Analytic functions - Definitions

Analytic or Holomorphic or Regular Function

A single valued function f (z) is defined in a region R is said to be
analytic at the point z0 if f (z) is differentiable at every point of some
neighbourhood of z0 .

Entire or Integral Function

A single valued function f (z) is defined in a region R is said to be
entire at the point z0 if f (z) is analytic at every point of some
neighbourhood of z0 . An entire function is analytic everywhere except
at z = ∞.
Example: z 2 , ez , cos(z), sin(z), cosh(z), sinh(z).

Note: A point at which the function w = f (z) fails to be analytic is

called a singular point or singularity of f (z).

Any functions : Continuous → Differentiable → Analytic → Entire

Analytic functions - Definitions

Necessary condition for f (z) to be analytic(Cauchy-Riemann

Equations)
If f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is an analytic function in a region R, then

∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
= and = − , i.e., ux = vy and vx = −uy .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Sufficient condition for f (z) to be analytic

A single valued function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) defined in a region R,
if
1 The first order partial derivatives with respect to x and y exists in
R
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
i.e., , , and exists and
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
2 all these partial derivatives are continuous and
3 ux = vy and vx = −uy at every point in R, then f (z) is an
analytic function in that region R.
Analytic functions - Definitions

Polar Form of C-R Equations

Let (r, θ) denote the polar co-ordinates of the point (x, y). Then

∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u 1 1
= and =− , i.e., ur = vθ and vr = − uθ .
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ r r

Harmonic Functions
A function f (z) is said to be a harmonic function if it satisfy the
Laplace equations

∂2f ∂2f
+ = 0, i.e., ∇2 f = 0.
∂x2 ∂y 2

Note: Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be an analytic function, then

u(x, y) is conjugate harmonic function of v(x, y) and
v(x, y) is conjugate harmonic function of u(x, y).
Analytic functions - Examples

Example: Prove that the function f (z) = z 2 is analytic.

Soln: Let f (z) = u + iv, where z = x + iy
⇒ u + iv=z 2 =(x + iy)2 = x2 + i2 y 2 + i2xy =(x2 − y 2 ) + i2xy.
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
u = x2 − y 2 and v = 2xy
Diff. w. r. t. x and y, we obtain
ux = 2x and vx = 2y,
uy = −2y and vy = 2x.
From above equations,
ux = vy = 2x and uy = −vx = −2y.
Hence, Cauchy-Rieman equations satisfied.
Therefore, f (z) = z 2 is analytic.

Example: Show that the following

(i) f (z) = ez (ii) f (z) = sin(z) are analytic.
Hint:
(i) eiθ = cosθ + i sin θ,
(ii) sin(A + B) = sin(A)cos(B) + cos(A)sin(B),
sin(iθ) = isinh(θ),
cos(iθ) = cosh(θ).
Analytic functions - Examples

Example: Show that the function f (z) = log(z) is analytic everywhere except at the
orgin. Also, find its derivative.
Soln: Let f (z) = u + iv, where z = reiθ
⇒ u + iv=logz=log(reiθ )=log(r) + log(eiθ ) = log(r) + iθ. −→ (1)
At the orgin r = 0,
⇒ f (z) = log(0) + iθ = −∞ + iθ.
So, f (z) is not analytic at orgin. To show other than orgin, equating real and imaginary
parts, we have
u(r, θ) = log(r), v(r, θ) = θ.
Diff. w. r. t. r and θ, we obtain
ur = 1/r and vr = 0,
uθ = 0 and vθ = 1.
From above equations,
ur = (1/r)vθ = 1/r and vr = (−1/r)uθ = 0.
Hence, Cauchy-Rieman equations satisfied.
So, ur , uθ , vr and vθ are continuous everywhere except at orgin. The function f (z) satis-
fies all sufficient condition for existence of derivatives except at orgin.
Therefore, f (z) = z 2 is analytic everywhere except at orgin.
The derivatives is
ur + ivr ur + i(0) 1/r 1 1
f 0 (z) = = = iθ = iθ = .
eiθ eiθ e re z
Analytic functions - Examples

Example: Show that f (z) = |xy|1/2 is not analytic at orgin eventhough C-R equations
are satisfied at the point.
Soln: Let f (z) = u + iv, where z = x + iy
⇒ u + iv = |xy|1/2 . −→ (1)
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
u = |xy|1/2 and v = 0.
Diff. w. r. t. xand y and substitute x = 0, y = 0 (at orgin), we get
∂u u(x, 0) − u(0, 0) (0 − 0)
= lim = lim = 0,
∂x (0,0) x→0 x
x→0 x
∂u u(0, y) − u(0, 0) ∂v v(x, 0) − u(0, 0)
= lim = 0, = lim = 0 and
∂y (0,0) y→0 y ∂x (0,0) x→0 x

∂v v(0, y) − u(0, 0)
= lim = 0.
∂y (0,0) y→0 y
Clearly, C-R equations are satisfied. " That is, ux = vy# and uy = −vx at orgin.
p
|xy| − 0 − 0

f (z) − f (0)
Now, lim = lim
z→0 z x→0,y→0 xy
"p # √
m|x|2 − 0 m
= lim = . [∵ Along y = mx]
y=mx,x→0 x(1 + im) (1 + im)
The limit is not unique, since it depends on the value m. Therefore, f 0 (z) does not exist.
Hence, f (z) is not analytic at orgin.
Harmonic functions - Examples

Example: Prove that u = ex cos(y) is harmonic.

Soln: Given u = ex cos(y). → (1)
We know that ∇2 u = 0, if u is harmonic.
Diff. (1) partially w.r.t, we have
∂u ∂2u
= ex cos(y) ⇒ = ex cos(y) → (2)
∂x ∂x2
∂u ∂2u
= ex (−sin(y)) ⇒ = −ex cos(y) → (3).
∂y ∂y 2
(2) + (3) ⇒
∂2u ∂2u
2
+ = ex (cos(y) − cos(y)) = 0.
∂x ∂y 2
Hence, the given function u is harmonic.

Examples: Show that, the following functions are harmonic

1
1 u(x, y) = log(x2 + y 2 ),
2
2 u(x, y) = ex (xcos(y) − ysin(y)),
3 v(x, y) = 3x2 y − y 3 ,
4 v(x, y) = e−x (2xycos(y) + (y 2 − x2 )sin(y)).
Construction of A.F. (Method-1) - Examples

Example: Show that u = 2x − x3 + 3xy2 is harmonic and find its conjugate harmonic.
Also, find the corresponding analytic function.
Soln. Given u = 2x − x3 + 3xy 2 → (1)
Diff. (1) partially w.r.t. x and y, we have
∂u ∂u
= 2 − 3x2 + 3y 2 and = 6xy
∂x ∂y
2
∂ u 2
∂ u
= −6x → (2) and = 6x → (3)
∂x2 ∂y 2
2
∂ u 2
∂ u
(2) + (3)⇒ + = −6x + 6x = 0.
∂x2 ∂y 2
Therefore, u is harmonic.
Let v be its harmonic conjugate. f (z) is analytic and satisfies C-R equations.
i.e., ux = vy and uy = −vx .
Here, ux = 2 − 3x2 + 3y 2 = vy .
Integrating on both sides w.r.t y, we get
v = 2y − 3x2 y + y 3 + ϕ(x), → (4)
where ϕ(x) is arbitrary.
Diff. (4) partially w.r.t. x, we obtain vx = −6xy + ϕ0 (x)
Now, vx = −uy ⇒ − 6xy = −6xy + ϕ0 (x)
⇒ ϕ0 (x) = 0 ⇒ ϕ(x) = C(constant).
Then, it becomes v = 2y − 3x2 y + y 3 + C.
Hence, f (z) = (2x − x3 + 3xy 2 ) + i(2y − 3x2 y + y 3 + C).
Construction of A.F. (Method-1) - Examples

1
Example: Show that u = log(x2 + y 2 ) is harmonic and its conjugate harmonic.
2
1
Soln. Given u = log(x2 + y 2 ) → (1)
2
Diff. (1) p.w.r.t x and y, we get
∂u 1 x 2 (x2 +y 2 )(1)−x(2x) 2
−x2
= × x2 +y 1
2 × 2x = 2 2
, ∂∂xu2 = (x2 +y 2 )2
= (xy2 +y 2 )2 . → (2).
∂x 2 x +y
y 2 x2 −y 2
Similarly, ∂u
∂y
= , ∂ u
x2 +y 2 ∂y 2
= (x2 +y 2 )2
. → (3)
(2) + (3) ⇒
∂2u 2
∂x2
+ ∂∂yu2 = 0.
Let v be its conjugate harmonic. f (z) is analytic and satisfy C-R equations,
i.e., ux = vy and uy = −vx .
x
Here, ux = x2 +y 2 = vy .
Integrate w.r.t y, we have
y
v = tan−1 x + ϕ(x), → (4)
where ϕ(x) is arbitrary.
Now, ∂v
∂x
= 1+(1y )2 × − xy2 + ϕ0 (x) = − x2 +y y
2 + ϕ0 (x).
x
∂v y y
But, ∂x = − ∂u
∂y
⇒ − x2 +y 2
= − x2 +y 2
+ ϕ 0 (x). ⇒ ϕ0 (x) = 0. So ϕ(x) = C(constant).
y
Therefore, v = tan−1 x + C.
y
Hence, f (z) = 21 log(x2 + y 2 ) + i tan−1 x

+C .
Examples: 1. Show that u = 3x2 y + 2x2 − y 3 − 2y 2 is harmonic and also find its f (z).
2. Show that v = sin x cosh y + 2 cos x sinh y + x2 − y 2 + 4xy is harmonic.
Construction of Analytic Functions

Method-2: Minle Thomson’s method

By this method f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is determined directly with-
out obtaining u(x, y) and v(x, y) when either of u(x, y) and v(x, y) are
given.
1. If real part u(x, y) is given, we can construct f (z) as follows.
1 Find derivative of u(x, y) w.r.t x and y, we get ux (x, y) and uy (x,y).
2 Assume x = z and y = 0, we obtain ux (z, 0) and uy (z, 0).
3 WKT, f 0 (z) = ux (x, y) − iuy (x, y). Then we get,
Z Z Z
f 0 (z)dz = ux (z, 0)dz − i uy (z, 0)dz

and integrate we obtain the analytic function f (z).

2. If imaginary part v(x, y) is given, we can construct f (z) as follows.
1 Find derivative of v(x, y) w.r.t x and y, we get vx (x, y) and vy (x,y).
2 Assume x = z and y = 0, we obtain vx (z, 0) and vy (z, 0).
3 WKT, f 0 (z) = vy (x, y) + ivx (x, y). Then we get,
Z Z Z
f 0 (z)dz = vy (z, 0)dz + i vx (z, 0)dz
Construction of Analytic Functions

Method-2: Cont.

3. If u+v or u-v where u and v are real and imaginary parts of f (z) is
given, then f (z) is constructed as follows.
1 WKT, f (z) = u + iv and if (z) = iu − v.
2 Adding these two, we get (1 + i)f (z) = (u − v) + i(u + v)

i.e., F (z) = U + iV

where, F (z) = (1 + i)f (z), U = (u − v) and V = u + v.

1 If U is given then case (1) is used to construct the F (z).
2 If V is given then case (2) is used to construct the F (z).
3 Hence, we obtain
1
f (z) = F (z).
(1 + i)
Construction of A.F. (Minle Thomson’s Method) -
Examples

Example: Find a function w such that w = u + iv is analytic if u = ex sin y.

Soln. Given u = ex sin y → (1)
Diff. (1) p.w.r.t x and y, we obtain
ux = ex sin y → (2) and uy = ex cos y → (3)
Put x = z, y = 0 in (2) and (3), we get
ux (z, 0) = ez (0) = 0, uy (z, 0) = ez (1) = ez
ByRMilne Thomson’s method, R
f 0 (z)dz = ux (z, 0)dz − i uy (z, 0)dz = 0 − i ez dz = −iez + C.
R R
z
Hence f (z) = −ie + C.

Examples:
1 Prove that u = x3 − 3xy 2 + 3x2 − 3y 2 + 1 satisfies Laplace’s equation and determine
the corresponding analytic function f (z).
2 Prove that u = ex (x cos y − y sin y) satisfies Laplace’s equation and determine the
corresponding analytic function f (z).
3 Prove that u = e−x [(x2 − y 2 ) cos y + 2xy sin y] satisfies Laplace’s equation and
determine
R the corresponding analytic function f (z).
Hint: udv = uv1 − u0 v2 + u00 v3 − · · ·
Construction of A.F. (Minle Thomson’s Method) -
Examples

Example: Find an analytic function w = u + iv given that v = e−x [x cos y + y sin y] and
w(0) = 1.
Soln. Given v = e−x [x cos y + y sin y].
Now,
vx = e−x cos y + (x cos y + y sin y)(−e−x ) and
vy = e−x [−x sin y + sin y + y cos y].
Put x = z, y = 0, we have
vx (z, 0) = e−z cos(0) + (z cos(0) + 0)(−e−z ) = e−z + z(−e−z ) = (1 − z)e−z and
vy (z, 0) = e−z [0 + 0 + 0] = 0.
By
R 0Milne RThomson’s method,
f (z) = vy (z, 0)dz + i vx (z, 0)dz = 0 + i (1 − z)e−z dz
R R
= i[(1 − z)(−e ) − (−1)e ] + C = i[−e + ze−z + e−z ] + C.
−z −z −z

Thus, f (z) = ize−z + C.

Given w(0) = 1. Put z = 0, we get
f (0) = w(0) = 0 + C = 1 ⇒ C = 1.
Hence, w = f (z) = ize−z + 1.

Examples:
1 Find analytic function given that v = ex (x sin y + y cos y).
x
2 Find analytic function given that v = x2 − y 2 + x2 +y 2
.
Construction of A.F. (Minle Thomson’s Method) -
Examples

sin 2x
Example: Find the analytic function for which u + v = . Hence deter-
cosh 2y − cos 2x
mine the analytic function w = u + iv for which u + v is the above function.
Soln. Given u + v = cosh sin 2x
2y−cos 2x
→ (1).
Let f (z) = u + iv ⇒ if (z) = iu − v. We get,
⇒ (1 + i)f (z) = (u + iv) + (iu − v) = (u − v) + i(u + v).
Now. F (z) = U + iV , where F (z) = (1 + i)f (z), U = (u − v), V = (u + v).
So, (1) is the imaginary part of F (z).
Diff. (1) p.w.r.t. x and y, we get
∂V [(cosh 2y−cos 2x)(2 cos 2x)−sin 2x(2 sin 2x)]
∂x
= (cosh 2y−cos 2x)2
[((cosh 2y−cos 2x)(2 cos 2x)−2 sin2 2x)]
= (cosh 2y−cos 2x)2
and
∂V −1 4 sin 2x sinh 2y
∂y
= sin 2x. (cosh 2y−cos 2x)2
× 2(sinh 2y) × 2 = − (cosh 2y−cos 2x)2
.
Put x = z, y = 0, we get
(1−cos 2z)(2 cos 2z)−2 sin2 2z 2 cos 2z−2(cos2 2z+sin2 2z)
Vx (z, 0) = (1−cos 2z)2
= (1−cos 2z)2
2(1−cos 2z) 2 1 2 z and
= − (1−cos 2z)2 = − (1−cos 2z)
= − 2
sin z
= − csc
4 sin 2z sinh(0)
Vy (z, 0) = − (cosh(0)−cos 2z)2 = 0.
Itcan be seen that Vx (z, 0) = − csc2 z and Vy (z, 0) = 0.
By MilneR Thomson’s method,
F (z) = Vy (z, 0)dz + i Vx (z, 0)dz = 0 + i − csc2 zdz = i cot z + C.
R R
That is, (1 + i)f (z) = i cot z + c.
i 1−i (1+i)
Hence, f (z) = 1+i
× 1−i
cot z + C = 2
cot z + C.
Construction of A.F. (Minle Thomson’s Method) -
Examples

Example: Find the analytic function f (z) = u + iv where u − v = ex (cos x − sin y).
Soln. Given u − v = ex (cos x − sin y) → (1)
Let f (z) = u + iv ⇒ if (z) = iu − v. We get,
⇒ (1 + i)f (z) = (u + iv) + (iu − v) = (u − v) + i(u + v).
Now. F (z) = U + iV , where F (z) = (1 + i)f (z), U = (u − v), V = (u + v).
So, (1) is the real part of F (z).
Differentiate (1) p.w.r.t x and y, we have
∂U
∂x
= ex (cos y − sin y) and ∂U
∂y
= ex (− sin y − cos y)
Put x = z, y = 0, we get
Ux (z, 0) = ez (1 − 0) = ez and Uy (z, 0) = ez (0 − 1) = −ez .
It can be seen that Ux (z, 0) = ez and Uy (z, 0) = −ez .
ByRMilne Thomson’s methodR
F 0 (z) = Ux (z, 0)dz − i Uy (z, 0)dz = ez dz + i ez dz = (1 + i)ez + C.
R R R
Thus F (z) = 2ez + C, that is, (1 + i)f (z) = (1 + i)ez + C.
Hence, f (z) = ez + C.

Examples:
1 Find the analytic function f (z) where −2v = ex (cos y − sin y).
Hint: f (z) = u + iv, 2if (z) = 2iu − 2v ⇒ F (z) = 2if (z), U = −2v and V = 2u.
2 Find the analytic function f (z) where 2u + v = ex (cos y − sin y).
Hint: f (z) = u + iv, 2f (z) = 2u = 2iv. Now, if (z) = iu − v
⇒ (2 − i)f (z) = (2u + v) + 2(2v − u).
Analytic Functions in Flow Problems
. Consider the irrotational motion of a frictionless, incompressible fluid mov-
ing in a plane parallel to xy-plane (i.e., planar flow). Suppose that

F (x, y) = f1 i + f2 j

is the 2-D velocity field of a fluid particle. Then

∇ × F = 0 so that F = grad φ

for some scalar potential φ(x, y). Since the flow is incompressible

∇.F = 0 or ∇.∇φ = ∇2 φ = 0.

i.e., φ is harmonic. It follows that there exists a harmonic conjugate ψ(x, y)

such that
f (z) = φ(x, y) + iψ(x, y)
is analytic. The scalar potential φ(x, y) is called a velocity potential and its
harmonic conjugate ψ(x, y) is called the stream function. If f (z) is analytic
then the level curves φ(x, y) = c1 and ψ(x, y) = c2 are orthogonal.
Cont.

In summary, two-dimensional steady flow can be represented by the

complex potential f (z) = w = φ(x, y) + iψ(x, y), where φ(x, y) is
velocity potential and ψ(x, y) is stream function.
The irrotational motion of an incompressible fluid, the curves
φ(x, y) = c1 and ψ(x, y) = c2 corresponding to the stream function
are equipotential lines and stream lines.
In electrostatics and gravitational fields, the curves φ(x, y) = c1
and ψ(x, y) = c2 are equipotential lines and lines of force.
In steady state heat flow problems, the curves φ(x, y) = c1 and
ψ(x, y) = c2 are respectively isothermal and heat-flow lines.
Example: In a 2 − D fluid flow, find if xy(x2 − y2 ) can represent the stream function. If
so, find the corresponding velocity potential and also the complex potential.
Soln. If ψ = xy(x2 − y 2 ) represent the stream function, it should be the imaginary part of
the analytic function and hence harmonic.
Diff. the function w.r.t x and y, we have
ψx = 3x2 y − y 3 ⇒ ψxx = 6xy and ψy = x3 − 3xy 2 ⇒ ψyy = −6xy.
⇒ ψxx + ψyy = 0. Therefore, ψ is harmonic.
Let φ be the corresponding velocity potential, then f (z) = φ(x, y) + iψ(x, y) is analytic.
i.e., φx = ψy and φy = −ψx
If f (z) represent the complex potential using Milne Thomson method
4
f (z)dz = ψy (z, 0)dz + i ψx (z, 0)dz = z 3 dz + i (0)dz = z4 + C.
R 0 R R R R
Then,
(x+iy)4 (x+iy)(x+iy)3
f (z) = 4
+C = 4
+C
(x+iy)(x3 +3x2 (iy)+3x(iy)2 +(iy)3 )
= 4
+C
(x+iy) 3 2 2 3
= (x + i(3x y) − 3xy − iy ) + C
4
= 41 (x4 + i(3x3 y) − 3x2 y 2 − ixy 3 + ix3 y + i(3x2 y 2 ) − i3xy 3 + y 4 )

+C
1
4 2 2 2 2 4 3 3 3 3

= 4 (x − 3x y − 3x y + y ) + i(3x y − xy + x y − 3xy ) + C
= 14 (x4 − 6x2 y 2 + y 4 ) + i(4x3 y − 4xy 3 ) + C

(x4 −6x2 y 2 +y 4 )
f (z) = 4
+ i(x3 y − xy 3 ) + C
(x4 −6x2 y 2 +y 4 )
Therefore, φ = 4
+ C.
Example: Find if φ = (x − y)(x2 + 4xy + y2 ) can represents the equipotential for an
electric field. Find the corresponding complex potential w = φ + iψ and also ψ possible.
Soln. If φ = (x − y)(x2 + 4xy + y 2 ) represents the equipotential for an electric field. It
should be real part of the analytic function and hence harmonic.
Diff. the function w.r.t x and y, we have
φx = (x − y)(2x + 4y) + (x2 + 4xy + y 2 )(1) ⇒ φxx = (x − y)(2) + (2x + 4y)(1) + (2x + 4y) =
2x − 2y + 2x + 4y + 2x + 4y = 6x + 6y
and φy = (x − y)(4x + 2y) + (x2 + 4xy + y 2 )(−1) ⇒ φyy = (x − y)(2) + (4x + 2y)(−1) −
(4x + 2y) = 2x − 2y − 4x − 2y − 4x − 2y = −6x − 6y.
⇒ φxx + φyy = (6x + 6y) − (6x + 6y) = 0. Therefore, φ is harmonic.
Let ψ be the corresponding stream function, then w = φ(x, y) + iψ(x, y) be the complex
potential is analytic.
i.e., φx = ψy and φy = −ψx
If
R f0(z) represent
R the complex
R potential using Milne Thomson method
f (z)dz = R φx (z, 0)dzR− i φy (z, 0)dz R
= 3z 2 dz − i 3z 2 dz = (1 − i) 3z 2 dz = z 3 + C.
Then,
f (z) = (1 − i)(x + iy)3 + C = (1 − i)(x3 + i(3x2 y) − 3xy 2 − iy 3 ) + C
= (x3 + i(3x2 y) − 3xy 2 − iy 3 ) − i(x3 + i(3x2 y) − 3xy 2 − iy 3 ) + C
= (x3 − 3xy 2 + 3xy 2 − y 3 ) + i(−x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 − y 3 ) + C
f (z) = (x3 − 3xy 2 + 3xy 2 − y 3 ) + i(3x2 y + 3xy 2 − (x3 + y 3 )) + C
Therefore, ψ = 3x2 y + 3xy 2 − (x3 + y 3 ) + C.
Examples:
1 Show that ψ = x2 − y 2 − 3x − 2y + 2xy can represents the stream
function of an incompressible fluid flow. Also find the
corresponding velocity potential and complex potential.
x
2 Show that φ = x2 − y 2 + x2 +y 2 can represents the velocity
potential in an incompressible fluid flow. Also find the
corresponding stream function and complex potential.
3 If w = φ + iψ represents the complex potential for an electric field
and φ = 3x2 y − y 3 , find the potential function φ.
4 Prove the equation x3 y − xy 3 + xy + x + y = C can represent the
path of the electric circuit flow in an electric field. Also find the
complex electric potential and the equation of the potential lines.