stringers.
Timber trestle pier To 6C To 18* Highway bridges only. Designed for vertical loads
only. Steel or timber stringers.
Timber pile bent To 5<y Governed by unbraced Highway bridges only. Designed for vertical and
length. lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.
Timber pile pier To 20C Governed by unbraced Highway and RR bridges. Designed for vertical and
length. lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.
Steel pile bent To 70" Governed by unbraced Highway bridges only. Designed for vertical, and
length. lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.
Steel pile pier Any length Governed by unbraced Highway and RR bridges. Designed for vertical and
length. lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.
Framed timber tower Any length To 60" Highway and RR bridges. Designed for vertical and
lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.
Framed steel tower . Any length To 8C Highway and RR bridges. Designed for vertical and
lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.
Concrete pier Any length . . To 25' Highway and RR bridges. Designed for vertical and
lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.

caps. Piers are usually provided with cross brac posed of logs or dimensioned timber fitted to
ing that ties the individual bents together and gether in log cabin style and is usually filled with
gives them rigidity in a longitudinal direction. rock or other stable fill material. The crib pier
d. Trestle Bent Pier. The trestle-bent pier should be constructed so that it needs no exterior
(timber trestle pier) (fig. 10-5) is the same as bracing for stability. As an expedient, crib piers
the pile-bent pier, except that it has sills and may be constructed to the height of the stringers,
footings which transmit the load to the soil. thus eliminating the trestle bents.
e. Crib Pier. The crib pier (fig. 10-6) is quite 10-5. Bracing
different from pile and trestle piers. It is com- a. Longitudinal Bracing. Longitudinal brac
ing (fig. 10-3) is used to provide stability in the
direction of the bridge centerline.
b. Transverse Bracing. Transverse bracing
(fig. 10-3) provides stability at right angles to
the centerline. It is sometimes called sway brac
ing or lateral bracing.
c. Diaphragms. Diaphragms are braces placed
between stringers to prevent them from deflect
ing laterally (buckling) under load. In spacing
these diaphragms, the L/b ratio should not exceed
30 for timber (L = distance between diaphragms;
b = width of top of stringer). Thus, for exam
ple, diaphragms should be used every 15 feet
between stringers 6 inches wide.

10-6. Substructure Construction Procedure

a. Layout of Centerline. The first task in con
structing a trestle-bent bridge is the layout of the
centerline. Stretch a line or tape representing
the centerline across the stream or ravine. At
tach the line to stakes driven into the ground at
least 15 feet behind the proposed location of the
abutment sills. For defiles wider than 100 feet,
Figure 10-2. Pile bent. use intermediate stakes as required to prevent

10-3
TM 5-551 B

located, mark its position and remove it to con

SCABS struct the foundation. Observe the following in
construction :
(a) Remove earth as needed to provide
a level surface for footings. The sill must be level
and supported equally by each footing when in
stalled.
(b) See that the surface which supports
the footings is about 2 inches higher than its
final desired position to allow for settlement.
(c) Do not dig too deeply. If this is done
by mistake, DO NOT BACKFILL with earth.
Instead, raise the level with planking.
(d) Place the two outside footings so that
their outer edges are under the ends of the sill.
Place the long dimension of the footings parallel
to the bridge centerline.
(e) Place the remaining footings between
and in line with the outside footings. Position
them so that there is equal spacing between all
footings.
(/) Place sill on the footing centerline
so that the load comes in the middle of each foot
ing. Place sill with the largest dimension vertical,
as shown in figure 10-5.
(g) Provide for drainage of the abutment
area.
c. Retaining Walls. Retaining walls and re
vetments, when needed, are a part of the abut
ment construction (fig. 10-9).
(1) Retaining walls. The simplest type of
retaining wall is built of planks or logs sup
aivATiON or lONonuoMAi hjvation ported by piles or posts (fig. 10-10). Wingwalls
HKT (TWO MKTS)
are used to prevent the earth from washing out
behind the retaining wall. Piles or posts are
Figure 10-3. Trestle bent. driven 4 feet into the ground, and anchor cables
sag in the line. Place the line at the level of the are fastened from the top of the piles to a dead-
intended top of the flooring or at some known man behind the retaining wall or to the end of
distance above or below it (fig. 10-7). the wingwall. These deadmen and anchors can be
b. Construction of Abutments. Time saving in eliminated if two or three rows of piles driven as
abutment construction is especially important on far as they will go (to refusal) are used.
relatively short bridges, because abutment and (2) Combination abutment and retaining
approach preparation ofter require as much time wall. For long spans and heavy loads, the abut
as the rest of the bridge. Use the simplest type ment and retaining wall are often constructed
of abutment possible; often a timber sill with as a unit. This may also be necessary where steep
timber footings is adequate (fig. 10-8). The end banks and poor soil conditions exist. A typical
dam is installed AFTER the stringers and planks. abutment of this type is shown in figure 10-11.
(1) Layout. After the centerline is fixed,
place the abutment sill at approximately its cor 10-7. Construction of Trestle Bent
rect location under the tape. See that it is at a. Layout. After the position of the near-shore
right angles to the centerline by using a line abutment sill is established, locate the position
from the centerline stake (15 feet behind the of the first trestle bent. Measure the length of
sill (fig. 10-7)) to each end of the sill. Both the first span from the abutment sill along the
distances must be the same. centerline. Drive a small stake under the center-
(2) Construction. Once the sill is properly line where the center of the trestle bent is to be,

10-4
TM 5-55 id

CORBELS
COMMON CAP

CAP

N TRANSVERSE BRACING

LONGITUDINAL
CROSS BRACING

Figure 10-4. Pile pier.

using a plumb bob if necessary. Continue this and stringers, gives the height of the trestle bent.
procedure until all trestle bents and the far-shore If steel stringers are to be used, allow also for
abutment sill are located. the thickness of the nailing strips.
b. Placing Footings. Excavation for and place
d. Height of Trestle Bent Posts. To obtain the
ment of footings under the trestle bent is the
correct height of the trestle bent posts, subtract
same as for the abutment. The outside footings
the thickness of the cap and sill from the height
under the trestle sill are centered under the out of the trestle bent (fig. 10-3).
side posts of the bent.
c. Height of Trestle Bent. Measure the vertical e. Additional Construction Procedures.
distance from the centerline down to the top of (1) Make the length of the cap and sill
the footings (fig. 10-12). If the centerline was equal to roadway width plus 2 feet.
placed at the intended top of the flooring, this (2) Center the outside posts under the road
distance, minus the thickness of the tread, deck, way edges (1 foot from the ends of the cap and

10-5
TM 5-551 B

COMMON CAP CORBELS

CAP

POST

Vf

FOOTINGS
SILL
TRANSVERSE BRACING

Figure 10-5. Timber trestle pier.

sill). Space all other posts evenly between the enough beyond where they are nailed to prevent
outside posts. splitting.
(3) Use driftpins or bolts to fasten the sill (5) Put the bent into position, using a plumb
and cap to the posts. Use scabbing instead of bob to insure that it is straight. Hold it in place
driftpins when fast erection is required. with temporary braces nailed to stakes driven
(4) Nail transverse bracing across both into the ground. Use these temporary braces un
sides of the bent (usually 3- by 12-inch planks til the permanent logitudinal bracing can be
are used). Fasten bracing to each post that it nailed to the outside posts of adjacent trestle
passes over. Cut bracing so the ends extend bents.

10-6
TM 5-55 IB

Figure 10-7. Layout of bridge centerline. Figure 10-9. Abutment and retaining wall.

10-7
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retaining wall.

Figure 10-12. Determining height of trestle bent.

Section III. SUPERSTRUCTURE

10-8. Superstructure of a Timber Trestle used, they are usually long enough to extend
Bridge clear across the abutment sills and trestle caps
The superstructure is the spanning structure of on which they rest, which means that stringers
girders and decks. It consists of stringers, the of one span are lapped with those of the next
flooring (decking and tread), and other features span (fig. 10-13).
such as curbs, handrails, and sidewalks. a. When stringers are LAPPED, place one
outside stringer so that its INSIDE face is under
10-9. Stringers the inside face of one curb and place the other
After the abutment and trestle bents are in place, outside stringer so that its OUTSIDE face is
stringers are installed. When wood stringers are under the inside face of the other curb. Thus,

10-9
TM 5-551 B

Figure 10-13. Stringers placed on abutment sill

and bent.

stringers can be lapped with a similar spacing

on the next span. Remaining stringers are usu /: m <
ally spaced evenly between the outside stringers. A S 1m A
On some narrow one-lane bridges, stringers may \
be grouped closer together directly under the
vehicle tracks.
b. When stringers are BUTTED or continuous
across the span, place the outside faces of BOTH
outside stringers under the inside faces of the
curbs. I
c. Fasten wood stringers by nails driven diag
onally through the side of the stringer into the IP
1 R
cap or by driftbolts (fig. 10-14). When using
driftbolts, bore a hole, smaller in diameter and
3 inches shorter than the driftbolt, through the
stringer and into the cap.
d. Fasten steel stringers by driving railroad
spikes into the cap beside the flange, by driving Figure 10-14. Methods of fastening stringers.

10-10
TM 5-55 IB

60d nails partially into the cap and bending them thick and of varying length. They are laid par
over the bottom flange, or by driving nails or allel to the direction of traffic. On one-lane bridges
driftbolts through prebored holes in the bottom the tread is limited to the path of the wheels or
flange (fig. 10-14). When steel stringers are not track, while two-lane bridges are fully covered
fastened through their flanges, frequent inspec with tread (fig. 10-16).
tion is necessary to be sure that the stringers
have not shifted. Fasten wood nail strips (fig. 10-11. Curbs
10-14) to the top flange of steel stringers to A curb system on a timber trestle bridge is used
provide a means of fastening the flooring. When to guide the traffic on the bridge. When assorted
a laminated deck (planks placed on edge, fig. sizes of lumber are available make curbs of 6- by
10-15) is to be installed, the planks may be fas 6-inch timber supported on 6- by 12- by 30-inch
tened to steel stringers either by metal clips pro curb risers (fig. 10-19), spaced on approximately
vided for the purpose or by driving nails par 5-foot centers. The curb is usually bolted to the
tially into the deck and bending them around decking with 1/2-inch bolts, two per curb riser.
the stringer flange (D and F, fig. 10-15). 10-12. Handrails
Handrails mark the bridge route and provide a
10-10. Flooring
safety factor for pedestrians crossing the bridge.
The flooring system of a typical timber-stringer When available, make handrails of 2- by 4-inch
trestle bridge consists or two main parts, the or larger material. Over a laminated deck, make
decking and the tread. handrail posts and knee braces of the same mate
a. Deck. The decking is the part of the struc rial as the deck so that they can be fastened
ture that is laid on the stringers to form the snugly between the laminations which are ex
roadway across the trestle bridge. Decking may tended to receive them. For solid-plank decks,
be laminated (fig. 10-16) or solid plank (fig. toenail 4- by 4-inch posts or two- 2 x 4's nailed
10-17). Laminated decks may be solid, or open together to the extended planks (fig. 10-19).
with uniform spacing between members. Make posts 42 inches high and space them on
(1) For open laminated deck where the 5-foot centers. Place posts so that the distance
planks are long enough to reach completely from the inside face of the curb to the inside
across the width, use two space blocks between face of the handrail is at least 10 inches.
each lamination. Place spacers on the stringer
10-13. Sidewalks
nearest the one-third length of the lamination.
If sidewalks are necessary, form them by ex
Where the laminations are not long enough (usu
tending the decking an additional 36 inches.
ally true for two-lane bridges), lap the lamina
Place stiffening members underneath the outside
tions on a central stringer and put a spacer block
edge and support them with braces attached to
at each outside stringer (fig. 10-15).
the stringers, where necessary.
(2) For solid laminated deck, place lamina
tions solidly against one another. 10-14. End Dam
(3) For a solid plank deck, lay planks hori The end dam is the wall which withstands the
zontally and at right angles to the stringers. earth pressure of the abutment of a bridge (figs.
Leave a 1/4-inch space between planks to allow 10-1 and 10-8). After the stringers and flooring
for swelling when wet. are in place, construct an end dam of flooring
planks across the end of the stringers. The end
(4) Extend decking about 2 feet at approxi
dam should extend across the roadway and from
mately 5-foot intervals to provide support for
the top of the footing to the top of the tread.
handrail posts (fig. 10-18).
After placement of the end dam, complete the
6. Tread. The tread consists of planks placed approach up to the top of the bridge deck, then
over the decking and between (but NOT under) post the traffic control and classification signs.
the curb. The planks are usually 2 or 3 inches The bridge is now ready for traffic (fig. 10-20).

10-11
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TM 5-55 IB

Figure 10-16. Tread placement on a laminated

deck.
i

1 —i- 1

5
m i II II 1—1 II II II1

1 I

7
CD □ □ □ □ CJ

DECK PLANK ARE EXTENDED TO RIGHT AND LEFT AS

SHOWN TO PROVIDE FOR HANDRAIL KNEE BRACES.

SPACE PLANKS TO PERMIT WATER TO DRAIN.

Figure 10-18. Extended deck to provide handrail

support.

10-13
TM 5-551 B
TM 5-55 IB

CHAPTER 11

TIMBER PILE WHARVES

Section I. INSTALLATION OF PILES

11-1. Introduction contact with bearing piles is enough to collapse

Wharves are used for loading and unloading a wharf if the pilings are not protected. To
ships. This chapter describes how a carpenter furnish this protection and absorb the initial
constructs a timber pile wharf used in loading shock, fender piles are placed about 21/4 feet
and unloading ships. Section I discusses the lay out from the centerline of the outside row of
out, straightening, and bracing of piles for pile bearing piles. These piles are placed about 18
wharf construction. Section II deals with the con feet apart and along the sides where the ships
struction of the wharf superstructure and the dock.
installation of docking hardware. c. The third type of piles, mooring, is placed
in line with the outside row of bearing piles,
11-2. Wharf Structures
spaced approximately 30 feet apart, and braced
Wharf is an overall term which applies to any along the outside row of bearing piles. These
waterfront structure designed to make it possi piles usually extend about 4 feet above the floor,
ble for vessels to lie alongside for loading and or deck, of the platform. The 4-foot extension
unloading. Figure 11-1 shows the most common provides ample space to secure mooring lines.
types of structures of this kind. The term wharf
is confined in practice to the T-type and U-type d. Timber piling must be treated with creo
marginal wharves. The other structures shown sote or some other preservative compound to pro
are all called piers, with the exception of the tect it from fungi and marine borer attacks.
quay. A quay is a constructed landing place made
11-4. Special Tools
toward the sea or at the side of a harbor for
convenience of loading and unloading. All the Since all of the heavy timbers used to build
structures shown in figure 11-1 may consist of waterfront structures cannot be manhandled,
fill supported by bulkheads. A marginal wharf special tools are used to move and place these
or a pier usually consists of a timber, steel, or timbers. They are known as logger's tools and
superstructure, supported by a series of timber, consist of peavys, cant hooks, timber carriers,
steel, or concrete pile bents. and pike poles (fig. 11-2). The peavy and cant
hook are lever type tools and are primarily used
11-3. Construction Features to roll timbers. Timber carriers are considered
To be sure that a wharf can absorb the normal two-man tools; they are primarily used to pick
wear and tear, three types of piles are used for up and/or carry timbers. Pike poles are used to
wharf construction : bearing pile, fender pile, and hold or steady timbers while they are being
mooring pile. placed. Although the crane cannot be considered
a. Bearing piles support the wharf or pier a special tool, it is included here because it is
framework and decking. The piles should be used to raise and lower heavy timbers. Nor
straight and measure at least 6 inches across mally, two men are assigned to the crane: the
the top, 18 inches across the butt (bottom), and operator and the helper. The helper drives the
from 60 to 80 feet in length. The length varies crane carrier (truck), hooks and unhooks loads,
according to the depth of the water and condition and signals the operator when to lift and lower
of the bottom. These bearing piles should be the load and where to position the load. Stand
spaced from 6 to 10 feet apart, center to center, ard signals are used for these purposes. After
in one direction and 5 feet apart, center to center, the heavy timbers have been moved and placed,
in the other direction. the carpenter's level is used to level them prop
b. The force of a moving ship coming in direct erly.

11-1
TM 5-55 IB

T
HI

© QUAY

. RIGHT-ANGLE PIER FOR TWO

REIGHTERS ON EACH SIDE
(2> SQUARE PIER

njuur ® ACUTE-ANGLE PIER FOR TWO

FREIGHTERS ON EACH SIDE
Q) RIGHT-AN6LE PIER FOR ONE
FREIGHTER ON EACH SIDE

go

® T-TVPE MARGINAL WHARF FOR

FREIGHTER ON OUTSIDE FACE
AND LIGHTERS ON INSIDE FACE.
® RIGHT-ANGLE PIER FOR ONE
FREIGHTER ANO ONE LIGHTER
ON EACH SIDE

, ACUTE-ANGLE PIER FOR ONE QU-TYPE MARGINAL WHARF

REIGHTER ON EACH SIDE

W WHARF WIDTH L» WHARF LENGTH

NOTE: NOT TO SCALE. FOR EXPLANATION OF
LAYOUT TERMINOLOGY ONLY

Figure 11-1. Common types of wharfage structures.

11-5. Straightening, Cutting, Capping, and noticed during the driving. The accuracy of
Bracing Piles alinement to be sought for the finished job de
Pile-driving equipment and the methods of driv pends on various factors, but if a pile is more
ing and pulling piles are covered in TM 5-258. than a few inches out of its plumb line, an
The equipment is operated by a special crew, effort should be made to true it up. The greater
but the carpenter is present during the pile- the penetration along the wrong line the more
driving to direct the alinement of the piles. difficult to get the pile back into plumb. The
a. Straightening Piles. Piles should be following are ways to realine a pile :
straightened as soon as any misalinement is (1) By the use of pull from block and tackle

11-2
TM 5-551 B

(fig. 11-3) with the impact of the hammer jar

ring the pile back into line.
(2) By the use of a jet (fig. 11-4), either
alone or in conjunction with the above.
(3) When all the piles in a bent have been
driven they may be pulled into proper spacing
and alinement by using a block and tackle and
an alining frame as shown in figure 11-5.
b. Templates. When a floating piledriver is
used, a frame (template) for positioning piles
may be fastened to the hull. A floating tem
plate (fig. 11-6) is sometimes used for position
ing the piles in each bent. The spacing of battens
is such that the center line between them is
along the line desired for each pile, and the
battens are placed far enough apart so that as
the pile is driven the larger-diameter butt end
will not bind on the template and carry it under
water. A chain or collar permits the template
to rise and fall with the tide. If the ends of the
TIMBER CARRIER
battens are hinged and brought up vertically,
Figure 11-2. Logger's tools. the template may be withdrawn from between

h- LEADS

HAMMER

— PILE CAP

STRAIGHTENED PILE PILE POSITION BEFORE

STRAIGHTENING
TO WINCH

IXED DEAOMAN

Figure 11-3. Redlining pile by pull from block

and tackle.

11-3
TM 5-55 IB

Figure 11-4. Redlining pile by jetting.

the bents and floated into position for the next tration the butts are 2 or 3 feet higher than
bent. Several templates may be used for a bent, the desired finished elevation. Since the pile cap
or a single template is moved for use with the ping should bear evenly on every pile in the bent,
next group if the pile spacing is uniform. The the cutting-off should be carried out accurately.
position of the piles is controlled as follows: The best way is to nail sawing guides across all
(1) After each bent has been driven, a line piles in the bent (fig. 11-7).
is run back from each pile in the outer bent to the
corresponding pile several bents shoreward. 11-7. Capping Timber Piles
(2) The alinement and longitudinal spacing Caps are large timbers which are placed on top
of the outshore bent is verified. of the timber bearing piles to support the super
(3) Any deviation in position by previously structure. The following are ways of fastening
driven piles is made up when the template is po pile capping :
sitioned for the next bent. Piles which are slightly a. After the piles have been cut, the cap is
out of position may later be pulled into place as put in place, a hole for a driftpin is bored through
described in a above. the cap into the top of each pile, and the drift-
pins driven into it.
11-6. Cutting Piles b. At a joint between pile cap timbers, a splice
The lengths of pile selected for a structure should scab (fig. 11-8) is bolted across the joint to each
be such that after driving to the desired pene side of the pile cap.

11-4
TM 5-55 IB

FRAME FOR ALINING PILES TIMBER PILE

6X8

6X8

(D- FRAME IN PLACE

> DOIJRI F ^—TUD

DOUBLE -THREADED ROD
WEDGE TO PULL FRAME
©-FRAME TIGHTENED, TOGETHER
PILES IN POSITION

Figure 11-5. Alining frame for pile bent.

c. The working platform, the alining cables, side of the bent and the opposite direction of the
or the spacing frame may then be removed, since other side (fig. 11-8).
the driftpins will hold the piles in the proper rel
b. If the piles in a bent differ considerable in
ative positions.
diameter at the point of bracing, the large ones
11-8. Bracing Piles may be flattened down with an adze (dapped),
Bents are braced as follows : or the smaller ones blocked out with filler pieces,
a. Diagonal timbers are bolted to each pile or the flexibility of the braces made use of to pull
with the bracing running in one direction on one them tight against each of the piles (fig. 11-9).

11-5
TM 5-55 IB

Figure 11-6. Floating template.

SAWING GUIDES
LEVELED BOTH WAYS

WORKING
PLATFORM

STRAIGHTENING
FRAME

Figure 11-7. Cutting pile to finish elevation.

"1-6
TM 5-55 IB

Figure 11-8. Typical pile bent.

G:

DAPPING " ©

®
Figure 11-9. Transverse bracing for piles of
differing sizes.

Section II. WHARF SUPERSTRUCTURE

11-9. General 11-10. Erection of Stringers

After the timber pile bents have been alined, The positions of the stringers are measured off
braced, and capped, the construction of the wharf from the centerline of the wharf. The stringers
superstructure is begun. The building of the su are toenailed to the pile caps with two 3/8- by
perstructure consists of the installation of string 10-inch spikes at each bearing point. The ends
ers, the decking, the curb or stringpiece, the of the stringers have overlap to provide complete
erection of the fender systems, and the installa bearing on the pile caps. Spacer blocks (fig. 11-
tion and bracing of dock hardware. 10) between stringers are toenailed with two 60d
nails.

11-7
TM 5-55 IB

DIA BOLT 30" LONG

COUNTERSUNK AND HOLES
FILLED WITH BITUMINOUS
MATERIAL
.$" DIA BOLT
22" LONG

10" X 10" CHOCK

1" DIA BOLT

26" LONG

f DIA BOLT
24" LONG

12" X 12"
END PIECE

I DIA DRIFT PIN

24" LONG

FENDER
PILE I DIA DRIFT PIN
26" LONG

Figure 11-10. Wharf-edge cross-section, timber-pile

wharf.

11-11. Decking bolted through the blocking, the decking, and

Standard decking consists of 4- by 8-inch planks the stringer end piece (fig. 11-10).
(fig. 11-10) which are spiked to each stringer b. When the stringpiece is perpendicular to
with two 5/16- by 7-inch spikes, and set with the direction of the stringer, it is bolted through
1/4-inch spacing. Openings between planks the blocking, the decking, alternate stringers,
greater than 1/4 inch may be used in areas which and pile cap.
are subject to heavy rains.
11-13. Fender Piles and Chocks
11-12. Stringpiece a. Use of Timber. For theater of operations
construction, timber is the most suitable material
The stringpiece, or curb, is placed on 2- by 10- for use as wharf fenders. Fender piles serve the
inch blocking, 24 inches in length spaced on 48- following purposes :
inch centers along the edge of the deck (fig. (1) They cushion a wharf from impact of
11-10). Stringpiece bolts are countersunk and the ships and protect the outer row of bearing piles
hole sealed with bituminous material. from damage.
a. When the stringpiece is parallel to the di (2) They protect the hulls of craft from un
rection of the wharf stringers, the stringpiece is due abrasion.

11-8
TM 5-55 IB

(3) The 3- or 4-foot extension of a fender stability against horizontal stresses of the com
pile above the deck level of a wharf supplements ponent piles. Therefore, the individual piles
wharf mooring hardware but is not used for which make up the cluster must be joined so that
warping a ship into or out of the berth. the cluster acts as a unit.
b. Ease of Replacement. Since fender piles are a. Mooring Piles.
not part of the structural support of the wharf, (1) Mooring piles are clusters of three or
they are easier to replace than bearing piles. more piles used to supplement or replace wharf
c. Methods of Protecting Fender Piles. To mooring hardware. The top of the cluster is
lengthen the life of fender piles, various protec lashed together as described in paragraph 11-
tive devices are used. 166.
(1) A heavy timber wearing ribbon which (2) They are placed at intervals along the
may easily be replaced is sometimes installed face of a wharf when bollards and other items
along a line of fender piles at the elevation which of mooring hardware are not available. A maxi
receives the heaviest abrasion. mum of three piles of each cluster extend 3 feet
(2) Floating logs or camels are used. or more above the wharf deck (fig. 11-11).
(3) Rope wrappings, particularly on corner b. Corner Fenders. Corner fenders are pro
fenders, are used. vided so that a ship may use the corner to pivot
d. Fender Piles for Quays. Structures which in warping in and out of the berth. Corner fen
are almost completely rigid, such as solid-fill ders are piles driven in clusters at the exposed
quays, sometimes have their fender piles backed corners, bolted and lashed together. The wharf
up with heavy springs to provide a combination structure at the corners is strongly reinforced
of yielding and resistance. with layers of diagonal planking laid one across
e. Installation. Fender piles are driven at a the other, and this reinforcing is backed up with
slight batter, usually 1 to 12 along the outside diagonal batter piles. The standard corner-fender
edge of all rows of bearing piles, except on the cluster is made up of 10 piles battered for ade
extreme inshore wharf sections. Every third fen quate spacing at the points. Timber connectors
der pile may extend 3 to 4 feet above the curb. may be used in conjunction with the bolts to tie
The others are cut off flush with the top of the the piles more firmly into a single rigid member.
curb. To avoid undue abrasion to the hulls of ships,
/. Chocks and Wales. and to the outside pile surfaces, heavy rope mats
(1) Chocks are timber braces placed be may be lashed to the clusters at the level of con
tween fender piles, at the level of the stringpiece tact. To supplement mooring hardware, the cor
or pile cap, to hold them in position and give ner piles extend 3 to 4 feet above deck level.
them lateral stability. The_ends of the chocks
should be firmly seated against the piles.
(a) Timber pile wharves. Each chock is
fastened with two bolts through the stringer end-
piece or pile cap.
(6) Steel pile wharves. Each chock is
bolted to 12- by 12-inch blocks driftpinned to the
ends of the stringers or bolted to the ends of the
wharf pile cap.
(2) Wales (horizontal beams) are used at
mean low water elevation when tidal currents
are swift or tidal variations are great to add
rigidity to the line of fender piles. A 12- by 12-
inch continuous longitudinal timber wale is fas
tened to the back fender of each pile with bolts.
Timber chocks are placed between fender piles
and bolted to the line wales.

11-14. Pile Clusters and Corner Fenders

Pile clusters, whether at the faces or corners of
wharves or acting as isolated dolphins (para 11- Figure 11-11. Pile cluster at face of timber pile
16), must combine beam strength, rigidity, and wharf.

230-321 O - 77 - 11 11-9
TM 5-551 B

(1) Deck reinforcing on wood pile wharves. b. The king pile when composed of a cluster is
Before setting stringers, wooden piles battered wrapped with at least six turns of 1-inch diam
inward are driven to support a cap set diagonally eter galvanized wire rope stapled to each pile at
across each corner and bolted to the bottom face every turn.
of the other caps. Another piece of cap timber c. Two wrappings of the same type as de
is set to act as a strut between the fender cluster scribed above are used for the pile cluster. One
and the diagonal cap. The space between the wrapping is located near the top of the cluster.
cluster and the diagonal cap is then floored over The second wrapping is located about 2/3 the
with two layers of plank each 6 inches thick, distance above mean low water.
laid diagonally (and transversely to each other) d. To further assure that the cluster will act
to fill the thickness between the cap timbers. To as a unit, the piles are chocked and bolted to
complete the reinforcing, stringers are set close gether approximately 2 feet above mean low
and spiked together over the outer half of each water.
corner panel.
(2) Steel pile wharves. In steel pile marginal 11-17. Mooring Hardware
wharves and piers with corner fenders the deck
Ships tie up to wharves with lines fastened to
in each corner panel is similarly reinforced with
mooring fittings such as bollards, corner mooring
timber. Wood piles battered inward carry a di
posts, and cleats.
agonal cap timber bolted to the bottom flanges of
a. Bollards. Bollards, single or double-bitt, are
the steel pile caps. The diagonal cap is strutted
steel or cast iron posts (fig. 11-13) to which
against the fender cluster, the diagonal layers
large ships tie up. The prevent ships' lines from
of plank are applied, and the stringers are set
riding up off the post, they may have waist di
close and spiked together, as described above for
ameters smaller than top diameters, caps, or pro
wood pile wharves.
jecting, rounded horns. Double-bitt bollards are
11-15. Floating Log Fenders (Camels) also known as double steamship bitts or simply
a. Floating logs are used to absorb part of the as double bitts. Bollard bodies may be hollow for
impact shock when a ship is berthed and protect filling with concrete after installation. They are
the surface of fender piles while the ship is tied usually designed to take line pulls of about 35
up. The simplest type of fender logs is a single tons.
line of floating logs. Each log is secured by two b. Corner Mooring Posts. Corner mooring
or more lengths of 1/2-inch galvanized chain posts (fig. 11-14), which are larger than bollards,
fastened to 3/4-inch eyebolts in the fender log are sometimes located at the outshore corners of
and the wharf pile. Some arrangement such as a pier, wharf, or quay. They are used to bring
loose steel collars around the wharf piles is pro the ship into the pier or to warp the ship around
vided to permit the floating logs to rise and the corner of the pier or around a turning dolphin
fall with the tide. as well as for securing lines. Corner mooring
b. Floating clusters or logs or strongly con posts usually are designed to take line pulls of
structed rafts are called camels. In addition to up to 50 tons.
absorbing impact shock, and protecting fender c. Cleats. Cleats (fig. 11-15) are generally cast
piles from the sliding friction of a ship moving in iron, shaped with arms extending horizontally
the berth, camels may be required to breast a from a relatively low body. The base may be
ship off the face of the wharf into deeper water open or closed. They are used for securing smaller
than exists at the face of the wharf. ships, tugs, and workboats.
d. Chocks. Open or closed chocks (fig. 11-16),
11-16. Construction of Pile Mooring generally made of cast iron, are used for direct
Dolphins ing lines and for snubbing lines when working a
a. Dolphins are isolated clusters of piles to ship into or out of her berth. The closed chock
which a ship may be moored. The center of the must be used when there is a change in the
cluster called a king pile may be a single pile or vertical as well as the horizontal direction of the
a cluster driven vertically and wrapped as to act line.
as a unit. The other piles are driven in one or e. Pad Eyes. Pad eyes (fig. 11-17) are metal
more concentric rings around the king pile, each rings mounted vertically on a plate and intended
battered towards the center. The king pile nor to receive a ship's line spliced with thimble and
mally is left somewhat longer than the others for shackle. They are used for securing only small
use as a mooring post (fig. 11-12) . craft.

11-10
TM 5-55 IB

PLATFORM FOR
MOORING DOLPHIN ONLY

FLAT SIDE PARALLEL

WITH PIER HEAO LINE
ADDER
(3) PLAN OF
7- PILE DOLPHIN
COT TOP9 OF ALL PILES ON.
t TO IS SLOPE AS INOICATEO © PLAN OF
12- PILE KINS PILE
DOLPHIN (3 CENTER PILES
VERTICAL) PLATFORM FOR
MOORING DOLPHIN ONLY

6 WRAPS OF I" OIA OALVANIZEO

CABLE STAPLED TO EACH PILE
AT EVERY TURN. TURN ENDS
BACK AND DOUBLE STAPLE.
PILES TO BE IN CONTACT AND
CABLE TIGHT BEFORE STAPLING
AT TOP.

l8'-9"
• OUTSIDE PILES
BATTERED
LADDER

BLOCK AND
CHOCK SOLID
0 PLAN OF
MLW 19 -PILE DOLPHIN

(D ELEVATION OF DOLPHIN

Figure 11-12. Timber pile dolphins.

stress on any structural unit on which mooring

o hardware is attached be transferred to a con
siderable extent to the wharf structure. This is
VERTICAL VIEW done by increasing the number and size of
stringers under the hardware installation and by
providing an anchorage for mooring hardware
bolts that will transfer the stress through the
pile cap of one or more bents to several piles.
The number and size of stringers are increased
at the location of major items of hardware. When
base widths of hardware are less than 24 inches,
BOLLARD DOUBLE BITT BOLLARD SINGLE BITT but greater than 12 inches, at least two 12- by
12-inch stringers are needed; for base widths
less than 36 inches, but greater than 24 inches,
Figure 11-13. Bollards. three 12-inch stringers; and so forth. Stringers
are laid close together and spiked to each other
11-18. Installation of Wharf Hardware and at each bearing point. Mooring hardware
a. Stringer Reinforcement. Proper installa bolts pass through stringers, filler blocks, and
tion requires that the vertical and horizontal anchorage timbers.

11-11
TM 5-55 IB

VERTICAL VIEW

VERTICAL VIEW

Figure 11-15. Open wide-base cleat.

Figure 11-14. Corner mooring post.

b. Standard Installations. The standard wharf

structures have mooring hardware as follows :
(1) Pier, 90 x 500 feet—six, large double-
bitt bollards on each side on 100-foot centers CLOSED CHOCK
and five 42-inch cleats on each side centered be
tween bollards.
(2) Offshore marginal wharf, 60 x 500 feet
—six large, double-bitt bollards and five 42-inch
cleats spaced as above on the outshore side only.
(3) Lighterage quay, 35 x 500 feet—eleven
42-inch cleats on 50-foot centers.
c. Nonstandard Installations.
(1) For nonstandard wharf structures,
mooring hardware should be installed in num
bers, types, and spacing approximating that of
standard wharves.
OPEN CHOCK
(2) When cleats and pad eyes are not avail
able, every third fender pile must be installed to Figure 11-16. Chocks.

11-12
TM 5-55 IB

ware are placed clear of cranes and traffic, and

as close to the curb as possible. Where onshore
mooring anchors are used, they should be located
so the lines will not have to be moved for traffic.

11- 19. Anchorages for Hardware

a. Location Between Pile Bents. The provide
an anchorage for heavy items of mooring hard
ware located between pile bents, a timber grill-
work of 12- by 12-inch timbers is bolted under
neath the pile cap (fig. 11-18). Each of the four
piles directly affected by the upward pull on the
grillwork is strapped to the pile cap with 3- by
3/8-inch steel strapping. The straps are spiked
to piles and pile caps. Filler blocks of 12- by
12-inch timbers are centered to receive the moor
ing hardward bolts.
b. Location at Pile Bent. Mooring hardware
Figure 11-17. Pad eye.
is also located directly over the outside bearing
extend 3 to 4 feet above the wharf deck. Fender pile of a bent (fig. 11-19). Mooring hardware
pile extensions may be used to steady a ship in with 22- to 26-inch bolt centers is anchored as
the berth, but not to winch a ship into position. follows :
(3) On berths located near enough to the (1) Two 12- by 12-inch by approximately
shore, bollards or mooring posts may be located 20-foot long timbers are bolted to both sides of
on shore. three piles of the bent and under the pile cap
d. Location. Bollards and other mooring hard over which the hardware is located. The batter
TM 5-551 B

pile and batter pile cap shown in figure 11-19 using timber grillwork anchorage described in a
may be omitted when the wharf design does not above.
need additional lateral stability.
c. Bracing. The wharf structure is longitudi
(2) Twelve- by twelve-inch filler timbers
nally braced at the location of bollard installa
approximately 4 feet long are bolted to the wharf
tions. Diagonal bracing is done from just below
pile cap under the hardware bolt location.
the pile caps to approximately low water level at
(3) Each of the three piles which is di
the location of each bollard. The cross bracing is
rectly affected by the upward pull on the grill-
bolted to each pile.
work is strapped to the pile cap with steel strap
ping as described in a above. d. Installation of Light Items. Light items of
(4) Items of mooring hardware with bolt mooring hardware, with bolt centers less than 8
centers greater than 26 inches require timber inches, such as cleats, chocks, and pad eyes, are
wider than 12 inches, doubling the number of bolted through the stringpiece, blocking, decking,
timbers, or locating the hardware between bents and stringer end piece.

Figure 11-19. Mooring hardware located over bearing pile.

11-14
TM 5-55 IB

APPENDIX A
REFERENCES

A- 1 . Field Manuals
FM 5-34 Engineer Field Data

Technical Manuals
TM 5-232 Elements of Surveying
TM 5-233 Construction Surveying
TM 5-258 Pile Construction
TM 5-302 Construction in the Theater of Operations
TM 5-312 Military Fixed Bridges
TM 5-330 Planning and Design of Roads, Air Bases, and Heliports in the Theater
of Operations
TM 5-333-1 Planner's and Estimator's Handbook
TM 5-360 Port Construction and Rehabilitation
TM 5-461 Engineer Handtools
TM 5-617 Roofing; Repairs and Utilities
TM 5-621 Repairs and Utilities; Buildings and Structures; Lathing and Plastering
TM 5-622 Wharves, Shore Structures, and Dredging; Repairs and Utilities
TM 5-704 Construction Print Reading in the Field
TM 5-725 Rigging
TM 5-742 Concrete and Masonry
TM 5-805-8 Building Construction Materials and Practices: Building Hardware

A-l
TM 5-55 IB

APPENDIX B
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

B-1 . Abbreviations
The following abbreviations in connection with lumber are used by the carpenter:
AD e . .air-dried
■1 . - all length
av . e . . average
»vw - - average width
avl . . — ..... average length
bd board
bd ft board foot
bdl — bundle
bev . beveled
bm .board (foot) measure
btr ...better
clg . ceiling
dr clear
CM center matched ; that is, tongue-and-groove joints are made along the center of the edge of the piece
Com . - common
Csg . . . ... casing
Ctg crating
cu ft . . . . cubic foot
D & CM . . . dressed (one or two sides) and center matched
D& M dressed and matched; that is, dressed one or two sides and tongue and grooved on the edges. The match
may be center or standard
DS .drop siding
D & SM ........ dressed (one or two sides) and standard matched
D 2S & CM dressed two sides and center matched
D 2S & M . .dressed two sides and (center of standard) matched
D 2S & SM .... .dressed two sides and standard matched
Dim ..dimension
E edge
FAS firsts and seconds, a combined grade of the two upper grades of hardwoods
fbk flat back
fety factory (lumber)
PG flat grain
Pig flooring
fok free of knots
Prm framing
ft efoot or feet
Hdl — handle (stock)
Hdwd hardwood
Hrt heart
Hrtwd heartwood
in inch or inches
KD kiln-dried
kd knocked down
lbr lumber
lgr longer
lgth length
linft linear foot, that is, 12 inches
LR log run
Lr MCO . . log run, mill culls out
M ..thousand

B-1
TM 5-55 IB

MFBM thousand (feet) board measure

MCO mill culls out
Merch merchantable
MR mill run
m8m .thousand (feet) surface measure
mw - - mixed width
No number
1s & 28 - . ones and twos, a combined grade of the hardwood grades of firsts and seconds
Ord order
P planed
Pat pattern
Pky picky
Pin plain, as in plain sawed
Pn partition
Qtd quartered (with reference to hardwoods)
rd round
rdm random
res resawed
rfg roofing
Rfrs roofers
rip ripped
rl . random length
rw random width
S & E surfaced one side and one edge
S2S & M surfaced two sides and standard or center matched
S2S & SM surfaced two sides and standard matched
Sap sapwood
S1E surfaced one edge
S1S1E surfaced one side and one edge
S1S2E surfaced one side and two edges
S2E surfaced two edges
S4S .surfaced four sides
S & CM . - . . ... surfaced one or two sides and center matched
S & M surfaced and matched; that is, surfaced one or two sides and tongued and grooved on the edges. The
match may be center or standard.
S & SM surfaced one or two sides and standard matched
S2S & CM surfaced two sides and center matched
Sap sapwood
SB standard bead
Sd seasoned
Sdg siding
Sel select
SESd square-edge siding
■f surface foot; that is, an area of 1 square foot
Stfwd softwood
ShD shipping dry
Ship shiplap
Sm standard matched
sm .surface measure
snd sap no defect
snd - ..sound
8q square
sq E square edge
sq E & S square edge and sound
sqrs squares
Std standard
stk stock
SW sound wormy
T & G tongued and grooved
TB & S .top, bottom, and sides
tbrs timbers
VG vertical grain
wal .wider, all length
wdr wider
wt weight
wth width
B-2
B-2. Symbols
Symbols commonly used in carpentry are {riven below. For addi
tional information on the various symbols used in construction
plans and blueprints, refer to TM 5-704.

o. Architectural

Tile.

Enrth
Plaster 1 I

Sheet metal «»

lilt i It - i it cabinet I 1
Outside tloor: Brick wall

Frame wall

Inside door: Frame wall M-__-_---Ji

Brick

Firebrick
Concrete EZZUS]
Cast, concrete block mm)
Insulation: Loose fill |gv^www|

Hoard or quilts WffiHffl

Cut stone I 1

Ashlar | I I : l 4-1
Shingles (siding) r£~-t "^j

Wood, rough

\Voo<l, finished E . 3

Cased or arched openings I B

Single casement window..

1 )oiihlc htinjj windows —
Double casement window.
TM 5-55 IB

b. Plumbing.
Bathtubs: Toilets:
Corner i—i Tank.

Free standing. £1 Flush ralve. ©I

Urinals :
Floor drain tQ] Stall-type.

Shower drain El Wall-hiing

Hot-water tank 0««t Laundry trays.

Gi-ease trap. Built-in shower.

Hose bibb or sill cock.. Shower- fl>-»—CC'
Lavatories : S Sinks :
Pedestal. Single drain board.

Wall -hung. Double drain board E.1—3-l

Comer

c. Electrical

Pull switch ~W**- ^. 'i- »i * -/>■

T Ceding outlet
Single-pole switch *• Wall bracket ~<J>"
.... . .4 , Single convenience out-
Double-pole switch Si jej
. . . .. , „ Double convenience out-
rnple-pole switch s» let
Buzzer... NO outlet, gas & elec-

Floo, OHtlet — - "4" Motor ©

Holl__ CQ Light outlet with wir- te-jA

nig and switches indi- ~y
Drop cord ® cated

B-4
TM 5-55 IB

APPENDIX C

CONVERSION TABLES

Length
Metric to English English to Metric
1 millimeter (mm) - 0.04 inch (0.03937 inch) 1 yard = 91.44 centimeters (cm)
1 centimeter (cm) - 0.3937 inch 1 foot - 30.48 cm
1 meter (m) - 3.281 feet 1 inch = 2.54 cm
1m - 1.094 yards % inch - 2.22 cm (22.22 millimeters (mm) )
1 kilometer (km) = 0.621 statute mile 94 inch - 1.90 cm (19.05 mm)
1 km - 0.5396 nautical mile % inch - 1.59 cm (15.88 mm)
% inch - 1.27 cm (12.70 mm)
% inch = 0.98 cm (9.84 mm)
% inch - 0.64 cm (6.35 mm)
% inch = 0.32 cm (3.18 mm)
Area
1 sq centimeter - 0.155 sq inch 1 sq inch = 6.45 sq centimeters
1 sq meter - 10.76 sq ft 1 sq foot - 0.0929 sq meter
1 sq meter - 1.196 sq yards 1 sq yard - 0.836 sq meter
1 hectare - 2.47 acres 1 acre - 0.405 hectare
1 sq kilometer - 0.386 sq miles 1 sq mile - 2.59 sq kilometers

C-1
TM 5-551 B

APPENDIX D

MANPOWER ESTIMATES-CARPENTRY

This appendix contains tables which may be used in preparing manpower estimates for carpentry
work. The tables do not include provision for loading and hauling materials to the jobsite.
All tables presume average working conditions in terms of weather, skill, crew size, accessibility,
and the availability of equipment.

Table D-1. Rough Framing 1

Description Unit Man-hr/unlt
Beams (3-2" x 8") MFBM5 40
Blocking MFBM 32
Bridging 100 pairs 5
Ceiling joists MFBM 32
Door bucks ea. 3
Floor joists, sills MFBM 32
Furring including plugging 1000 linft 32
Grounds for plaster 1000 linft 48
Rafters MFBM 48
Trusses ea. Man-hr Man-hr Hours
assembly placement hoist time
Span ft
20 2.5 4 8
30 5 8 12
40 12 8 16
50 20 6* 8*
60 24 6' 9*
80 32 6" 11'
Wall frames, plates MFBM 56
1 Typical crew : 1 leader. 8
Minimal crew: 1 leader, 2 men.
* Thousand board feet measure.
* Assumes use of organisational crane.

D-l
TM 5-55 IB

Table D-2. Sheathing and Siding ' Table D-5. Finish Carpentry 1
Description Unit Man-hr/unit Description Unit Man-hr/unit
Roof decking 1000 sq ft Baseboard (2 member) 1000 linft 72
plywood 24
tongue & groove 32 Ceilings 1000 sq ft
cemented tile 32
Siding 1000 sq ft panel w/suspension 72
corrugated asbestos 32 plasterboard (including 64
drop siding 32 tape)'
narrow bevel 48 wood 48
plywood 24
shingles 40 Door frame, trim ea. 2.5
Wall sheathing 1000 sq ft Installing prefab, closets ea. 16
Bldg paper 16 Molding (chair) 1000 linft 48
fiber board 24
tongue & groove 24 Plasterboard (complete) 1000 sq ft 110
plywood 16
± Setting kitchen cabinets ea. 1.5
1 Typical crew : 1 leader, 4 men.
Sliding door w/pocket ea. 8
Table D-3. Flooring '
Shelving 1000 sq ft 64
Description Unit Man-hr/unit
Linoleum 1000 sq ft 32 Stairs
closed stringer, built on job story 16
Soft tile 1000 sq ft closed stringer, prefab. story 8
cemented 24 open stringer story 24
nailed 32
Walls 1000 sq ft
Wood floors 1000 sq ft plasterboard (including 48
Finish floor tape)
hardwood 32 plywood 80
softwood 24
Subfloor Wood frame, trim ea. 3
plywood 16 1 Typical crew : 1 leader. 8 men.
tongue & groove 24 2 Includes installation of furring strips when
1 Typical crew : 1 leader, 4 men.
Table D-U. Insulation '
Description Unit Man-hr/unit Table D-6. Wood Door Installation 1
Acoustic 1000 sq ft Description Unit Man-hr/unit
Quilt 8
Strip Caulking (w/gun) 1000 linft 16
24
Thermal 1000 sq ft Doors w/hardware ea.
Board exterior * 2
ceiling interior * 1.6
24
floor manual sliding 8
8
roof (including tracks)
16 motorized sliding *
wall 32 66
overhead (including 16
Foil alone 16 machinery)
screendoors 1.5
Rigid foam 32
Rock wool Weatherstripping ea. opening 1.6
batts 24 1 Typical crew : 1 leader, 4 men.
loose ■ For double doors add 50% to labor estimates.
16 1 Includes tracks and all machinery, with control equip
1 Typical crew : 1 leader, 8 men. ment

D-2
TM 5-55 IB
Table D-7. Wood Window Installation 1
Table D-11. Metal, Asbestos-Cement and Tile Roofing '
Description Unit Man-hr/unit (pitch at least 3"/ft)
Caulking (w/gun) 1000 linft 16 Description Unit Man-hr/unit
Screens ea. 1.6 Asbestos-cement 1000 sq ft
metal purlins 45
Weatherstripping ea. opening 1.5 wood purlins 36
Windows (avg 20 sq ft) ea. Metal —
casement 1000 sq ft
1.6 corrugated & V-crimp
double hung 2.5 metal purlins
jalousie 36
2.5 wood purlins 18
louvers
4 Tile
skylight 8 1000 sq ft
sliding 2.5 clay 66
metal 60
Venetian blinds | ea. 1
Table includes placing, caulking, drilling, and fastening materials.
Table D-8. Built-Up Roofing, Insulation and
Flashing 1 Table D-12. Pile Bracing and Capping '
(pitch1/t»—3"/ft) Description Unit Man-hr/unit
Description Unit Man-hr/unit Bracing ' ea.
Flashing diagonal 0.8
1000 linft 60 horizontal
Insulation 1
1000 sq ft 25 Capping 1000 linft
Roofing 1000 sq ft wood 100
2 ply 12 1 Typical crew : 1 leader, 6 men.
3 ply 20 1 Table baaed on 4 in x 10 in x 4 ft bracing members
4 ply 26 Pile bracing includes catting, drilling, handling.' and fastening
6 ply materials.
30
1 Typical crew : 1 leader, 6 men. Table D-13. Pier Framing '
TaWe includes melting asphalt, laying felt, mopping, and laying
Description Unit Man-hr/unit
Bridging 1000 linft
Table D-9. Roll Roofing1 40
(pitch at leasts'/ft) Bull rail 1000 linft 60
Description Unit Man-hr/unit Bumper
Asphaltic aluminum (including 1000 sq ft 1000 linft 36
18 4" deck
primer) 1000 sq ft 20
Canvas (including 2 coats Stringers MPBM»
1000 sq ft 25 200
paint) 2" wearing surface 1000 sq ft 16
Paper (plain) & felt 1000 sq ft 'Typical crew: 1 leader. 10 :
7
' 1000 board-foot measure.
, . lMt»»l.tion of Pi« Naming includes the cutting, drilling, handling
Table Includes cleaning deck, applying prime coat, and laying rolls. and fastening of stringers, bridging, all decking, rails, and bumper.
Table D-10. Shingle Roofing ' Table D-U. Deck Hardware 1
(pitch at least 3"/ft)
Description Description Unit Man-hr/unit
Unit Man-hr/unit
Asbestos Bits ea.
1000 sq ft 45 3
Asphalt Bollards ea. A*k
1000 sq ft 30 Chocks
Metal 1000 sq ft ea. 3
Slate 50 Cleats
1000 sq ft 55 ea. 2
Wood Pad eyes ea.
1000 sq ft 35 1
1T 1 l . . 1 Tvni^nl *»fa«7 . i i. i .
Table includes placing and nailing. Installation of deck hardware includes required drilling, handling
and fastening of bits, bollards, chocks, cleata. and pad eyes.

D-3
TM 5-55 IB

GLOSSARY

Anchor—Irons of special form used to fasten together timbers or masonry.

Anchor bolts—Bolt which fastens columns, girders, or other members to concrete or masonry.
Backing—The bevel on the top edge of a hip rafter that allows the roofing board to fit the top of the
rafter without leaving a triangular space between it and the lower side of the roof covering.
Balloon frame—The lightest and most economical form of construction, in which the studding and
corner posts are set up in continuous lengths from first-floor line or sill to the roof plate.
Baluster—A small pillar or column used to support a rail.
Balustrade—A series of balusters connected by a rail, generally used for porches, balconies, and the
like.
Band—A low, flat molding.
Base—The bottom of a column; the finish of a room at the junction of the walls and floor.
Batten (cleat) —A narrow strip of board used to fasten several pieces together.
Batter board—A temporary framework used to assist in locating the corners when laying a foundation.
Batter pile—Pile driven at an angle to brace a structure against lateral thrust.
Beam—An inclusive term for joists, girders, rafters, and purlins.
Bedding—A filling of mortar, putty, or other substance in order to secure a firm bearing.
Belt course—A horizontal board across or around a building, usually made of a flat member and a
molding.
Bent—A single vertical framework consisting of horizontal and vertical members supporting the deck
of a bridge or pier.
Bevel board (pitch board) —A board used in framing a roof or stairway to lay out bevels.
Board—Lumber less than 2 inches thick.
Board foot—The equivalent of a board 1 foot square and 1 inch thick.
Boarding in—The process of nailing boards on the outside studding of a house.
Bollard—Steel or cast iron post to which large ships are tied.
Braces—Pieces fitted and firmly fastened to two others at any angle in order to strengthen the angle
thus treated.
Bracket—A projecting support for a shelf or other structure.
Break joints—To arrange joints so that they do not come directly under or over the joints of adjoining
pieces, as in shingling, siding, etc.
Bridging—Pieces fitted in pairs from the bottom of one floor joist to the top of adjacent joists, and
crossed to distribute the floor load; sometimes pieces of width equal to the joists and fitted neatly
between them.
Building paper—Cheap, thick paper, used to insulate a building before the siding or roofing is put on ;
sometimes placed between double floors.
Built-up member—A single structural component made from several pieces fastened together.
Built-up timber—A timber made of several pieces fastened together, and forming one of larger di
mension.
Carriages—The supports or the steps and risers of a flight of stairs.
Casement—A window in which the sash opens upon hinges.
Casing—The trimming around a door or window opening, either outside or inside, or the finished lum
ber around a post or beam, etc.
Ceiling—Narrow, matched boards; sheathing of the surfaces that inclose the upper side of a room.
Center-hung sash—A sash hung on its centers so that it swings on a horizontal axis.

Glossary 1
TM 5-551 B

Chamfer—A beveled surface cut upon the corner of a piece of wood.

Checks—Splits or cracks in a board, ordinarily caused by seasoning.
Chock—Heavy timber fitted between fender piles along wheel guard of a pier or wharf.
Chord—The principal member of a truss on either the top or bottom.
Clamp—A mechanical device used to hold two or more pieces together.
Clapboards—A special form of outside covering of a house ; siding.
Cleats—Metal arms extending horizontally from a relatively low base used for securing small ships,
tugs, and work boats.
Column—A square, rectangular, or cylindrical support for roofs, ceilings, and so forth, composed of
base, shaft, and capital.
Combination frame—A combination of the principal features of the full and balloon frames.
Concrete—An artificial building material made by mixing cement and sand with gravel, broken stone,
or other aggregate, and sufficient water to cause the cement to set and bind the entire mass.
Conductors—Pipes for conducting water from a roof to the ground or to a receptacle or drain; down
spout.
Cornice—The molded projection which finishes the top of the wall of a building.
Counterflashings—Strips of metal used to prevent water from entering the top edge of the vertical
side of a roof flashing; they also allow expansion and contraction without danger of breaking the
flashing.
Cross brace—Bracing with two intersecting diagonals.
Deadening—Construction intended to prevent the passage of sound.
Decking—Heavy plank floor of a pier or bridge.
Diagonal—Inclined member of a truss or bracing system used for stiffening and wind bracing.
Drip—The projection of a window sill or water table to allow the water to drain clear of the side of
the house below it.
Fascia—A flat member of a cornice or other finish, generally the board of the cornice to which the
gutter is fastened.
Fender pile—Outside row of piles that protects a pier or wharf from damage by ships.
Filler—Piece used to fill space between two surfaces.
Flashing—The material used and the process of making watertight the roof intersections and other
exposed places on the outside of the house.
Flue—The opening in a chimney through which smoke passes.
Flush—Adjacent surfaces even, or in same plane (with reference to two structural pieces).
Footing—An enlargement at the lower end of a wall, pier, or column, to distribute the load.
Footing form—A wooden or steel structure, placed around the footing that will hold the concrete to
the desired shape and size.
Foundation—That part of a building or wall which supports the superstructure.
Frame—The surrounding or inclosing woodwork of windows, doors, etc., and the timber skeleton of a
building.
Framing—The rough timber structure of a building, including interior and exterior walls, floor, roof,
and ceilings.
Full frame—The old fashioned mortised-and-tenoned frame, in which every joint was mortised and
tenoned. Rarely used at the present time.
Furring—Narrow strips of board nailed upon the walls and ceilings to form a straight surface upon
which to lay the laths or other finish.
Gable—The vertical triangular end of a building from the eaves to the apex of the roof.
Gage—A tool used by carpenters to strike a line parallel to the edge of a board.
Gambrel—A symmetrical roof with two different pitches or slopes on each side.
Girder—A timber used to support wall beams or joists.
Girt (ribband) —The horizontal member of the walls of a full or combination frame house which sup
ports the floor joists or is flush with the top of the joists.
Grade—The horizontal ground level of a building or structure.
Groove—A long hollow channel cut by a tool, into which a piece fits or in which it works. Two special
types of grooves are the dado, a rectangular groove cut across the full width of a piece, and the

Glossary 2
TM 5-55 IB

housing, a groove cut at any angle with the grain and part v'ay across a piece. Dados are used in
sliding doors, window frames, etc. ; housings are used for framing stair risers and threads in a
string.
Ground—A strip of wood assisting the plasterer, in making a straight wall and in giving a place to
which the finish of the room may be nailed.
Hanger—Vertical-tension member" supporting a load.
Header—A short joist into which the common joists are framed around or over an opening.
Headroom—The clear space between floor line and ceiling, as in a stairway.
Heel of a rafter—The end or foot that rests on the wall plate.
Hip roof—A roof which slopes up toward the center from all sides, necessitating a hip rafter at each
corner.
Jack rafter—A short rafter framing between the wall plate; a hip rafter.
Jamb—The side piece or post of an opening; sometimes applied to the door frame.
Joint-butt—Squared ends or ends and edges adjoining each other:
Dovetail—Joint made by cutting pins the shape of dovetails which fit between dovetails upon an
other piece.
Drawboard—A mortise-and-tenon joint with holes so bored that when a pin is driven through, the
joint becomes tighter.
Fished—An end butt splice strengthened by pieces nailed on the sides.
Glue—A joint held together with glue.
Halved—A joint made by cutting half the wood away from each piece so as to bring the sides flush.
Housed—A joint in which a piece is grooved to receive the piece which is to form the other part
of the joint.
Lap—A joint of two pieces lapping over each other.
Mortised—A joint made by cutting a hole or mortise, in one piece, and a tenon, or piece to fit the
hole, upon the other.
Rub—A flue joint made by carefully fitting the edges together, spreading glue between them, and
rubbing the pieces back and forth until the pieces are well rubbed together.
Scarfed—A timber spliced by cutting various shapes of shoulders, or jogs, which fit each other.
Joists—Timbers supporting the floorboards.
Kerf—The cut made by a saw.
Knee brace—A corner brace, fastened at an angle from wall stud to rafter, stiffening a wood or steel
frame to prevent angular movement.
Laths—Narrow strips to support plastering.
Lattice—Crossed wood, iron plate, or bars.
Ledgerboard—The support for the second-floor joists of a balloon-frame house, or for similar uses;
ribband.
Level—A term describing the position of a line or plane when parallel to the surface of still water ; an
instrument or tool used in testing for horizontal and vertical surfaces, and in determining differ
ences of elevation.
Lintel (cap) —A horizontal structural member spanning an opening, and supporting a wall load.
Lookout—The end of a rafter, or the construction which projects beyond the sides of a house to support
the eaves; also the projecting timbers at the gables which support the verge boards.
Louver—A kind of window, generally in peaks of gables and the tops of towers, provided with horizon
tal slots which exclude rain and snow and allow ventilation.
Lumber—Sawed parts of a log such as boards, planks, scantling, and timber.
Matching, or tonguing and grooving—The method used in cutting the edges of a board to make a tongue
on one edge and a groove on the other.
Meeting rail—The bottom rail of the upper sash of a double-hung window. Sometimes called the check-
rail.
Member—A single piece in a structure, complete in itself.
Miter—The joint formed by two abutting pieces meeting at an angle.
Molding Base—The molding on the top of a baseboard.
Bed—A molding used to cover the joint between the plancier and frieze (horizontal decorative

Glossary 3
230-321 O - 77 - 13
TM 5-55 IB

band around the wall of a room) ; alse used as a base molding upon heavy work, and some
times as a member of a cornice.
Lip—A molding with a lip which overlaps the piece against which the back of the molding rests.
Picture—A molding shaped to form a support for picture hooks, often placed at some distance from
the ceiling upon the wall to form the lower edge of the frieze.
Rake—The cornice upon the gable edge of a pitch roof, the members of which are made to fit those
of the molding of the horizontal eaves.
Mortise—The hole which is to receive a tenon, or any hole cut into or through a piece by a chisel ; gen
erally of rectangular shape.
Mullion —The construction between the openings of a window frame to accommodate two or more win
dows.
Muntin—The vertical member between two panels of the same piece of panel work. The vertical sash-
bars separating the different panels of glass.
Newel—The principal post of the foot of a staircase; also the central support of a winding flight of
stairs.
Nosing—The part of a stair tread which projects over the riser, or any similar projection; a term ap
plied to the rounded edge of a board.
Pad eyes—Metal rings mounted vertically on a plate for tying small vessels.
Partition—A permanent interior wall which serves to divide a building into rooms.
Pier— (a) Timber, concrete, or masonry supports for girders, posts, or arches, (b) Intermediate sup
ports for adjacent ends of two bridge spans, (c) Structure extending outward from shore into wa
ter used as a dock for ships.
Piers—Masonry supports, set independently of the main foundation.
Pilaster—A portion of a square column, usually set within or against a wall.
Piles—Long posts driven into the soil in swampy locations or whenever it is difficult to secure a firm
foundation, upon which the footing course of masonry or other timbers are laid.
Piling—Large timbers or poles driven into the ground or the bed of a stream to make a firm founda
tion.
Pitch—Inclination or slope, as for roofs or stairs, or the rise divided by the span.
Pitch board—A board sawed to the exact shape formed by the stair tread, riser, and slope of the stairs
and used to lay out the carriage and stringers.
Plan—A horizontal geometrical section of a building, showing the walls, doors, windows, stairs, chim
neys, columns, etc.
Plank—A wide piece of sawed timber, usually V/-> to 4 14 inches thick and 6 inches or more wide.
Plaster—A mixture of lime, hair, and sand, or of lime, cement, and sand, used to cover outside and in
side wall surfaces.
Plate—The top horizontal piece of the walls of a frame building upon which the roof rests.
Plate cut—The cut in a rafter which rests upon the plate ; sometimes called the seat cut.
Plow—To cut a groove running in the same direction as the grain of the wood.
Plumb cut—Any cut made in a vertical plane; the vertical cut at the top end of a rafter.
Ply—A term used to denote a layer or thickness of building or roofing paper as two-ply, three-ply, etc.
Porch—An ornamental entrance way.
Post—A timber set on end to support a wall, girder, or other member of the structure.
Pulley stile—The member of a window frame which contains the pulleys and between which the edges
of the sash slide.
Purlin—A timber supporting several rafters at one or more points, or the roof sheeting directly.
Rabbet or rebate—A corner cut out of an edge of a piece of wood.
Rafter—The beams that slope from the ridge of a roof to the eaves and make up the main body of the
roof's framework.
Rafters, common—Those which run square with the plate and extend to the ridge.
Cripple—Those which cut between valley and hip rafters.
Hip—Those extending from the outside angle of the plates toward the apex of the roof.
Jacks—Those square with the plate and intersecting the hip rafter.

Glossary 4
TM 5-55 IB

Valley—Those extending from an inside angle of the plates toward the ridge or center line of the
house.
Rail—The horizontal members of a balustrade or panel work.
Rake—The trim of a building extending in an oblique line, as rake dado or molding.
Return—The continuation of a molding or finish of any kind in a different direction.
Ribband— ( See Ledgerboard. )
Ridge—The top edge or corner formed by the intersection of two roof surfaces.
Ridge cut— (See Plumb cut.)
Rise—The vertical distance through which anything rises, as the rise of a roof or stair.
Riser—The vertical board between two treads of a flight of stairs.
Roofing—The material put on a roof to make it wind and waterproof.
Rubble—Roughly broken quarry stone.
Rubble masonry—Uncut stone, used for rough work, foundations, backing, and the like.
Run—The length of the horizontal projection of a piece such as a rafter when in position.
Saddle board—The finish of the ridge of a pitch-roof house. Sometimes called comb board.
Sash—The framework which holds the glass in a window.
Sawing, plain—Lumber sawed regardless of the grain, the log simply squared and sawed to the desired
thickness; sometimes called slash or bastard sawed.
Scab—A short piece of lumber used to splice, or to prevent movement of two other pieces.
Scaffold or staging—A temporary structure or platform enabling workmen to reach high places.
Scale—A short measurement used as a proportionate part of a larger dimension. The scale of a drawing
is expressed as 14. inch = 1 foot.
Scantling—Lumber with a cross-section ranging from 2 by 4 inches to 4 by 4 inches.
Scarfing—A joint between two pieces of wood which allows them to be spliced lengthwise.
Scotia—A hollow molding used as a part of a cornice, and often under the nosing of a stair tread.
Scribing—The marking of a piece of wood to provide for the fitting of one of its surfaces to the irregu
lar surface of another.
Seat cut or plate cut—The cut at the bottom end of a rafter to allow it to fit upon the plate.
Seat of a rafter—The horizontal cut upon the bottom end of a rafter which rests upon the top of the
plate.
Section—A drawing showing the kind, arrangement, and proportions of the various parts of a structure.
It is assumed that the structure is cut by a plane, and the section is the view gained by looking in
one direction.
Shakes—Imperfections in timber caused during the growth of the timber by high winds or imperfect
conditions of growth.
Sheathing—Wall boards, roofing boards ; generally applied to narrow boards laid with a space between
them, according to the length of a shingle exposed to weather.
Sheathing paper—The paper used under siding or shingles to insulate in the house ; building papers.
Siding—The outside finish between the casings.
Sills—The horizontal timbers of a house which either rest upon the masonry foundations or, in the ab
sence of such, form the foundations.
Sizing—Working material to the desired size ; a coating of glue, shellac, or other substance applied to a
surface to prepare it for painting or other method of finish.
Sleeper—A timber laid on the ground to support a floor joist.
Span—The distance between the bearings of a timber or arch.
Specifications—The written or printed directions regarding the details of a building or other construc
tion.
Splice—Joining of two similar members in a straight line.
Square—A tool used by mechanics to obtain accuracy ; a term applied to a surface including 100 square
feet.
Stairs, box—Those built between walls, and usually with no support except the wall.
Standing finish—Term applied to the finish of the openings and the base, and all other finish work neces
sary for the inside.
Stringer—A long horizontal timber in a structure supporting a floor.

Glossary 5
TM 5-55 IB

Stucco—A fine plaster used for interior decoration and fine work ; also for rough outside wall coverings.
Stud—An uvright beam in the framework of a building.
Studding—The framework of a partition or the wall of a house; usually referred to as 2 by 4's.
Subfloor—A wood floor which is laid over the floor joists and on which the finished floor is laid.
Threshold— The beveled piece over which the door swings; sometimes called a carpet strip.
Tie beam {collar beam) —A beam so situated that it ties the principal rafters of a roof together and
prevents them from thrusting the plate out of line.
Timber—Lumber with cross-section over 4 by 6 inches, such as posts, sills, and girders.
Tin shingle—A small piece of tin used in flashing and repairing a shingle roof.
Top plate—Piece of lumber supporting ends of rafters.
To the weather—A term applied to the projecting of shingles or siding beyond the course above.
Tread—The horizontal part of a step.
Trim—A term sometimes applied to outside or interior finished woodwork and the finish around open
ings.
Trimmer—The beam or floor joist into which a header is framed.
Trimming—Putting the inside and outside finish and hardware upon a building.
Truss—Structural framework of triangular units for supporting loads over long spans.
Valleys—The internal angle formed by the two slopes of a roof.
Verge boards—The boards which serve as the eaves finish on the gable end of a building.
Vestibule—An entrance to a house ; usually inclosed.
Wainscoting—Matched boarding or panel work covering the lower portion of a wall.
Wale—A horizontal beam.
Wash—The slant upon a sill, capping, etc., to allow the water to run off easily.
Water table—The finish at the bottom of a house which carries water away from the foundation.
Wharf—A structure that provides berthing space for vessels, to facilitate loading and discharge of cargo.
Wind ("i" pronounced as in "kind") —A term used to describe the surface of a board when twisted
(winding) or when resting upon two diagonally opposite corners, if laid upon a perfectly flat sur
face.
Wooden brick—Piece of seasoned wood, made the size of a brick, and laid where it is necessary to pro
vide a nailing space in masonry walls.

Glossary 6
TM 5-551 B

INDEX

Paragraph Pwre
Abbreviations (app B) --- B-1
Abutment: 10_3o 10_2
Footing type " " 10-36 10-2
Pile type g-17
Aggregate 2_2a 2-1
Architectural symbols (app B) 8-86 8-13
Asbestos roof "~8-8&>c'e, 8-13, 8-15, 8-17,
Asphalt 8-9, 8-1 1a 8-21

„ . triangle
Basic , .- 8-2c(1) 8-2
5 ^
Batter boards . . -- _ „ c 9
Bench. mark, . - 5-3a o-*
Bent= 10-4a 10-2

Pile-bent; pier
V 10-4c
1 d 1Q_2 10-2
10_g
n trestle .. ;;;;;;? 7_20
Beveled siding 4-14-4 4-1, 4-3
Bills of materials ~ ' .„. o_9
_. ,, mouth
Bird's -8-2c(2)
Board feet computation . - --- 11_17a 11-10
Bollard
Bolt:
Capscrew. (See machine bolt.) „ ^„ Q
^arn3ge
_ . 3-11d
3-11a 3-11
5-0
^nS10n " .....8-116 3-11
Sachlne .. .....8-11c 3-11
St0V3 8-4c(1) 8-9
Bottom chord - -8-4CUJ
BraC!,ng: f 7-13a 7-18
Common types ?_1g
S;1" ;..io-6« 10-3

Longitudinal V. - 10-5a t 1ft , Jf"*

Transverse -- -- ^ ^ J"
Walls - 7-13

^Abutments .. - - . 10-3, 10-66, c 10-2,10-4

„ • 10-5 10-3
^a"ng 7-6 7-10
Bridging
Construction 10~6 ^
Diaphragm. — ^
Intermediate supports lu_*
Multiple-span - 10-1o 10-1
Nonstandard ...- - --- 10-10 10~l
Parts 10-2 10~2
Single-span - - - - 1Q-1a 10-1
Tread . - - ^-10b 10~n
Trestle-bent -—- 10-60, 10~7, 10~8 10~3< 10-*, 10-9
Bridging:
Construction - 7~€b 7-10
Diagonal —- — -7-10p(1) 7-16
Horizontal - -—- 7-10ff(2) 7-16
Types 7-« 7-10

Index 1
TM 5-551 B

Paragraph Page
Building:
Batter board construction 5-8c 5-5
5-8 5-4
5-106 5-6
Foundation 5-1, 5-11 5-1, 6-7
5-1, 5-6, 5-7, 5-1, 5-4, 5-5
5-9, 6-10
7-3i 7-5
Materials 5-2 5-1
7-14d(4) 7-20
5-10 5-5
5-4 5-3
Tools 5-2 5-1
Wood 7-14d(4) 7-20
8-8/, 8-116 8-16, 8-21
3-17 3-14
11-16 11-10
9-18 9-17
11-4 11-1
11-4 11-1
Ceiling 8-1, 7-17, 7-18 8-1, 7-23, 7-25
Cel-O-glass 9-146 9-13
Cemen—abestos ro< 8-14 8-23
Centerline :
Measurement 11-10 11-7
Symbol 2-46 2-3
11-13/, 11-17d 11-9, 11-10
Chord 8-4c, 8-5 8-9, 8-10
Cleats 11-17e 11-10
Coal-tar pitch 8-11a, c 8-21
Collar beam 8-66 8-12
Collar tie 8-5a 8-10
3-7 3-4
Concrete forms :
Beams 6-10 6-6
Cardboard 6-36 6-1
Column 6-9 6-6
Design 6-2 6-1
Footing .6-8 6-3
Foundation 6-8 6-3
Girder -6-10 6-6
Material -6-3 6-1
Oiling -6-4 6-1
Pier -6-86 6-*
Removal -6-5 6-1
6-13 e-7
Sheathing 6-6a 6-2
Shoe plate -6-6e 6-2
Spreaders - 6-6/, 6-7d 6-2, 6-3
Stairs -6-12 6-7
Studs 6-12 6-7
-6-67, 6-7c 6-2
Use 6-1 6-1
Wales 6-6c 6-2
- 6-6, 6-7, 6-8c 6-2, 6-5
Wetting 6-46 6-1
Wood 6-3a. 6-1
Construction 3-8 8-6
Conversion t -App C C-1
Corbel 10-4c 10-2
11-146 11-9

Index 2
TM 5-551 B

Paragraph Pa»«
CordJ, „ 8-4c(1) 8-9
Bott<?m 8-4c(3) 8-9
Member g_4c(2) 8-9
Top 3-13 3-12
Corrugated fasteners 7-14d(3) 7-20
Corrugated metal sheet B-11o(1) 5-7
Coursed rubble l\-4 11-1
Crane 7-216(3) 7-32
Crawl-space 1Q_4e 10-3
Crib pier 10-26(3), 10-8, 10-2,10-9,
Curb 10-11 10-11

Cut of roof 8-2c(3) 8-3

Dado 3-19a
10-8, 10-10, 3-16
10-9, 10-11,
Deck 11-11, 11-146(1) 11-8, H-10

„ .
Design -- " " 6-2 6-1
Details : 2_7 2-9
Door 2-7 2-9
Eave 2_7 2-9
Framing 2-8fl 2-14
Girder 2_? 2-9
window u-u, n-w, n-», n-w,
Dolphins ... 1176 n_4

Door: 9-1o 9-1

°utt ....9-30,9-6 9-4,9-5

Casing 9-1
Classification 9-16 9-1
Construction ^ 9_3
^Xter,°r —■ 9-1o 9-1
t?re . . 9-3a, c, d, e, 7-19 9-3, 7-25
Frame - - ' g_g
Framing paper ^ 9-1, 9-8
Hasty constructs .. ^ 9-4
Hinges - 9_g 9-«
Installation, mill-built 9-26, 9-4, 7-19a(3) 9-1,9-4,7-25
ITnte"0r 7-196, 9-3d, e, f, g, 7-25, 9-3,
Jamb 9-5,9-86 9-4,9-6

Job-built - I]
9-1 9_3
9-1
Layout calculations n ,
t j 9-1a 9-1
Lock installations --- "„ „„ 01 or

cni 9-3 9-3

single ::::::::::::::: 9-36,7-19 9-3,7^
Stop - 9-7
Strike plate --- - t^h 9 1

T-strap hinges 9-16 9-1

Types - - - - - 9-1a 9-1
Dovetail - - 3-196 3-15
Driftpins (driftbolt) - - .3-12, 11-7a 3-12, 11-4
Drop siding - 7-1**(2) 7-20
Dry wall: _ „,
Cutting - - - 7-156(3) 7-21
Fiber 7-15a,6 7 2u

Index 3
TM 5-55 IB

Paragraph Pane
Gypsum 7-156
7 156 7-20
7_20
ST*h
Plasterboarda" 7-15o(b 7-20
7_20
Plywood 7_20
Wood --- --
Eave 8-8c, 8-136(1), (2),
8-13c(1) 8-13,8-22,
8-22, 8-23

Elevation: 2_4a 2_3

Building 2-3
Door 2-4 2-3
Views 2-46 2-3
„ W;ndow — " io_3a(3), 10-14 10-2, 10-11
End dam ^
Essex board measure table oico
„
Excavation
.. . 3-36,
- ' 6-8a 3-1, ,6-3
.«
Exterior walls 7-14 /-is
Fastener, corrugated J~J6
Felt
Fender : ,- .„

srss -"•Si
Flashing 8_Se

^Concrete ™»
Finish -----7-86 7-12
Joist -- 7-4,7-5 7-8 7-9
Miscellaneous types 7-86(4)
Openings 7-7
Plan 2-5 2-6
Recreation building 2-56
Stairway 2-5c 2-6
Subfloor 7-8a 7-12
Supports 7-86(5) 7-13
Wood 7-86(2) 7-12
Flooring 10-26(2), 10-10 10-2,10-11
S -6-8,10-3a,6 6-3,10-2
Forms, concrete -- - ^
Foundation: _ _ . _
Column 5-116,6-9 5-7,6-5
Concrete - — 6-8
Coursed rubble 5-11o(1) 5-7
pier - 5-116,6-86 5-7,6-5
Random rubble 5-11o(3) 5-7
Rubble masonry B-no(1) 5-1
Wall 5-11a, 6-6, 6-7, 6-8c 5-7,6-2,6-5
Frame: q fifl. 3-3
Construction - —- " 7_j
Expedient --- - - - ^~^c
£ramin* 7Zld 7^
Heavy - ' *a „ ,
T- ut 7-1a, 6 7-1
5SU- -i?<?> U
Wood substitute l-i«W
Frame construction methods:
Built in place method S-10' ^~2' 3-3
Cutting party --»-« *~J
Marking pattern - 3-46 *~,
Panel method 3-16,3-2,3-4 3-1
Template ... -

Index 4
TM 5-55 IB

Paragraph Pwre
Framing : 2_7 2-9
Details 2_g6 2-14
Floor -.. - 2-9 2-14
Heavy wood 2_g 2-9
Light 3-1 3-1
Methods 83c 8_7
Square 7 23 7_33
Stairway -- 2 gc 2-14
Wall 2-8, 2-9 2-9, 2-14
Wood g 3 3-1
Working parties 7-176(2) 7-24
Furring strips . . •
Gable roof 3-6a, 6-10,
8-2«(1), (2)7-3, 3-3,6-6,7-3,
8-2
Girder m, n, 7-56, 10-8 7-5,7-7,

7-9, 10-9
Girt 7-146(2),
3-4c, 3-6a,7-17a
7-10e 3-2,7-19,7-23
3-3, 7-15
Gypsum - -
Half-lap splice
.. joint
... 10-26(4), 10-8,
3-186 10-2, 10-9,
3-15
Handrail 10-10a(4), 10-12 10-11

Hardware: 11-19 11-13

Anchorage " u_1g n 19 n_u> n_i3
Wharf 91g 9_17
Hood 7_14d 7-20
Horizontal wood siding
I-beam 715
7-5d 7_20
7-9
Interior wall - - - -- 7 5c 7_9
Iron stirrup
Jamb, , door
, 7-196 7-25
Joint: 3_17 3_14
Butt 3_18b 3_15
Cross lap 8 6 S-4c(6) 3-14, 8-9
Definition 31g 3_15
Lap 3-17c 3-15
Miter butt 3-176 3-14
Oblique butt 316 3_14
Types ... - 3-186 3-15
Half-lap splice ■ ' " g_19 3_15
Uses
Joist : g_j 8-1
Ceiling 36a 3_3
Frame 7-3e 7-5
Hanfr ^ ""~;:;7-86(5) 7-13
Reinforced - - -
_ _j
*erf L 3-186
3-6o, 8-4e 3-15
3-3,8-9
Knee braces -- - - a_a/m 8-16
Kraft paper *"VU'
TLaminated
. . . deck
. . .. 10-100 10-11
3-15
Lap joint ;;;;;8-2a(2) 8-2
Lean-to roof - " 7_Sd 7-*
Ledger board - 7_5e 7-9
^dgT " ------- 8-2c(5) 8-*
Line length -
Logger's tool - - ...
Lumber: 3? 3_4
Computation — "~ ^ g_2
°e"fipti0n 3-5,3-6a,6 3-2,3-3
Grade 3-5a, 3-€a,6 3-2,3-3
Size -

Index 5
TM 5-55 IB

Paragraph Pane
Types .. ... ... 3-6 3-3
Yard . 3-6a 3-3
Manpower estimates (app D) .. . . . .. .. . D-1
Asbestos-cement roofing (table D-11) D—3
Built-up roofing (table D-8) .. D-3
Capping pile (table D-12) .. ... D-3
Deck hardware (table D-14) .. . D-3
Flashing (table D-8) . .. e. D-3
Finish carpentry (table D-5) D-2
Fooring (table D-3) D-2
Insulation (table D-4, D-8) D-2, D-3
Metal roofing (table D-11) e .. .. ... .- D-3
Pier framing (table D-13) . . D-3
Pile bracing (table D-12) .. . . . D-3
Roll roofing (table D-9) . D-3
Rough framing (table D-1) .. ... D-1
Sheathing and siding (table D-2) D-2
Shingle roofing (table D-10) D-3
Tile roofing (table D-11) .. -. D-3
Wood door installation (table D-6) D-2
Wood window installation (table D-7) .. D-3
Material :
Bill . -. 4-1, 4-4 4-1, 4-3
Conventions (app B) .. .. 2-26 2-1
Estimate list .. . 4-3 4-2
Takeoff list 4-2 4-1
Metal sheets . 7-14d(3) 7-20
Metric system (app C) C-1
Mission tile 8-136(1), c 8-22, 8-23
Molding:
Base ..... . . - . . 7-16a 7-22
Ceiling . 7-18 7-25
Installation .. -- 7-166 7-22
Interior trim 7-16 7-22
Mooring:
Bollard 11-17o 11-10
Chock ... . 11-17d 11-10
Cleats - 11-17c 11-10
Hardware . - . 11-17, 11-196, c 11-10, 11-13,
11-14
Pad eye -. - ... 11-1 7e 11-10
Post -. 11-176 11-10
Mortise 3-196 3-15
Mullion 7-20c(3) 7-29
Nails: 4_3d 4-3
Estimate formula 3-9o 3-6
Use 3_96 3-6
TvPes 3-9e »-«
Sizes -
Outside doors - 8-2e(6)
9-3 8-3
9S
Overhang - " "
Pad eye 716<.
11-17e 7_22
11-10
Panel, wood 7_14d(4) 7-20
Paper, building " 7_ioc, 7-11, 7-16 7-14,7-16,7-20
Partition n-4 u_1
Pea7, ...... '..7-206 (2) 7-28
Pendulum ^ ^ u_176 g_5| 10_2> n_10

Pike pole

Index 6
Wl 81SS-S

:and 11 8 1-11
3UUB38 -- " P'3V»|r-01 S-01'2-01
\U9H - 8-11'9-11 '2-11 11 9-
3uiD«aa .. - '9-11 i-11 '2-11 t-11
SuipdBQ H-11 11 6-
s-rajsnio - 'S-11 9-11 '2-11 *-11
3umna 91-1T OT-11
suiqpiOQ 8-1T 1~11
rapuaa --- ""; " " --- - )Z(«n-1I 118-
Smn9[ " " " '8-TT 't>H-TT '6-n'1-n
3uuoow -- - 91-1T 10-T1

xb^s ' - ----- "" °9-" 2-11

3uiu3^u3ibr;s 98-01 0T2-

au,^ ),8(cZ-8- WWII( 8'8-81-

uo,id ---- °8^ 9T-8
U!BU d8l W°? — - ---- nQT_o

rooij - ^ l-Z
w : '• • - 9^
uopBaaaaH Suipimq - !_z

- ■2

8)8(**2-
auiqianu 8}sod - - ' )6(c28- 8-8

PooMiCld Suimww " '"9-8 '»01-i '« i1-7'H-i'8-8

,SOd «™

^iPd sm« - --- 902-7 o-18

L2-2,
"!IJnd
laqqsH 'P8-6 '»6T-8 b '8-6 91-8
:aa„BH °9-8 8-8

JBllo0 WTOq -- 8)0T(2c-8

?9 8-8
21-8
plH .- )0T(^-8 8-8

?noXrj
™- °8-8-
8-« t-8
{--8
iuaui3an88aj( - 9-8 12-8
^uauiaoBU w~8 28-
Jooa °8-8 1-8
3lB3S * ------- - «8-« 85-
uo-pais poinaiu - "8-8 i-8
3iq«X pomaiu 1*s8- 01~8
^B^iuaj, 'P8~2 '6-Z S-8 fl-Z '41-2 0T-8
pes^ )0I(«B-« 8-S
^IlBA . ,
0)1c-28 8-8

aui^ddy 8a[3uiqs "6-8 17-8

^Bqpsv ai3uiqs - 91T-8 1Z-8
dn-}iJnS 8joor -- - ^!_8 82~8
so;ssqsB-;uatua3 --- -- l~ * 83-8

UOI1BJ8d3ad }0 01-8 H-8 61-8T-2«—

u°H 3uyoor 8 Z\ ZZS
*m% ' - - 9H,n-*;;;;;. i2-8
d 8 81 ZZS

xopu| L
TM 5-55 IB

Paragraph Pas*
Retaining wall„ 10-6c(2) (2)
10-6c(1), 10-4
Revetment 8 2c 8-2
Right triangle ^ 7 24 2_6> ?_34
Riser .- - -
R00f- . ---8-8/(4) 8-17
Areregate g-86, 8-14 8-13,8-23
Asbestos-cement 8-13,8-19,
Asphalt g_n6 g_21
A .
Asphalt .. .
shingle 8-8c, 8-9
8-2c(1) 8-13, 8-17
8-2
Basic triangle - 8_16
f . . -
Builtup material 88-8/,
14 8-116 8-16,8-21
8-23
Cement-asbestos ". g-11a, 8-11c 8-21
Coal tar 8_13
Covering g_17
Deck 8.16

felt g_15

£raVel
Gravel 8-8/(5)
8-2a(3),8-8d, 8-2,8-15,
8-17
Hlp 8-9c(3) 8-18

Kraft paper 8-8/(1)

8-2a(2) 8-16
8-2
if"1:*0
Metal 8-15
g7 8-23
8-12
2?f7ng ;.:8-2c(3) *-*
l1^ 8-26,8-3 8-2,8-4
RaJfter 8-2c(11), 8-9c(3) 8-4,8-18
lldge 8-2c(12), (14) 8-1
llSB 8-2c(15),2-9 8-4,2-14
lm ;;. 8-8/d) 8-i6
Rosin paper 8-2o(2) 8-2
fed, K -— . . .. .8-8/(1) 8-16
Sisal Kraft g_12 g_22

SPan 8-2c 8-2

Ze™* 8-136 8-22
Tlle 2-9, 8-5 2-14, 8-10
?Trufss , -8-2cd6) 8-1
5"? °f rU" 8-2o(4),8-8d, 8-2,8-15,8-18
Valley 8-9c(3)

Wood - 8-16 8-23

„-„
Rosin paper .8-8/(1)
8-2c(15), 2-9 8-16
8-4,2-14
Run
Saddle flashing ..-8-8e(4) 8-16
9-10, 9-11, 9-12o, 9-10,9-12,9-13
Sash 6, 9-13/, 9-14c(2)

9-15
.
Sawhorse (sawbench) 8-3a(2)3-236, 11-76
.3_21o, 8-5
3-16, 3-17,
Scab ■■" " ii_4
_Scabbing
LL! 10-16(5)
g_g0 10-1
8_4
Scale method — -
Screen: 9_16<J 9_16
Attaching g 1? 9_i6
Door 9-166 9-16
Joints - 916 9_15
Window 3_10 3_6
Screws 2 6 2-7
Section, wall

'-"dex 8
TM 5-55 IB

Paragraph Page
Sheathing - - ----- - - 6-6a, 7-13c, 6-2,7-18,7-19
7-14a, 6
Shed roof - --- -8-2a(2) 8-2
Sheetrock 7-15c 7-22
Sheets, corrugated metal . .. ...7-14d(8) 7-20
Sheets, fiberboard - - ---7-176 7-24
Shin*le:, . 8-9c 8-17
^PP?yl"g . \ . 8-8c., 8-13,8-15
^sphaltt 8-14 8-23
Cement-asbestos - -

J-™ ... U,
Standard weight — -8-9o(1) 8-17
Thick butt 8-9a(2)
xile - 8-13 8-22
wood 8 * ^
Shiplap 3-66 3-3
Shoe plates 6-6e 6-2
Sidewalk —10-13 10-11
siding - 3-66, 7-140, d 3-3, 7-20
SiU:B« - 7-2a(1) 7-3

Fabrication -7-2o(4) 7-3

Joining to joists 7
Requirement for piers - --. 7 lb .„ „
Support . ~ 10-30(2) 10-2
T-sill ----- - --7-8.(2) 7-8
Types 7-2 7-3
Sisal Vraft -UTO) «-W
Site plans 2-3 „ „ „ „
Typical --2-3o,6 2-1,2-3
Slab shingle tile -8-136(3) 8-22
slate 8-12 8-22
gole 3-4c, 3-6o, 7-10/(2) 3-2,3-3,7-16
Spanish tile " 8-136(2), c 8-22,8-23
Span length - - 8-2c(13), 8-4c(7) 8-4,8-9
Splice:
Bend resistant —3-28 3-16
Definition .... -3-15,3-20 3-14,3-15
Butt ... S-210 3-16
Compression resistant - .-. 3-21 3-16
Plain 3-22& 3-16
Square 3-22o 3-16
Tension resistant . - - 3-22 3-16
Split ring 3-14° c 3;12
Spreaders --- 6-6/, 6-7d 6-2, 6-3
Stairs ... - -..6-12,7-22 6-7,7-33
Stair tread . 2-5c, 7-22 2-6,7-33
Stairway: " „„
Construction . . 7-22a, 7-23 7-33
Design .. -- - - - 7-24 7-34
Details - -7-22« 7-33
Framing - - 7~23 7-33
Steps — ----- - - -7-22 7-33
Stringers - 7-22a, 6 7-33
Step-off method - - 8-36 8-5
Steps - -7-22 7-33
Stirrup, iron e- --- 7~5c 7-9
Stovepipes - 7_21a 7-30
Straightening walls -7-1 2c ■

Index 9
TM 5-55 IB

Paragraph Pane
Stringer -10-26(1), 10-9 10-2, 10-9,
11-10, 11-18 11-7, 11-11
Stringpiece 11-12 11-8
Studs . . 3_4Cl 6-12, 7-10d 3-2, 6-7, 7-15
Symbols :
2-2 2-1
Centerline 2-4 2-3
Material 2-56 2-6
Plumbing (app B) B-l
Wall 2-5e 2-7
Table method 8-3c 8-7
8 8/(4), 8-11c 8-17, 8-21
3-4c, 11 56 3-2, 11-3
Tenon 3 196 3-15
&-6g, 6-1c 6-2
Tile:
Fiberboard -7 176(1) 7-24
-8 13c 8-23
--7 176(3) 7-24
--8-136(1) 8-22
-8-13,6 8-22
-8-13c(2) 8-23
-8-13c(1) 8-23
Timber :
Carriers 3-8, 11-14 3-5, 11-9
Connectors -3-14 3-12
Grillwork 11 19a 11-13
Truss 8-4 8-7
Tools:
Auger - 5-26 5-1
Ax -5-2/ 5-1
- 5-2i 5-1
Chalkline . - 5-2d 5-1
Engineer's transit 5-2J(1), 5-3 5-2
5-2a, g 5-1
5-2Z(2) 5-2
Hand saw 5 2c 5-1
Hatchet -5 2/ 5-1
Leveling instrument -5 21 5-2
Line level -5-2k 5-1
Maul -5-2a 5-1
Post-hole auger 5-26 5-1
Sledge -5-2o 5-1
Straightedge - - 5-2? 5-1
- 5-2e 5-1
Wharf -11 14 11-9
Toothed rings -3 146 3-14
Top chord --8-4c(2) 8-8
- - 7-10/(1) 7-15
Total rise -8 2c(14) 8-4
Total run 8-2c(15) 8-4
T-post 7-106, c 7-14
Tracing tape 5-2e 5-1
Transit 5-21(1), 5-3, 5-5 5-2, 5-5
Tread 7-24 7-34
Trestle bent:
Bridge 10-46, 10-6a 10-2, 10-3
Construction 10-7 10-4
Triangle 8 2c(1) 8-2
Truss :
Assembly 8-56 8-10
Erection 8-5c 8-12
Fink 8-4d 8-9

Index 10
TM 5-55 IB

Paragraph P»«e
Howe 8-5c 8-12
Placement g-Sd, 8-5 2-14, 8-10
Rafter 2-9, 8-5 2-14, 8-10
Roof 8-4e 8-9
Support g_4c g-9
Terms
T-sills - e... ....7-2a(2)
9-16 7-3
9-1
T-strap hinges
Unit °f ^ ...8-2c(16)
....M.W.W4 8-4
8-2,8-15,8-18
Valley (roof) 8-9c(3)

Valley jack 8-2c(10)

7-216 8-3
7-31
Ventilators „
Wales - 6-6c, 11-13/ 6-2, 11-9
Wall : 7_13 7-18
Bracing " .3-66, 7-14d(4) 3-3,7-20
Building 7_10 7-13
Components - g_7 6-2
Construction 7-15b 7-20
Dry ;; ; g_66( 7_14 3-3, 7-18
Exterior --- --- 7_10 7-13
Footings - - g_g 6-2
Forms 7_g 7_iq 7-13
Frame 7-14d 7-20
Horizontal siding 715 7-20
Interior 716 7-22
Molding 72i 7-30
Openings 711> 7_15 7_16, 7-20
Partitions g_g ' 6-2
Parts of 7_14o 7-18
Sheathing 3_g6 3-3
Siding 7-12, c 7-17
Straightening " g_7ft' 6-2
Tie rod g_7b 6-2
Tie , .. e ..... 3- 66
Types of lumber 7_14c 7_20
Vertical siding 7_14c 7-20
Vertical wooden siding ... lZl5e 7-22

Web member 6-1

Wetting
marf: U-9, 11-10 11-7
Alimng H_9i n_i9c 11-7, 11-14
Bracing n9 n_13
Building n_9 n_13
Capping .-n_3 11-1
Construction 11-11 11-8

^end/rs 11-18,11-19 11-11,11-13

Hardware ^ n_12
Nonstandard 11-146(2) 11-10

Reinforcementr : u-hkd
11-186 n_i°
H-i2
Standard rj2 n_8
Stringpiece n_1
Structures -- 11_9 H-7
Superstructure - ■"■''"".'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.".'.".'.".'.'.".r/.'-'.11Z1VdXa) U-9
Timber pile 1 n_i
Tools

Index 11
TM 5-55 IB

Paragraph Page
Windows :
Box frame 7-206(1), 9-1 2o, 7-28,9-10,9-11
9-12e
Casement 7-20c, 9-10, 9-13, 7-29, 9-10,
9-15a 9-12, 9-13
Casing . 9-12a, 9-14a 9-10, 9-12
Cel-O-glass 9-146 9-13
Construction 9-146 9-13
Double hung 7-206, 9-10, 9-12, 7-27, 9-10,
9-14a, c(1), 9-15a 9-12, 9-13
Drip cap 9-12/ 9-11
Frame 7-20a, 9-10, 9-11, 7-27, 9-10,
9-12/ 9-11
Glass 9-146, 9-15a 9-13
Hasty construction 9-116 9-10
Hinge 7-20c, 9-13 7-29,9-12
Inswinging . 9-13d 9-12
Jamb 9-10, 9-12a, 9-13c 9-10, 9-12
Mullion 9_13c 9-12
Muntin 9-146 9-13
Opening 7_21, 9-11 7-30, 9-10
Outswinging 9-136 9-12
Parting strip 9-12c 9-11
Parts 9_10 9-10
Plaster stop 9-12a 9-10
Pulley stile 9-12a, c 9-10,9-11
Sash 9-10,9-11,9-14 9-10,9-12
Sash blind stop - - - 9_14C(2) 9-13
Sash box 9-12b 9-10
Sash installation 9-12c, 9-156 9-11, 9-14
Sash pulley 9-12a 9-10
Sash rail 9_13/ 9_12
Sash weights 9-14c(2) 9-13
Screen 9-12e, 9-16 9-11,9-15
Screen construction e — 9-16a 9-15
Sill 9-10, 9-11, 9-12e, 9-10, 9-11,
9-12/, 9-13e 9-12
Sliding 7-206, 9-10, 9-12, 7-27, 9-10,
9-14c(13) 9-13
Types 7-20, 9-10, 9-116 7-27, 9-10
Yoke --- 9-12o, c 9-10, 9-11
Wood - -6-3a, 7-14d(4), 6-1,7-20,
7-15c, 8-16 7-22, 8-23
Yoke - 7-206(3), 9-12o, c 7-28,9-10,
9-11

Index 12 •frU.S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1977 O-230-33I