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AQA A-level

PHYSICS

Keith Gibbs

9781471854798.indb 1 1/16/17 5:37 PM

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A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

9781471854798.indb 2 1/16/17 5:37 PM

Get the most from this book
Everyone has to decide his or her own revision You can also keep track of your revision by ticking
strategy, but it is essential to review your work, off each topic heading in the book. You may find it
learn it and test your understanding. These Revision helpful to add your own notes as you work through
Notes will help you to do that in a planned way, each topic.
topic by topic. Use this book as the cornerstone of
your revision and don’t hesitate to write in it — My revision planner
personalise your notes and check your progress by AQA AS Physics
1 Measurements and their errors
5 Electricity

ticking off each section as you revise.

93 Basics of electricity
7 Use of SI units and their prefixes
96 Common current–voltage characteristics
9 Limitation of physical measurements
96 Resistivity
11 Estimation of physical quantities
100 Circuits
2 Particles and radiation 105 Potential dividers
13 Constituents of the atom 109 Electromotive force and internal resistance
15 Stable and unstable nuclei
16 Particles, antiparticles and photons
114 Now test yourself answers

Tick to track your progress

19 Particle interactions
21 Classification of particles Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at
23 Quarks and antiquarks www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes
24 Applications of conservation laws
25 The photoelectric effect
27 Collisions of electrons with atoms

Use the revision planner on pages 4 and 5 to plan

29 Energy levels and photon emission
30 Wave–particle duality
3 Waves
34 Progressive waves

your revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when 35 Longitudinal and transverse waves
37 Principle of superposition of waves and formation
of stationary waves
40 Interference

Limitation of physical
you have:
Prefixes

1 Measurements and their errors

1 Measurements and their errors

43 Diffraction
These
47 are outlined in Table 1.1.
Refraction at a plane surface
measurements
4 Table
Mechanics
1.1 and materials
Random and systematic errors

l revised and understood a topic

54 Scalars and vectors
Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value
57 Moments
tera T 1012 deci d 10 −1 nano n 10 −9 Random errors
62 Motion along a straight line
giga G 109 centi c 10 −2 pico p 10 −12 These are errors that are due to experimenter. The size of these errors
68
mega Projectile motion
M 106 milli m 10 −3 femto f 10 −15 depends on how well the experimenter can use the apparatus. The better

l tested yourself
72 Newton’s laws of motion experimenter you are the smaller these errors will be. The way to reduce
kilo k 10 3 micro µ 10 −6 these errors, apart from simply being careful, is to repeat the readings and
75 Momentum take an average. Revision activity
Table
78 1.2Work, energy and power
gives conversion rates for different units of the same quantity. mistake
Typical Take one experiment that
The sign ≡ is taken to mean ‘equivalent to’.
80 Conservation of energy
Forgetting
to convert, for Systematic errors you have performed and

l practised the exam questions and gone online

identify the errors involved.
Table
83 1.2
Bulk properties of solids example,
mm to
m or g to kg These are errors that are due to the apparatus. They can result from faulty
Tabulate these errors as
in calculations. apparatus, badly calibrated apparatus or a zero error. The only way to
88 The Young modulus
Unit Symbol Conversions random and systematic.
eliminate systematic errors is to re-calibrate the apparatus or change it!
Joule J 1 J ≡ 6.24 × 1018 eV ≡ 2.78 × 10 −7 kWh ≡ 1.11 × 10 −17 kg
Electron eV 1 eV ≡ 1.6 × 10−19 J ≡ 4.45 × 10−26 kWh ≡ 1.78 × 10−36 kg Precision and accuracy

to check your answers and complete the quick

4 voltpractice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes
Exam
Figure 1.1 shows the difference between precision and accuracy.
AQA AS/A-level Year 1 Physics 5
Kilowatt kWh 1 kWh ≡ 3.6 × 106 J ≡ 2.25 × 1025 eV ≡ 4.01 × 10 −11 kg
hour (a) (b) (c) (d)

Kilogram kg 1 kg ≡ 8.99 × 1016 J ≡ 5.6 × 10 35 eV ≡ 2.5 × 1010 kWh

quizzes Derivation of SI units

These units are built up step by step from the base units. The example
below shows the building of the derived unit for potential difference (V) Figure 1.1 Precision and accuracy: (a) low precision, low accuracy;
(kg m 2 s−3 A−1). (b) high precision, low accuracy; (c) low precision, high accuracy;
(d) high precision, high accuracy
Example
Table 1.3 The closer the grouping the higher the precision.
A more symmetrical grouping about the centre shows a higher degree
Base unit Base unit Derived unit Derived unit Derived unit
of accuracy.
Metre (m) Second Velocity (m s−1)
Ampere (A) Second Charge (C) (A s)
Measurements can also be considered in terms of their repeatability
Second (s) Velocity Acceleration (m s ) −2
(whether they can be repeated), their reproducibility (whether their values
Kilogram (kg) Acceleration Force (N) (kg m s−2) can be reproduced when measured many times) and their resolution (an
example of resolution would be pixels per mm2 in an image).
Metre Force Work (J) (kg m2 s−2)
Work Charge Potential difference (V) (kg m2 s−3 A−1)
Uncertainty
The uncertainty (∆Q) in a quantity Q (Q = a + b) is:
∆Q = ∆a + ∆b
Now test yourself
1 What is the result of multiplying 10 MN by 25 pm? Your answer should include both the numerical where ∆a and ∆b are the uncertainties in the quantities a and b. The
answer and the correct unit. percentage uncertainty (%Q = (∆Q/Q) × 100) is:
2 Using a table like the one above, show the building of the derived unit Pascal (Pa). %Q = %a + %b

Answers on p. 216

Features to help you succeed

8 Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes AQA A-level Physics 9

Exam tips Revision activities

Expert tips are given throughout the book to These activities will help you to understand each
help you polish your exam technique in order to topic in an interactive way.
maximise your chances in the exam.
Exam practice
Typical mistakes Practice exam questions are provided for each topic.
The author identifies the typical mistakes candidates Use them to consolidate your revision and practise
make and explains how you can avoid them. your exam skills.

Now test yourself Summaries

These short, knowledge-based questions provide the The summaries provide a quick-check bullet list for
first step in testing your learning. Answers are at the each topic.
back of the book.
Online
Definitions and key words Go online to check your answers to the exam
Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are questions and try out the extra quick quizzes at
provided where they first appear. www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes
Key words from the specification are highlighted in
bold throughout the book.

AQA A-level Physics 3

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My revision planner

1 Measurements and their errors

7 Use of SI units and their prefixes
9 Limitation of physical measurements
11 Estimation of physical quantities
2 Particles and radiation
13 Constituents of the atom
15 Stable and unstable nuclei
16 Particles, antiparticles and photons
19 Particle interactions
21 Classification of particles
23 Quarks and antiquarks
24 Applications of conservation laws
25 The photoelectric effect
27 Collisions of electrons with atoms
29 Energy levels and photon emission
30 Wave–particle duality
3 Waves
34 Progressive waves
35 Longitudinal and transverse waves
37 Principle of superposition of waves and formation
of stationary waves
40 Interference
43 Diffraction
47 Refraction at a plane surface
4 Mechanics and materials
54 Scalars and vectors
57 Moments
62 Motion along a straight line
68 Projectile motion
72 Newton’s laws of motion
75 Momentum
78 Work, energy and power
80 Conservation of energy
83 Bulk properties of solids
88 The Young modulus

4 Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

9781471854798.indb 4 1/16/17 5:37 PM

5 Electricity
93 Basics of electricity
95 Current–voltage characteristics
96 Common current–voltage characteristics
96 Resistivity
100 Circuits
105 Potential dividers
109 Electromotive force and internal resistance
6 Further mechanics and thermal physics
114 Periodic motion
125 Thermal physics
7 Fields and their consequences
138 Fields
138 Gravitational fields
144 Electric fields
147 Capacitance
155 Magnetic fields
8 Nuclear physics
172 Radioactivity
9 Astrophysics
192 Telescopes
198 Classification of stars
207 Cosmology

216 Now test yourself answers

224 Units, useful formulae and mathematics

227 Index

Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at

www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

AQA A-level Physics 5

9781471854798.indb 5 1/16/17 5:37 PM

Countdown to my exams
6–8 weeks to go One week to go
l Start by looking at the specification — make l Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of
sure you know exactly what material you need an entire past paper and seek feedback from
to revise and the style of the examination. your teacher, comparing your work closely with
Use the revision planner on pages 4 and 5 to the mark scheme.
familiarise yourself with the topics. l Check the revision planner to make sure you
l Organise your notes, making sure you have haven’t missed out any topics. Brush up on any
covered everything on the specification. The areas of difficulty by talking them over with a
revision planner will help you to group your friend or getting help from your teacher.
notes into topics. l Attend any revision classes put on by your
l Work out a realistic revision plan that will teacher. Remember, he or she is an expert at
allow you time for relaxation. Set aside days preparing people for examinations.
and times for all the subjects that you need to
study, and stick to your timetable.
l Set yourself sensible targets. Break your
revision down into focused sessions of around The day before the examination
40 minutes, divided by breaks. These Revision l Flick through these Revision Notes for useful
Notes organise the basic facts into short, reminders, for example the exam tips, topic
memorable sections to make revising easier. summaries, typical mistakes and key terms.
l Check the time and place of your examination.
l Make sure you have everything you need —
2–6 weeks to go extra pens and pencils, tissues, a watch,
bottled water, sweets.
l Read through the relevant sections of this book l Allow some time to relax and have an early
and refer to the exam tips, exam summaries, night to ensure you are fresh and alert for the
typical mistakes and key terms. Tick off examinations.
the topics as you feel confident about them.
Highlight those topics you find difficult and
look at them again in detail.
l Test your understanding of each topic by My exams
working through the ‘Now test yourself’
questions in the book. Look up the answers at Physics Paper 1
the back of the book. Date:..........................................................................
l Make a note of any problem areas as you
Time:.........................................................................
revise, and ask your teacher to go over these in
class. Location:...................................................................
l Look at past papers. They are one of the best
ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Physics Paper 2
Write or prepare planned answers to the exam Date:..........................................................................
practice questions provided in this book. Check Time:.........................................................................
your answers online and try out the extra
quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/ Location:...................................................................
myrevisionnotes
l Use the revision activities to try out different Physics Paper 3
revision methods. For example, you can make Date:..........................................................................
notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or Time:.........................................................................
flash cards.
l Track your progress using the revision planner Location:...................................................................
and give yourself a reward when you have
achieved your target.

6 Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

9781471854798.indb 6 1/16/17 5:37 PM

1 Measurements and
their errors

Use of SI units and their prefixes

Fundamental (base) units
Mass — measured in kilograms
The kilogram (kg) is the mass equal to that of the international prototype
kilogram kept at Sevres, France.

Length — measured in metres

The metre (m) is the distance travelled by electromagnetic waves in free
space in 1/299 792 458 s.

Time — measured in seconds

The second (s) is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of caesium-137 atom.

Further SI units
Electric current — measured in amperes
The ampere (A) is that constant current that, if maintained in two parallel
straight conductors of infinite length and of negligible circular cross
section placed 1 metre apart in a vacuum, would produce a force between
them of 2 × 10−7 N.

Temperature — measured in kelvin

The kelvin (K) is 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the
triple point of water.
Exam tip
Amount of substance — measured in moles
Remember to use the
The mole (mol) is the amount of substance in a system that contains as appropriate SI units.
many elementary particles as there are in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.

AQA A-level Physics 7

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Prefixes
1 Measurements and their errors

These are outlined in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1

Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value

tera T 10 12
deci d 10 −1
nano n 10 −9
giga G 109 centi c 10 −2 pico p 10 −12
mega M 106 milli m 10 −3 femto f 10 −15
kilo k 10 3 micro μ 10 −6

Table 1.2 gives conversion rates for different units of the same quantity.
Typical mistake
The sign ≡ is taken to mean ‘equivalent to’.
Forgetting to convert, for
Table 1.2 example, mm to m or g to kg
in calculations.
Unit Symbol Conversions
Joule J 1 J ≡ 6.24 × 1018 eV ≡ 2.78 × 10 −7 kWh ≡ 1.11 × 10 −17 kg
Electron eV 1 eV ≡ 1.6 × 10−19 J ≡ 4.45 × 10−26 kWh ≡ 1.78 × 10−36 kg
volt
Kilowatt kWh 1 kWh ≡ 3.6 × 106 J ≡ 2.25 × 1025 eV ≡ 4.01 × 10 −11 kg
hour
Kilogram kg 1 kg ≡ 8.99 × 1016 J ≡ 5.6 × 10 35 eV ≡ 2.5 × 1010 kWh

Derivation of SI units
These units are built up step by step from the base units. The example
below shows the building of the derived unit for potential difference (V)
(kg m 2 s−3 A−1).

Example
Table 1.3

Base unit Base unit Derived unit Derived unit Derived unit
Metre (m) Second Velocity (m s−1)
Ampere (A) Second Charge (C) (A s)
Second (s) Velocity Acceleration (m s−2)
Kilogram (kg) Acceleration Force (N) (kg m s−2)
Metre Force Work (J) (kg m2 s−2)
Work Charge Potential difference (V) (kg m2 s−3 A−1)

Now test yourself

1 What is the result of multiplying 10 MN by 25 pm? Your answer should include both the numerical
answer and the correct unit.
2 Using a table like the one above, show the building of the derived unit Pascal (Pa).

Answers on p. 216

8 Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

9781471854798.indb 8 1/16/17 5:37 PM

Limitation of physical

1 Measurements and their errors

measurements
Random and systematic errors
Random errors
These are errors that are due to experimenter. The size of these errors
depends on how well the experimenter can use the apparatus. The better
experimenter you are the smaller these errors will be. The way to reduce
these errors, apart from simply being careful, is to repeat the readings and
take an average. Revision activity
Take one experiment that
Systematic errors you have performed and
identify the errors involved.
These are errors that are due to the apparatus. They can result from faulty
Tabulate these errors as
apparatus, badly calibrated apparatus or a zero error. The only way to random and systematic.
eliminate systematic errors is to re-calibrate the apparatus or change it!

Precision and accuracy

Figure 1.1 shows the difference between precision and accuracy.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.1 Precision and accuracy: (a) low precision, low accuracy;
(b) high precision, low accuracy; (c) low precision, high accuracy;
(d) high precision, high accuracy

The closer the grouping the higher the precision.

A more symmetrical grouping about the centre shows a higher degree
of accuracy.

Measurements can also be considered in terms of their repeatability

(whether they can be repeated), their reproducibility (whether their values
can be reproduced when measured many times) and their resolution (an
example of resolution would be pixels per mm2 in an image).

Uncertainty
The uncertainty (ΔQ) in a quantity Q (Q = a + b) is:
ΔQ = Δa + Δb

where Δa and Δb are the uncertainties in the quantities a and b. The

percentage uncertainty (%Q = (ΔQ/Q) × 100) is:
%Q = %a + %b

AQA A-level Physics 9

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If Q = anb (where n can be any number including 1):
1 Measurements and their errors

ΔQ = bΔa + anΔb

and
%Q = %a + n%b

Example
Find the maximum possible percentage uncertainty in the
measurement of the acceleration of an object that moves at 20 ± 1 m s−1
in a circle of radius 5 ± 0.2 m. (a = v2 /r)

Answer

1 0.2
%a = (2 × %v) + %r = 2 ×  + × 100 = 14%
20 5
But:
202
a= = 80 m s−2
5
Therefore the answer for a should be quoted as:
acceleration (a) = 80 m s−2 ± 14%

Uncertainty in graphs
The uncertainty in any point on a graph is shown by the error bars.
Figure 1.2 shows a series or readings of voltage and current for a metal
wire. The line of gradient m is the best-fit line to the points where the
two extremes, m1 and m2 show the maximum and minimum possible
gradients that still lie through the error bars of all the points. The
percentage uncertainty in the gradient is given by:
m1 − m2 Δm
=     × 100%
m m

45
Voltage, V/V

m1 m

m2

40

35

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Current, l/mA

Figure 1.2 Uncertainties in graphs

10 Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

9781471854798.indb 10 1/16/17 5:37 PM

Example Typical mistake

1 Measurements and their errors

In the example above: Joining up the points on a
graph rather than drawing a
(43.2 − 30.8)
m1 = = 1240 Ω best-fit line.
0.01
and
(41.7 − 32.7)
m2 = = 900 Ω
0.01
(42.4 − 31.8)
gradient of the best-fit line (m) = = 1060
0.01
In the example the uncertainty in the gradient (resistance) is:
(1240 − 900)
= ± 32%
1060
Alternatively the value of the gradient (resistance) can be written as
1060 ± 340 Ω.

Estimation of physical quantities

Orders of magnitude
Physicists use the phrase ‘the right order of magnitude’ to refer to a
number in the right sort of range. For example, finding the time of swing
of a 1-metre pendulum as 1.2 s and not 12 s, the specific heat capacity of
water as 4500 J kg−1 K−1 and not 45 000 J kg−1 K−1, or working out that the
refractive index of an air–glass interface is 1.4 and not 0.4.

Estimation of approximate values of

physical quantities
It is always a good idea to be able to estimate the size of a quantity, so that Typical mistake
when you work out a problem or finish an experiment you have a rough
idea of what sort of value to expect. Quoting answers to more
significant figures than
suggested by the other data
Exam practice in the question or available
in your measurements.
1 Using a table similar to Table 1.3 (p. 8) show that the derived unit for
resistance (the ohm) can be expressed in SI base units as kg m2 A−2 s−3. [3]
2 The derived SI unit for work is:
A watt C newton second
B joule per second D joule. [1]
3 The resistance of a 60 cm length of wire is 0.5 Ω and its diameter
0.3 mm. If the uncertainty in the measurement of its length
is 5%, that of the diameter 2% and that of the resistance 8%,
calculate the resistivity of the wire and give the percentage
accuracy of your answer. [3]
4 The density of a spherical ball of iron is measured by finding its
mass and then measuring its diameter. The mass can be measured
to ± 10 g and the diameter to ± 2 mm. If the mass of the ball is found
to be 1.54 kg and the diameter 7.2 cm, which of the following is
closest to the correct accuracy for its density?
A ± 270 kg m−3 C ± 270 g m−3
B ± 700 kg m−3 D ± 700 g m−3 [1]

AQA A-level Physics 11

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1 Measurements and their errors

5 Figure 1.3 shows a series of readings of applied force and length for
a metal wire.
Force/N

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

10 20 30 40 50
Length/cm
Figure 1.3 Extension of a metal wire
Use the graph to find:
(a) the value of length when the applied force is zero [3]
(b) the percentage uncertainty in the value of the length of the wire
when the applied force is 30 N [2]
(c) the mean value for the gradient of the line [2]
(d) the uncertainty in the value that you calculated. [2]

Answers and quick quiz 1 online

Summary
You should now have an understanding of:
l fundamental (base) units — kilogram, metre, second
l how to derive further SI units, such as potential difference,
resistance, momentum and pressure
l prefixes — tera, giga, mega, kilo, centi, milli, micro, nano, pico
and femto
l how to convert between units
l random and systematic errors — random errors are due to the
experimenter and systematic errors are due to the apparatus
l repeatability, reproducibility, resolution and accuracy — precision
is shown by a close grouping of results and accuracy by a
symmetrical grouping
l uncertainty in measurements — the uncertainty of a compound
quantity can be found by adding the uncertainties of its parts,
whether fractional or percentage
l uncertainty in graphs — add error bars to points on a graph and
then draw the best-fit line through the spread of points
l orders of magnitude — the size of a quantity within a factor of ten
l the importance of estimation — the ability to predict the
approximate order of magnitude of a quantity

12 Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

9781471854798.indb 12 1/16/17 5:38 PM

2 Particles and radiation

Constituents of the atom

Protons, neutrons and electrons
It was the experiments on the scattering of alpha particles by gold Electron
nuclei in the early part of the twentieth century that laid the
foundation of our modern ideas of the structure of the atom. + + Proton
A simplified diagram of an atom is shown in Figure 2.1. + + +
Neutron +

Charge and mass of protons, neutrons

and electrons Figure 2.1 Structure of the atom
Atoms have a diameter of the order of 10  m, and consist of two parts:
−8

● A central heavy nucleus, with diameter of the order of 10−15 m that contains:
protons — particles with a unit positive charge of +1.6 × 10−19 C
and a mass (mP) of 1.67 × 10−27 kg
neutrons — neutral particles with a mass slightly greater than that of
a proton; the neutron mass (mN ) is 1.675 × 10−27 kg; mN = 1.0014 mP
● Electrons orbiting the nucleus. These are particles with a negative
charge of −1.6 × 10−19 C, equal and opposite to that of a proton. The
mass of the electron (me) is 9.11 × 10−31 kg, or about 1/1836 of that of
a proton. The number of these electrons is equal to the number of
Exam tip
protons in a non-ionised atom
Remember to use the
Note: all figures quoted are for the rest masses of the particles. Relativistic correct SI units.
effects will be ignored.

Specific charge of nuclei and of ions

A useful quantity is the specific charge of a particle. This is defined
as follows:
Q
specific charge of a particle =
m
where Q is the charge on the particle and m is its mass. The units for
specific charge are coulombs per kg.
The specific charges of a number of particles are given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Particles and their specific charges

Particle Specific charge

A proton +1.6 × 10 −19
= +9.58 × 107 C kg−1
1.67 × 10 −27

An electron −1.6 × 10 −19

= −1.76 × 1011 C kg−1
9.11 × 10 −31
A nucleus of carbon-12 +(12 × 1.6 × 10 −19)
= +9.64 × 108 C kg−1
1.992 × 10 −27

AQA A-level Physics 13

9781471854798.indb 13 1/16/17 5:38 PM

Proton and nucleon number Exam tip
2 Particles and radiation

The nucleon number varies from 1 for the simplest form of hydrogen to The nucleon number was
about 250 for the heaviest elements. The proton number varies from 1 to previously called the mass
just over 100 for the same range of particles. number, while the proton
number was known as the
atomic number.
The proton number (Z) is the number of protons in a nucleus.
The nucleon number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons
Nucleon number
in a nucleus.

Nuclear notation 12 238

The correct way of writing down the structure of a nuclide, showing the C U Element symbol
6 92
proton and nucleon numbers, is shown in Figure 2.2.

Isotopes
Proton number
Neon has 10 protons in its nucleus but may occur in a number of different
forms with nucleon numbers of 20, 21 and 22, corresponding respectively Figure 2.2 Nuclide notation
to 10, 11 and 12 neutrons in the nucleus. These different forms are
known as isotopes of neon. Typical mistake
Confusing the nucleon
Isotopes are different atoms of the same chemical element, i.e. they and proton number in the
have the same proton numbers, with different nucleon numbers. nuclide notation.

Figure 2.3 shows the three isotopes of hydrogen.

e e e

p p p
n n n

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

Figure 2.3 Isotopes of hydrogen

l The chemical properties of isotopes of the same element are identical.

l Their nuclear properties will be different and some of their physical
properties, such as boiling point, are different as well

Example
Mercury has seven naturally occurring isotopes with nucleon numbers
of 196, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202 and 204. The proton number of mercury
is 80. How many neutrons are contained in each isotope?
Revision activity
Answer
Make a table showing the
neutron number = nucleon number – proton number nuclear structure of two
isotopes of four different
The neutron numbers are 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122 and 124. elements.

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Now test yourself

2 Particles and radiation

1 The proton number of uranium is 92. How many neutrons are there in the following two isotopes
of uranium:
(a) uranium-235 (nucleon number 235)
(b) uranium-238 (nucleon number 238)
2 What is the nucleon number of the nucleus containing 26 protons and 28 neutrons? (This is an isotope
of iron.)

Answers on p. 216

Stable and unstable nuclei

The strong nuclear force
There are two kinds of particle in the nucleus of an atom — protons,
carrying a unit positive charge, and neutrons, which are uncharged. The
electrostatic repulsion between all those positively charged protons would
tend to blow it apart were it not for the existence of another attractive
force between the nucleons. This is known as the strong nuclear force.

The strong nuclear force acts between particles in the nucleus and is
responsible for the stability of the nucleus.

The strong nuclear force between two nucleons is a short-range force. It is

attractive and acts up to a nucleon separation of about 3 fm (3 × 10−15 m). This
‘holds the nucleons together’ in the nucleus. However, at very small nucleon
separations of less than 0.5 fm it becomes repulsive. The repulsive nature at
these very small distances keeps the nucleons at a minimum separation. Exam tip
The strong nuclear force is
In small nuclei the strong force from all the nucleons reaches most of
very short range, while the
the others in the nucleus but for nuclei with more protons and neutrons electrostatic force affects
the balance becomes much finer. The nucleons are not held together so all the nuclei in the nucleus.
tightly and this can make the nucleus unstable.

Alpha and beta emission

Radioactive decay, the result of instability in a nucleus, is the emission of
particles from the nucleus or a loss of energy from it as electromagnetic
radiation. A, Z A, Z + 1
Nucleon number (A)

The two types of particle emitted are the alpha particle (two protons and
two neutrons — a helium nucleus) and the beta particle (an energetic
electron).
β–
Figure 2.4 shows the changes in nucleon and proton number due to the
emission of either an alpha particle or a beta particle.
α
Example emissions of an alpha and a beta particle, expressed in equation
form, are given below,
A – 4, Z – 2
(a) Alpha emission: Proton number (Z)
226
88
Ra → 222
86
Rn + 42α Figure 2.4 Alpha and beta
emission

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(b) Beta emission:
2 Particles and radiation

90
Sr → 90 −
Y + −10β + ν
38 39 e

Note: the particle νe is an antineutrino. The existence of neutrinos

and antineutrinos is necessary to satisfy nuclear conservation laws (p. 22).
They are both neutral particles with virtually no mass.
Knowing the true nature of alpha and beta particles, the equations can
also be rewritten as:
(a) Alpha emission:
226
88
Ra → 222
86
Rn + 42He
(b) Beta emission:
Exam tip
90
38
Sr → 90
39
Y + −10 e + νe
Beta emission is the result
(c) Beta-plus (positron) emission with the electron neutrino: of neutron decay within the
30
P → 30 Si + +10e + νe nucleus.
15 14

Example
Plutonium-239 decays to form uranium-235.
(a) Is this by alpha or beta emission?
(b) Write down the nuclear equation to show this decay.

Answer
(a) alpha emission
(b) 239
94
Pu → 235
92
U + 42He

Now test yourself

3 Carbon-14 decays by beta emission.
(a) What is the resulting nuclide?
(b) Write down the full nuclear equation for this process.
4 Uranium-238 decays to form thorium-234.
(a) Is this by alpha or beta decay?
(b) Write down the full nuclear equation for this process.

Answers on p. 216

Particles, antiparticles and photons

Antiparticles
All particles of matter have a corresponding antiparticle. The first Exam tip
antiparticle to be identified was the anti-electron or positron. The mass
of the positron is the same as that of an electron (0.51 MeV — p. 21). Particles and antiparticles
have opposite charges
Protons, neutrons and neutrinos each have their antiparticle — the where this is appropriate
antiproton, the antineutron and the antineutrino. The masses of all these (proton and electron).
antiparticles are the same as those of their corresponding particles.
There is a whole set of antiparticles that ‘mirror’ the particles that make
up our universe. These antiparticles would combine to form a ‘new’ type
of matter known as antimatter.

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Example

2 Particles and radiation

A proton and antiproton collide and annihilate each other.
Calculate the energy produced in (a) MeV and (b) joules. The rest mass
of a proton is 938 MeV.

Answer

energy produced = 2 × 938 MeV = 1876 MeV

= 1876 × 1.6 × 10 −13 = 3.0 × 10 −10 J

Photon model of electromagnetic radiation

All objects at a temperature above absolute zero emit a range of Typical mistake
wavelengths but the peak of the energy–radiation curve moves towards
the short-wavelength, high-frequency, end as the temperature of the Assuming that if an object,
object is increased. For example, a hot piece of metal glows first red, then such as a lump of metal,
does not glow it is not hot.
orange then yellow and finally white as its temperature is increased.
More and more energy is emitted as short-wave radiation (Figure 2.5).
The two curves represent objects at two different temperatures. The
lower curve is the lower temperature.
Energy

Wavelength

Figure 2.5 Energy–wavelength graph

In 1900 the problem of the energy distribution that had been puzzling
scientists for some time was solved by Max Planck. He proposed that
radiation was emitted not in a continuous stream of energy but in bundles
of energy that we now call photons.

The energy of a photon is given by the formula:

photon energy (E ) = hf
where f is frequency and h is the Planck constant, with a value of
6.63 × 10 −34 J s.

Radiation of a higher frequency, and therefore a shorter wavelength, will

be composed of photons that have a greater energy.

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Example
2 Particles and radiation

We can use this idea to calculate the number of photons emitted by a

100 W yellow light per second. (frequency of yellow light = 5 × 1014 Hz)

Answer

energy emitted by the light bulb every second = 100 J

energy of each quantum = hf = 6.63 × 10 −34 × 5 × 1014 = 3.31 × 10 −19 J

Therefore:
100
number emitted per second = = 3.0 × 1020 photons
per second 3.31 × 10 −19

The energy of each photon must be very small otherwise they would
hurt when they hit you!

Now test yourself

5 Calculate the energies of a photon of the following wavelengths:
(a) gamma rays wavelength 10 −3 nm
(b) X-rays wavelength 0.1 nm
(c) violet light wavelength 420 nm
(d) yellow light wavelength 600 nm
(e) red light wavelength 700 nm
(f) microwaves wavelength 2 cm
(g) radio waves wavelength 254 m

Answer on p. 216

Particle annihilation
When a positron meets an electron the two particles annihilate
each other, converting their mass back into energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation (see Figure 2.6). Two gamma rays are
needed to conserve momentum. The energy produced in this case
Electron
is about 1.02 MeV.
A similar event will occur between any particle and its antiparticle. Positron

Example
A proton collides with an antiproton and they annihilate each other.
Calculate the energy released in MeV. (rest mass of a proton = Gamma
ray
938 MeV; rest mass of an antiproton = 938 MeV)
Figure 2.6 Particle–
Answer antiparticle annihilation
energy released = 2 × 938 = 1876 MeV

In high-energy collisions between protons and antiprotons, for example

those in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, the particles annihilate
each other. The sum of their mass energy and kinetic energy is converted
into radiation and other particles. The initial energy of the proton and
antiproton can be as high as 800 GeV (800 × 103 MeV).

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Pair production

2 Particles and radiation

The reverse of particle annihilation can occur. When a gamma ray passes
close to a nucleus it can interact with that nucleus, forming a positron and
an electron. This is known as pair production.. Matter and antimatter
Positron
have been produced from energy (the gamma ray — Figure 2.7).

Particle interactions
There are at present only four certainly known types of force, and these Gamma ray
are listed below. The relative importance of each force in an interaction
depends on the type of interaction being considered.
l The gravitational force acts between all particles with mass and Electron
is responsible for holding planets in orbit around the Sun. Range:
infinite, varying as 1/d2. Figure 2.7 Pair production
l The electromagnetic force acts between all charged particles,
and is the binding force of atoms and molecules. Range: infinite,
varying as 1/d2
l The weak force is responsible for radioactive decay and the change in
quark f lavour. It acts between all particles. It is seen in lepton reactions
such as the reaction between a neutrino and a muon. Range: about
10−3 fm (10−18 m).
l The strong force holds neutrons and protons together in a nucleus.
It only acts between hadrons since they contain quarks. Range: about
3 fm. Repulsive up to 0.5 fm and attractive from 0.5 fm to 3 fm.

Exchange particles
These fundamental forces can be explained by describing them in terms
Exam tip
of exchange particles. These are particles that are passed between the
two interacting particles and so ‘carry’ the force between them. These At the time of writing (2017)
exchange particles are shown in Table 2.2. the exchange particle for
gravitational force, the
Table 2.2 Exchange particles graviton, has not been
discovered.
Force (interaction) Particle name Charge
Electromagnetic Photon 0
Strong Gluon 0 Exam tip
Gravitational Graviton 0 Remember that in the
interaction both particles
Weak W+ +e
emit a particle or a photon,
W −
−e hence the name — exchange
Z 0 particles.

When an electron repels another electron they both emit a photon. These
photons are ‘exchanged’ between the two electrons and this ‘carries’ the Typical mistake
force to ‘push them apart’. In the weak interaction that governs β− and
Confusing exchange particles
β+ decay, electron–proton collisions and electron capture, the exchange with ‘actual’ particles.
particles are the W−, the W+ and the Z respectively.

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Particle interaction diagrams
2 Particles and radiation

(Feynman diagrams)
These were developed to provide a clear method of showing the
interaction between sub-nuclear particles. They are a way of
representing what is happening between the two particles during an After interaction
interaction. (In the following Feynman diagrams time goes from e– e–
bottom to top.)
Virtual photon
Each point where lines come together is called a vertex. At each vertex
charge, baryon number and lepton number must be conserved. (For an
explanation of these terms see p. 21.)
e– Before interaction e–
Electromagnetic force interaction
Figure 2.8 shows the interaction between two electrons. In classical Figure 2.8 Electron–electron
physics the electrons, both with a negative charge, would repel interaction
each other. The diagram shows that this repulsion occurs because
of the interchange of photons. Each electron emits a photon,
which is then absorbed by the other electron. The photons in the After decay
interaction are known as virtual photons because they are emitted p
e–
and absorbed in a time so short that the uncertainty principle is not
W–
violated. (To simplify the diagram only one of the virtual photons ∼ν
e
is shown.)
Before decay
Weak force interaction n

The weak force interaction in Figure 2.9 shows the emission of a β−

in the decay of a free neutron to a proton and an antineutrino. The Figure 2.9 Neutron decay
exchange particle in this interaction is a W−.
The weak force interaction in Figure 2.10 shows the emission of a β+ in
the decay of a proton to a neutron and an antineutrino. The exchange After decay
n
particle in this interaction is a W+. e+

W+
Electron capture ∼ν
e

Electron capture is a process in which an electron in the inner shell of an

atom is absorbed by the nucleus, changing a nuclear proton to a neutron Before decay
p
and simultaneously emitting a neutrino (Figure 2.11).

Electron–proton collision Figure 2.10 Proton decay

After interaction
n ν (electron) After interaction
n ν (electron)
W–
W+

p Before interaction e–
p Before interaction e–

Figure 2.12 Electron–proton collision

Figure 2.11 Electron capture

Revision activity
Make your own Feynman diagrams for some further interactions.

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Classification of particles

2 Particles and radiation

Fundamental particles
The fundamental particles that make up our universe can be divided into
three main categories:
● hadrons — these particles ‘feel’ the strong nuclear interaction (force)
● leptons — these particles ‘feel’ the weak nuclear interaction
● exchange particles

These three categories are further divided as follows:

● Hadrons are composed of two or three quarks:
Baryons — protons, neutrons (each composed of three quarks)
Mesons — pions, kaons (each composed of two quarks)
(Every particle has its own antiparticle.) Typical mistake
● Leptons — electrons, muons, neutrinos — subject to the
Not remembering to which
weak interaction category a particle belongs.
(Every particle has its own antiparticle.)
● Exchange particles — the interactions between particles in the
previous two groups are carried by exchange particles (photons, gluons,
W±, Z and gravitons). For more on exchange particles, see p. 19
Leptons and hadrons are summarised in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Leptons and hadrons

Rest energy/
Particle Symbol MeV Charge/e Lifetime
Leptons
Electron e 0.511 −1 >4.6 × 1026 years
Neutrino νe and νμ Very small 0 Stable
Muon μ 105.7 −1 2.2 × 10 −6 s
Hadrons
Mesons
Pion π+ 139.6 +1 2.6 × 10 −8 s
πo 135.0 0 0.8 × 10 −16 s
Kaon K− 495 −1 1.24 × 10 −8 s
Baryons
Proton p 938.3 +1 >1 × 1029 years
Neutron
n 939.6 0 650 s
(free)

Lepton number
All leptons have a ‘property’ called a lepton number, Le (= 1) for
electrons and electron-neutrinos and Lμ (= 1) for muons and muon-
neutrinos. Their antiparticles have lepton numbers of −1 for both
positrons and antineutrinos.

Baryon number
All baryons and antibaryons are given a baryon number. This is +1 for
baryons and −1 for anti-baryons.

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To account for the strange behaviour of some hadrons a ‘new’ property Exam tip
2 Particles and radiation

of hadrons was proposed, called strangeness (S). Protons and neutrons

have a strangeness of zero, while kaons have a strangeness of +1 or −1. Remember that although
mesons are hadrons they
Particle S Particle S Particle S are not baryons and so their
baryon number is 0.
n 0 e and e
+ −
0 π 0
p 0 ν 0 K+ +1

Conservation in particle interactions

● The total charge is always conserved in a particle interaction.
● The total baryon number is always conserved in a particle interaction.
● The total lepton number is always conserved in a particle interaction.
● Strangeness is conserved in strong interactions but not in weak
interactions

Examples
1 Show that the quantum number conservation laws for charge and
lepton number are obeyed in the following reaction:
−
n → p+ + e − + νe

Answer
n → p+ + e− + ν−e

Charge 0 +1 −1 0
Lepton number (Le) 0 0 1 −1
Strangeness (S) 0 0 0 0

Therefore the conservations laws are followed and the interaction

will take place.
2 Show that the following reaction does not obey all the quantum
number conservation laws and will therefore not happen:
n + K+ → πo + π +

Answer
n + K+ → πo + π+
Charge 0 +1 0 +1
Baryon number 1 0 0 0
Strangeness (S) 0 +1 0 0
Therefore the conservations laws are not followed and the interaction
will not take place.

Now test yourself

6 Show that the quantum number conservation laws for charge and lepton number are obeyed in the
following reaction:
− +ν
μ+ → e + + ν −
μ e

Answer on p. 216

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Quarks and antiquarks

2 Particles and radiation

All hadrons are composed of particles called quarks. These were finally Exam tip
discovered in 1975 by the bombardment of protons by very high-energy
electrons. Leptons do not contain
quarks. They themselves
At the present time (2017) quarks are thought to be the fundamental are considered to be
particles of matter. Quarks have fractional electric charge compared with fundamental particles.
the charge on the electron of −e.
The existence of quarks was confirmed by high-energy electron
scattering from the nucleons. There are actually six quarks and their
antiquarks, but we will only consider three types here (together with
their antiquarks):
● the up quark (u) Up Down Strange
● the down quark (d) +2 –1 –1
3 3 3
● strange quark (s)

See Figure 2.13. Figure 2.13 Quarks

Note: the full list of quarks is up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top.

Properties of quarks
Table 2.4 shows the properties of up, down and strange quarks.
Table 2.4 Quark properties

Quark Symbol Charge Baryon number Strangeness

Up u + 23 1
3
0
Down d −13 1
3
0

Strange s −13 1
3
−1

Combinations of quarks
Note: the colours of the quarks in the following diagrams are simply to
make them distinguishable.

Baryons
Baryons are formed from combinations of three quarks or antiquarks
(Figure 2.14).

u u d d
Proton Neutron
d u

–
u – – –
u d d
Antiproton Antineutron
–
d –
u

Figure 2.14 Quark structure of baryons

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Mesons
2 Particles and radiation

Mesons are formed from combinations of two quarks or antiquarks

(Figure 2.15).

– –
–u – –u
uu dd u dd uu u

Pion π+ Pion π– Pion πo

uu
–
s –– –– ––
dd ss
Revision activity
uu ss dd ss
Make yourself a mind map
of the structure of an atom,
Kaon K+ Kaon K− Kaon Ko Antikaon Ko showing quarks, protons,
neutrons and electrons.
Figure 2.15 Quark structure of mesons

Applications of conservation laws

Quark model of beta emission
The quark nature of the proton and neutron can be used to explain beta
emission:
β+ emission: p → n + β+ + ν
Quark version:
β+ emission (proton decay): uud → ddu + 0 + 0

u u d d
+ e+ + ν

d u

Figure 2.16 Quark model of β + emission

In proton decay an up quark changes into a down quark.

β− emission: n → p + β− + ν−
Quark version:
β− emission (neutron decay): ddu → uud + 0 + 0

d d u u
+ e– + ∼
ν

u d

Figure 2.17 Quark model of β− emission

When a neutron decays by β− emission a down quark changes into an

up quark.

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The photoelectric effect

2 Particles and radiation

Photon explanation of threshold frequency
Figure 2.18 shows a charged clean zinc plate fitted to the top of a gold leaf
electroscope. The plate may be positive or negative and various forms of
radiation can be shone on it.

+
+ –
or
– Red laser light Ultraviolet light Ultraviolet light

High voltage

No effect No effect Leaf falls immediately

Figure 2.18 The photoelectric effect

If the plate is positively charged no radiation has any effect. However, if the
plate is given a negative charge to start with there is a difference. Using the
laser-emitting red light has no effect, but when ultraviolet light is shone on
the plate the electroscope is discharged and the leaf falls immediately. No
effect can be produced with radiation of longer wavelength (lower frequency
and smaller energy) no matter how long the radiation is shone on the plate.
When the ultraviolet radiation fall on the plate:
● no electrons are emitted from the plate if it is positive
● the number of electrons emitted per second depends on the intensity of
the incident radiation
● the energy of the electrons depends on the frequency of the
incident radiation
● there is a minimum frequency ( f 0) below which no electrons are
emitted no matter how long radiation fell on the surface
These results show that:
● The threshold frequency is the minimum frequency ( f 0) that will
cause electron emission from a given material. Photons with a lower
frequency will never cause electron emission.
● The free electrons are held in the metal in a ‘hole’ in the electric field;
this is called a potential well. Energy has to be supplied to them to
enable them to escape from the surface (Figure 2.19).
Electron
High-energy violet leaves the
quantum metal

Potential Work
well function

Figure 2.19 The potential well

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If radiation with a frequency above that of the threshold frequency is
2 Particles and radiation

shone on a metal plate electrons are emitted spontaneously. One quantum

of radiation (a photon) of a high enough frequency has enough energy to
‘kick the electron out’ in one go.
The photoelectric effect is very good evidence for the particle
nature of electromagnetic waves.
The amount of energy needed to just release a photoelectron is known as
the work function (ϕ) for the metal. This can be expressed in terms of the
threshold frequency ( f0).
Exam tip
work function (ϕ ) = hf0 Remember to use SI units
for the work function in
where h is the Planck constant (6.63 × 10 −34 Js) calculations.

Example
If the work function of silver is 7.6 × 10 −19 J, calculate the threshold
frequency for a clean silver surface.

Answer
W 7.6 × 10 −19
threshold frequency (f0) = = = 1.15 × 1015 Hz
h 6.63 × 10 −34
(This is in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum.)

Einstein’s photoelectric equation

If a quantum of radiation with an energy (hf ) greater than the work
function ϕ, and therefore a frequency greater than f 0, falls on a surface an
electron will escape from the surface and be emitted with some residual
kinetic energy (E k).
Electron k.e ( 21 mv2)
The energy of the incident quantum (hf ) is the sum of the work function
of the metal (ϕ = hf0) and the maximum kinetic energy of the electron
(E k) (Figure 2.20). This is expressed by Einstein’s photoelectric equation:
hf = ϕ + Ek = hf0 + Ek
Photon
energy (hf )

Stopping potential
Work function (hf0)
If we put a collecting electrode in front of the emitting surface in a
vacuum we can detect the photoelectrons as a small current. If the
collecting electrode is made slightly negative compared with the
emitting surface the electrons will find it difficult to get to it and
electrons will only do that if their energy is greater than the ‘height’
of the potential barrier.
Figure 2.20 Einstein’s
Electrons will be only detected if E k > eV where V is the potential photoelectric equation
difference between the plate and the emitting surface.
If V is increased so that no more electrons can reach the detector, this
value for the potential is called the stopping potential for that surface
and radiation.

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Example

2 Particles and radiation

Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of an electron that is emitted
from a magnesium surface when light of wavelength 180 nm falls on it.
(work function for magnesium = 5.9 × 10 −19 J)

Answer
3 × 108
frequency of incident radiation = = 1.67 × 1015
180 × 10 −9
kinetic energy = hf − hf0 = hf − ϕ
= (6.63 × 10−34 × 1.67 × 1015) − 5.9 × 10−19 = 1.11 × 10−18 − 5.9 × 10−19 = 5.17 × 10−19 J

Now test yourself Exam tip

Do not forget to convert
7 Light with a wavelength of 150 nm is needed to cause photoelectric
nm to m when using the
emission from the surface of a piece of metal. Calculate the work
photoelectric equation.
function for that metal.
8 Radiation of wavelength 120 nm falls on a zinc plate. Electrons are
emitted with a maximum energy of 6.6 × 10 −19 J.
Revision activity
Calculate:
(a) the energy of a quantum of the incident radiation Summarise the main
(b) the work function for zinc features of photoelectric
(c) the threshold frequency for zinc emission in a mind map or
(speed of light, c = 3 × 108 m s−1; Planck constant, h = 6.63 × 10 −34 J s) table and emphasise what
it shows about the nature
Answers on p. 216 of radiation.

Collisions of electrons with atoms

Ionisation and excitation
A simplified version of an energy level diagram for electrons in an atom is
shown in Figure 2.21. The electrons are spread through the energy levels.
No electron can have an energy state between the levels.
In hydrogen there is just one orbiting electron. The electron is usually in
its unexcited or ground state — level 1 (Figure 2.22(a)).
∞ ∞
4 4
3 3

2 2

Energy level
1 1
(a) (b)

Figure 2.22 Excitation

If energy is put into the atom in the form of radiant energy or by an

Electron
inelastic collision with a charged particle, an electron is raised to a higher
energy level and is said to be excited and in an excited state.
In Figure 2.22(b) the electron has been raised to level 3 and the colliding Figure 2.21 Electrons in
electron has lost some energy. an atom

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If the collision with an incoming electron is sufficiently violent an electron
2 Particles and radiation

within the atom can be given enough energy to raise it to the level marked ∞
4
with an infinity symbol. This level is called the ionisation level.
3
If the energy input is great enough to raise it above that level the electron will
escape from the atom altogether. This is called ionisation (Figure 2.23).
The removal of one (or more) electrons will leave the atom with a net 2
positive charge — it has become a positive ion.
The energy required to ionise a hydrogen atom is 21.8 × 10−19 J. This
assumes that the electron starts off in its ground state.

The fluorescent lamp

1
The f luorescent lamp is a sealed glass tube containing a gas such as
mercury at low pressure. A filament in the tube produces electrons by Figure 2.23 Ionisation
thermionic emission and these move at speed through the tube due to a
large electric field between the two electrodes.
Collisions between these electrons and the mercury atoms excite atoms of
the gas. Transitions within the mercury atoms give out radiation, which
is mostly in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum, and finally these
ultraviolet photons interact with the phosphor on the glass walls of the
tube, producing visible light.

The electron volt

Joules are very large units when subatomic particles are considered.
A much smaller unit known as the electron volt is used when stating
their energies.

An electron volt (eV) is the energy gained by an electron when it is

accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1 V × 1.6 × 10−19 C = 1.6 × 10−19 J

Yellow light, wavelength 600 nm, has a frequency of 5 × 1014 Hz and so

the energy of a photon of yellow light is:
energy = hf = 6.63 × 10 −34 × 5 × 1014 = 3.31 × 10 −19 J

which, when expressed in electron volts, is:

3.31 × 10 −19
= 2.07 eV
1.6 × 10 −19
Larger energies can be expressed in keV (103 eV) and MeV (106 eV).
Example
Calculate the energy of a photon of ultraviolet light with a wavelength
of 100 nm in both (a) joules and (b) electron volts. (Planck constant,
h = 6.63 × 10 −34 J s; speed of light, c = 3 × 108 m s−1; 1 eV = 1.6 × 10 −19 J)

Answer
c 3 × 108
frequency, f = = = 3 × 1015 Hz
λ 100 × 10 −9
(a) E = hf = 6.63 × 10 −34 × 3 × 1015 = 1.99 × 10 −18 J
1.99 × 10 −18
(b) E = = 12.4 eV
1.6 × 10 −19

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Energy levels and photon emission

2 Particles and radiation

Atomic line spectra
When light from an incandescent monatomic gas is viewed with a
spectroscope a spectrum similar to the one shown on Figure 2.24 is seen.

Energy level

Figure 2.24 Atomic line spectrum

The spectrum shows a series of bright lines, which is very good evidence for Electron
the structure of the atom. The simplest spectrum is that of hydrogen. When transition
an electron drops from one level to another a quantum of radiant energy
known as a photon is emitted and this gives a line in the hydrogen spectrum.
The greater the energy transition the higher the frequency of the
emitted radiation. The separation of the energy levels in the atom can be
predicted from the wavelengths, and hence frequencies, of the radiation
emitted (Figure 2.25).
Figure 2.25 Electron transitions
The spectrum of atomic hydrogen
The energy levels in atomic hydrogen are shown in Figure 2.26.
Energy values
Ionisation level
6
5 −8.71×10−20 J
4 −1.36×10−19 J

3 −2.42×10−19 J

Excited state 2 −5.44×10−19 J

Emitted quantum

Electron energy transition

Ground state 1 −21.8×10−19 J

Figure 2.26 Energy levels in hydrogen

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When an electron falls from one level to another energy is emitted in the Typical mistake
2 Particles and radiation

form of a photon of radiation. The energy of this photon, and therefore

its frequency and wavelength, is determined by the difference in energy Forgetting to convert eV to
between the two levels. joules when calculating the
wavelength and/or frequency
photon energy = hf of emitted radiation in
a transition.
The frequency ( f ) of the photon emitted is related to the difference
between the two levels (E1 − E 2) by the equation:
hf = E1 − E2

Example
Calculate the frequency of a photon produced by an electron transition
between level 4 and level 2 in the hydrogen atom. (Planck constant,
h = 6.63 × 10 −34 J s)

Answer
E1 − E2 = (5.44 – 1.36) × 10 −19 J = 4.08 × 10 −19 J
Typical mistake
E1 − E2 4.08 × 10 −19
f = = = 6.15 × 1014 Hz Using eV and nm when
h 6.63 × 10 −34 finding the frequency and
c wavelength.
Radiation of this frequency has a wavelength of = 488 nm.
f

Now test yourself

9 Calculate the frequency and wavelength of a photon of radiation emitted due to an electron transition
in a hydrogen atom between level 2 and level 1 (use Figure 2.26).

Answer on p. 216

Wave–particle duality
Electron diffraction
If electrons have wave properties they should show the characteristics
of waves such as interference and diffraction. The fact that electron
diffraction can be observed suggests that particles do have wave properties.
The diagrams in Figure 2.27 show the effects produced by electron
diffraction through a thin graphite sheet.

(a) Low accelerating voltage (b) High accelerating voltage

Figure 2.27 Electron diffraction rings

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Electron diffraction is very good evidence for the wave nature Revision activity

2 Particles and radiation

of particles.
Make a simple mind map
If the accelerating voltage is increased the energy and momentum of the of electron diffraction,
electrons is increased, and the diameter of a given ring gets less, showing showing in which part
a smaller angle of diffraction. of the experiment the
electrons’ wave properties
The wave theory of particles suggests that this is because the electrons’
predominate and where
wavelength has also decreased. This is exactly similar to the observation their particle properties
that blue light with a short wavelength and high energy is diffracted predominate.
through a smaller angle than low-energy red light.

The de Broglie wavelength

Louis de Broglie proposed that a particle of mass m travelling with a
velocity v would have a wavelength λ given by the equation:
h
wavelength, λ =
mv
where h is the Planck constant and mv is the momentum of the particle.
The intensity of the wave at any point represents the probability of the
particle being at that point.
An electron accelerated through a potential difference of V volts will
gain electrical energy (E = eV ) and hence kinetic energy ½mv 2. The
wavelength associated with the electron at that energy is given by:
12.27 × 10−10
electron wavelength, λ =
√V
An electron of high energy has a smaller wavelength than one of
low energy.

Example 1
Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron that has been
accelerated through a potential difference of 5 kV.

Answer
12.27 × 10 −10 12.27 × 10 −10
wavelength = =
√V √5000
= 1.74 × 10 −11 m = 0.017 nm
(Compare this value with that for yellow light — about 600 nm.)

Strangely, whether a particle behaved like a particle or a wave seemed to

be inf luenced by the nature of the experiment used.

Example 2
Calculate the wavelength of an electron emitted by a nucleus at 0.9 c.
(mass of an electron travelling at this speed = 2.4 × 9 × 10 −31 kg at this
speed; c = 3 × 108 ms−1)

Answer
6.63 × 10 −34
wavelength, λ = = 1.0 × 10 −12 m
2.4 × 9 × 10 −31 × 3 × 108

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Now test yourself
2 Particles and radiation

10 Calculate the wavelength associated with a proton moving at 107 m s−1. (mass of a proton =
1.67 × 10 −27 kg; Planck constant = 6.63 × 10 −34 J s)

Answer on p. 216

Exam practice
Use the following values where needed:
speed of electromagnetic radiation in free space, c = 3 × 108 m s−1
Planck constant, h = 6.63 × 10 −34 J s
1 The following equation represents the alpha emission from a uranium nucleus:
235
92
U → ab Th + 42 α
(a) What are the numbers a and b? [2]
(b) What do they represent? [2]
2 Which of the following combinations of alpha (α) and beta (β) particles can 214
84
Po emit and become
another isotope of polonium?
A α and 4β B α and 2β C α and β D 2α and β [1]
3 (a) What are the four properties conserved in particle interactions? [4]
(b) Explain whether the following reaction obeys nuclear conservation laws. [2]
p + n → p + μ+ + μ −
4 This question is about quarks.
(a) How many quarks make up (i) a baryon, (ii) a meson? [2]
(b) Write down the quark version of the decay of a neutron by beta-minus emission. [2]
5 The quark composition of an antiproton is:
-
A uud B ddu C u-u-d D uu-d [1]
6 ‘Photon’ is the name given to:
A a unit of energy
B an electron emitted from a metal surface by incident radiation
C a positively charged atomic particle
D a quantum of electromagnetic radiation [1]
7 (a) (i) What is meant by the ‘work function’ in the photoelectric effect? [2]
(ii) Which electrons are emitted in the photoelectric effect? [1]
(b) Radiation of wavelength 180 nm ejects electrons from a potassium plate whose work function is
2.0 eV.
(i) What is the maximum energy of the emitted electrons? [3]
(ii) What is the maximum wavelength that will cause electron emission? [2]
8 An electron makes a transition from level 4 (energy −0.85 eV) to level 3 (energy −1.5 eV) in
a hydrogen atom.
(a) Calculate the wavelength of the radiation emitted. [2]
(b) Suggest in which region of the electromagnetic spectrum this radiation lies. [1]
9 The wavelength of radiation emitted when an electron in an atom makes a transition from an energy
state E1 to one of energy E2 is:
hc hc
A −
E2 E1
E1 E2
B −
hc hc
hc hc
C −
E1 E2
hc
D [1]
E2 − E1

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2 Particles and radiation
10 In an electron beam experiment the wavelength of an electron moving at 4.7 × 106 m s−1 was found to
be 0.155 nm.
(a) What value does this give for the rest mass of the electron? (At this speed relativistic effects can
be ignored.) [2]
(b) The beam of electrons is now diffracted using a graphite sheet. What effect would a decrease of
electron accelerating voltage have on the diameter of the diffraction rings? [1]
(c) What does the size of the diffraction rings and the wavelength of the electrons show about the
spacing of the atoms in the graphite sheet? [2]

Answers and quick quiz 2 online

Summary
You should now have an understanding of: ● conservation laws — charge, baryon number,
● structure of the atom — atoms are composed lepton number and strangeness are conserved
of a nucleus of neutrons and protons with a in all nuclear interactions
cloud of electrons orbiting it ● the photoelectric effect — the spontaneous
● stable and unstable nuclei — some nuclei emission of electrons from a surface due
are unstable and will lose energy by the to incident radiation if its frequency is high
emission of a particle (alpha and/or beta) or enough
electromagnetic radiation (a gamma ray) ● collisions of electrons with atoms – ionisation
● particles, antiparticles and photons — all occurs when an electron is removed from an
particles have their corresponding antiparticle; atom
the Planck constant (h) is used to find the ● an electron volt (eV) as a small unit of energy
energy of a quantum of radiation ● energy levels and photon emission — when
● particle interactions — there are four an electron ‘falls’ from one energy level to
fundamental forces (gravity, electromagnetic, another radiation is emitted; the frequency
weak and strong), each carried by its own of this depends on the size of the energy
exchange particle transition
● classification of particles into hadrons ● wave–particle duality — particles can behave
(baryons and mesons) and leptons like waves and waves can behave like particles
● quarks and antiquarks — the fundamental
‘building blocks’ of hadrons; there are three
types of quark — up, down and strange

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3 Waves

Progressive waves
A progressive wave motion transmits energy from the source through
a material or a vacuum without transferring matter. Wave motion can
occur in many forms, such as water waves, sound waves, radio waves,
light waves and mechanical waves.

Waves: basic properties

Waves are produced by the oscillation of particles or electric and
magnetic fields. They are defined by the following set of basic properties:
● Wavelength (λ) is the distance between any two successive corresponding
points on the wave, for example between two maxima or two minima.
● Displacement (y) is the distance from the mean, central, undisturbed
position at any point on the wave.
● Amplitude (a) is the maximum displacement from zero to a crest or a
trough.
● Frequency ( f ) is the number of vibrations per second made by the
wave. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). A frequency of 1 Hz is a
rate of vibration of one oscillation per second. High frequencies are
measured in kilohertz (kHz) (1 kHz = 1000 Hz) and megahertz (MHz)
(1 MHz = 1 000 000 Hz).
● Period (T) is the time taken for one complete oscillation (T = 1/f ).
● Phase (ε ) is a term related to the displacement at zero time (see p. 35).
● Path difference is the difference in distance travelled by two waves
from their respective sources to a common point. Typical mistake
● Speed (c) is a measure of how quickly energy is transmitted from place Taking a wavelength to be
to place by the wave motion. the distance along the wave
from crest to trough and not
wave speed (c) = frequency (f) × wavelength (λ)
crest to crest.

Example
If a note played on a guitar has a frequency of 440 Hz, what is its Typical mistake
wavelength? (speed of sound in air = 330 m s−1)
Taking the amplitude to be
Answer the distance from a trough
velocity to a crest and not from the
wavelength = = 0.75 m
frequency ‘axis’ to a crest.

Now test yourself

1 There are two radio stations broadcasting on the FM radio band. One has a frequency of 101.7 MHz and
the other a frequency of 100 MHz. (speed of radio waves = 3 × 108 m s−1)
What is the wavelength of the radio waves from the station with the shortest wavelength?
2 Explain why an astronaut on the surface of the Moon would be able to see a spacecraft descending
towards the lunar surface but would not be able to hear the sound of the rocket engines. (Assume that
they have a microphone fitted to the outside of their space helmet.)

Answers on p. 216

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Phase and phase difference

3 Waves
The phase of a wave is related to the displacement of a specific point (say a
crest) on the wave at zero time. The phase difference between two waves
is the difference between the positions of the crests on the two waves.
When the positions of the crests and troughs of two waves coincide the
waves are in phase. When the crests of one wave coincide with the troughs
of the other the waves are out of phase (Figure 3.1). In this case the phase
difference between the two waves is π radians, or 180°. Waves with a
different phase difference would show a different shift along the time axis.

(a) Phase difference of zero (b) Phase difference of ε radians

Figure 3.1 Phase and phase difference

Longitudinal and transverse waves

Types of wave
Wave motion occurs as one of two types: longitudinal and transverse.

Longitudinal waves
In a longitudinal wave (Figure 3.2) the oscillation is along the direction
of propagation of the wave, for example sound waves and some
mechanical waves.

Wavelength

Wavelength Wavelength

Compression Rarefaction Compression

Figure 3.2 Longitudinal waves

In a longitudinal wave the particles of the material through which the

wave is travelling move from side to side along the wave direction as
the wave passes by. This oscillatory movement produces places of low
pressure (rarefaction) and places of high pressure (compression). For
this reason a longitudinal wave is sometimes called a pressure wave.

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Transverse waves
3 Waves

In a transverse wave (Figure 3.3) the oscillations are at right angles to

the direction of propagation of the wave, for example water waves, most
electromagnetic waves and some mechanical waves.

Wavelength (λ)

Typical mistake
Amplitude (a)
Wavelength (λ) Not being clear about
the difference between
Amplitude (a) transverse and longitudinal
waves, and which waves
Wavelength (λ) belong to which type.
Figure 3.3 Transverse waves

Polarisation
A wave in which the plane of vibration is constantly changing is called an
unpolarised wave. When the vibrations of a transverse wave are in one
plane only then the wave is said to be polarised (Figure 3.4).

Direction
of vibration

Unpolarised radiation Polarised radiation

Figure 3.4 Polarisation

It is important to realise that transverse waves can be polarised while

longitudinal waves cannot. Therefore if a set of waves can be polarised it
is very good evidence that these waves are transverse. In Figure 3.5 it is
clear that oscillations along the line of propagation will be unaffected by
the polariser.

Unpolarised wave
Polariser

Polarised wave

Exam tip
Our eyes cannot distinguish
Figure 3.5 Action of a polariser between polarised and
unpolarised light.
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum.

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Applications of polarisation

3 Waves
The uses of polarisation include polarising glasses for viewing 3D films, Revision activity
LCD displays, photographic filters, stress analysis investigation using
transparent plastic specimens and ‘Polaroid’ sunglasses, which reduce the Make a table to show
glare from ref lected sunlight. This last effect is due to the polarisation of which types of waves are
transverse and which are
ref lected light from a surface.
longitudinal.
Polarisation is also important for the transmission and reception of TV
signals. The transmitting aerial and the receiving aerial must be aligned
in the same direction for optimum signal reception.

Now test yourself

3 (a) Draw a diagram to show the relative alignment direction for rod-type TV transmitting and
receiving aerials.
(b) What would happen to the received signal as the receiving aerial was slowly rotated about an axis
parallel to the direction of propagation of the incoming signal?

Answers on p. 216

Principle of superposition of waves

and formation of stationary waves
Principle of superposition
Unlike particles, waves can pass through each other when then overlap.

The principle of superposition states that when two waves meet, the
resulting displacement is the vector sum of the displacements due to
each pulse at that point.

Formation of stationary waves

A stationary wave, or standing wave, is one in which the amplitude
varies from place to place along the wave. Figure 3.6 shows a stationary
wave. The amplitude at point 1 is a1, that at point 2 is a 2 and that at point
3 is a3. The displacement (y) at these points varies with time.
A A A
y

a1 a2 a3
x
N
N 1 2 3
N N

Figure 3.6 Stationary waves

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Note that there are places where the amplitude is zero and, halfway
3 Waves

between, places where the amplitude is a maximum; these are known as

nodes (labelled N) and antinodes (labelled A) respectively.
Any stationary wave can be formed by the addition of
two travelling waves moving in opposite directions.
A string is fixed between two points. If the centre of the string is plucked
vibrations move out in opposite directions along the string. This causes a
transverse wave to travel along the string. The pulses travel outwards along
the string and when they reach each end of the string they are ref lected.

Pulse

Pulse

Figure 3.7 Pulses moving along a string

The two travelling waves then interfere with each other to produce a
standing wave in the string. In the fundamental mode of vibration there
are points of no vibration, or nodes, at each end of the string and a point
of maximum vibration, or antinode, at the centre.
Notice that there is a phase change when the pulse ref lects at each end of
the string.
The frequency of the standing wave on a string depends on the length of
the string (L), its tension (T) and the mass per unit length of the string (μ).
For the first harmonic the frequency is given by the formula:
1
frequency, f =
2L √μT
The first three harmonics for a vibrating string are shown in Figure 3.8.
L

λ/2

3λ/2

Figure 3.8 Nodes and antinodes on strings

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Stationary waves can be formed on strings, as on a guitar or cello, and Typical mistake

3 Waves
also using microwaves and sound.
Using the mass of a
Example 1 stretched string in the
equation and not the mass
A stretched string is plucked at the centre and then lightly touched per unit length (μ).
one quarter of the way from one end. Draw the resulting wave that is
formed on the string.

Answer
When it is lightly touched a node will be produced at that point. The
resulting waveform is shown in Figure 3.9.
String touched here
Displacement

Length

Figure 3.9 Nodes and antinodes on a lightly touched string

Example 2
A 70 cm long stretched string is plucked so that it vibrates in its
second harmonic mode. If the tension in the string is 200 N and the
mass per unit length is 1.2 g what note will be heard?

Answer
1
frequency, f =
L √μT
= (1/0.7) √(200/1.2 × 10 −3) = 583 Hz

Note the use of the formula for the second harmonic.

Now test yourself

4 What is the distance between adjacent nodes on a standing wave in terms of the wavelength of the
standing wave?
5 Why must there always be nodes at the end of a standing wave on a stretched string?
6 A motorist drives along a motorway at a steady speed of 30 m s−1 between two cities listening to the car radio.
As she travels along she notices that the radio signal varies in strength, 5 s elapsing between successive
maxima. Explain this effect and calculate the wavelength of the radio signal to which she is tuned.

Answers on p. 216

Required practical 1
Standing waves on a stretched string
This can be demonstrated by fixing one end of a string to a vibration generator and passing the other
end over a bench pulley with a weight fixed to the lower end. When the vibration generator is connected
to a signal generator it will vibrate the string. Adjusting the tension and the length of the string and the
driving frequency of the signal generator will give standing waves on the string.

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Interference
3 Waves

Phase difference
When two waves meet at a point the resulting disturbance depends on the
amplitudes of both waves at that point. This will depend on the phase
difference between them. The formation of this disturbance is due to
the superposition of the two waves and is called interference.

Coherent and incoherent sources

Two separate light sources, such as two light bulbs, cannot be used as
sources for a static interference pattern because although they may be
monochromatic the light from them is emitted in a random series of pulses.
The phase difference that exists between one pair of pulses may well be
quite different from that between the next pair of pulses (Figure 3.10).

Pulses from source A

Pulses from source B

Figure 3.10 Coherent and incoherent sources

An interference pattern still occurs but it changes so rapidly that you get
the impression of uniform illumination.

Sources with synchronised phase changes between them are called

coherent sources and those with random phase changes are called
incoherent sources.

If the crest of one wave meets the crest of the other the waves are said
to be in phase and the resulting intensity will be large. This is known as
constructive interference. If the crest of one wave meets the trough of
the other (and the waves are of equal amplitude) they are said to be out
of phase by π and the resulting intensity will be zero. This is known as
destructive interference.
There will be many intermediate conditions between these two extremes
that will give a small variation in intensity.
This phase difference can be produced by allowing the two sets of waves
to travel different distances. This difference in distance of travel is called
the path difference between the two waves.
The diagrams in Figure 3.11 show two waves of equal amplitude with
different phase and path differences between them. The first pair have
a phase difference of zero and a path difference of a whole number of
wavelengths, including zero. This gives constructive interference. The
second pair have a phase difference of π or 180° and a path difference of
an odd number of half-wavelengths, giving destructive interference.

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3 Waves
+ = + =

(a) Constructive interference (b) Destructive interference

Figure 3.11 Constructive and destructive interference

To obtain a static interference pattern at a point (that is, one that is

constant with time) we must have:
● two sources of the same wavelength, and
● two sources that have a constant phase difference between them.

This condition is met by two speakers connected to a signal generator

because the sound waves that they emit are continuous — there are no
breaks in the waves.

The laser — coherent light and safety

The problem of coherence of a source is overcome by using a laser. This
emits a continuous beam of coherent light, with no abrupt phase changes
(Figure 3.12).

Pulses from source A

Pulses from source B

Laser light

Figure 3.12 Light waves emitted by a laser

Care must be taken when using lasers to avoid eye damage. The major
problem with a laser is the power density. Light from a 100 W light bulb
diverges and so the power density at a distance of 2 m from the source is
2 W m−2. However a laser beam diverges very little. It is about 2 mm in
diameter at a distance of 2 m from a 1 mW laser and so the power density
here can be as high as 1.25 × 104 Wm−2.

Two-source interference systems

A static interference pattern can be obtained using a single source and
splitting the beam in two, as in the double-slit method. Light from
a narrow single source (S) falls on two parallel slits (S1 and S2). This
effectively gives two coherent sources since any phase changes in one
source will also occur in the other (Figure 3.13).
Two sources, S1 and S2, emit waves of equal wavelength and these
waves meet at a point P on a screen. In Figure 3.14(a) the path difference
is 0, producing constructive interference. In Figure 3.14(b) it is half a
wavelength and so destructive interference results.
The resulting interference pattern and the fringes formed are shown in
Figure 3.15.

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Path difference = 0 Path difference = λ/2
3 Waves

S1 S1

S2 S2
Screen

(a) (b)
S1
S Path difference = λ/2
S2 Path difference = 0

S1 S1
Screen
P

S2 S2
Screen P

(a) (b)

Figure 3.14 Double-slit interference

Figure 3.13 A double-slit interference system

maximum

maximum

maximum

maximum

maximum

maximum

maximum

(a) (b)

Figure 3.15 Interference pattern and fringes

The fringe spacing (or fringe width) for light of wavelength λ is given by Revision activity
the formula:
Draw a full-size interference
λD
fringe spacing, w = pattern with wavelength of
s
1 cm and plot the points of
where s is the slit spacing and D is the distance of the double slits from constructive and destructive
the screen. interference.

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Example

3 Waves
Calculate the fringe spacing for light of wavelength 600 nm in a
double-slit experiment where the double slits are separated by
0.8 mm and the screen is placed 75 cm from them.

Answer
λD 600 × 10 −9 × 0.75
fringe width (w) = = = 5.6 × 10 −4 m = 0.56 mm
d 0.80 × 10 −3

Now test yourself

7 Light of wavelength 600 nm falls on a pair of double slits that are 0.5 mm apart. Calculate:
(a) the fringe separation on a screen 90 cm away from the double slits
(b) the distance and direction that the screen has to be moved to get the same fringe separation with
light of wavelength 500 nm
8 Calculate the wavelength of the light that will give an interference pattern with a fringe width of
4.5 mm on a screen 4 m from a pair of slits with a slit separation of 0.6 mm.

Answers on p. 216

Required practical 2(i)

Young’s double-slit experiment
The interference of light can be observed using a blackened glass
slide on which two fine slits have been engraved parallel to each
other and less than a millimetre apart. When the slide is illuminated
with monochromatic light a series of fringes will be seen on a screen
placed on the other side of the slide from the source. Moving the
screen away from the slits will increase the fringe width, as will the
use of light of a longer wavelength.

Diffraction
Basic principles
When a wave hits an obstacle it does not simply go straight past, but
bends round the obstacle. The same type of effect occurs at a hole — the
waves spread out the other side of the hole. This phenomenon is known
as diffraction.
Diffraction effects (Figure 3.16):
● are greater for waves of long wavelength
● are greater for small holes

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3 Waves

Wide gap – small diffraction Narrow gap – large diffraction

Exam tip
Notice that the wavelength
Large wavelength – large diffraction of the wave is unaffected
during diffraction.

Figure 3.16 Diffraction effects

Appearance of the diffraction pattern from a

single slit
When light passes through a single slit diffraction occurs. The variation
of intensity with angle of diffraction (θ) is shown in Figure 3.17.
Intensity Intensity Intensity

–θ +θ –θ +θ –θ +θ
Angle of diffraction (θ) Angle of diffraction (θ)

Figure 3.17 Single-slit

diffraction

Figure 3.18 Diffraction and wavelength

Figure 3.18 shows the effect of
Exam tip
a change of wavelength on the
diffraction pattern. The diagrams showing
intensity distribution for the
Blue light — short wavelength, giving a narrow diffraction single slit are not required
pattern. for your examination. They
are shown here to help your
Red light — long wavelength, giving a broad diffraction understanding.
pattern.

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If the slit is narrowed the diffraction pattern will become broader for a

3 Waves
given wavelength, and it will narrow if the slit is made wider.
If white light is used, a spectrum is formed at each maximum in the
diffraction pattern.

Now test yourself

9 Why is the diffraction of light much more difficult to observe than the diffraction of microwaves?
10 Can diffraction occur with longitudinal waves as well as with transverse waves?

Answers on p. 216

The diffraction grating

If a number of parallel, narrow slits are made the result is known as a
diffraction grating (Figure 3.19). Those in use in schools have typically
between 80 and 300 slits per mm. The distance between the centres of
adjacent slits is called the grating spacing (d). If there are 100 slits per
mm the width of one slit is 0.01 mm, or 10−5 m.
The diffracted images produced by diffraction gratings are both sharper
and more intense than those produced by a single slit. The intensity in
any given direction is the sum of those due to each slit (Figure 3.19).
The slits of a diffraction grating are usually called lines.

Formula for a diffraction grating

When a parallel beam of light falls on a diffraction grating a number of
diffraction maxima are formed. These are formed at angles of θ to the
normal of the grating. The formula for these maxima is:
diffraction grating maximum, nλ = d sin θ

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…

A
θ C Angle of diffraction (θ)

B
θ

Figure 3.19 Diffraction grating

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The number n is known as the order of the spectrum so that, for Exam tip
3 Waves

example, a first-order spectrum is formed for n = 1, and so on. If light

The number of lines per
of a single wavelength, such as that from a laser, is used, then a series of
metre on a diffraction
sharp maxima occur — one maximum to each order of the spectrum. A grating is the inverse of the
white light source gives a series of spectra with the light of the shortest grating spacing.
wavelength having the smallest angle of diffraction.
The number of orders of spectra visible with a given grating depends on
the grating spacing, with more spectra being visible with coarser gratings.
This is because the maximum angle of diffraction is 90° and therefore the
maximum value for sin θ = 1.

Example
Calculate the wavelength of the monochromatic light where the
second-order image is diffracted through an angle of 25° using a
diffraction grating with 300 lines per millimetre.

Answer Typical mistake

10 −3
grating spacing, d = = 3.3 × 10 −6 m
300 m Forgetting that the
diffraction occurs on both
d sin 25 3.3 × 10 −6 × 0.42 sides of the axis of the
wavelength, λ = = = 6.97 × 10 −7 m = 697 nm
2 2 system.

Now test yourself

11 A diffraction grating has 250 lines per mm. Calculate:
(a) the angle of diffraction for the first order image for light of wavelength 550 nm
(b) the highest order possible with this grating at this wavelength
(c) the number of images of the source
12 How could you tell the difference between a CD and a DVD simply by looking at the diffraction pattern
produced by a white light source? Explain your answer.

Answers on p. 216

Applications of diffraction gratings

Diffraction gratings are very useful tools for the study of spectra. They are
often used to determine the composition of an incandescent source and
are particularly useful in the analysis of the material of stars. Diffraction
gratings are cheaper and easier to use than glass prisms and the spectra
produced can be made large by increasing the number of lines per metre.

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Required practical 2(ii)

3 Waves
Using a diffraction grating to observe a spectrum
The grating is illuminated with light from a discharge lamp incident
at right angles. Light is diffracted from all the slits and the resulting
waves interfere with each other to give maxima and minima. The
angle of diffraction for each maximum and minimum depends on the
wavelength of the light.

Refraction at a plane surface

When light passes from one medium to another of different refractive
index its speed changes (Figure 3.20). This change of speed depends
on the refractive index of the two materials. It moves more slowly in
a material of higher refractive index than it does in a material of low
refractive index. This means that it will refract at a boundary between
two media of different refractive index.
Material 1

Speed c1

Air (n = 1)

Glass (n = n)

Speed c2
Material 2

Figure 3.20 Refraction and change of speed

c1
refractive index, n of material 2 =
c2
Example
A beam of light passes from air (refractive index 1.00) into diamond
(refractive index 2.42), the speed of light in air being 3.0 × 108 ms−1.
Calculate the speed of light in diamond.

Answer
3 × 108
speed of light in diamond = = 1.24 × 108 ms−1
2.42

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Refraction at a boundary between two
3 Waves

different substances
The change of speed of a beam of light passing from material 1 to
material 2 causes the light to refract. The amount of refraction obeys
Snell’s law of refraction (Figure 3.21).
Material 1

θ1
Speed c1

n1

n2

θ2

Speed c2
Material 2

Figure 3.21 Refraction at a boundary

If the absolute refractive indices of the materials are n1 and n2 respectively,

according to Snell’s law:
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

Example
A beam of light passes from water (refractive index 1.33 (n1)) into
diamond (refractive index 2.42 (n2)). If the angle of incidence (θ1) in
water at the water–diamond boundary is 35°, calculate the angle of
refraction (θ2) in the diamond.

Answer
Using:
Exam tip
n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2
The absolute refractive
n 1.33 index of a material is its
sin θ2 = sin θ1  1 = sin 35 = 0.574 × 0.55 = 0.32 refractive index compared
n2 2.42
with a vacuum and is the
Therefore:
value usually quoted simply
angle of refraction (θ2) = 18.4o as the refractive index.

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Now test yourself

3 Waves
13 A beam of light travelling in glycerol passes into a diamond (refractive index 2.42). Calculate the
refractive index of glycerol. The angle of incidence in glycerol is 35° and the angle of refraction in
diamond is 20.4°.

Answer on p. 216

Total internal reflection

When light passes from a material such as water into one of lower refractive
index such as air there is a maximum angle of incidence in the water
that will give a refracted beam in the air, that is, the angle of refraction
is 90°. The angle of incidence in the material of higher refractive index
corresponding to an angle of refraction of 90° in the material of lower
refractive index is known as the critical angle, c (Figure 3.22(a)).
If this angle of incidence is exceeded, all the light is ref lected back into
the material of higher refractive index. This is called total internal
ref lection (Figure 3.22(b)) and the normal laws of ref lection are obeyed.
n2
sin θC =
n1

(a) (b) (c)

Exam tip
Material 2
Total internal reflection
Material 1
c
only occurs when the light
>c travelling in one material
<c meets a boundary with a
material that has a lower
Total internal reflection refractive index.
Figure 3.22 The critical angle and total internal reflection

Example
The refractive indices from air to glass and from air to water are 1.50
and 1.33 respectively. Calculate the critical angle for a water–glass
surface.

Answer
The refractive index for light passing from water to glass [wng] is
given by:
ng 1.5
n = = = 1.13
w g nw 1.33
Therefore the critical angle (c) can be found from:
1
w g
n =
sin c
And so:
1
sin c = = 0.89
1.13
Therefore, c = 62.9°

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Now test yourself
3 Waves

14 Calculate the critical angle for a water–diamond interface if the refractive indices are 1.33 and 2.42
respectively.
15 Show that it is impossible for a beam of light to enter one face of a cubical glass block and leave by
the adjacent face. (refractive index of the glass = 1.5)

Answers on p. 216

Fibre optics
An important application of total internal ref lection is in fibre optics.
Light is shone along a thin glass fibre and if it hits the glass–air
boundary at more than the critical angle it ref lects along inside the
fibre. These fibres are normally around 125 μm (0.125 mm) in diameter
(similar to that of a human hair). The core diameter (see later) is
around 50 μm.
The transmission of light down a glass fibre is of enormous importance
in communications. Glass fibres are cheap, light in weight compared
with copper wire and light can be modulated to carry an enormous
amount of information. Figure 3.23 shows the situation for a single
glass fibre in air.

Figure 3.23 Single glass fibre

Figure 3.24 shows the situation for a single glass fibre with a layer of
glass cladding surrounding it. The cladding has a refractive index (n1)
significantly greater than air but slightly less than the refractive index of
the core of the fibre (n2).

Core (n2 = 1.55) Cladding (n1 = 1.45)

Figure 3.24 Single glass fibre with cladding

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Example

3 Waves
The refractive indices from air to the glass of the core and from air to
the glass of the cladding are 1.55 and 1.45 respectively. Calculate the
critical angle for a water–glass surface.

Answer
The refractive index for light passing from the core to the cladding is:
nCORE 1.55
= = 1.069
nCLADDING 1.45
Therefore, the critical angle, c, can be found from:
1
n
CORE CLADDING
=
sin c
So:
1
sin c = = 0.935
1.069
Therefore, c = 69.3°

Material dispersion
If a pulse of white light is sent down a fibre with a single layer of cladding
material dispersion occurs, with different wavelengths taking different
times to travel down the fibre. This is because of the different refractive
indices of the core for different wavelengths of light. As a result, the pulse
spreads and the effect is known as pulse broadening.

Modal dispersion
Another problem is the different time of transmission between rays that
make different angles with the axis of the fibre. This is known as modal
dispersion (Figure 3.25) and can be reduced by cladding the fibre. The
greater critical angle when cladding is used means that only rays of light
that have a large angle of incidence with the ‘walls’ of the fibre, and so
make a small angle with the axis of the fibre, will be transmitted along it.
Other light will refract out of the fibre. This reduces the difference in time
of transmission and so the spread of information with time is also reduced.

Longer path Shorter path

Figure 3.25 The effect of modal dispersion

The distance that information can be sent down the fibre will be limited
both by absorption in the glass of the fibre and by the effects of dispersion
if light that is not truly monochromatic is used.

Now test yourself

16 Explain briefly why the use of non-monochromatic light is a problem for the transmission of data
along an optical fibre.

Answer on p. 216
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Exam practice
3 Waves

Take the velocity of light in free space to be 3 × 108 m s−1 where needed.

1 A cello D string has a length of 70 cm and a first harmonic of frequency 73.3 Hz.
(a) What is the frequency of the second harmonic? [3]
(b) Where would the cellist have to touch the string to produce this harmonic? [1]
(c) Calculate the tension in the cello string. [3]
(mass per unit length = 1.5 × 10 −3 kg m−1)
2 A stretched wire with its ends firmly clamped has a first harmonic of frequency 1000 Hz. What will be
the frequency of the first harmonic if the tension of the wire is increased by 2%?
A 980 Hz
B 1040 Hz
C 1020 Hz
D 1000 Hz [1]
3 (a) Why can’t you get a static interference pattern with two light bulbs, while it is possible with
two loudspeakers? [2]
(b) A Young’s double-slit experiment is carried out using green light. Describe and explain what
will happen to the interference fringes produced if:
(i) red light is used instead [1]
(ii) blue light is used instead [1]
(iii) the two slits are moved closer together [1]
(iv) the two slits are moved further apart [1]
(v) white light is used [1]
(vi) one of the slits is covered up [2]
(vii) the slits are made narrower. [1]
4 Light from a fluorescent lamp is found to consist of only two wavelengths, 450 nm and light of a
longer wavelength. When the light is passed through a given diffraction grating it is found that the
third order for the shorter wavelength has the same diffracted angle as the second order for the
longer wavelength. Calculate:
(a) the wavelength of the light with the longer wavelength [3]
(b) the grating spacing if the angle of diffraction in this case is 20°. [2]
5 Water waves of wavelength 4 m meet a narrow entrance to a harbour. If the entrance is 10 m wide
calculate the separation between the central maximum and the first minimum on the beach if the
distance from the harbour mouth to the beach is 250 m. [2]
6 A beam of light of wavelength 600 nm hits a glass–air interface at an angle of 40°. If the velocity
of light in glass is 2 × 108 m s−1 find:
(a) the angle of refraction [2]
(b) the wavelength of the light in the glass. [2]
(c) A thin layer of glass of refractive index 1.45 is now added to the original glass surface. Calculate
the critical angle for the interface between the two pieces of glass. [3]
7 When visible light passes from air into glass the radiation experiences a change in:
A frequency but not in speed and not in wavelength
B frequency and speed but not in wavelength
C wavelength and frequency but not in speed
D wavelength and speed but not in frequency. [1]
8 Explain carefully the effect on the spectrum observed by a plane transmission diffraction grating
if the ruled face is presented to the incident light rather than the un-ruled face. [2]

Answers and quick quiz 3 online

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Summary

3 Waves
You should now have an understanding of: ● diffraction — this is the spreading of waves
● progressive waves and stationary waves — through a hole or round an obstacle; it is
waves are formed by oscillations of particles greater for small obstacles and holes and for
or fields long-wavelength waves.
● how longitudinal waves show oscillations ● the use of diffraction grating to give finer and
along the direction of wave propagation while brighter spectra
transverse waves show oscillations at right ● refraction of light at a plane surface,
angles to the direction of wave propagation producing a change in direction of the
● the principle of wave superposition — the refracted light; the speed in a material of high
formation of points of no vibration (nodes) and refractive index is less than that in a material
points of maximum vibration (antinodes) on a of low refractive index
stretched string ● total internal reflection — this only occurs
● formation of stationary waves by two travelling when light moving in one medium meets a
waves moving ‘through’ each other in opposite boundary with one with a lower refractive
directions and combining index
● interference — the overlapping a two systems ● fibre optics — the transmission of light and/
of waves giving a pattern showing maxima and or microwaves along a glass fibre; cladding
minima is used to reduce both material and modal
● double-slit interference — this gives fringes dispersion
of one colour using monochromatic light and a
series of spectra using white light

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4 Mechanics and materials

Scalars and vectors

The quantities measured in physics can be divided into two groups,
scalars and vectors.

Scalars are quantities that have magnitude (size) only. Examples of

scalars are length, speed, mass, density, energy, power, temperature,
charge and potential difference.
Vectors are quantities that have direction as well as magnitude.
Examples of vectors are displacement, force, torque, velocity,
acceleration, momentum and electric current.

Scalars can be added together by simple arithmetic but when two or

more vectors are added together their direction must be taken into
account as well.
A vector can be represented by a line, the length of the line being the
magnitude of the vector and the direction of the line the direction of
the vector.

Addition of vectors
When two or more vectors are added the resulting sum of the vectors is
called the resultant vector or simply the resultant.

Vectors acting in the same line

Two or more vectors acting in the same direction can be added as if they
were scalars. For example the sum, or resultant, of the three forces shown
in Figure 4.1(a) is 100 N acting right to the left while in Figure 4.1(b) it is
700 N left to right.
300 N 300 N

+ +
400 N 400 N

= = 700 N
100 N

(a) (b)

Figure 4.1 Vectors acting in the same line

Vectors acting in different directions

If the two vectors acting at a point are not acting along the same line the
resultant can be found by either using a scale diagram or by calculation.
The vectors are drawn nose to tail and the resultant closes the triangle.
(Note: calculations will be limited to two vectors at right angles
(Figure 4.2(a)).

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4 Mechanics and materials
B = 300 N
B = 300 N
A = 400 N

B = 300 N R = 500 N
B = 300 N

θ A = 400 N
A = 400 N R = 183 N
A = 400 N

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 4.2 Vectors acting at an angle

Examples Exam tip

Notice that the original
Finding the resultant using a scale diagram two vectors (shown blue in
Using the same magnitude for the two vectors as those already Figure 4.2) follow each other
considered we draw a scale diagram in both magnitude and direction. round the triangle (nose to
The resultant, R (= 500 N in this case) is the vector that closes the tail) to give the resultant,
triangle (Figure 4.2b) the red vector (R), and that
The direction of the resultant can be found by measuring angle θ. In this resultant acts in the
this case θ = 37°. opposite direction round
the triangle.
Finding the resultant by calculation
The resultant of the two vectors can also be found by calculation.
resultant, R = √4002 + 3002 = √250 000 = 500 N

The direction of R can be found from:

Exam tip
300
tan θ = = 0.75 Always choose a sensible
400
scale when drawing scale
So, θ = 36.9° diagrams of vectors.

An example of two vectors not acting at right angles to each other is

shown in Figure 4.2(c) and Figure 4.2(d).

Now test yourself

1 An aircraft is flying on an initial bearing of 0° at 350 m s−1 with a wind blowing west to east at 50 m s−1.
Find the true speed of the plane and the direction in which it travels. You should use both the scale
diagram and calculation methods to find your answers.

Answer on p. 217

Components of vectors
The effectiveness of the vector along a specified direction is called the
component of the vector along this direction. Finding the components
of a vector, usually along two perpendicular directions, is called the
resolution of a vector.
The component of a vector along any direction is the magnitude of the
vector multiplied by the cosine of the angle between the vector and the line.
The horizontal component of the vector F shown in Figure 4.3 (a) is F cos A,
while Figure 4.3(b) shows the components of a vector in two perpendicular
directions. These are known as the rectangular components of the vector.
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Component in the x direction: Fx = F cos A
4 Mechanics and materials

F sin A
Component in the y direction: Fy = F cos (90 − A) = F sin A
F
Typical mistake
Mixing up the angles when calculating components. A A
F cos A
(a)
Example
A railway truck is pulled along the rails by a rope that makes an angle

F sin A
of 35° with the track. If the force (F) in the rope is 1500 N calculate the
components of the force: F F
(a) perpendicular to the rails
(b) parallel to the rails.
A
Answer A

(a) component of F perpendicular to the rails = F sin 35 = 1500F cos A

× 0.574 F cos A
(a) (b)
= 860 N
Figure 4.3 Components of
(b) component of F parallel to the rails = F cos 35 = 1500 × 0.819 = 1229 N
a vector

Now test yourself

2 A tug pulls an ocean liner from its moorings. The cable from the bow of the liner to a tug makes an
angle of 15° with the horizontal. If the force in the cable is 2000 N what are the horizontal and vertical
components of this force?

Answer on p. 217

The inclined plane

The components of the forces acting on a point object (P) on an inclined
plane are shown in the Figure 4.4. The actual forces are the weight of the
object represented by the black vector and the reaction of the plane, shown
by the blue vector. The components of the weight are shown in red.

R = mg cos θ = mg sin A

mg sin θ = mg cos A
A

θ
mg cos θ = mg sin A

mg

Figure 4.4 The inclined plane

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Equilibrium due to two or more forces

4 Mechanics and materials

A body acted on by two or more forces is in equilibrium when it has no
tendency to move. This means that:
A body is in equilibrium when acted on by two or more
coplanar forces if the resultant of these forces is zero and
the two forces pass though one point.
The resultant can be shown to be zero by calculating the components of
each force in two perpendicular directions. Alternatively a scale diagram
can be drawn. The resultant is zero when the forces form a closed triangle.
This can mean that an object in equilibrium can be at rest or moving
with a constant velocity.

Example
Three forces of 100 N, 150 N and 200 N act on a body, as shown in
Figure 4.5. Show that the resultant of these three forces is zero and
that therefore the body is in equilibrium.

150 N

100 N 100 N

200 N Exam tip

150 N 200 N For the body to be in
equilibrium — no translation
or rotation — the forces
acting on it must pass
Figure 4.5 Vectors in equilibrium through one point.

Note that, in Figure 4.5, the vectors are drawn ‘nose to tail’.

Moments
Moment of a force about a point
If a force acts on an object, and the line of action of the force does not
pass through the centre of mass of the object then the force will exert a
turning effect on the object and it will rotate. The larger the force and
the further the line of action from the centre of mass the greater the
turning effect of the force will be.
This turning effect is called the moment of the force.

moment of a force about a point = magnitude of force (F) × perpendicular

distance (d) from the point to the line of action of the force:
moment = Fd

Moments are measured in newton metres (N m).

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Example Exam tip
4 Mechanics and materials

A light rod 80 cm long is pivoted about one end and supported by a Notice:
vertical thread at the far end so that the rod makes an angle of 55° ● the use of the
with the vertical. Calculate the moment of the force about the pivot if perpendicular distance
the force in the thread is 25 N. ● the conversion of cm to m
to give the correct units
Answer (N m)
See Figure 4.6.

25 N

80 cm
55º

Figure 4.6 Force causing a moment

moment = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line

of action of the force

= 25 × 0.80 sin 55 = 16.4 Nm Typical mistake

Forgetting that the resultant
moment must be zero when
A body is in equilibrium when acted on by two or more stating the condition for
coplanar forces if the resultant of these forces and their equilibrium.
moments is zero.

Now test yourself

3 A door has a handle that is 0.8 m from the hinge. What is the moment of the following forces applied to
the handle about the hinge?
(a)  12 N at right angles to the door
(b)  20 N at 70° to the door
(c)  100 N at 25° to the door

Answers on p. 217

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Couples and torque

4 Mechanics and materials

If two equal and opposite forces, whose lines of action are not the
same, act on a body, then they only produce a rotation of the body but
no translation. This effect is called a couple.

A couple is composed of two forces that:

l are equal
l are anti-parallel (parallel but in opposite directions)
l do not pass through the same point.

Since a torque is caused by two forces rather than one the magnitude of
the turning effect of a couple is called the torque.

The torque of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces.
F × d
torque = × 2 = Fd
2

Example
Two forces, each of 30 N, act on a rod pivoted at its centre, as shown in
Figure 4.7. The ends of the forces on the rod are 60 cm apart. Calculate
the torque produced.

60 cm

20º
d

Figure 4.7 A torque

Answer
torque = force × perpendicular distance between the lines of action of
the forces
torque = 30 × 0.60 sin 20 = 6.2 N m

Now test yourself

4 One of the powered wheels of a car travelling at constant velocity has a torque of 140 N m applied to it
by the axle that drives the car. If the wheel is 0.45 m in diameter, calculate the driving force provided by
this wheel.

Answer on p. 217

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The principle of moments and equilibrium
4 Mechanics and materials

When an object is balanced (in equilibrium) the sum of the

clockwise moments is equal and opposite to the sum of the
anticlockwise moments (Figure 4.8).
An example of the principle of moments is shown in Figure 4.8.
d1 d4

d2 d3

Reaction (R) at
the pivot

F1 F2 F3 F4

Figure 4.8 Principle of moments

F1d1 + F2d2 = F3d3 + F4d4 Exam tip

When an object is in equilibrium the sum of the vertical forces is zero. Notice the minus sign − R
acts in the opposite direction
F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 − R = 0 from F1, F2, F3 and F4.

Example
In Figure 4.9, let L = 100 cm, F1 = 20 N, F3 = 10 N, d1 = 10 cm, d2 = 70 cm,
d3 = 45 cm

Reaction (R) at pivot

d3 d1 Exam tip
A B
The moments can be taken
about any point on an object.
P
However, it may be more
d2 convenient to use one point
than another if an unknown
force passes through that
F3 F1 F2 point.

L
Figure 4.9 Example of the principle of moments

Find the value of F2 such that the beam is in equilibrium.

Answer
Take moments about the pivot:
clockwise moments = (20 × 0.1) + (F2 × 0.7) = 10 × 0.45 =
anticlockwise moments

2 + (F2 × 0.7) = 10 × 0.45

4.5 – 2
F2 = = 3.6 N
0.7

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4 Mechanics and materials
But:
F1 + F2 + F3 − R = 0

and so:
R = 20 + 3.6 + 10 = 33.6 N

Now test yourself

5 A 3 m long uniform plank of mass 6 kg is fixed to a wall by a pivot at P. It is supported by wire which
makes an angle of 55° with the plank, and is fixed to it 0.6 m from the end furthest from the wall, as
shown in Figure 4.10. (g = 9.8 m s−2)
Using the principle of moments calculate the tension (T) in the wire.

55º 0.6 m
P

6 kg 3 m
8N

Figure 4.10 Tension in a wire

6 A lightweight beam 5.5 m long is fixed to a pivot. A load of 600 N is hung from one end and the beam is
held in equilibrium by a vertical force F, as shown in Figure 4.11.

3.5 m

60°

2m 600 N

Figure 4.11 A lightweight beam

(a) Using the principle of moments calculate the value of F.
(b) How does F change if the angle of the beam is changed?

Answers on p. 217

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Centre of gravity and centre of mass
4 Mechanics and materials

The weight of an object may be taken as acting at one point known as the
Exam tip
centre of gravity. You could think of that point as the position where
all the mass of the object is concentrated. If the gravitational field is
uniform over the size of
The resultant moment about the centre of gravity of any the object then the centre
object must be zero. of mass and the centre of
gravity of the object will
G
coincide. However if this is
not true then they will be
in different places. Close
to a black hole, where the
d1 d2
gravitational field changes
rapidly, might give you a
W2
situation like this.

W1

Figure 4.12 Centre of mass of an unequal dumbbell

The dumbbell arrangement in Figure 4.12 shows this clearly (W1 = m1g;
W2 = m2g).
anticlockwise moment = W1 × d1; clockwise moment = W2 × d2

If all the mass was replaced by a mass of M (= m1 + m2) at G there would be

no turning effect about G and therefore the resultant moment must be zero.

Motion along a straight line

Displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration

Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance with time, while

velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement with time.

If an object is displaced by a small amount Δs in a small time Δt then its

velocity v is given by the equation:
∆s
velocity, v =
∆t

Displacement is distance measured in a particular direction and

velocity is speed measured in a particular direction. The units
normally used for both speed and velocity are m s−1. Exam tip
Acceleration occurs when an object changes its velocity with time. The Remember that distance
units normally used for acceleration are m s−2: and speed are scalars, while
∆v change in velocity displacement and velocity
acceleration, a = rate of change of velocity = = are vectors.
∆t time

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Using graphical methods to understand motion

4 Mechanics and materials

Displacement–time graphs
Figure 4.13 shows examples of displacement–time graphs. Uniform
velocity is shown by straight lines and acceleration is shown by a curved
line. The gradient at a point on a displacement–time curve is the
instantaneous velocity at that point.

Exam tip
Distance

Stationary A displacement–time curve

with a negative gradient
shows an object moving in
the opposite direction from
Moving
Moving away one with a positive gradient.
quickly away slowly

Moving back

Moving away
and accelerating

Time
Figure 4.13 Displacement–time graphs

Velocity–time graphs
Figure 4.14 shows examples of velocity–time graphs. Uniform
acceleration is shown by straight lines. Varying acceleration is shown by
a curved line. The gradient at a point on a velocity–time curve is the
instantaneous acceleration at that point.
Velocity

Constant velocity

Rapid constant Steady constant

acceleration acceleration

Deceleration

Increasing
acceleration
Time
(a)

v Object thrown v One bounce v Irregular motion

upwards

t t t

(b)

Figure 4.14 Velocity–time graphs

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The area beneath a velocity–time graph is a measure of the displacement Exam tip
4 Mechanics and materials

of the object (Figure 4.15).

This is true whatever the
v v v shape of the velocity–time
curve.
area =
area = area =
displacement
displacement displacement

t t t
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.15 Area under velocity–time graphs

Example
Figure 4.16 shows the motion of a car.
25
Velocity/m s−1

20
A B

15

O C
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time/s

Figure 4.16 Velocity–time graph example

● O to A — the velocity increases steadily from 0 m s−1 to 20 m s−1 in
10 seconds.
● A to B — the velocity stays the same at 20 m s−1 for the next 30 s.
● B to C — the velocity decreases to 0 m s−1 in 20 s.

Using:
distance = average velocity × time

Distance travelled OA = 10 × 10 = 100 m

Distance travelled AB = 20 × 30 = 600 m
Typical mistake
Distance travelled BC = 10 × 20 = 200 m
Forgetting that the equation
Total distance travelled OC = 900 m
s = vt applies to uniform
This is represented by the area under the line OABC. velocity only.

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Velocity–time graphs showing non-uniform acceleration

4 Mechanics and materials

Problems of non-uniform acceleration can be solved by using graphical
methods. One example is the 100 m sprint shown in Figure 4.17.

10
Velocity/m s−1

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time/s

Figure 4.17 Non-uniform acceleration

The graph in Figure 4.17 shows the motion of a schoolgirl sprinter

running the 100 m. It shows that her acceleration was not uniform but
varied over the first 9 s of the race, after which it was zero.
The shaded area represents the distance she travelled in 15 s — in this
case 100 m.
Her acceleration during the early part of the race can be found from the
gradient of the curve at that point. For example, 5 s after the start her
acceleration (Δv/Δt) was approximately 3.8/6 = 0.63 m s−2.

Now test yourself

7 The graph in Figure 4.18 shows a runner during part of a race. Using the graph find:
Velocity/m s−1

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time/s

Figure 4.18
(a) the distance covered by the runner between 20 s and 60 s
(b) the velocity of the runner at t = 15 s
(c) the acceleration of the runner at t = 55 s.

Answers on p. 217

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Equations for uniform acceleration
4 Mechanics and materials

If the acceleration of an object is uniform, the following equations apply

Exam tip
to its motion:
v+u u+v Remember that these
average velocity = and s =  t equations only apply to
2 2
accelerated motion when
v–u
acceleration, a = or v = u + at the acceleration is uniform.
t
s = ut + ½at2

v2 = u2 + 2as

where u is the initial velocity, v the final velocity, a the acceleration, t the
time taken and s the displacement.

Example 1
A dragster starts from rests and accelerates at 25 m s−2 for 4 s.
Calculate:
(a) the final velocity
(b) the distance travelled.

Answer
(a) v = u + at = 0 + (25 × 4) = 100 m s−1
(b) s = ½at2 = 0.5 × 25 × 16 = 200 m

Example 2
A ball travelling at 20 m s−1 is hit by a bat and returned along its
original path but in the opposite direction at 35 m s−1. If the ball was in
contact with the bat for 0.02 s calculate:
(a) the acceleration of the ball during the hit
(b) the distance moved by the ball during the hit.

Answer
v − u 35 − (−20) 55
(a) a = = = = 2750 m s−2
t 0.02 0.02
(b) v2 = u2 + 2as
352 − 202
s= = 0.15 m
2 × 2750

Now test yourself

8 Starting from rest a car travels for 2 minutes with a uniform
acceleration of 0.3 m s−2 after which its speed is kept constant
until the car is brought to rest with a uniform retardation of
0.6 m s−2. If the total distance travelled is 4500 m how long did
the journey take?
9 An electron in a TV tube emitted from rest from a hot cathode
reaches a velocity of 107 m s−1 when it passes the anode. Find
the acceleration of the electron if the cathode and anode are
separated by 3 cm.

Answers on p. 217

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Acceleration due to gravity

4 Mechanics and materials

The vertical acceleration in the Earth’s gravitational field is due to the
Exam tip
gravitational attraction of the Earth, and is called the acceleration due to
gravity (g) or the acceleration of free fall. The value of g close to the Earth’s You should always use the
surface is about 9.81 m s−2 (often simplified to 9.8 m s−2 or even 10 m s−2). values of constants such as
g that are given in your exam
Since this acceleration is produced by the gravitational field of the Earth it question paper.
may also be called the gravitational field strength (units N kg−1).
If an object is dropped and falls through a height h in t seconds its
acceleration is:
2h
gravitational acceleration g =
t2
If air resistance is neglected the acceleration in free fall is the same for all
objects. This was suggested by Galileo Galilei in the seventeenth century.

Example
A stone falling from rest falls half its total path in the last second
before it strikes the ground. From what height was it dropped?

Answer
For the complete path:
h = ½gt2

For the top half of its path:

h
= ½g(t − 1)2
2
So:
h = ½gt2 = g(t2 – 2t + 1)

Therefore:
t2 = 2t2 – 4t + 2

and so:
t2 – 4t + 2 = 0

This can be solved to give t = 3.41 s or 0.59 s. This last one is impossible
since it fell half the distance in the last second.
Therefore:
h = ½gt2 = ½ × 9.8 × 3.412 = 57.1 m

Now test yourself

10 A stone is dropped from a cliff.
(a) How far will it have fallen in 4 s?
(b) What will its velocity be at that point?
(c) What is the average velocity of the stone during the 4 s? (Use g = 9.8 m s−2 and ignore air
resistance.)

Answer on p. 217

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Required practical 3
4 Mechanics and materials

Determination of g
The value of the gravitational acceleration (gravitational field
strength) at the Earth’s surface may be found using a freefall method.
A ball bearing is dropped from rest and the time (t) for it fall through
a known height (h) is found. The measurements are repeated both for
the original height and over a series of heights from 20 cm to 2 m.
The height fallen is measured with a ruler and the time of fall by a
light gate or a mechanical gate mechanism.
2h
gravitational acceleration =
t 2

Projectile motion
Objects projected vertically
If an object is projected upwards with an initial vertical velocity of u, Exam tip
such that its time of f light is 2t (in other words the time to return to the
Remember that the
ground again) the time to reach the top of its trajectory is t. The velocity
acceleration of the projectile
(v) at the top of the trajectory is zero. is 9.8 m s−2 towards the
u2 ground throughout the
maximum height, h = ½gt2 =
2g trajectory, even at the
velocity, v = u + gt very top.

Example
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30 m s−1.
Calculate:
(a) the maximum height reached
(b) the time taken for it to return to the ground.
(g = 9.8 m s−2)

Answer
(a) Using v2 = u2 + 2as:
0 = 900 − 2 × 9.8 × s
19.6s = 900
s = 45.9 m
(Notice that at the maximum height the vertical velocity is zero and
that the acceleration due to gravity is negative since it acts to retard
the ball.)
(b) Using v = u + at:
30 = −30 + 9.8t
t = 6.1 s
(Remember that the ball must return to the ground with the same
speed with which it left it.)

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Objects projected horizontally

4 Mechanics and materials

Figure 4.19 shows the motion of an object projected horizontally in a
gravitational field.

u u
h
vx = u

vy
S
u

Figure 4.19 Projectile: horizontal projection

The object has: Exam tip

● a motion in the horizontal direction — this is uniform velocity, since
no forces act in this direction The motion of a projectile
● a motion in the vertical direction — this is uniformly accelerated
should be thought of in
two separate parts — one
motion due to the gravitational pull of the Earth, the vertical
horizontal and the other
acceleration being the strength of the Earth’s field (g = 9.8 m s−2).
vertical.
Remember that this always acts vertically downwards.
The horizontal distance travelled (s) = horizontal velocity x time = vxt = ut

The vertical distance travelled (h) = uyt + ½ (gt2) = ½ (gt2) since uy = 0.

Velocity after a time t v = (vx2 + vy 2)1/2

Direction of motion after time t tan θ = vy /vx

Example
A ball is thrown horizontally with an initial velocity of 6 m s−1 from an
open window that is 4 m above the ground. Calculate:
(a) the time it takes to hit the ground
(b) the distance from the wall where it hits the ground
(c) the velocity (magnitude and direction) 0.5 seconds after it is thrown.
(Ignore air resistance in your calculations and take g = 9.8 m s−2.)

Answer
(a) Using h = ½gt2:
4 = ½ × 9.8 × t2
t = 0.904 s = 0.90 s
(b) s = vt = 6 × 0.904 = 5.42 m
(c) vertical velocity after 0.5 s = 0 + gt = 9.8 × 0.5 = 4.9 m s−1
velocity after 0.5 s = √v x2 + v y2 = √62 + 4.92 = 7.75 m s−1
4.92
direction of motion: tan θ = = 0.82 and so θ = 39.4°
6

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Now test yourself
4 Mechanics and materials

11 A crate is released from an aircraft that is flying horizontally, 1500 m above the ground, at a steady
speed of 200 m s−1.
(a) What is its horizontal velocity:
(i) 2 s after it was released? (ii) 5 s after it was released?
(b) What is its vertical velocity:
(i) 2 s after it was released? (ii) 5 s after it was released?
(c) What is its velocity (magnitude and direction) 5 s after it was released?
(d) How long will it take to reach the ground?
(e) How far horizontally from the place where it was released will it hit the ground?
(g = 9.8 m s−2; air resistance can be ignored)

Answer on p. 217

Objects projected at an angle

Consider an object projected with velocity u at an angle A to the

Vertical compnent
horizontal (Figure 4.20).

= u sin A
vertical component of velocity = a sin A
horizontal component of velocity = u cos A
Vertical motion: h = ut sin A − ½gt2
Horizontal motion: s = ut cos A
The maximum range for a given velocity of projection is when
Initial velocity (u)
sin 2A = 1, that is, when 2A = 90° or when A = 45°.
u2sin 2A
range = g
u2sin 2 A
maximum height reached, H = A
2g
Horizontal component = u cos A
Example
A stone is projected at an angle of 60° to the horizontal with Range (R)
a velocity of 30 m s−1. (g = 9.8 m s−2) Figure 4.20 Object projected at
Calculate: an angle
(a) the highest point reached
(b) the range
(c) the time taken for the flight
(d) the height of the stone at the instant that the path makes an angle
of 30° with the horizontal.

Answer
302 sin2 60° 900 × 0.75
(a) highest point = = = 344 m
2 g 19.6
302 sin 120° 900 × 0.866
(b) range = = = 79.6 m
9.8 9.8
2 × 30 sin 60°
(c) time of flight = = 5.3 s
9.8
(d) At the point when the path makes an angle of 30° to the horizontal:
vertical component of velocity vertical component
tan 30° = =
horizontal component of velocity 30 cos60

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4 Mechanics and materials
The vertical component (v) is given by the formula:
v2 = 302 sin2 60° − (2 × 9.8 × h) = (900 × 0.75) − 19.6h Typical mistake
where h is the height reached at that point. Therefore: Forgetting that in projectile
675 − 19.6 h motion the acceleration
tan 30° =
15 is 9.81 m s−2 vertically
15 × 0.58 = 675 − 19.6h downwards at all points on
8.66 = 675 − 19.6h the trajectory even when it
19.6h = 666.3 is momentarily at rest at the
h = 34.0 m top of its path.

Now test yourself

12 A projectile is fired from a siege engine at 35 m s−1 at an angle of 60° to the horizontal:
(a) What is its vertical velocity at the top of its flight?
(b) What is its horizontal velocity at the top of its flight?
(c) What is its acceleration at the top of its path?
(d) What is its vertical velocity 5 s after it is fired?
(e) What is its overall velocity 5 s after it is fired (magnitude and direction needed here).

Answer on p. 217

Friction
To move one body over another that is at rest requires a force. This is
needed both to change the momentum of the first body and also to
overcome the frictional force between the two surfaces. The force needed
to overcome the frictional force when the bodies are at rest is called the
limiting friction (often called static friction).
The static frictional force between two surfaces depends on:
● the nature of the two surfaces
● the normal reaction between them

When the object is moving the friction between the two surfaces is
usually less than the static friction. This is almost independent of the
relative velocities of the two surfaces.

Lift and drag forces

When a f luid is in motion the pressure within the f luid varies with the
velocity of the f luid if the f low is streamlined.
The pressure within a fast-moving f luid is lower than that
in a similar f luid at rest or moving slowly.
The shape of the cross-section of an aircraft wing is designed so that the
velocity of the air above the wing is greater than that below it. A region
of low pressure is created above the wing and so the aircraft experiences
an upward force known as lift (Figure 4.21).

Lift

Figure 4.21 Airflow over an aircraft wing

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Terminal speed
4 Mechanics and materials

When any object falls through a f luid such as air it will experience a
viscous drag.
As the object falls faster and faster the drag force increases. Eventually
the drag force increases to a value where it is equal to the weight of the
object and the body continues to fall at a steady speed. We call this the
terminal speed of the object (Figure 4.22).

Acceleration: drag < mg Terminal speed: drag = mg

Figure 4.22 Terminal speed

At the terminal speed:

viscous drag (air resistance) = weight of the object = mg

Figure 4.23 shows how the velocity of an object will increase with time
as it falls through a viscous f luid. The acceleration starts with a value of g
but falls to zero when the terminal speed is reached.
Velocity of falling sphere

Terminal speed

Time

Figure 4.23 Terminal speed graph

Newton’s laws of motion

Newton’s first law of motion
Newton’s first law of motion states that:
A body remains at rest or in a state of uniform motion
unless acted on by a resultant force.

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At rest

4 Mechanics and materials

Someone sitting on a stool may be at rest but they are acted on by two
forces — their weight and the reaction of the stool. It is because these
two forces are balanced and there is no resultant force that they stay
still — i.e. at rest.

Uniform motion
This means no change of velocity; since velocity is a vector, this means
at a steady speed in a straight line. As a skydiver falls out of a plane their
speed increases — their weight is bigger than the drag — so there is a
net force and Newton’s first law does not apply. However, as the drag
increases the two forces on them become equal and the skydiver falls with
a constant velocity — a state of uniform motion.

Newton’s second law of motion

You need a force to change the motion of a body. The bigger the net
force the greater the acceleration. (Remember that force is a vector and
the direction of the forces acting on a body need to be considered.)
Newton’s second law of motion suggests that:
● acceleration is directly proportional to the accelerating force
● acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the
body being accelerated
force = mass × acceleration
F = ma
The units for force are newtons (N), those for mass are kg and those for
acceleration m s−2.
This law also gives us a good definition of the newton as a unit of force.
One newton is the force that will give a mass of 1 kilogram
an acceleration of 1 m s−2.

Example
A 250 kg box is pulled along a smooth road (no frictional drag) using a
force of 2000 N. What is the acceleration of the block?
Exam tip
Answer
Using F = ma: Note that it is mass that is
used in the equation, mass
F 2000 is measured in kg. Do not
a= = = 8 m s−2
m 250 convert mass to a weight.

Now test yourself

13 At the start of a 100 m race the rear foot of a sprinter can exert a force of some 1150 N on the starting
blocks and the front foot an additional 800 N. If the sprinter is a man of mass 83 kg what is his initial
acceleration?
14 If a rocket has a mass of 50 000 kg and its motors exert a thrust of 550 000 N what is the initial vertical
acceleration off the rocket? (g = 9.8 m s−2)

Answers on p. 217

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Newton’s third law of motion
4 Mechanics and materials

This states that:

If a force acts on one body, an equal and opposite force acts
on another body.
or
Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
This law can be checked by fixing two spring-loaded trucks together on
a linear air track. When the spring is released they both move off, showing
that there is a force on both, with the acceleration of each truck depending
on its mass.
The two forces mentioned in Newton’s third law are known as a
‘Newton pair’ (Figure 4.24).

Figure 4.24 A Newton pair

A Newton pair of forces has the following properties:

l The two forces act on two different bodies.
l Both forces are always of the same type (i.e. both gravitational, both
electrostatic, etc.).
l The forces are equal in magnitude.
l The forces act in opposite directions.

A book on a table can be used to explain the idea of a Newton pair. In Exam tip
this example there are two Newton pairs:
Notice that in each case if
l Gravitational forces — the pull of the Earth on the book and the pull
one of the forces of the pair
of the book on the Earth.
is removed it makes the
l Contact forces — the push of the book on the table and the push of the
other one vanish.
table on the book.

Now test yourself

15 A car of mass 1000 kg pulls a caravan of mass 800 kg. The driving wheels of the car exert a force of
8000 N on the road. The total resistance to motion is 3000 N.
(a) What is the net accelerating force?
(b) What is the acceleration?
(c) What is the force of the car on the caravan?

Answer on p. 217

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Momentum

4 Mechanics and materials

Impulse

When a force acts on a body the velocity of the body may change. The
product of the force and the time for which it acts is called the impulse.
impulse = force × time (units N s)

If application of an impulse is represented by a force–time graph, the

impulse is the area beneath the line on the graph (Figures 4.25 and 4.26).

Momentum and momentum change

The change in the velocity of a body due to the action of an impulse

depends not only on the size of the impulse but also the mass of the
body. The product of the mass of the body and its velocity is called the
momentum of the body.
momentum = mass × velocity (units kg m s−1)
Therefore, an impulse produces a change of momentum.

If the velocity of a body of mass m is changed from u to v by a force F

acting for a time t: Exam tip
impulse = Ft = momentum change (∆mv) = mv − mu (units kg m s or N s) −1
Remember that momentum,
Force may therefore be written as: and therefore momentum
Δmv change, is a vector.
force = rate of change of momentum F =
Δt

Example
Figure 4.25 shows an impulse of 8 N being applied to a body for 20 s.
Force/N

impulse = momentum
change = area under curve

20
Time/s
Figure 4.25 Force–time graph

Both the impulse and the momentum change are the area under the
line. Therefore:
impulse = 8 × 20 = 160 N s

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Now test yourself
4 Mechanics and materials

16 The graph in Figure 4.26 shows a varying force being applied to a body. If the body has a mass of
2.5 kg, calculate the impulse and hence the change in the velocity of the body during the first 10 s of
the motion shown.
Force/N

0 5 10
Time/S

Figure 4.26 Force–time graph, with variable force

Answer on p. 217

Conservation of momentum
Momentum is conserved in a collision or explosion in an isolated system
where no external forces act. In other words the momentum before
the collision or explosion is the same as that after it. This is true for all
collisions and explosions.
momentum before collision = momentum after collision
In a collision the same law of conservation of momentum applies. If a
mass m1 moving at a velocity u1 collides with a mass m2 moving at a
velocity u2 such that after the collision m1 moves at v1 and m2 moves at v 2:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
The law of conservation of momentum applies whether the collisions are
elastic or not (Figure 4.27).
Before After

m1 m2 m1 m2
u1 v1 u2 v2

Figure 4.27 Elastic collision

The special case of two equal masses making a completely elastic collision
is shown in Figure 4.28. In this collision the velocities of A and B are
swapped over.
Before After

m m m m
u v v u
A B A B
Figure 4.28 Elastic collision — equal masses

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In a perfectly inelastic collision all the kinetic energy of the colliding

4 Mechanics and materials

bodies is lost — this may be converted into heat or used to deform the
bodies. Imagine two balls colliding head on, sticking together and then
moving off after the collision.

m1 m2 m1 + m2
u1 v1 v2

Figure 4.29 Perfectly inelastic collision

Explosions
v

m
M

Figure 4.30 Cannon firing a shell

Exam tip
Energy and momentum are also conserved in explosions, although the
In an explosion where two
type of energy may be changed. For example when a cannon fires a shell
fragments are produced the
the total momentum of the shell (mu) (plus that of any exhaust gases etc.) heavier fragment will have
and the cannon (Mv) is the same after firing as it was before firing — that the smaller velocity.
is, zero.
momentum before explosion = momentum after explosion
Therefore:
0 = mu + Mv
Mv = −mu

Example
If a mass of 3.5 kg moving left to right at 5 m s−1 collides with a mass of
4.0 kg moving right to left at 3.0 m s−1 and they stick together, find the
final velocity of the combined masses.

Answer

momentum before impact = (3.5 × 5.0) + (−4.0 × 3.0) = 5.5 N s

But this must equal the momentum after the collision, i.e. total mass ×
final velocity.
Notice that one of the velocities is negative, showing that the ball was
moving right to left.
mass afterwards = 7.5 kg
Therefore:
5.5
velocity afterwards = = 0.73 m s−1
7.5
This is positive, showing that after collision the combined two balls
move from left to right.

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Now test yourself
4 Mechanics and materials

17 A child throws a 200 g snowball with a speed of 8 m s−1 so that it hits the 1.5 kg head of a snowman.
The snowball sticks to the snowman’s head and knocks it off. What is the initial velocity of the ball
and head just after collision?

Answer on p. 217

Work, energy and power

Work

When a force moves an object work is done on the object and energy
is converted from one form to another. The units for work are joule (J).
work done = force × displacement
Exam tip
= force × displacement in the direction of the force Force and displacement are
both vectors but work is a
work done = F(s cos θ ) scalar.

θ
F

s
Exam tip
Figure 4.31 Work done by a force
In the extreme case of the
force acting at right angles
Figure 4.31 shows a truck being pulled at a constant velocity a distance s to the rails the truck would
along a pair of rails by a force F. The force is applied at an angle θ to the not move along the rails
rails. The truck has a displacement s along the rails and the truck moves a and the work done on the
distance s cos θ in the direction of the force F. truck would be zero. Clearly
If there were no friction between the rails and the truck, the force needed the most effective direction
in which to apply the force
to keep the truck moving would be zero. However if there is a force of
to the truck if we want it
friction F′ between the rails and the truck, once the truck is moving it to move along the rails is
will require a force F cos θ (= F′) acting left to right to keep the truck parallel to the rails.
moving at a constant velocity.

Example 1
Calculate the minimum work done to pull a truck 8 m along a pair of rails
at constant velocity if the frictional force opposing the motion is 100 N.

Answer
In this case the minimum work done would be when the force is
parallel to the rails.
work done = force × displacement = 100 × 8 = 800 J

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Example 2

4 Mechanics and materials

The force is now applied at an angle of 30° to the rails. If the frictional
force remains the same, calculate:
(a) the force required to keep the truck moving at the same constant
velocity along the rails
(b) the work done in moving the truck 8 m along the rails.

Answer

(a)  force (F)cos θ = frictional force = 100 N

(b)  Therefore:
100
  F = = 115.5 N
cos 30
  work done = 115.5 × 8 = 923.8 J

The work done on an object is the area under the line in a force–
displacement graph. This applies if the force is constant (Figure 4.32(a)) or
varying (Figure 4.32(b)).
Force

Force

Area = work done by force

Area = work done by force

Displacement Displacement
(a) (b)

Figure 4.32 Work done and area under the force–displacement curve

work done against the force of gravity = mgΔh

where Δh is the change in height of the object above some original

position measured upwards from that position.

Now test yourself

18 A man pulls a boat along a canal at a constant speed using a rope that makes an angle of 30° with the
direction that the boat moves along the canal. If the force in the rope is 500 N calculate:
(a) the component of force along the canal
(b) the component of the force at right angles to the canal
(c) the work done by the man to move the boat 40 m along the canal.

Answer on p. 217

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Power
4 Mechanics and materials

The rate at which work is done, or the rate at which energy is Exam tip
converted from one form to another is the power, and is defined as: Power can also be
work done ΔW expressed as:
power, P = =
time taken Δt power = force (F) × velocity (v)
The units of power are watts (W), where 1 watt is 1 joule per second.

Now test yourself

19 A car travelling at 30 m s−1 along a level road is brought to rest in a distance of 35 m by its brakes. If
the total frictional drag at 30 m s−1 is 5000 N and the force exerted by the brakes during braking is
7000 N calculate:
(a) the power of the car when travelling at 30 m s−1
(b) the work done by the brakes to bring it to rest.

Answer on p. 217

Energy
Efficiency

Machines are devices for converting (transforming) one form of

‘useful’ energy to another form of ‘useful’ energy. How effective the
machine is at making this transformation is called the efficiency of
the machine.
useful energy transferred in a given time
efficiency = × 100%
energy supplied in that time

A petrol engine is about 30% efficient, a diesel engine 40% efficient and
our bodies are a mere 25% efficient — only one quarter of the energy
produced goes to moving the muscles.

Conservation of energy
Principle of energy conservation
It is important to talk about the transformation or conversion of energy
from one form to another and not its use. This is because although we
may use up energy in one form it always reappears as another.

The principle of conservation of energy is that energy is never created

or destroyed but only transformed from one form of energy to another.

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Sources of energy

4 Mechanics and materials

These include:
l fossil fuels — coal, oil, gas l nuclear fission
l wind l nuclear fusion
l waves l solar
l tides l osmotic pressure
l peat l geothermal
l hydroelectric l biomass
l pumped storage

Different forms of energy

Energy can ‘exist’ in the following forms:
l mechanical (kinetic, l magnetic
gravitational potential) l sound (kinetic)
l tensile l electrical
l nuclear l chemical
l heat (radiant, kinetic) l mass

Gravitational potential energy

The energy associated with the position of a body of mass m in a

gravitational field is the gravitational potential energy of the body
Exam tip
compared with some reference point where h = 0 — usually the
surface of the Earth. Remember that in
gravitational potential
If the distance moved parallel to the gravitational field is Δh then the
energy changes it is the
change in potential energy is:
vertical height moved in the
gravitational potential energy change = mgΔh field that is important.

Example 1
A crane lifts a load of 300 kg through a distance of 2.5 m onto a truck.
Calculate the gain in gravitational potential energy. (gravitational field
strength = 9.8 N kg−1).

Answer
gravitational potential energy gained = mgΔh = 300 × 9.8 × 2.5 = 7350 J

Example 2
A mass of 25 kg is moved a distance of 35 m at an angle of 20° to
a gravitational field of strength 9.8 N kg−1. Calculate the change in
gravitational energy.

Answer
change in gravitational potential energy = 25 × 9.8 × 35 cos 20 = 8058 J

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Now test yourself
4 Mechanics and materials

20 An 85 kg athlete trains by running up a flight of 30 steps. If each step

is 15 cm high and 20 cm wide calculate the change in his gravitational
potential energy. (gravitational field strength = 9.8 N kg−1)

Answer on p. 217

Kinetic energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called the
kinetic energy of the body.

The kinetic energy of an object depends on two things:

l the mass of the object (m)
l its speed (v)

The formula for kinetic energy of an object of mass m travelling at

velocity v is:
kinetic energy = ½mv2

Kinetic energy changes

It is important to understand the correct way to calculate changes in the
kinetic energy of an object. For example, suppose we want to find the
increase in the kinetic energy of an 8 kg ball when its velocity is increased Exam tip
from 3 m s−1 to 4 m s−1. The correct way is as follows:
Check that you understand
kinetic energy increase (Δke) = ½ × 8 × (42 − 32) = 4 × (16 − 9) = 4 × 7 = 28 J the correct way of
and not calculating kinetic energy
changes.
kinetic energy increase = ½ × 8 × (4 − 3)2 = 4 J

Example 1
A lorry of mass 6000 kg travels along a level road at 30 m s−1. The
brakes are then applied and the lorry stops in 70 m. Calculate:
(a) the kinetic energy of the lorry before braking
(b) the braking force.

Answer
(a) kinetic energy = ½mv2 = ½ × 6000 × 302 = 2 700 000 J = 2.7 MJ
energy change 2.7 × 106
(b) braking force = = = 38.6 kN
braking distance 70

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Example 2

4 Mechanics and materials

A lorry of mass 2000 kg moving at 10 m s−1 on a horizontal surface is
brought to rest in a distance of 12.5 m by the brakes being applied.
(a) Calculate the average retarding force (F).
(b) What power must the engine produce if the lorry is to travel up a
hill of 1 in 10 at a constant speed of 10 m s−1 the frictional resistance
being 200 N?

Answer

(a) kinetic energy of lorry = ½ × 2000 × 100 = 105 J = F × 12.5

Therefore F = 8000 N
(b) On the hill, height risen per second = 1 m and distance travelled
along the slope = 10 m.
potential energy gained by lorry per second (taking g = 9.8 N kg−1) =
Exam tip
2000 × 9.8 × 1 = 19 600 J
Remember that both
work done against friction per second = 200 × 10 = 2000 J
gravitational energy and
total energy required per second = 21 600 W = 21.6 kW kinetic energy are scalars.

Now test yourself

21 What is the maximum speed at which an earth-mover of mass 250 000 kg can descend a slope of 1 in
10 if the brakes can dissipate energy at a maximum rate of 2000 kW? (g = 9.8 N kg−1)
22 A lift has a mass of 400 kg. A man of mass 70 kg stands on a weighing machine fixed to the floor of the
lift. Four seconds after starting from rest the lift has reached its maximum speed and has risen 5 m.
(a) What will be the reading on the weighing machine during the period of acceleration?
(b) How may it be decided whether the acceleration was uniform?
(c) How much energy will be used by the lift motor in:
(i) the fi rst four seconds
(ii) the next four seconds?

Answers on p. 217

Bulk properties of solids

Density

The mass of individual atoms and how closely they are packed
together can be ‘felt’ on an everyday level — it is called the density of
the material.
mass m
density, ρ = =
volume V

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Example
4 Mechanics and materials

A statue has a volume of 5 × 10 −4 m3 and a mass of 4.75 kg. It has been

made of copper (density 8930 kg m−3) with a layer of silver (density
10 500 kg m−3) on top. What are the masses of copper and silver in
the statue?

Answer

mass = volume × density

4.75 = ρCuVCu + ρAgVAg = 8930 VCu + 10 500 VAg

But VCu + VAg = 5 × 10−4 and therefore 4.75 = 8930 VCu + 10 500(5 × 10−4 − VCu).
Therefore:
0.5
VCu = = 3.18 × 10 −4 m3
1570
So:
Exam tip
VAg = 1.82 × 10 −4 m3
Remember to use the
mass of copper = 8930 × 3.18 × 10 −4 = 2.84 kg correct SI units when
calculating and expressing
mass of silver = 1.91 kg density.

Now test yourself

23 3 mg of gas are injected into the vacuum chamber of a fusion reactor. The volume of the chamber
containing the gas is 3.75 m3. What is the density of the gas under these conditions?

Answer on p. 217

Hooke’s law and the elastic limit

The simplest form of variation of the extension of a metal wire when
a stretching force is applied to it is known as Hooke’s law. It relates the
applied force (F), or load, to the increase in length, or extension (ΔL), of
the object.

Hooke’s law states that if the elastic limit is not exceeded the
extension is directly proportional to the applied force — doubling the
force will double the extension.
force = constant × extension
Force

F = kΔL
The constant k is known as the elastic constant for the material and is
defined as F/ΔL. The units for k are N m−1. P

If a graph of force is plotted against extension a straight line will be

obtained up to a certain point called the elastic limit (shown as P on the
graph in Figure 4.33). Up to the elastic limit the wire behaves elastically
— that is, it will return to its original length if the load is removed. Extension
Beyond the elastic limit the wire will remain permanently stretched. Figure 4.33 Hooke’s law

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Example

4 Mechanics and materials

An elastic cord has an unstretched length of 35 cm. One end is fixed
to a support, and when a force of 2 N is applied to the lower end the
length of the cord is 65 cm.
Calculate the elastic constant of the cord.

Answer
force 2
elastic constant, k = = = 6.7 N m−1
extension 0.3

Now test yourself

24 A load of 50 N is hung on a 2.50 m length of copper wire. The elastic constant for the wire is 9400 N m−1.
Calculate the new length of the wire.

Answer on p. 217

Tensile stress and tensile strain

Tensile stress
Every elastic stress produces an elastic strain.

Tensile stress is a measure of the cause of the deformation produced

by a force:
force
tensile stress, σ =
area normal to the force
The units for tensile stress are N m−2 or Pa.

Tensile strain
Strain is a measure of the deformation produced by the stress:
extension
tensile strain, ε =
original length
Strain has no units as it is simply a ratio of two quantities with the
same units.

Breaking stress
The maximum stress that a material can stand before it breaks is called
the breaking stress. There are two types of breaking stress:
l compressive breaking stress — the maximum squashing stress before
fracture
l tensile breaking stress — the maximum stretching stress before fracture

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Example
4 Mechanics and materials

The compressive breaking stress (F) of a material can be used to

work out the maximum height of a rock column that is possible on the
surface of the Earth (Figure 4.34).

800 m
h

Granite column

Figure 4.34 Maximum height of a granite column

maximum pressure at the base = F = ρgh, where ρ is the density

of the rock.
For granite:
F = 145 × 106 and ρ = 2500 kg m−3
So:
145 × 106
h= = 5900 m
2500 × 9.81
This is smaller than the height of many mountains but in a mountain
the ‘column’ of rock would be supported from the sides by the rest of
the mountain.

Now test yourself

25 A lift and its passengers have a combined a weight of 20 000 N. The lift is suspended from four steel
cables of equal diameter. Calculate the minimum diameter of each cable, allowing for a 50% safety
margin. (breaking stress for steel = 500 MPa)

Answer on p. 217

Elastic strain energy

When a person jumps up and down on a trampoline it is clear that the
bed of the trampoline stores energy when it is in a state of tension. This
energy is converted to kinetic and gravitational potential energy of the
jumper when the tension is removed.

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Force

Force

4 Mechanics and materials

F
F2

F1

DL Extension DL1 DL2 Extension

(a) (b)

Figure 4.35 Elastic strain energy

Consider a wire of unstretched length L and let a force F produce an

extension ΔL. Assume that the elastic limit of the wire has not been
exceeded and that no energy is converted to other forms such as heat
(Figure 4.35(a)).
The work done by a force is Fs but in this case the force varies from
0 at the start to F at the end when the wire is stretched by an amount
ΔL. Therefore:
elastic energy stored in the wire = ½FΔL
But the work done by the force F is equal to the energy gained by the
wire. Therefore:
work done on the wire during stretching = average force × extension
= ½FΔL
This energy is the shaded area of the graph.
If the extension is increased from ΔL1 to ΔL 2 (Figure 4.35(b)) then the
extra energy stored is given by:
additional elastic energy stored in the wire = ½F(ΔL2 − ΔL1)

Example
Calculate the energy stored in a stretched copper wire if its
extension is increased by 1.5 mm when the force applied to it is
increased by 50 N.

Answer
additional energy stored = ½F(ΔL2 − ΔL1) = ½ × 50 × 1.5 × 10 −3 = 0.0375 J

Now test yourself

26 Calculate the increase in the elastic energy stored in the string of a cello if an increase in tension
from 0 to 70 N produces an extension of 1 mm.

Answer on p. 218

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Ductile, plastic and brittle materials
4 Mechanics and materials

A ductile material is one such as copper, which may be drawn

out into a wire without fracture. If a ductile material is stretched
beyond its elastic limit it will show plastic behaviour. This means
that when the load is removed some, or all, the deformation will
be permanent and the material will not return to its original length
before stretching.
Materials such as glass that can be extended but do not show
plastic deformation and will easily fracture are known as
brittle materials.

Stress–strain curves
If a ductile material such as copper is stretched it will follow the
curve shown by Figure 4.36(a). From O to P Hooke’s law is obeyed.
The point E is the elastic limit — if the load is removed before E
is reached the material will return to its original length. Between
E and Y the material becomes plastic — not all the extension is
recoverable if the load is removed. B is the breaking stress at which the
material fractures.

B
Stress

Stress

Y Breaks B
E Breaks
P

O S Strain Strain
(a) (b)

Figure 4.36 Ductile and brittle materials

Figure 4.36(b) shows the stress–strain curve for a brittle material. There is
no plastic deformation.

The Young modulus

The Young modulus determines the relation between tensile stress and
tensile strain (Figure 4.37).

A F

L DL
Figure 4.37 The Young modulus

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4 Mechanics and materials
The Young modulus is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain:
force F
tensile stress (σ ) = =
cross sectional area A
extension ΔL
tensile strain (ε ) = =
original length L
tensile stress σ F/A FL
Young modulus = = = =
tensile strain ε ΔL/L AΔL

Example
A steel wire 10 m long and with a cross-sectional area of 0.01 cm2 is hung
from a support and a load of 150 N is applied to its lower end. Calculate
the new length of the wire. (Young modulus for steel = 210 GPa)

Answer
150 × 10
extension, ΔL = = 7.14 mm
2.1 × 1011 × 1 × 10 −6

Therefore, the new length = 10.00714 m

Now test yourself

27 The rubber cord of a catapult has a cross-sectional area of 1.0 mm2 and a total unstretched length
of 10.0 cm. It is stretched to 15 cm and then released to project a missile of mass 5.0 g vertically.
Calculate:
(a) the energy stored in the rubber
(b) the velocity of projection
(c) the maximum height that the missile could reach.
Take the Young modulus for rubber to be 5.0 × 108 Pa and g = 9.8 N kg−1.
28 It has been calculated that during running the force on the hip joint is about five times the body
weight. Estimate the compression of the femur during each running stride for a sprinter of mass
70 kg. (Assume that the femur is 0.40 m long and has a mean diameter of 2.0 cm; g = 9.8 N kg−1; Young
modulus for bone = 18 × 109 Pa.)
29 A gymnast of mass 70 kg hangs by one arm from a high bar. If the gymnast’s whole weight is
assumed to be taken by the humerus bone (in the upper arm) calculate the stress in the humerus if it
has a radius of 1.5 cm. (g = 9.8 N kg−1)

Answers on p. 218

Required practical 4
Measurement of the Young modulus
The Young modulus can be measured for a material in the form of a
wire using the apparatus shown in Figure 4.38.
Two identical wires are hung from a beam; one wire is used as a
reference standard and has a scale is fixed to one wire and a mass
hung on the end to remove kinks in it. The other wire has a small load
placed on it to straighten it and a vernier scale that links with the
scale on the reference wire.

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4 Mechanics and materials

Comparison
wire Test
wire

Vernier
scale

Tensioning Variable
load load

Figure 4.38 Measurement of the Young modulus

The original length (L) of the test wire is measured and its diameter is
found for various points along its length.
Loads are then placed gently on the wire and the extension of the wire
found for each one. They should not be dropped, as this would subject
the wire to a sudden shock. After each reading the load should be
removed to check that the wire returns to its original length, showing
that its elastic limit has not been exceeded.
A graph is plotted of stress against strain and from this the value of
the Young modulus can be found (this is the gradient of the line, i.e.
F/A divided by ΔL/L).

Exam practice
Take g = 9.8 N kg−1 where needed.
1 An oarsman rows a boat across a river that is flowing from left to right at 10 m s−1. If the speed of the boat
at right angles to the bank is 6 m s−1 find the final velocity of the boat as it moves across the river. [4]
You should use both the scale diagram and calculation methods to find your answers.
2 A child pulls a 120 kg sledge along a rough level road using a rope that is inclined at 35° to the
horizontal. If the force in the rope is 300 N and the frictional force between the sledge and the road is
20 N what is the acceleration of the sledge? [3]
3 A stone is projected upwards at 25 m s−1 at an angle of 30° to the horizontal (air resistance should be
ignored for parts (a)–(d)):
(a) What is its vertical velocity at the top of its flight? [1]
(b) What is its horizontal velocity at the top of its flight? [2]
(c) What is its horizontal velocity 5 s after it is fired? [2]
(d) What is the maximum height it reaches? [3]
(e) Sketch the trajectory of the projectile for the following two cases:
(i) when air resistance is ignored [2]
(ii) when air resistance is taken into account [3]

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4 Mechanics and materials
  4 A rigid body acted on by a set of forces is in equilibrium if:
A the resultant force is zero
B the forces all act in the same direction and the resultant couple is zero
C the resultant force and the resultant couple are both zero
D the resultant couple is zero [1]
  5 A uniform ladder 3 m long and weighing 200 N leans against a wall so that it makes an angle
of 55° with the ground. (g = 9.8 N kg−1)
(a) What is the normal reaction between the ladder and the wall? [3]
(b) What is the size and direction of the reaction at the ground? [3]
(c) A painter of mass 70 kg climbs the ladder. Calculate the new values for parts (a) and
(b) when they are 1.0 m up the ladder (measured along the ladder itself). [4]
  6 An engine of mass 5000 kg pulls a train of ten trucks each of mass 2000 kg along a horizontal track.
Assume the frictional forces amount to 5000 N and that the engine exerts a force of 50 000 N on the
rails. If the trucks are numbered from 1 to 10 starting with the one next to the engine, calculate:
(a) the net total accelerating force [2]
(b) the acceleration of the train [1]
(c) the force of truck 6 on truck 7 [2]
(d) the force of truck 9 on truck 8 [2]
  7 A heavy ball with a mass of 5 kg is thrown with a velocity of 6 m s−1 to a boy who is standing on a
skateboard at rest. He catches it and as a result moves backwards at 0.5 m s−1. What is the
combined mass (m) of the boy and skateboard? [3]
  8 Two bodies, P and Q, of equal mass move towards each other at speeds u and v respectively.
They make an elastic collision, and during the collision P is momentarily at rest. What is the
speed of Q at that moment?
A v – u
B 2(v – u)
C zero
D √uv [1]
  9 A firework rocket moves upwards and then explodes into two unequal fragments at the top of its
flight path. They both move horizontally immediately after the explosion, one moves to the left at
25 m s−1 and the other to the right at 75 m s−1.
(a) If the mass of the fragment moving to the left is 800 g what is the mass of the other fragment? [3]
(b) What is the kinetic energy of the fragment moving left immediately after the explosion? [2]
(c) What is the kinetic energy of the other fragment immediately after the explosion? [2]
(d) Why is it necessary that the two fragments initially move off in exactly opposite directions? [2]
10 A car of mass m has an engine that can produce a power P. What is the minimum time in which the
car can be accelerated from rest to a speed v?
mv2
A
P
2P
B
mv2
mv2
C
2P
mv2
D [1]
4P
11 A load of 50 kg is lifted by a small crane that is 35% efficient. If the load rises 6 m in 3 seconds,
calculate the power used by the crane. [2]
12 A monofilament nylon fishing line of original length 1.5 m and diameter 0.75 mm extends by 4 cm
when a certain load is applied. (Young modulus for the fishing line = 6.5 × 109 Pa)
(a) Calculate the elastic energy stored in the line. [2]
(b) The fishing line mentioned in part (a) will support a load of 100 N if it is applied steadily but will
break when the same load is applied to it sharply. Why is this? [2]

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4 Mechanics and materials

13 A steel wire of diameter d has a strain of 12.0 × 10 −4 when supporting a certain load. If the wire is
replaced by a second wire of the same material, but with a diameter of d/2, what will be the strain in
this wire if it supports the same load?
A 6.0 × 10 −3
B 4.8 × 10 −3
C 2.4 × 10 −3
D 6.0 × 10 −4 [1]
14 The gravitational field strength at the surface of a neutron star is 1.35 × 1012 N kg−1.
What would be the theoretical maximum height of a cylindrical granite column that could support
its own weight without crushing when exposed to a field of this magnitude? (density of granite =
2700 kg m−3; crushing strength = 3.6 × 106 Pa) [2]

Answers and quick quiz 4 online

Summary
You should now have an understanding of: with their behaviour with a resultant force;
● scalars and vectors — scalar quantities have and the third explains the action of forces on
only magnitude, while vector quantities have two bodies
both magnitude and direction ● momentum — mass × velocity; momentum is
● moments — the turning effect of a force about conserved in all collisions
a point; moment = force × perpendicular ● work, power (the rate at which work is done),
distance from the point to the line of action of energy and efficiency
the force; for a body to be in equilibrium, both ● conservation of energy — energy is not created
the resultant force and the resultant moment or destroyed but can be changed from one
must be zero form to another
● motion along a straight line — governed by the ● density — mass/volume
equations of motion for uniform acceleration ● Hooke’s law — the force is directly proportional
● projectile motion — this can be considered in to the extension up to the elastic limit
two parts, one horizontal (uniform motion) and ● the Young modulus — (F/A)/(ΔL/L); this is the
one vertical (accelerated motion) modulus of elasticity that governs the linear
● Newton’s laws of motion — the first law extension of a specimen when a force is
governs the motion of bodies under no applied
resultant force; the second is concerned

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5 Electricity

Basics of electricity
Electric charge
When an electric current f lows, electrical energy is converted to other
forms of energy such as heat, light, chemical, magnetic and so on.
In a metal there is a large number of electrons that are not held around
particular nuclei but are free to move at high speed and in a random way
through the metal. These are known are free electrons and in a metal
there are always large numbers of these. It is when these free electrons
are all made to move in a certain direction by the application of a voltage
across the metal that we have an electric current (Figure 5.1).

Metal ion
Electron drift

Free electron

– +

Figure 5.1 Free electrons in a wire

Each electron has only a very small amount of electric charge (e), so a
larger unit is used when measuring practical units of charge. This unit is
the coulomb:
1 coulomb = −6.25 × 1018 e
Therefore the charge on one electron is −1.6 × 10−19 C.

Electric current as a rate of flow of charge

Typical mistake
A current of 1 A flows in a wire if a charge of 1 C passes any point in
the wire each second. Not using seconds for the
time when calculating
The rate of flow of electric charge (ΔQ/Δt) round a circuit is the
current.
electric current in that circuit.

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Example 1
5 Electricity

Calculate the current in a wire if a charge of 240 C passes a given point

in 3 minutes.

Answer
Q 240
current = = = 1.33 A
t 180

Example 2
A current of 25 mA flows for 10 ms.
(a) What charge has passed?
(b) How many electrons have fl owed past that point in the circuit.

Answer
(a) charge = current × time = 0.025 × 0.010 = 0.00025 C = 2.5 × 10 −4 C
2.5 × 10 −4
(b) number of electrons = = 1.56 × 1015
1.6 × 10 −19

Now test yourself

1 (a) A charge of 20 C passes a point in a circuit in 4 s. What is the current in the circuit? (Give your
answer in amps.)
(b) A charge of 600 C passes a point in a circuit in 20 minutes. What is the current in the circuit? (Give
your answer in milliamps.)
2 (a) A current of 2 A flows for 10 s. What charge has passed? (Give your answer in coulombs.)
(b) A current of 5 mA fl ows for 8 minutes. What charge has passed? (Give your answer in coulombs.)

Answers on p. 218

Note that we are using the conventional direction for electric current
f low, i.e from positive to negative. In actual fact, of course, the electrons
in a wire move from negative to positive when a current f lows.

Resistance
As the free electrons in an electric current move through the metal they
collide with each other and with the atoms of the metal. These collisions
impede their movement and this property of the material is called its
resistance.

The resistance (R) of a given piece of material is connected to the

current flowing through it (I) and the potential difference (V) between
its ends by the equation:
potential difference
resistance =
current
R=V
I

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Potential difference

5 Electricity
As a charge moves round a circuit from the positive to the negative it
loses energy.
The electric potential energy of a unit charge at a point in a
circuit is called the potential at that point.
The difference in electric potential between two points in the circuit is
known as the potential difference (p.d.) between those two places.

Potential difference between two points in a circuit is the work done

(W) in moving unit charge (Q) (i.e. 1 coulomb) from one point to the other:
ΔW
potential difference, V =
ΔQ
The units for both potential and potential difference are joules per
coulomb, or volts (1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb).

Current–voltage characteristics
Ohm’s law
If the ratio of V to I remains constant for a series of different potential

Current, I
differences the material is said to obey Ohm’s law and is known as an
ohmic conductor.
This means that although we can always work out the resistance of a
sample, knowing the current through it and the p.d. across it, if these
quantities are altered we can only predict how it will behave under these
new conditions if it obeys Ohm’s law.
Potential difference, V
Ohm’s law states that the current in a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across it. Figure 5.2 Ohm’s law graph

Figure 5.2 shows the variation of current (I) with potential difference (V)
V
for a material that obeys Ohm’s law — in other words, an ohmic conductor.
It is important to realise that Ohm’s Law only holds for a metallic conductor B C D E
at a constant temperature.
r R
Figure 5.3 shows the variation in the potential around the circuit. We can
R>r
Potential

follow this by considering each section of the circuit in turn. V B

l Along the connecting wire from the cell to B there is no resistance and
D
so no loss of electrical energy or drop in potential. C
l In the resistors r and R energy is converted to heat and so the potential
drops from B through to E.
l From E to the cell there is no loss of electrical energy and so the potential
at E is the same as that at the negative terminal of the cell — zero. E
Distance round circuit
Example 1 Figure 5.3 Variation in
A 6 V battery is connected to a small electromagnet and a current of potential round a circuit
1.5 A flows through it. What is the resistance of the electromagnet?

Answer
voltage 6
resistance = = = 4 Ω
current 1.5

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Example 2
5 Electricity

A current of 0.5 mA flows through a resistor of 100 kΩ. What is the

potential difference across the resistor?

Answer
voltage = current × resistance = 0.0005 × 100 000 = 50 V

Now test yourself

3 Calculate the current through the following resistors:
(a) 120 Ω connected to 200 mV (c) 10 kΩ connected to 6 V
(b) 4700 Ω connected to 12 V (d) 2.5 MΩ connected to 25 V
4 What is the resistance of the following?
(a) a torch bulb that draws 0.25 A from a 12 V supply
(b) an immersion heater that draws 10 A from a 230 V supply

Answers on p. 218

Common current–voltage
characteristics
A current sensor and a voltage sensor can be used to capture data to give
V–I curves. Figure 5.4 shows some common examples.
I I I

Metal at a Vacuum
constant Gas-filled diode
temperature diode

V V V
I I I

Carbon Light bulb

resistor Semiconductor Typical mistake
filament
diode
Using the gradient of a
V–I curve for a non-ohmic
conductor to calculate
V V V resistance.
Figure 5.4 Common I–V curves

The graph for a metal at a constant temperature is an example of an

ohmic conductor (see below).

Resistivity
What is resistivity?
There are three factors that affect the resistance of a sample of a material:
● the temperature
● the dimensions of the sample — the smaller the cross-sectional area
and the longer the sample the larger the resistance
● the material from which the sample is made

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The property of the material that affects its resistance is called the

5 Electricity
resistivity of the material (Figure 5.5), symbol ρ.

The resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance between

two opposite faces of a metre cube of the material. It is related to the
resistance (R) of a specimen of length L and cross-sectional area A by
the formula:
Typical mistake
RA
resistivity, ρ =
L Using Ω m−1 instead of Ω m as
the unit for resistivity.
The units for resistivity are Ω m.

Resistance, R

RA
ρ=
L

L A

Figure 5.5 Resistivity definition

The resistivities of good conductors are very small numbers (usually

between 10−8 and 10−6 Ω m), rising to around 1 Ω m for semiconductors
and 1015 Ω m for ‘insulators’.

Example 1
Calculate the resistance of a 1.5 m long piece of wire of resistivity
30 × 10 −8 Ω m and diameter 0.5 mm.

Answer
resistivity × length 30 × 10 −8 × 1.5
resistance = = = 2.3 Ω
area 1.96 × 10 −7

Example 2
Some resistance wire (resistivity 40 × 10 −8 Ω m) is used to make a
heater. The wire on the reel has a cross-sectional area of 1.5 × 10 −7 m2,
and the required resistance is 5 Ω. What length of wire is needed? Exam tip
In resistivity calculations
Answer
make sure that you use
resistance × area 5 × 1.5 × 10 −7 metres and not cm or mm,
length = = = 1.88 m
resistivity 40 × 10 −8 and radius and not diameter.

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5 Electricity

Required practical 5
Measurement of resistivity
The resistivity of a wire can be measured using a low-voltage power
supply, a micrometer, an ammeter and a voltmeter.
● First measure the diameter of the wire in a number of places using
the micrometer and calculate an average value.
● Then connect the wire and meters to the power supply and apply a
small voltage.
● Take readings of the current through the wire and the potential
difference across it.
● Hence calculate the resistivity.

It is important to avoid heating the wire by using too large a potential

difference.
An alternative method uses an ohm meter instead of the ammeter,
voltmeter and power supply.

Now test yourself

5 Calculate the resistivity of a material if a 250 cm length of wire of
that material with a diameter of 0.56 mm has a resistance of 3 Ω.
6 Calculate the resistance between the large faces of a slab of
germanium of thickness 1 mm and area 1.5 mm2. The resistivity of
germanium is 0.65 Ωm.

Answers on p. 218

Resistance and temperature

When a material is heated its resistivity will change and therefore so will
Resistance

the resistance of a specimen of that material. The nature of the change

depends on the material. The change is governed by a property called the
temperature coefficient of resistance (α). This is positive for metals
but negative for non-metals such as semiconductors.

Metals
For a metal an increase in the temperature gives an increase in resistance.
At low temperatures the thermal vibration of the lattice ions is small and
electrons can move easily, but at high temperatures the motion increases, Temperature
giving a much greater chance of collisions between the conduction Figure 5.6 Metal resistance
electrons and the lattice ions, so impeding their motion. and temperature variation
The variation is shown in Figure 5.6.

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Semiconductors

5 Electricity
In semiconductors an increase in temperature leads to a drop in
resistance. Bound electrons gain energy and move into the conduction
band, resulting in an increase in the number of free electrons.
The temperature coefficient of resistance is therefore negative.
Such materials are called negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
semiconductors.

Thermistors

Resistance
The change of resistance of a semiconductor with temperature is used in
temperature sensitive resistors called thermistors. The most widely used
are NTC thermistors whose resistance falls as the temperature rises. The
symbol for a thermistor and a graph of the variation of its resistance with
temperature are shown in Figure 5.7.
Thermistors are used as temperature sensors in thermostats in ovens
and irons, in fire alarms and on the wing of a plane to detect when the
temperature falls low enough for ice to form. They are also in use in Temperature
premature baby units to detect when a baby may have stopped breathing, Figure 5.7 Resistance variation
current-limiting devices and thermometers. for an NTC thermistor

Now test yourself

7 When is the filament in a ‘traditional’ light bulb most likely to break?
Explain your answer.

Answer on p. 218

Superconductivity
When metals cool, their resistance falls steadily as the motion of the
atoms of the metal and the free electrons gets less and so the number of
electron–atom collisions is reduced.
However, it was found that as the metal is cooled further a temperature
can be reached where the resistance suddenly falls to zero — when this
happens the metal is said to be superconducting and the phenomenon is
called superconductivity.
The temperature at which this happens for a given metal is called the
critical temperature for the metal.
The importance of superconductivity is that if a material is
superconducting it has no resistance, this means that an electric current
can f low through it without energy loss in the form of resistive heating.
Applications of superconductivity include:
● high-power superconducting electromagnets for use in both the
levitation of experimental trains and in nuclear accelerators
● superconducting power cables for electrical energy transmission

AQA A-level Physics 99

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Circuits
5 Electricity

Resistors in series
A series circuit is one where the components are connected one I
after the other. This means that the current passing through all the
components is the same.
In Figure 5.8 the current through both resistors is I and the potential R1 R2
difference across R1 is V1 and that across R 2 is V2.
V1 V2
The total resistance (R) of a set of resistors in series is simply found by
adding the values of the resistance of each resistor together: Figure 5.8 Resistors in series
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + …

The above formula is true no matter how many resistors you add.

Resistors in parallel
When the resistors are connected in parallel the current splits
at the junction, a current I1 passing through R1 and a current I 2
passing through R 2. The potential difference across any number
of resistances connected in parallel is the same for all the resistors R1
(Figure 5.9).
I1
I
The formula for total resistance (R) for resistors connected in V
parallel is: I2

1 1 1 1
= + + +… R2
R R1 R2 R3
Figure 5.9 Resistors in parallel
This version of the formula is true no matter how many resistors
you add. However, a simpler version can be derived for two resistors
in parallel: Exam tip
R1R2 The version in this form
R=
R1 + R2 is only correct for two
resistors.
Example 1
Calculate the resistance of the following combinations:
(a) 200 Ω and 100 Ω in series Typical mistake
(b) 200 Ω and 100 Ω in parallel. When calculating the
Answer final resistance for a pair
of resistors in parallel,
(a) R = R1 + R2 = 200 + 100 = 300 Ω
working out 1/R and then
(b) 1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 3 and so R = 67 Ω forgetting to invert it to
R R1 R2 200 100 200 obtain the final resistance R.

Example 2
You are given one 100 Ω resistor and two 50 Ω resistors. How would you
connect any combination of them to give a combined resistance of:
(a) 200 Ω
(b) 125 Ω?

Answer
(a) 100 Ω in series with both the 50 Ω
(b) the two 50 Ω in parallel and this in series with the 100 Ω

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Now test yourself

5 Electricity
8 What is the final resistance of each of the six circuits in Figure 5.10?
(a) (b) 400 W
200 W 400 W
200 W

(c) (d) 500 W

500 W 250 W

500 W

300 W 150 W
500 W

(e) (f) 400 W 200 W

250 W
100 W 150 W
200 W
800 W 400 W

Figure 5.10
9 Figure 5.11 shows an LDR connected in parallel with a 100 kW
resistor and a 6 V cell of negligible internal resistance.
The resistance of the LDR falls as the intensity of light
falling on it is increased.
(a) Calculate the current flowing from the cell when the
resistance of the LDR is 150 kΩ.
(b) What happens to this current if the light intensity
is reduced?
(c) What is the minimum current that can be drawn
from the cell?
Figure 5.11 LDR and resistor in parallel
Answers on p. 218

Cells in series and parallel

For cells connected in series (Figure 5.12), the total potential difference
between the ends of the chain is the sum of the potential differences 2V
across each cell.

2V 2V 2V 2V

2V
6V 2V
Figure 5.13 Cells in parallel
Figure 5.12 Cells in series

For cells connected in parallel (Figure 5.13), the total potential difference
Typical mistake
across the arrangement is the same as for one cell.
Not allowing for the change
The advantage of the parallel circuit is that although the output voltage is in total output voltage if one
the same as that of a single cell the battery formed from the group of cells or more of the cells in a
contains more energy and so will supply current for longer. series is reversed.

AQA A-level Physics 101

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Now test yourself
5 Electricity

10 You are given two 6 V cells of negligible internal resistance and a
200 Ω resistor. What current flows through the resistor when the
cells are connected
(a) to the resistor in parallel
(b) to the resistor in series?

Answer on p. 218

Electrical energy
If a charge Q moves between two points in a circuit that have a potential
difference of V volts between them the energy gained (or lost) by the
charge is given by the formula:
electrical energy = charge (Q) × potential difference (V)
Since charge (Q) = current (I) × time (t):
electrical energy = IVt
Large amounts of energy are used in a car starter motor to ‘turn the
engine over’. Although the voltage is low (12 V) the current required may
be a great as 200 A.

Example
Calculate the amount of energy supplied by a 6 V battery when:
(a) a charge of 25 C passes through it
(b) a current of 30 mA flows through it for 5 minutes

Answer Typical mistake

(a) energy = potential difference × charge = 6 × 25 = 150 J
Forgetting to convert to SI
(b) energy = potential difference × charge
units, for example mA to A
= potential difference × current × time
and minutes to seconds.
= 6 × 30 × 10 −3 × 300 = 54 J

Now test yourself

11 Calculate how much electrical energy is supplied by a 1.5 V battery
when:
(a) a charge of 3000 C passes through it
(b) a current of 200 μA flows from it for 2.5 hours
12 How much energy is drawn from a 12 V car battery if it is used to
supply 200 A for 1.5 s to the starter motor?

Answers on p. 218

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Electrical power

5 Electricity
Power is the rate at which work is done or energy changed from one
form to another, and so:
energy VQ
electrical power = = = VI
time t

Electrical power is measured in watts (W) where 1 W = 1 J s−1. For

large power outputs we use kilowatts (1 kW = 1000 W) and megawatts
(1 MW = 1 000 000W).
Since V = IR, and power = VI:
2 V2
electrical power = VI = I R =
R

Example 1
Calculate the current used by a 12 V immersion heater that is designed
to deliver 30 000 J in 5 minutes.

Answer
energy = power × time = 30 000
Therefore:
30 000 = power × 300
power = 100 W
So:
100
current = = 8.3 A
12

Example 2
(a) Calculate the resistance of a 100 W light bulb if it takes a current
of 0.8 A.
(b) Calculate the power of a 12 V immersion heater with a resistance
of 10 Ω.

Answer
(a) power = I2R
100
Therefore R = = 156.3 Ω
0.64
144
(b) power = V =
2
= 14.4 W
R 10

Now test yourself

13 What power is supplied to the heater of an electric bar fire with a resistance of 50 Ω connected to the
mains 230 V supply?
14 What is the power loss down a copper connecting lead 75 cm long with a resistance of 0.13 Ω per
metre when a current of 4.5 A flows through it?

Answer on p. 218

AQA A-level Physics 103

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Conservation of charge and energy
5 Electricity

In an electrical circuit both charge and energy must be conserved. These A E

requirements are usually expressed in Kirchhoff ’s two rules:
1 The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction is zero. In other C
words there is no build up of charge at a junction (ΣI = 0).
B
2 The sum of the changes in potential round a closed circuit R1 D
must be zero.
Rule 1 is about charge conservation while rule 2 is about energy R2
conservation (Figure 5.14).
Rule 1 — at point B there is a junction: I1
current flowing from the cell (I) = Current in R1 (I1) + current in R2 (I2) I

Rule 2 — round loop A–B–C–D–E: I2

p.d. across cell = − p.d. across R1

Figure 5.14 Conservation of
This represents a gain of potential in the cell but a loss in R 1. charge and energy
In this equation there is a minus because we are moving ‘against’ the
current in R 2.

Example
Consider the circuit in Figure 5.15.
I1

0.015 A

0.002 A
A
I3 1000 W
I2

400 W E

I1 I3

B
Figure 5.15 Example problem circuit

Applying Kirchhoff’s first rule to junction A:

current in the 400 Ω resistor = 0.015 − 0.002 = 0.013 A
potential difference across 400 Ω resistor = 0.013 × 400 = 5.2 V

This is the potential difference between A and B via the 400 Ω resistor but it is also the potential
difference across the right-hand branch of the circuit via the cell of emf ε (p. 109).
The potential drop across the 1000 Ω resistor is 0.002 × 1000 = 2 V.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second rule to the right-hand branch and considering an anticlockwise direction
from the cell:
EMF of the cell, E = (−0.002 x 1000) + 5.2 = −2 + 5.2 = 3.2 V
The minus sign is there because the current in the 1000 Ω resistor is travelling in the opposite direction
from that in which the emf of the cell is acting.

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Now test yourself

5 Electricity
I1 = 0.1 A

I3 150 W

I2 = 0.04 A

E
100 W

Figure 5.16
15 Using Figure 5.16:
(a) Find the magnitude and direction of I3.
(b) Find the magnitude and direction of E.
16 Using Figure 5.16:
(a) If I1 = 0.2 A and I2 = 0.5 A, find the magnitude and direction of I3.
(b) If I1 = 0.3 A and I2 = 0.1 A, find the magnitude and direction of I3.

Answers on p. 218

Potential dividers
Basic circuit
Two resistors connected across a cell enable the output of the cell to be
divided between them. Such a circuit is called a potential divider. The
basic circuit is shown in Figure 5.17. If the output is continuously variable
from 0 to V the device is known as a potentiometer. The p.d. across R1
and R 2 is fixed (V ). The output voltage across AB is given by:
R2
output voltage, V2 = V
(R1 + R2)

R1

V
A

R2 V2 Typical mistake
Taking the ratio of the two
resistors rather than the
B
ratio of one resistor to the
sum of both.
Figure 5.17 Potential divider circuit

AQA A-level Physics 105

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Measuring the output voltage with a meter
5 Electricity

This can be done using a digital voltmeter with very high (if not
virtually infinite) resistance. The output voltage measured by this meter is
that across R 2, in other words V2. Exam tip

Another option is to use a moving coil meter. These meters have a The total voltage across both
much lower resistance than a digital meter, usually some tens of kΩ. This the resistor and the other
component in the circuit
means that the combined resistance of R 2 and the moving coil meter in
must always stay the same
parallel with it is less than R 2. The proportion of the input voltage (V ) and be equal to the supply
dropped across R 2 therefore falls and so the output voltage is less than that voltage of the battery.
measured with a digital meter.

Example
A loudspeaker is connected across the output (R2) of a potential
divider. Varying R1 will change the potential across R2 and so the device
acts as a volume control (Figure 5.18).

R1

R2 V2

Figure 5.18 Potential divider with loudspeaker

If V = 6 V, R1 = 200 Ω, R2 = 0.5 kΩ and the loudspeaker has a resistance
of 100 Ω, calculate the p.d. across it.

Answer
Call the combined resistance of R2 and the loudspeaker R3:
500 × 100
R3 = = 83 Ω
600
(This the resistance of R2 (500 Ω) and the loudspeaker (100 Ω) in parallel.)
Therefore, using the formula for the potential divider:
R3
V2 = ×6
(R1 + R3)
p.d. across the speaker, V2 = (83/283)6 = 1.8 V

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Examples of the use of a potential divider

5 Electricity
Light-dependent resistor (LDR)
An LDR is a component that has a resistance that changes when light
falls on it. As the intensity of the light is increased, so the resistance of
the LDR falls.
If the LDR is connected as part of a potential divider, as shown in
Figure 5.19, then as the light level is increased its resistance falls and the
proportion of the input voltage dropped across it will also fall.

R1

V
LDR

V2

Figure 5.19 Potential divider with LDR

So in the light V2 is low and in the dark V2 is high.

Thermistor
If R 2 is replaced by an NTC thermistor the circuit is temperature
dependent. As the temperature of the thermistor rises its resistance falls
and so the voltage dropped across it falls.

R1

V2

Thermistor
Revision activity
Make a mind map showing
Figure 5.20 Potential divider with a thermistor the various possible circuits
using a potential divider
When the thermistor is hot V2 is low and when the thermistor is cold (e.g resistors, thermistor
V2 is high. and LDR). Summarise the
effect on the output p.d. of
Both these examples have considered R 2 being replaced by another
changing the values of the
component. If R1 is replaced then if the voltage across this component components.
rises the output voltage across R 2 will fall.

AQA A-level Physics 107

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Now test yourself
5 Electricity

17 Using Figure 5.17, calculate the output voltage for the following
values of V, R1 and R2.
(a) V = 12 V, R1 = 100 kΩ, R2 = 200 kΩ
(b) V = 10 V, R1 = 25 kΩ, R2 = 20 kΩ
(c) V = 6 V, R1 = 250 Ω, R2 = 200 Ω
18 (a) Resistor R1 is now replaced by a thermistor with a negative
temperature coefficient — one where the resistance decreases
as the temperature rises.
If the values of the resistance of R2 and the thermistor are
equal at the start, what will happen to the output potential
difference (V) as the thermistor is cooled?
(b) Resistor R2 is now replaced by a light-dependent resistor. (R1 is
a fixed resistor.)
If the values of the resistance of R1 and the LDR are equal
at the start, what will happen to the output potential
difference (V) as the intensity of the light falling on the LDR
is decreased?

Answers on p. 218

The variable resistor as a potential divider

Another way of varying the output potential difference is to use a variable
resistor or rheostat (Figure 5.21). This is made of a length wire wrapped
round a former.
Coil of wire
Terminal C
C
A
B V

Sliding contact

Terminal B

Terminal A

Figure 5.21 The variable resistor

The source potential is connected between A and B and the output (V)
taken between B and C.

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Electromotive force and internal

5 Electricity
resistance
Electromotive force
When a charge passes through a cell it gains energy. The energy gained
per coulomb in the cell is called the electromotive force (emf) (ε). It is
the energy delivered per coulomb by the cell and so:
E
electromotive force (ε ) =
Q
When a current f lows from the cell energy may be converted to other
forms within the cell and the potential difference (V ) between the
terminals of the cell will then be less than the emf of the cell.
Note that emf is not a force. It is energy per unit charge, in other words
a voltage.

The emf (ε) of the cell is the maximum potential difference that the
cell can produce across its terminals, or the open circuit potential
difference.

Internal resistance
All cells have a resistance of their own and we call this the internal
resistance (r) of the cell. The loss of electrical energy within the cell and
the resulting reduction in the output potential difference is due to this
internal resistance.
The internal resistance is related to the emf by the following
equation: E

E r
ε= = V + Ir = I(R + r)
Q
where I is the current f lowing through the cell. R

Figure 5.22 explains the ideas of emf and internal resistance.

The shaded area represents the internal part of the cell. r R

The quantity of useful electrical energy available outside the cell

is IR and Ir is the energy transformed to other forms within the
cell itself.
We usually require the internal resistance of a cell to be small Ir
to reduce the electrical energy transformed within the cell.
The low internal resistance of a car battery allows it to deliver
large currents without a large amount of electrical energy being E IR
converted to other forms within the battery itself. However it
is sometimes helpful to have a rather larger internal resistance
to prevent large currents from f lowing if the cell terminals
are shorted. Figure 5.22 Emf and internal resistance

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Example
5 Electricity

A cell of emf 12 V and internal resistance 0.2 Ω is used in two circuits.
Calculate the potential difference between its terminals when it is
connected to:
(a) 15 Ω
(b) 0.1 Ω.

Answer
(a) total resistance = 15 + 0.2 = 15.2 Ω
Therefore:
12
current = = 0.789 A
15.2
‘loss’ of energy per coulomb in the cell = 0.789 × 0.2 = 0.158 V
potential difference between terminals = 12 − 0.158 = 11.84 V
(b) total resistance = 0.2 + 0.1 = 0.3 Ω Exam tip
Therefore: The word ‘loss’ is used here,
12 although it should really be
current = = 40 A
0.3 replaced with ‘electrical
‘loss’ of energy per coulomb in the cell = 40 × 0.1 = 4 V energy converted to other
potential difference between terminals = 12 − 4 = 8 V forms’.

Now test yourself

19 Explain what happens to the output potential across the terminals of a cell with some internal
resistance as the current from it is increased.
20 A digital voltmeter with resistance of 10 MΩ reads 1.30 V when connected across the terminals of a
cell. When the same meter is connected across a resistor of 20 Ω that has been connected in series
with the cell the voltmeter reads 1.25 V.
Explain the difference between these two readings and calculate:
(a) the current in the external resistor
(b) the internal resistance of the cell.
21 A cell of emf 2.5 V with an internal resistance of 0.15 Ω is connected in turn to external resistors of
(a) 20 Ω and then (b) 1 Ω.
For each value of the external resistor calculate:
(i) the current in the circuit
(ii) the potential difference across the terminals of the cell
(iii) the power loss inside the cell.

Answers on pp. 218–9

Required practical 6
Investigation of the emf and internal resistance
of electric cells
The emf (ε) of a cell can be measured using a high-resistance
voltmeter connected between its terminals. The high resistance
means that there is effectively zero current being drawn from the cell.
The internal resistance can be found by connecting a variable resistor
between the terminals of the cell and measuring the p.d. across it for
a range of resistances (R). The intercept of the line on the I axis of a
ε
graph of I against R will give the internal resistance of the cell (r = ).
I

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Exam practice

5 Electricity
1 (a) Figure 5.23 shows the variation of current with voltage for a metal wire at two different
temperatures.
(a) (b)
Voltage/V

Voltage/V
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

0 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Current/mA Current/mA
Figure 5.23 Voltage–current variation at different temperatures
(i) Calculate the resistance of the wire at each temperature. [2]
(ii) Which graph shows the higher temperature? [1]
(b) (i) What is the resistance of the component at the point marked A on the graph in Figure 5.24? [2]
Voltage/V

30
A
25
20
15
10
5

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Current/A

Figure 5.24 Voltage–current variation for a component

(ii) Does the material disobey Ohm’s law? Explain your answer. [2]
2 (a) What is the resistance between the points A and B of the combination of resistors shown in
Figure 5.25? [2]
(b) Explain how you arrived at the answer. [4]

400 W 200 W

A B
150 W

800 W 400 W

Figure 5.25 Resistance network

3 You are given four resistors, 20 kΩ, 10 kΩ, 5 kΩ and 1 kΩ. How would you connect two or more of them
to make the following total resistances?
(a) 15 kΩ [1]
(b) 14 kΩ [2]
(c) 6.67 kΩ [2]
(d) 4.33 kΩ [2]

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5 Electricity

4 A current I flows though a wire of length L and radius of cross-section r, which is made of material of
resistivity ρ.
The rate of heat generation in the wire is:
2
ILρ I2Lρ Lρ D πr
2
A B C [1]
r πr2 πr2 Iρ L
5 A potential divider is set up as shown in Figure 5.26.

R1

V
A

R2 V0

Figure 5.26 Potential divider circuit

The emf of the cell is 6 V and the values of R1 and R2 are 200 Ω and 400 Ω respectively. A digital
voltmeter of very high resistance (>10 MΩ) connected between A and B is used to measure the output
voltage (Vo).
(a) Calculate the output voltage. [2]
(b) If the digital voltmeter is replaced with an analogue meter of resistance 1000 Ω calculate the
new output voltage. Explain your answer. [3]
(c) The digital voltmeter is replaced and R1 is replaced by an NTC thermistor of initial resistance
200 Ω. Explain what happens to the output voltage when the thermistor is heated gently. [2]
6 (a) What is the definition of a volt? [1]
(b) What is the definition of electromotive force (emf)? [1]
(c) What is meant by internal resistance? [1]
(d) Why is internal resistance of a source a useful safety factor? [2]
7 A low-voltage school power supply has an emf of 12 V and internal resistance of 3 Ω. Calculate the
currents drawn from the power supply and the values of the output voltage when the power supply is
connected to:
(a) a resistor of 25 Ω [2]
(b) a resistor of 2.5 Ω. [1]
(c) Explain your answers. [2]
8 Three identical cells, each with an emf of 1.5 V and an internal resistance of 2.0 Ω, are connected in
series to a 4.0 Ω resistor, as shown in Figure 5.27 (a).

R R

(a) (b)

Figure 5.27

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5 Electricity
If one of the cells is reversed (Figure 5.27(b)) what is the ratio of the power output in R in circuit (a) to
the power output in R in circuit (b)?
A 3.0
B 5.4
C 7.2
D 9.0 [1]

Answers and quick quiz 5 online

Summary
You should now have an understanding of: ● resistance and temperature — how the
● the basics of electricity — this to include resistance of resistors and thermistors
charge and current as a flow of charge, changes with temperature
resistance and Ohm’s law and the ● circuits — combinations of resistors in series
variation of current with voltage for a and parallel, and their associated formulae
number of circuits ● potential divider circuits — the use of two or
● current–voltage characteristics — various more resistors to give a fractional output of the
versions of these curves can be found in applied p.d.
Figure 5.4 (p. 96) ● electromotive force and internal resistance —
● resistivity (ρ) — this is a property of the the emf (ε) of the cell is the maximum potential
material and not a particular specimen; difference that the cell can produce across its
resisitivity = resistance × area/length terminals; the output potential difference is
(units Ω m) less due to the internal resistance of the cell

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6  Further mechanics and
thermal physics

Periodic motion
Circular motion
Motion in a circular path v

An object moves in a circle (Figure 6.1) at constant linear speed (v) and
v
constant angular velocity (ω). The linear velocity is constantly changing
because the direction of the linear motion is changing.
average angular velocity (ωav) = θ
t r
∆θ
instantaneous angular velocity (ω inst) =
∆t O
θ

The angular velocity (ω) is measured in radians per second.

linear velocity (v) = angular velocity (ω) × radius of the circle (r)

period of the motion (T) = 2π = 2π r

ω v
= 1
number of revs per second (f ) Figure 6.1 Motion in a circular path

Angular speed can be written in terms of the frequency ( f ) of the motion as:
angular speed (ω ) = vr = 2π f

Example Exam tip

Calculate the angular velocity of an object that makes: In circular motion the
(a) 25 revs per second angle of rotation is usually
(b) 33.3 revs per minute measured in radians rather
than degrees. The radian is
(Give your answers in radians per second.)
the angle subtended at the
Answer centre of a circle by an arc
equal to the radius of the
1
(a) T = = 4 × 10 −2 s circle. Therefore 360° = 2π
f
radians and so 1 radian (1c)
ω = 2π = 6.283−2 = 157 rad s−1 is 57.3°.
T 4 × 10
(b) T = 1 = 60 = 1.80
f 33.3
ω = 2π = 6.283 = 3.49 rad s−1
T 1.80

Now test yourself

1 An object moves at a constant speed of 5 m s−1 in an orbit of radius 3 m.
(a) What is the period of the motion?
(b) How many revolutions per second does the object make?
(c) What is its angular velocity?
(d) What is its angular acceleration?

Answer on p. 219

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Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force

6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

An acceleration towards the centre of the circle occurs because the
direction of the linear velocity is changing and is known as the
centripetal acceleration.
2
centripetal acceleration (a) = v = ω 2r
r
Since the mass is accelerating, there must be a force acting on it. This
force acts towards the centre of the circle and is known as the centripetal
force. Therefore, applying Newton’s second law gives:
2
centripetal force (F) = mv = mω 2r
r

Example
The force of friction between a certain car and the road is 10 000 N. If
the mass of the car is 1000 kg what is the maximum speed at which it
can take a corner of radius 40 m?

Answer
2 2
force = 10 000 = mv = 1000 × v
r 40
10 000 × 40
v2 = = 400
1000
v = 20 m s−1

Notice that it is the mass of the car that is used in the equation and
not its weight. If the speed is greater than this maximum value, the
frictional force will not be able to retain the original radius.

Now test yourself

2 An object moves in a circle with a constant period. Which of the following correctly describes
its motion?
l constant speed
l constant velocity
l acceleration with constant magnitude
l constant accelerating force
3 A stone of mass 4 kg is tied to a string and swung in a horizontal circle of radius 2 m with a speed
of 4 m s−1.
(a) What is the centripetal force on the stone?
(b) How many revolutions does the stone make every second?
(c) In what direction will the stone move at the moment just after the string is cut?
(d) What will the force become if the radius of the orbit is halved, with the speed of the stone
remaining constant?

Answers on p. 219

Motion in a vertical circle

If a bucket of water is whirled round in a circle the bucket and water are
continually accelerating towards the middle of the circle. If the circle is
in a vertical plane the water does not fall out if the bucket is moving at
a sufficiently high velocity, because its centripetal acceleration will be
greater than g.

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Space stations and artificial gravity
6 Further mechanics and thermal physics

The rotation of a space station is used to create the sensation of gravity

at the rim. The ‘f loor’ of a room in a rotating space station would be the
outer edge of the space station, and the rotation rate to give an acceleration
equal to Earth’s gravity (g) will vary depending on the size of the station:
g
rotation rate (ω ) =
r

Example
An astronaut is spun in a horizontal centrifuge with a diameter of 6 m.
What must his velocity be so that his maximum acceleration is 8g? Exam tip
(Take g = 9.81 m s−2) Make sure that you use the
correct SI units.
Answer

acceleration due to circular motion = 8g = 78.48 m s−2

2
Typical mistake
centripetal acceleration = vr
Not remembering to use
the radius instead of the
So:
diameter for circular motion
v = ar = 78.48 × 3 = 15.3 m s −1 calculations.

Now test yourself

4 (a) Calculate the acceleration of a satellite orbiting the Earth in a circular orbit at a distance of
42 000 km from its centre with an orbit time of 1 day (86 400 s).
(b) What might such a satellite be used for?

Answer on p. 219

Carousel fairground rides

The angle (θ) that the wires make with the vertical and the radius of their
‘orbit’ (r) depends on the angular velocity (ω) alone and not the mass of
the chairs.

tan θ = rω
2

Simple harmonic motion

acceleration (a) = −kx
A body is undergoing simple
harmonic motion (SHM —
where k is a constant and x is the displacement of the body from the fixed
Figure 6.2) if it has an
central point (O) at any time t. acceleration that is:
Note that the maximum speed occurs at the centre of the oscillation l directed towards a fixed
while the maximum acceleration occurs at the two ‘ends’ of the point, and
oscillation (maximum displacement). l proportional to the
displacement of the body
The maximum displacement of the body on either side of its central
from that point.
position is called the amplitude (A). The period of the motion (T) is the
time it takes for the body to make one complete oscillation.
The frequency ( f ) is the number of complete oscillations per second, or 1/T.

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a b c

6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

A A
O
acceleration = –kx

m
x

Figure 6.2 Simple harmonic motion

Simple harmonic motion equations

The equation for SHM is usually written as:
acceleration (a) = −ω 2 x
where ω is a constant (= 2πf ), and x is the displacement of the body
from the fixed point (O) at any time t. The value of ω depends on the
particular system of oscillation.
l acceleration (a) = −ω 2 x
l displacement from fixed point (x) = A cos ωt  x = A when t = 0
Exam tip
l velocity and acceleration:
v = Aω  sin ωt The value of t is measured
with t = 0 being taken at
and
one end of the oscillation
a = −Aω 2 cos ωt
(maximum displacement)
l velocity(v) = ±ω A 2 − x 2 and not the centre.
l period (T) =
2π
ω
l maximum speed = ωA (when x = 0)
l maximum acceleration = ω 2 A (when x = ±A)

Example
A body oscillates with simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of
12 cm and a frequency of 20 Hz. Calculate:
(a) the maximum acceleration of the mass
(b) the maximum velocity of the mass
(c) the displacement from the centre 0.02 s after leaving one end of the
oscillation
(d) the velocity 0.02 s after leaving one end of the oscillation
Answer
(a) x = A = 0.12 m
a = −ω 2 x
ω = 2πf
So ω = 127 rad s−1
a = −1272 × 0.12 = −1.94 × 10 3 m s−2
(b) v = rω = 0.12 × 127 = 15.2 m s−1
(c) displacement from one end = A cos ωt = 0.12 cos(127 × 0.02) = 0.1 m
(d) velocity = Aω  sin ωt = 0.12 × 127 × sin(127 × 0.02) = 8.63 m s−1

Now test yourself

5 A body oscillates with simple harmonic motion. The displacement (x) from the centre of the oscillation
at a time t (measured from when the object is in the centre) is x = 0.03 sin(2πt/3). (All numerical values
are in the appropriate SI units.)
(a) What is the amplitude of the motion?
(b) What is the period of the motion?
(c) What is the frequency of the motion?
(d) Calculate the displacement 0.5 s after the object passes the mid point of the oscillation

Answer on p. 219

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Simple harmonic motion graphs
6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

Velocity is the gradient of the displacement–time graph. Acceleration is

the gradient of the velocity–time graph (Figure 6.3).
x v a
x = A cos ωt v = −Aω sin ωt

a a
t t t
a = −Aω cos ωt

Displacement and time Velocity and time Acceleration and time

+ω 2A a x
+A

ω>1 ω=1
−A +A x v

−A
−ω 2A
Acceleration and displacement Displacement and velocity
Note: These graphs show x = A when t = 0

Figure 6.3 Simple harmonic motion graphs

Now test yourself

6 At what points of the oscillation shown in Figure 6.2 is:
(a) the displacement of the mass numerically greatest
(b) the velocity of the mass numerically greatest
(c) the velocity of the mass numerically least
(d) the acceleration of the mass numerically least
(e) the acceleration of the mass numerically greatest?

Answer on p. 219

Simple harmonic systems

The helical spring
A mass m is suspended at rest from a helical (spiral) spring (Figure 6.4)
such that the extension produced is e. If the spring constant is k we have:
mg = ke. Units for k = newtons per metre (N m−1).
If the mass is then pulled down a small distance x and released, the mass
will oscillate due to both the effect of the gravitational force downwards
(mg) and the varying upward force from the spring (k(e + x)).
The resulting acceleration of the mass (a) is −kx/m. This shows that
the acceleration is directly proportional and oppositely directed to the e
displacement, and so the motion is simple harmonic.
From the defining equation for simple harmonic motion (a = −ω 2 x) we x
m

have ω 2 = k/m = g/e and therefore the period of the motion T for a helical
spring is given by:
period (T) = 2π m = 2π e
k g
Figure 6.4 The helical spring
where g is the gravitational acceleration.
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Example Exam tip

6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

A mass of 0.4 kg oscillates with simple harmonic motion with an The displacement when
amplitude of 5 cm and a frequency of 100 Hz. Calculate: the mass is released in the
(a) the period of motion of the mass above example will be the
(b) the maximum acceleration of the mass amplitude of the resulting
(c) the maximum velocity of the mass motion.

Answer
(a) period of motion (T) = 1 = 1 = 0.01 s
f 100
(b) a = −ω 2 A
ω = 2πf so ω = 628.3 radian s−1
a = −628.32 × 0.05 = −1.97 × 10 4 m s−2
(c) v = Aω = 0.05 × 628.3 = 31.42 m s−1

Now test yourself

7 An elastic spring extends by 1 cm when a small mass is attached at the lower end. If the weight is
pulled down by 0.25 cm, calculate the period of the resulting motion. (g = 9.8 m s−2)
8 An elastic spring has a spring constant of 2.5 N m−1. Calculate the mass supported by the spring if the
resulting period of motion is 2 s.

Answers on p. 219

The simple pendulum Typical mistake

A simple pendulum of length L with a mass m attached to the lower Not remembering that for
end is displaced through an angle θ from the vertical (Figure 6.5). The a complete oscillation the
restoring force F is the component of the weight of the bob towards the system must return to the
equilibrium position. exactly the same conditions
L as those at the start of the
period of a simple pendulum (T) = 2π g oscillation.
Note that the period of a simple pendulum does not depend on the mass
of the bob. This formula is only accurate for small angles of swing.
Exam tip
A simple pendulum is one
with a ‘weightless’ string,
θ
so that all the mass of the
pendulum is concentrated in
the pendulum bob.

Length (L)

Tension (T)

Weight (mg)

  Figure 6.5 The simple pendulum

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Example
6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

What is the length of a simple pendulum that would have a period of

2 s? (g = 9.8 m s−2)

Answer Exam tip

L You should quote your
period of a simple pendulum (T) = 2π answer with the correct
g
units and give some
So:
comments about the
gT 2 4 9.8 accuracy and problems in
L= = 9.8 × = 2 = 1.0 m
4π 2
4π 2
π your experiment.

Now test yourself

  9 If a pendulum clock is taken to the top of the mountain does it gain or lose? Explain your answer.
10 Calculate the period of a simple pendulum of length 25 cm on the surface of Mars where g = 3.8 m s−2.

Answers on p. 219

Required practical 7

Investigation into simple harmonic motion using a mass–spring system

and a simple pendulum
Mass–spring system
For a range of values of masses on the spring from about 0.1 kg to 0.7 kg measure the extension of the
spring (e) and the period of oscillation (T). The value for T should be found by measuring ten oscillations
(10 T) and then the time for one worked out.
Check that the spring will return to its original length after each load is added, by removing that load.

For each mass calculate the value of T2. Plot a graph of e against T2 and hence determine g using the
4π 2e
graph and the formula T 2 = g .
A best-fit line should always be plotted — this does not necessarily include the first or last point.
However, in this experiment, the line must go through (0, 0) because with no load the period would
be zero.

Simple pendulum
A simple pendulum can be used to measure the acceleration due to gravity (g). A pendulum bob is tied to
the end of a thread, which is suspended from a clamp. The length of the pendulum is measured and then
the bob is displaced though a small distance and the time for ten oscillations (10 T) is recorded. From
this the period (T) can be calculated, and hence T 2. The period is then measured for a series of different
values of L (from 0.2 m to 1.2 m) and a graph plotted of T 2 against L.
g
The gradient of this graph is equal to . Therefore:
4π 2

g = 4π 2 L
2

T
As with the spring, a best-fit line should always be plotted — this does not necessarily include the first
or last point.

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Energy considerations in simple harmonic motion

6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

The kinetic energy of any body of mass m and velocity v is  ½mv 2.
So, in simple harmonic motion:
kinetic energy (EK ) = ½mω 2(A2 − x2)

Now the maximum value of the kinetic energy will occur when x = 0,
and this will be equal to the total energy of the body. Therefore:
total energy = ½mω 2 A2

Therefore, since potential energy = total energy – kinetic energy, the

potential energy at any point will be given by:
potential energy (EP) = ½mω 2 x2

Graphs of the variation of potential energy, kinetic energy and the total
energy are shown in Figure 6.6.
Total energy
Total energy
Potential energy Kinetic energy
Energy

1 2
Kinetic energy 2 kA

Potential energy

x
−A 0 +A 0 T T
2 Time
(a) Variation of energy with distance (b) Variation of energy with time

Figure 6.6 Energy in simple harmonic motion

Example
A mass of 0.3 kg is suspended on a helical spring. When displaced
through a vertical distance of 8 cm and released, it oscillates with a
frequency of 10 Hz. Calculate:
(a) the period of motion of the mass
(b) the velocity of the mass 0.5 s after release from its lowest point
(c) the kinetic energy of the mass at this point

Answer
(a) Period of motion (T) = 1 = 1 = 0.1 s
f 10
(b) ω = 2π f = 2π × 10 = 6.28 rad s−1
velocity = Aω sin (ω t) = 0.08 × 6.28 × sin (6.28 × 0.05) Typical mistake
= 0.08 × 6.28 × 0.00055 = 0.00275 m s−1
Not remembering to convert
(c) kinetic energy = −½mv2 = ½ × 0.3 × 0.002752 centimetres to metres when
= 1.13 × 10 −6 J calculating energy in joules.

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Now test yourself
6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

11 A trolley of mass 1.5 kg is placed on a horizontal, frictionless

surface and attached to two supports by helical springs so that
it can oscillate with simple harmonic motion. If the horizontal
distance between the two ends of the motion is 30 cm and the
period is 1.8 s:
(a) Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the trolley during the
motion.
Exam tip
(b) State at which point in the oscillation this occurs.
Make sure that you use the
Answer on p. 219 correct SI units.

Forced vibrations and resonance

Free, damped and forced oscillations
There are three main types of simple harmonic motion: free, damped and
forced oscillations.

Free oscillations
In free oscillations (Figure 6.7) the amplitude remains constant as time
passes — there is no damping. In other words there is no loss of energy from
the oscillator to the surroundings. This type of oscillation will only occur in
theory, because in practice there will always be some energy transfer.

Amplitude
Displacement

Time

Figure 6.7 Free oscillations

Damped oscillations
Damping (Figure 6.8) means a loss of energy from the oscillator to the
surroundings. This produces a decreasing amplitude and varying period
due to external or internal damping forces.
Damping can occur as:
l natural damping, for example internal forces in a spring, and f luids
exerting a viscous drag
l artificial damping, for example electromagnetic damping in
galvanometers and top-pan balances, the coating of panels in cars to
reduce vibrations, and shock absorbers in cars

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6  Further mechanics and thermal physics
Damped motion
Displacement

Time

Figure 6.8 Damped simple harmonic motion

Forced oscillations
These are vibrations that are driven by an external force. A simple
example is a child’s swing: as you push it, the amplitude increases. A
loudspeaker is also an example of forced oscillation; it is made to vibrate
by the varying force between the field produced by the current in the
speaker coil and that of a fixed magnet.

Resonance
Forced vibrations can also show another very important effect. With
a child’s swing, you will find that if you push in time with the natural
frequency of the swing then the oscillations build up rapidly. This last fact
is an example of resonance.
All systems have their own natural frequency. If you apply a driving
force of the same frequency as the natural frequency and in phase with Exam tip
the initial oscillations, then resonance results — the amplitude of the Heavily damped systems
oscillations gets larger and larger. give broad resonance
curves while lightly damped
No mechanical system will vibrate at only its resonant frequency — systems give sharply peaked
harmonic oscillations will also occur. The amount of damping of a system resonance curves.
affects the shape of the resonance curve. (Figure 6.9).
Amplitude

Light damping —
sharp resonance
peak — e.g.
tuning

Heavy damping —
broad resonance
peak — e.g.
blowing across Revision activity
the top of a bottle
Make a mind map about the
Resonant Frequency
frequency (f0) of driving differences in resonance
force (f ) for a variety of oscillating
systems.
Figure 6.9 Resonance curves for different levels of damping

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Now test yourself
6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

12 When pushing a swing, if the driving force has a frequency half that of the resonant frequency, will
resonance result? Explain your answer.

Answer on p. 219

Exam practice
1 An astronaut is travelling round the Earth in a circular orbit where the acceleration due to gravity is g′.
His acceleration towards the Earth is:
A 2g′ B  g′ C  zero D  −g [1]
2 A heavy mass attached to a light, inextensible string moves in a horizontal circle at a constant speed.
Which of the following is true? [1]
A The mass is not subject to any accelerating force.
B The kinetic energy of the mass is constant.
C If the string is cut, the mass would move outwards radially.
D The angular momentum of the mass varies sinusoidally.
3 A stone of mass 4 kg is tied to a string and swung in a horizontal circle of radius 2 m, with a speed of
4 m s−1.
(a) What is the force on the stone? [2]
(b) How many revolutions does the stone make every second? [2]
(c) In what direction will the stone move if the string is cut? [1]
(d) What will the force become if the radius of the orbit is halved? [1]
4 An astronaut is spun in a vertical centrifuge with a radius of 3 m. What must his velocity be so that
his maximum acceleration is 7 g? (Take g = 9.8 m s−2) [3]
5 Show that when a ball is swung in a vertical circle on a piece of string, at a constant linear velocity,
the minimum velocity of the ball such that the tension in the string is zero:
(a) occurs at the top of the circle [2]
(b) is independent of the mass of the ball [1]
(c) is equal to √r g, where g is the gravitational acceleration and r is the radius of the circular orbit [1]
  6 Which of the following are simple harmonic motion? Explain your answers.
(a) the vibration of a tuning fork [1]
(b) an elastic super ball bouncing on the ground [1]
(c) a large rectangular box, resting on the floor, that is slightly tilted and then released [1]
(d) a trampolinist bouncing up and down on a trampoline [1]
(e) a simple pendulum [1]
(f) a mass fixed to a helical spring oscillating up and down [1]
(g) a ball being swung round in a horizontal orbit on the end of a piece of string [1]
  7 A particle oscillates with simple harmonic motion with a period of 2 s. If its maximum velocity is
0.4 m s−1 calculate:
(a) its velocity when its displacement is half the amplitude [2]
(b) its acceleration when its displacement is one quarter of the amplitude [2]
  8 If a simple pendulum with a period of 2.00 s on the surface of the Earth (g = 9.8 m s−2) were taken to
the surface of the Moon where the gravitational acceleration is 1.62 m s−2, what would be the value of
its period?
A 2.00 s B  1.62 s C  4.90 s D  6.05 s [1]
  9 The period of a certain simple pendulum is 2.0 s and the mass of the pendulum bob is 50 g. The bob
is pulled aside through a horizontal distance of 8 cm and then released. Find the displacement and
kinetic energy of the bob 0.7 s after its release. [3]
10 Discuss why the separation of ‘rumble strips’ placed across a road might be important. [2]

Answers and quick quiz 6 online

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Thermal physics

6 Further mechanics and thermal physics

Thermal energy transfer
Internal energy
Force
The internal energy of a material is composed of kinetic energy
and potential energy.
Kinetic energy — vibrational energy in a liquid and a solid; Repulsive force
vibrational and translational energy in a liquid and a gas.
Potential energy due to attraction between molecules — large
in a solid, smaller in a liquid and assumed to be zero in an ideal
gas except during the actual collisions between gas molecules.
M Distance (r)
O
The graph in Figure 6.10 shows the force and potential energy
variation between two molecules separated by a distance r. In a r0 Attractive force
solid, the point M is their equilibrium position when they are
separated by a distance r 0.
Potential energy

The first law of thermodynamics

The internal energy of a system is increased (ΔU) when thermal
energy (ΔQ) is transferred to it by heating or when work is
done by it (ΔW ). This statement is known as the first law of
thermodynamics:

ΔU = ΔQ − ΔW
Figure 6.10 Forces between molecules
Note that ΔU represents both the change in the internal kinetic energy Exam tip
(an increase in molecular velocity) and the increase in the internal
potential energy (due to an increase in energy overcoming intermolecular There is a finite amount of
forces as a result of separation of the molecules). The potential energy energy in the universe. This
increase is zero for ideal gases and negligible for most real gases, except at energy can be transferred
from one form to another;
temperatures near liquefaction and/or at very high pressures.
the total amount never
If the change occurs without a change of temperature (ΔU = 0) it is called changes – if we want to use
an isothermal change, and so the first law becomes: energy in one form then
we have to ‘pay for it’ by
ΔQ − ΔW = 0 converting it from energy in
another form.
Heat capacity
The units of thermal capacity are joules per kelvin ( J K−1). The thermal capacity or
heat capacity of a body is
the heat energy needed to
Specific heat capacity raise its temperature by 1 K.
∆Q
specific heat capacity (c) =
m∆ θ
The specific heat capacity
where ΔQ is the heat energy input, m is the mass of the body and Δθ is the (c) of a material is the heat
rise in temperature. energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of the
The units of specific heat capacity are joules per kilogram kelvin material by 1 K.
(J kg−1 K−1).

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Continuous flow calorimeter
6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

Liquid f lows in from a constant−head apparatus at a constant rate past

a thermometer, where the temperature (θ0) is recorded. It then f lows
around the heater coil and out past a second thermometer where the
outlet temperature (θ1) can be measured (Figure 6.11). The electrical
energy applied to the heating coil is E1 and the liquid f low rate m1.

Liquid out
Platinum resistance
V
thermometer

Platinum resistance
A thermometer
Liquid in Heater
12 V

Figure 6.11 Continuous flow calorimeter

The experiment is repeated using a new electrical energy (E 2) and f low

rate m2. This is done so that the heat loss during the experiment can be
eliminated if the rise in temperature is the same in each experiment.
E2 − E1
specific heat capacity of the liquid (c) =
(m2 − m1 )(θ1 − θ o )

Example 1
A block of metal of mass 0.5 kg initially at a temperature of 100°C is
gently lowered into an insulated copper container of mass 0.05 kg
containing 0.9 kg of water at 20°C. If the final temperature of the
mixture is 25°C, calculate the specific heat capacity (c) of the metal
of the block. (Assume no loss of heat and that no water is vaporised.)
(specific heat capacities: water 4200 J kg−1 K−1; copper 385 J kg−1 K−1)

Answer

heat lost by block = 0.5 × c × (100 − 25) = 37.5c

heat gained by water and container = (0.9 × 4200 × 5) + (0.05 × 385 × 5)

= 18 996 J

Therefore:
37.5c = 18 996 J
18 996
specific heat capacity (c) = = 506.6 J kg−1 K−1
37.5

Example 2
Water flows through a continuous flow calorimeter at 150 g per
minute. When the heater power is adjusted to 40 W the difference
between the inlet and outlet temperatures is 3 K. When the flow rate
is increased to 450 g per minute the heater power has to be increased
to 100 W to maintain the same temperature difference. Calculate the
specific heat capacity of water. Typical mistake
Forgetting to convert grams
Answer to kilograms and minutes
specific heat capacity = 100 − 40 = 4000 J kg−1 K−1 to seconds in specific heat
(7.5 − 2.5) × 10−3 × 3 capacity calculations.

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Now test yourself

6 Further mechanics and thermal physics

13 A hot copper rivet of mass 150 g is dropped into 250 g of water initially at 16°C. If the water
temperature rises to 35°C what was the initial temperature of the rivet? (specific heat capacities:
water 4200 J kg−1 K−1; copper 385 J kg−1 K−1)
14 How does the high value of the specific heat capacity of water help to reduce the variation in
temperature of land masses adjacent to oceans?

Answers on p. 219

Change of state and specific latent heat

During a change of state the potential energies of the particles involved
are changing but their kinetic energy remains constant. Therefore no The specific latent heat (L)
temperature change occurs during the change of state. is the energy required to
change the state of 1 kg of a
The heat energy (ΔQ) required to change the state of a mass (m) of a substance.
material of specific latent heat L is:
quantity of heat energy (ΔQ) = mL

Figure 6.12a shows how the temperature of a specimen might alter with
time due to a steady heat input — heat losses to the exterior have been
ignored here. Figure 6.12b shows how the molecular arrangements
within the material change as the heat energy is supplied.

(a)
Temperature

Boiling point

Liquid/gas
mixture
Melting point
Liquid Gas
Solid/liquid
mixture
Solid

Time
(b) Arrangement of the molecules

Solid Solid/liquid Liquid Liquid/gas Gas

Figure 6.12 Change of state

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Every material has two specific latent heats: specific latent heat of fusion
6 Further mechanics and thermal physics

and specific latent heat of vaporisation.

The specific latent heat of fusion is the heat energy needed to change
1 kg of the material in its solid state at its melting point to 1 kg of the
material in its liquid state, and that released when 1 kg of the liquid
changes to 1 kg of solid.
The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a liquid is the heat energy
needed to change 1 kg of the material in its liquid state at its boiling
point to 1 kg of the material in its gaseous state, and that released
when 1 kg of vapour changes to 1 kg of liquid.

Example 1
How much heat energy is needed to heat 250 g of water at 15°C to
steam at 100°C? (specific heat capacity of water, 4200 J kg−1 K−1;
specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2.25 × 106 J kg−1)
Answer
heat energy input = mcΔθ + mL
= (0.25 × 4200 × 85) + (0.25 × 2.25 × 106) = 89 250 + 562 500 = 651 750 J

Example 2
Calculate the amount of ice that would be melted by a 65 W heater in
5 minutes at 0°C if all other heat energy exchanges are ignored.
Answer
specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 330 000 J kg−1
electrical energy input = 65 × 5 × 60 = 19 500 J
mass of ice melted = 19 500/330 000 = 0.059 kg = 59 g

Now test yourself

15 How long will it take for a 60 W electrical heater immersed in an ice−water mixture at 0°C to raise
the temperature of the mixture to 20°C if all other heat energy exchanges are ignored? The mixture
initially contains 200 g of water and 25 g of ice. (specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 330 000 J kg−1;
specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg−1 K−1)
16 Why is a scald due to steam at 100°C much more dangerous than one due to boiling water at 100°C?

Answer on p. 220

Ideal gases
An ideal gas is one where the molecules are considered to be
infinitely small and do not exert any force on each other. It also obeys
Boyle’s law and has an internal energy that is dependent only on the
temperature of the gas.

The gas laws

Boyle’s law
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume
as long as its temperature remains constant:
p1V1 = p2V2

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Pressure law Typical mistake

6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute Using °C rather than kelvin
temperature (in kelvin) as long as its volume remains constant: for the temperature when
p1 p performing calculations with
= 2 the gas laws equations.
T1 T2

Charles’s law
Typical mistake
The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature (in kelvin) as long as its volume remains constant: Using non-SI units when
performing calculations with
V1 V2 the gas law equations.
=
T1 T2

These gas laws are represented in Figure 6.13.

Pressure

T1 > T0
Pressure

T1 Volume
T0

Volume Temperature/°C Temperature/°C

Boyle's law Pressure law Charles’s law

Figure 6.13 Gas law graphs

Example 1
A fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature and a pressure of 105 Pa
is compressed from 2 litres to 500 cm3. Calculate the new pressure of
the gas.

Answer
Using Boyle’s law, p1V1 = p2V2:
105 × 2 × 10 −3 = p2 × 500 × 10 −6

Therefore:
5 -3
p2 = 10 × 2 × 10
-6
= 4 × 105 Pa
500 × 10
A decrease in volume by a factor of four produces an increase in
pressure by a factor of four.

Example 2
During a spacewalk an astronaut moves from the shadow of the
spacecraft into full sun. The temperature of his oxygen tank rises
from 200 K to 350 K. If the original pressure of the gas was 2 × 105 Pa,
what is its new pressure?

Answer
Using the pressure law:
5
p2 = 2 × 10 × 350 = 3.5 × 105 Pa
200

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Example 3
6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

A fixed mass of gas at a constant pressure and with an initial volume

of 5 litres is heated from 20°C to 80°C. Calculate the new volume of
the gas.

Answer
V1 V2
Using Charles’s law, = :
T1 T2

5 × 10−3 = V2
293 353
−3
V2 = 353 × 5 × 10 = 6 × 10 −3 m3 = 6 litres
293

Now test yourself

17 (a) A gas is stored in a cylinder at a pressure of 8 atmospheres (8 times the pressure of the
atmosphere). If the volume of the cylinder is 3000 cm3, what is the volume of the gas that comes
out of the cylinder when the pressure in the cylinder is reduced to 1 atmosphere?
(b) The air in a closed cylinder at a pressure of 50 000 Pa and at 27°C is heated to 227°C. What is its
new pressure?
18 If 4 litres of gas initially at 20°C is heated to 100°C at a constant pressure, what will be the new
volume of the gas? Give your answer in m3.

Answers on p. 220

The absolute zero of temperature

The centre diagram in Figure 6.13 shows the variation of the pressure
of an ideal gas with its temperature. If we draw the line back to where
it cuts the temperature axis we reach a point where the pressure of the
gas is zero — in other words, the molecules have stopped moving. They
have no velocity and so no kinetic energy. This is the lowest temperature
that it is possible to reach and is called absolute zero, defined as 0 K,
or −273.15°C (Figure 6.14). In fact the third law of thermodynamics
states that it is impossible to actually reach this temperature. When
an object is cooled, its internal energy is reduced. As the temperature
approaches absolute zero it becomes more and more difficult to lower the
temperature further. We are always left with what is known as ‘zero-point
energy’, and so we can define absolute zero as the temperature at which
substances have a minimum internal energy.
Pressure
Pressure

−273.15 0 Temperature/°C 0 Temperature/K

Figure 6.14 The concept of absolute zero

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Now test yourself

6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

19 A sample of gas is found to have a volume of 64.0 cm3 at 0°C and 87.5 cm3 at 100°C. Using these
results, calculate a value for absolute zero in °C.

Answer on p. 219

The equation of state for an ideal gas Exam tip

The equation of state for an ideal gas is:
Standard temperature and
pV pressure (STP) is sometimes
= constant referred to in questions.
T
Standard temperature is
For 1 mole of gas the constant is the molar gas constant, R taken as 0°C (273.15 K) and
(R = 8.31 J kg−1 mol−1). standard pressure as
The ideal gas equation (for n moles) is: 1.01 × 105 Pa.

pV = nRT

Now test yourself

20 Calculate the number of moles of a gas of pressure 105 Pa, at a temperature of 27°C, and occupying a
volume of 5 m3.

Answer on p. 220

Gas constants and their relationships

The Avogadro constant (NA) = 6.02 × 1023 particles per mole
The molar gas constant (R) = 8.31 J mol−1 K−1
The Boltzmann constant (k) = 1.38 × 10−23 J K−1
For an ideal gas of n moles and N molecules:
number of molecules = number of moles × Avogadro constant N = nNA

molar gas constant

Boltzmann constant = k = R
Avogadro constant NA

In 1 mole of hydrogen (2 g) there are 6.02 × 1023 molecules (hydrogen

exists as H2).
In 1 mole of oxygen (32 g) there are 6.02 × 1023 molecules (oxygen exists
as O2).
In 1 mole of copper (63 g) there are 6.02 × 1023 atoms.
In 1 mole of uranium-235 (235 g) there are 6.02 × 1023 atoms.
For example, if we have 2 kg of uranium in a fuel rod we have 2000
235
= 8.51 moles, and this contains 8.51 × 6.02 × 1023 = 5.12 × 1024 atoms
and so 5.12 × 1024 uranium nuclei.

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Molar mass and molecular mass
6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

It is important to distinguish between molar and molecular masses. The

molar mass (M) is the mass of one mole while the molecular mass (m)
is the mass of one molecule. For m kg of a gas of molar mass M kg, r is a
further constant that depends on the gas under consideration:

pV = mRT = mrT
M

The Boltzmann constant

pV = NkT
where N is the number of molecules in the gas and k is the Boltzmann
constant (k = 1.38 × 10−23 J K−1).

Work considerations during gas expansion and

compression
An ideal gas at a pressure p is enclosed in a cylinder of cross-sectional area
A. A force F is then applied to the piston, pushing the piston in a distance
Δx and compressing the gas, decreasing its volume by a small amount, ΔV
(Figure 6.15). This force is applied slowly and steadily so that, at all times,
FA = pV (i.e. equilibrium).

p,V ∆V

∆x

Figure 6.15 Work done on a gas

The force on the piston F = pA
So:
work done on the gas during compression = ΔW = pAΔx = pΔV

work done on the gas = pΔV

If the gas expands by an amount ΔV the work done by the gas is also pΔV.

Example
An ideal gas at a pressure of 2 × 105 Pa is enclosed in a cylinder with a Typical mistake
volume of 6 litres by a frictionless piston. How much work is done by
the gas if it expands slowly and steadily to 6.05 litres? Forgetting to convert
volumes in other units (such
Answer as cm3 and litres) to cubic
work done by the gas = pΔV = 2 × 105 × (6.05 − 6.00) × 10 −3 = 10 J metres.

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Now test yourself

6 Further mechanics and thermal physics

21 An ideal gas has a molar mass of 40 g and a density of 1.2 kg m−3 at 80°C. What is its pressure at that
temperature?
22 Calculate the number of molecules in 5 litres of air at STP (273.15 K, 1.01 × 105 Pa).
The Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10 −23 J K−1

Answers on p. 220

Required practical 8

Investigation of Boyle’s and Charles’s laws

Thermometer

Air

Syringe

Oil

Pressure gauge
Air

Water
P

Rubber
tubing
To pump
Heat

(a) Boyle's law (b) Charles’s law

Figure 6.16 Boyle’s law and Charles’s law experiments

Boyle’s law can be verified using the standard Boyle’s law apparatus shown in Figure 6.16a. Use a pump to
increase the pressure of the trapped air to a maximum safe value. Place a safety screen between yourself
and the apparatus. Take readings of the pressure (p) from the gauge and the volume (V) using the scale
beside the tube. Slowly release the pressure in steps, recording the pressure and the volume. Allow time for
any excess oil to flow down the side of the tube before taking each pair of readings. Plot graphs of p against V
and p against 1/V.
Charles’s law can be verified using the apparatus shown in Figure 6.16b. The syringe is placed in water
in a beaker and the beaker is then slowly heated. The volume of the air in the syringe is measured at a
series of temperatures from 0°C to 100°C.
Plot graphs of V against T using the range 0°C to 100°C with a scale marked in kelvin and extrapolate back to
a point where V = 0.

Molecular kinetic theory model

Brownian motion
Observing a weak solution of milk, and later pollen grains in suspension,
with a high-powered microscope the Scottish physicist Robert Brown
saw that the particles of milk and the pollen grains showed a violent and
random motion.

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A simple modern version of Brown’s experiment is the smoke cell. A small
6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

cell of air is placed under a microscope and illuminated strongly from

the side. Some smoke is then blown into it. Through the microscope the Motion of air
particles of smoke can be seen to be in violent random motion (Figure molecule

6.17). This motion is due to the collisions of the (invisible) air molecules Smoke
particle
with the much larger particles of smoke. Heating the cell makes the smoke
particles’ motion even more violent, due to the increased velocity of the
air molecules.
Figure 6.17 Brownian motion

Kinetic theory model for an ideal gas

In deriving the formula for the kinetic theory of gases, the following
assumptions are made about molecules:
l molecules behave as if they were hard, smooth, elastic spheres
l molecules are in continuous random motion
l the average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas
l molecules do not exert any appreciable attraction on each other
l the volume of the molecules is infinitesimal when compared with the
volume of the gas
l the time spent in collisions is small compared with the time between
collisions
For an ideal gas at pressure p, volume V and containing N molecules of
mass m:
pV = 1 Nm(crms)
3
where crms is the root mean square speed of the molecules. This is the
average of all the squares of the speeds of the molecules in the gas.

Kinetic theory and the gas laws

Boyle’s law
For a given mass of gas at constant temperature, pV = ⅓ mN(crms)2. The
total mass of gas is mN = M, and therefore:

pV = 1 M(crms)2
3
which is constant, and this is Boyle’s law.

Charles’s law
The ideal gas equation for n moles of gas is pv = nRT and so for 1 mol
of gas we have pv = RT, where R is the gas constant. But in 1 mol
of gas there are NA molecules, where NA is the Avogadro constant,
and therefore:
pV = 1 mNAc2 = RT
3
But if the temperature of the gas is changed from T1 to T2 with a resulting
change in volume from V1 to V2, the pressure being kept constant:

pV1 = 1 M(c1rms)2 and pV2 = 1  M(c2rms)2

3 3

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Therefore:

6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

V1 (c1rms)2
 =  
V2 (c2rms)2

But kinetic energy = ½mcrms2 and therefore:

V1 kinetic energy1
 =  
V2 kinetic energy 2
One of the assumptions of kinetic theory is that the kinetic energy of the
molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas
(T) and therefore:
V1 (c1rms)2 T1
 =    =  
V2 (c )2 T2
2rms

So the volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, and

this is Charles’s law.

Example
The density of nitrogen at STP = 1.251 kg m−3. Calculate the root-mean-
square speed (c) of nitrogen molecules.

Answer
pressure = 1.013 × 105 Pa
3p 3 × 1.013 × 105
c2 = = = 2.432 × 105
ρ 1.251
c = 493 m s−1

Now test yourself

23 Calculate the root-mean-square speeds for the following gases at a pressure of 105 Pa:
(a) air, density 1.29 kg m−3
(b) carbon dioxide, density 1.98 kg m−3
(c) nitrogen, density 1.25 kg m−3
(d) chlorine, density 3.21 kg m−3
(e) hydrogen, density 0.09 kg m−3
24 A sample of gas of volume 0.1 m3 and at a pressure of 2.0 × 105 Pa is enclosed in a cylinder. If the root-
mean-square speed of the gas molecules is 5.5 × 102 m s−1 and the mass of each molecule is
3.5 × 10 −26 kg calculate the number of gas molecules in the cylinder.

Answers on p. 220

Kinetic energy of a molecule

The average kinetic energy of the randomly moving molecules, each of
mass m, in a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of
the gas (T ).
3RT
½mc2 = 3 kT =
2 2NA
where k is the Boltzmann constant (= 1.38 × 10−23 J K−1).

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Example
6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

Calculate:
(a) the kinetic energy of an individual gas molecule of mass
3.5 × 10 −26 kg moving at a speed of 600 m s−1
(b) the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules in a cylinder at a
temperature of 20°C
Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10 −23 J K−1

Answer
(a) ½mv2 = ½ × 3.5 × 10 −26 × 6002 = 6.3 × 10 −21 J
(b)  kT = × 1.38 × 10 −23 × 293 = 6.07 × 10 −21 J

Now test yourself

25 Calculate the average kinetic energy of a molecule in a gas at a temperature of 300 K. Ideal gas
constant = 8.3 J mol−1 K−1; Avogadro number = 6.04 × 1023 mol−1.

Answer on p. 220

Exam practice
1 (a) A copper saucepan of mass 250 g is filled with 850 g of water at 18°C. A 500 W heater is then placed
in the water and switched on for 5 minutes. What is the theoretical temperature of the water after
this time? (Specific heat capacities: water 4200 J kg−1 K−1; copper 3570 J kg−1 K−1) [3]
(b) Why will the actual rise be less than this? [1]
2 In a determination of the specific heat capacity of water using a continuous flow calorimeter the
following readings were taken:
First experiment:
l electrical power supplied to the heater = 20 W
l 0.431 kg of water flowed through the calorimeter in 20 minutes
l rise in temperature of the water = 11.5°C
Second experiment:
l electrical power supplied to the heater = 23.8 W
l 0.524 kg of water flowed through the calorimeter in 20 minutes
l rise in temperature of the water = 11.5°C
Calculate the specific heat capacity of water. [4]
3 A block of metal of mass m requires a heater with a power P to just keep it molten. When the heater is
switched off the mass solidifies completely in a time t. If the rate of loss of heat is constant the specific
latent heat of the block is:

A P B t C Pt D Pm [1]
mt Pm m t
4 An insulated beaker contains 0.025 kg of ice and 0.3 kg of water at 0°C. Steam at 100°C is passed into
the container until all the ice has melted. Assume that no heat is lost from the system.
(a) How much thermal energy will the condensed steam have lost? [3]
(b) How much thermal energy will the ice have absorbed? [1]
(c) What will be the final mass of water in the beaker? [2]
(Specific latent heat of ice = 3.4 × 105 J kg−1; specific latent heat of steam = 2.3 × 106 J kg−1; specific heat
capacity of water = 4.2 × 10 3 J kg−1 K−1)
5 (a) Give a short account of Brownian motion and state what molecular information can be obtained
from observation of the effect in a smoke cell. [2]
(b) Calculate the root-mean-square speed of molecules of oxygen gas at a temperature of 27°C.
(Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10 −23 J K−1; mass of an oxygen molecule = 5.3 × 10 −26 kg) [2]

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Exam practice

6  Further mechanics and thermal physics

6 Equal masses of two gases are contained in two separate cylinders at equal pressures and
temperatures. The volume of the cylinder containing gas 1, which has a molecular weight of 40 g, is
3 litres. If the volume of the cylinder containing gas 2 is 4 litres, what is the molecular weight of
gas 2? [3]
7 One mole of an ideal gas at a pressure of 1 × 105 Pa and a temperature of 300 K has a volume of
0.25 m3. At 600 K and 5 × 105 Pa the volume occupied in m3 is:
A 5 B 0.1 C 50 D 10 [1]
8 The pressure p of an ideal gas is given by the formula p = ρc2, where:
A the appropriate unit for c2 is m2 s−1
1
B is an approximation for π
C ρ is the mass per unit volume of the gas
D c 2 is the average speed of the molecules [1]

Answers and quick quiz 6 online

Summary
You should now have an understanding of: ● Thermal energy transfer — specific heat
● Circular motion — angular speed, centripetal capacity, change of state, specific latent heat
force ● Ideal gases — the gas laws (Boyle’s, pressure
● Simple harmonic motion (SHM) — conditions for and Charles's), absolute zero, work done = pΔV
SHM, SHM equations, graphical representation ● Avogadro, Boltzmann and molar gas constants
● Simple harmonic systems — mass–spring ● Molecular kinetic theory — relation between
system, simple pendulum p, V and T in terms of the simple molecular
● Forced vibrations and resonance — free, model, kinetic theory equation and molecular
forced and damped oscillations and resonance kinetic energy

AQA A-level Physics 137

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7 Fields and their consequences

Fields
Force fields
There are similarities and differences between gravitational and electric
fields: The region around a mass in
l The field strength is dependent on both the masses or charges.
which an object is affected
by that mass is called a
l The field strength is proportional to the inverse square of
gravitational field.
their separation.
l Gravitational fields are always attractive. The region around an
l Electric fields can be attractive or repulsive. electric charge in which
l Electric fields are affected by the intervening medium. an object is affected by
that charge is called an
electric field.
Gravitational fields
Newton’s law of gravitation
Gravitation is a universal attractive force that acts between any mass and
any other mass in the universe. In 1666 Newton, proposed his universal
law of gravitation. He considered a planet (mass m) moving in a circular
orbit (radius r) at angular velocity ω round the Sun (mass M):

( )
2
force on a planet = F = mω 2r = m 2π r = 4π 2mr
2

T T
Newton assumed an inverse square law of force between the bodies, that is:

F = kMm
r2

where k is a constant. Therefore: T3 = 4Tr

2 2

r k
which is also constant and so T 2 α r 3 , which agrees with Kepler’s third
law of planetry motion.
The gravitational force between two bodies, of mass m and M and with
their centres a distance r apart, is given by Newton’s law of gravitation
(Figure 7.1). This force is always attractive.
M
m
kMm
Force =
Distance of separation (r) r2

Figure 7.1 Newton’s law of gravitation

gravitational force = GMm

r2

where G is the universal gravitational constant and has a value of

6.67 × 10−11 N m 2 kg−2.

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Example

7  Fields and their consequences

Calculate the force between the following:
(a) a mass of 100 kg and one of 200 kg placed 2.5 m apart
(b) the Earth and the Sun
Sun
m
(Mass of the Earth = 6 × 1024 kg; mass of the Sun = 2 × 10 30 kg; mean
M r
distance r of the Earth from the Sun = 1.5 × 1011 m)

Answer
Using F = GMm/r2 and G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N m2 kg−2 gives:
(a) F = 2.13 × 10 −7 N
(b) F = 3.56 × 1022 N
Figure 7.2 Earth in orbit round
the Sun (not to scale)
It is gravitation that holds the planets in orbit around the Sun. Although
the law strictly deals only with point masses, the sizes of the planets are
so small compared with their distances of separation that we can consider
them to be point masses. (This also applies to the Sun itself in this context.)

Now test yourself

1 What is the force between two bodies of mass:
(a) 80 kg and 60 kg placed 5 m apart
(b) 2000 g and 800 kg placed 25 m apart
(c) 1.5 × 1012 kg and 3 × 1027 kg placed 45 × 109 m apart?

Answer on p. 220

Example Exam tip

The Earth (mass m) orbits the Sun (mass M) in 365 days in an orbit of Make sure that you use the
radius 1.5 × 1011 m. Calculate the mass of the Sun. (Remember that correct units for gravitation
problems.
v = 2π r (page 114) and use G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N m2 kg−2.)
T
Answer
mv 2 = m(4π r /T ) = GMm
2 2 2

r r r2
Therefore:

4π 2 = GM
T2 r3
(1.5 × 1011)3
M = 4π r2 = 4π 2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × (86 400 × 365)2
2 3

GT
35
= 1.33 × 10 4 = 2.0 × 10 30 kg
6.63 × 10

Gravitational field strength

The gravitational field strength (g) is the force on a unit mass at a
point in the field.

AQA A-level Physics 139

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The force (F) on a body of mass m in a gravitational field of a body of
7  Fields and their consequences

mass M is F = GMm . Force per unit mass is given by F . So:

r2 m
GM
gravitational field strength (g) = F = 2
m r

The units for g are N kg−1 or, since F = ma, F = a and so g can be
m
expressed in m s−2.
The gravitational field strength at the surface of a body of radius R is
written as go. Therefore, the gravitational field strength (g) at any other
g R2
point distance r from the centre is g = o 2 .
r

Uniform and radial gravitational fields

In a uniform gravitational field the field lines are parallel and of equal
separation.
In a radial gravitational field the field lines get further apart the further
from the central mass (Figure 7.3).

Uniform field — parallel field lines Radial field — converging field lines

Figure 7.3 Uniform and radial gravitational fields

Example
Use the following data to calculate the gravitational field strength at
the surface of the Earth. (Assume the Earth to be a uniform sphere.)
Mass of Earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg; radius of Earth = 6.4 × 106 m; gravitational
constant (G) = 6.67 × 10 −11 N m2 kg−2

Answer
−11
gravitational field strength (g) = GM = 6.67 × 10 × 6.0 × 1024 = 9.8 N kg−1
2 6 2
R (6.4 × 10 )

Gravitational potential
Near the Earth’s surface the gravitational potential changes uniformly
with distance. The gravitational potential in a radial field varies with the
distance from the central mass. At a distance r from a central mass M:
gravitational potential =  − GM
r

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The gravitational potential energy of a mass m at a distance r from the

7 Fields and their consequences

centre of the central body is: The gravitational potential
(V) at a point in a field is
gravitational potential energy = − GMm defined as the work done in
r
moving a unit mass to that
Note the negative sign in both the above equations. This is because the point in the field.
zero of gravitational potential for a mass is taken to be at an infinite
distance from that mass.
Exam tip
Gravitational field strength (g) at a point in a field is the negative
gravitational potential gradient at that point: The gravitational energy of
a mass at the surface of a
g = − ∆V planet is negative.
∆r
Gravitational field lines and equipotentials can be represented
diagrammatically (Figure 7.4). Exam tip
For more on field lines and
Equipotentials
equipotentials see pages
146-147 on electric fields.
The same concepts apply to
gravitational fields.

Exam tip
Gravitational field lines are
Far from the Earth's surface Close to the Earth's surface always at right angles to the
equipotential surfaces.
Figure 7.4 Gravitational field lines and equipotential surfaces

Change in the gravitational potential energy of an object

If an object of mass m moves from point A (a distance r1 from the centre
of a radial field due to a mass M) to a point B (a distance r 2 from the
centre of the field), its potential energy will change. The change in the
gravitational potential energy of an object (Δ Ep ) is given by:

∆Ep = GMm  1 − 1 
 r1 r2 

This change is independent of the path that the mass takes between
A and B.

Now test yourself

2 A satellite of mass m moves in a circular orbit of radius r about the centre of a planet of mass M,
remaining at a distance h above the surface of the planet. What is the gravitational potential energy of
the satellite?
A −mgh B − GMm C GMm D mgh
r r
Answer on p. 220

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Escape velocity
7 Fields and their consequences

The escape velocity of

If we consider a space probe of mass m at the surface of a planet radius R a planet, or any other
then its gravitational potential energy at the surface is −GMm/R. gravitational system, is the
velocity that an object would
The energy required to escape from the field is therefore +GMm/R. have to be given to escape
from the gravitational field
escape velocity (ve) = ( 2GM
R )
= (2Rgo) of that planet.

The escape velocity is also important if we want to find whether a planet

can retain its atmosphere. The higher-velocity molecules will escape the
gravitational pull if their velocity is greater than the escape velocity of
the planet.

Now test yourself

3 Explain why the maximum velocity with which a meteoroid could enter the Earth’s atmosphere
is equal to the escape velocity of the Earth, assuming no forces act other than the gravitational
attraction between the meteoroid and the Earth.

Answer on p. 220

Orbits of planets and satellites

Geostationary and geosynchronous satellites
A geosynchronous satellite has a period of exactly 1 day so that it passes
over a fixed point on the Earth’s surface at the same time each day but
does not remain constantly over that point.
A special case is the geostationary satellite (Figure 7.5), which gets its
name from the fact that it is launched into an equatorial orbit with a
period of exactly 1 day and so when viewed from any point on the Earth’s
surface it remains constantly in a fixed position. This type of satellite is
used for communications.

Satellite (geosynchronous), Satellite (geosynchronous),

orbital period 1 day orbital period 1 day

Satellite (geostationary),
orbital period 1 day

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.5 Geosynchronous (a–c) and geostationary (c) satellite orbits

The radius (r) of the orbit for a geostationary satellite is:
1
⁄3
g R 2T 2
r = o 2
4π

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where go is the surface gravity for the planet, R its radius and T the orbital

7  Fields and their consequences

period of the satellite.
Geostationary satellites (for the Earth) have the following properties:
l Their orbit lies in the same plane as the equator of the Earth.
l The satellite period is one Earth day. Typical mistake
l They have the same angular velocity as the Earth.
Using the orbit height
l They move around their orbit in the same direction as the rotation of
and not the orbit radius
the Earth. when making calculations
l They remain above a fixed point on the Earth’s surface. concerning satellite orbits.
l They have an orbit centred on the centre of the Earth.

Now test yourself

4 Figure 7.6 shows four orbits that have been suggested for a communications satellite. Which orbit(s)
is(are) both possible and correct for this use? Explain your answer.

A B C D

Figure 7.6 Possible geostationary satellite orbits

5 What is the speed of a satellite placed in orbit around the Earth 200 km above the surface of the Earth?
(radius of the Earth = 6.4 × 106 m, mass of the Earth = 6 × 1024 kg, G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N m2 kg−2)

Answers on p. 220

Exam practice
1 A planet moves in a circular orbit of radius r about the centre of a star. Its period of rotation about
the star is proportional to:
A r ½ B r  C r −½ D r −  [1]
2 Calculate the mass of the Earth using only the following data: G = 6.67 × 10  N m  kg−2, radius of the
−11 2

Moon’s orbit = 3.8 × 108 m, orbit time of the Moon about the Earth = 27.3 Earth days. [3]
3 A 1600 kg satellite is launched from the surface of a planet that has a uniform density, a surface
gravity of 30 N kg−1 and a radius of 2 × 107 m. It is placed into a circular orbit 1.5 × 106 m above the
planet’s surface such that the satellite has a period of 5 × 10 3 s.
(a) Give an estimate of the approximate increase in potential energy of the satellite. [2]
(b) Explain why the actual answer will differ from this. [2]
(c) Calculate the exact answer. [2]
(d) Calculate the kinetic energy of the satellite in this orbit. [3]
4 A satellite is launched so that is in a geostationary orbit. Calculate the height of the satellite above
the equator using only the following data: value of g at the Earth’s surface = 9.81 m s−2, equatorial
radius of the Earth = 6.4 × 106 m. [2]
5 Triton, one of the Moon’s of Neptune, has a mass of 2.14 × 1022 kg and a diameter of 2700 km. Calculate:
(a) the surface gravity of Triton [2]
(b) the escape velocity of Triton [3]

Answers and quick quiz 7 online

AQA A-level Physics 143

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Summary
7  Fields and their consequences

You should now have an understanding of: ● Gravitational field strength — g as a force per
● Fields — bodies in a field experience a non- unit mass:
contact force
● Vector representation of force fields g = GM
r2
● Similarities and differences between
● Gravitational potential — zero at infinity
gravitational and electric fields
● Work done by moving a mass in a field —
● Gravity as a universal attractive force between
all matter independent of the path of the movement
● Gravitational potential in a radial field:
● Gravitational fields — Newton’s law of
gravitation: V = − GMr
F = GMm ● Orbits of planets and satellites — geostationary
r2
and geosynchronous satellites and their orbits

Electric fields
Coulomb’s law
Coulomb’s law states that that the force between two charges placed a
distance r apart in a vacuum is given by the equation:
Exam tip
QQ
F =  1   1 2 2  For practical purposes the
 4πε 0   r  permittivity of air is virtually
the same as that of free
The constant ε0 is known as the permittivity of free space. Its value is space (a vacuum).
8.85 × 10−12 F m−1. The numerical value of 1/(4πε0) is 8.99 × 109.

Example
Calculate the force between the proton and electron in an atom
of hydrogen. (radius of the electron orbit = 10 −10 m; charge on the
electron = 1.6 × 10 −19 C)

Answer
 QQ 
F =  1   1 2 2  = 8.99 × 10 × 1.6 × −10
−19
9
× 1.6 × 10−19 = 2.3 × 10−8 N
20
 4πε 0   r  10

Electric field strength

Electric field lines in uniform and radial electric fields
An electric field may be represented by a diagram that shows field lines
(Figure 7.7). These are lines that show both the direction in which a positive
charge would move in the field and also the strength of the field. The closer
the lines the stronger (the more intense) the electric field at that point.

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7 Fields and their consequences
Field line

0 +V +

d
Equipotential
The electric field strength
Figure 7.7 Uniform and radial electric fields (E) at a point in an electric
field is the force (F) on a unit
In a uniform field the electric field lines are equally spaced while in a positive charge placed at
radial field they get further apart at points further from the charge. Note that point.
that the dotted lines are lines of equal potential.

electric field strength = F

Q
force (F) on a charge (Q) in an electric field of strength E = EQ

The units for electric field strength are N C−1, or V m-1.

In a uniform field:
V
electric field strength (E) =
d
In a radial field:
Exam tip

( )
electric field strength due to a charge Q (E) =  1  Q2
 4πε 0  r
Unlike magnetic fields an
electric field will exert a
force on stationary charged
Trajectory of a charge in an electric field particles within the field.

If a moving charged particle enters a uniform electric field at right angles

the trajectory followed will be parabolic (Figure 7.8).

+V

+Q
E

+Q

Figure 7.8 Trajectory of a charged particle in an electric field

Just like an object moving in a gravitational field the charged particle
accelerates in the direction of the field but moves at a constant speed at
right angles to it.

AQA A-level Physics 145

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Now test yourself
7 Fields and their consequences

6 Calculate the acceleration of an electron moving in a field of intensity 1000 V m−1 and state in
which direction this acceleration takes place. (charge on the electron = 1.6 × 10 −19 C;
electron mass = 9 × 10 −31 kg)

Answer on p. 220

Electric potential
Note: an alternative definition is that it is the potential energy of a unit
positive charge placed at that point with the zero being at infinity. The electric potential at a
point in an electric field is
The electric potential (V ) at a point a distance r from a charge Q is given defined as the work done
by the equation: in bringing a unit positive
charge from infinity to that
V =  1  Q()
 4πε 0  r
point (units: volts).

If a charge q is placed in an electric field, its electric potential energy is qV :

Electric potential energy at a point in a radial field = qV =  1 
qQ
 4π ε 0  r

Now test yourself

7 Calculate the electric potential at a distance of 0.5 m from a charge of 0.5 mC.

Answer on p. 220
Electric field
strength (E)

The electric field strength can also be defined as the

negative of the electric potential gradient:

electric field strength (E) = − ∆V

∆r
Hence the units V m−1.
The change in electric potential is equal to the
area between two distances on the E−r graph.
(See Figure 7.9.)

ΔV = EΔr

Equipotential lines and surfaces DV

A line of equipotential is a line joining points of equal Dr Distance (r)

potential just like a contour line on a map joining
points of equal height. Since E = −ΔV/Δr, the closer Figure 7.9 Potential, potential gradient and
the lines of equipotential are the greater the potential electric field
Exam tip
gradient and so the greater the field strength.
Electric field lines are
An equipotential surface is a surface that joins points of equal potential,
always at right angles to
and therefore a surface on which the potential does not vary. This means lines of equal potential and
that if you connected a wire between two points on the surface no to equipotential surfaces.
current would f low between them.

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No work is done in moving an electric charge along an equipotential

7 Fields and their consequences

surface.
Figure 7.10 shows equipotential lines for uniform and radial fields.

+V Potential

E = –∆V/∆r
is constant

0V Distance from top plate

Potential

Electric field line E = –∆V/∆ r

varies with
+ distance

Distance from charge

Equipotential

Figure 7.10 Equipotential lines for uniform and radial fields

Capacitance
Capacitance
The combination of any two conductors separated by an insulator is called a
capacitor. A capacitor is a device that can be made to store electric charge.
Practical capacitors come in three basic forms:
l as part of an integrated circuit
l as two parallel plates (described more fully later)
l as a cylinder made of a pair of rolled-up plates

The ability to store charge is called the capacitance of the capacitor. A capacitor has a
capacitance of 1 farad if the
charge (Q) on one of the conductors potential across it rises by
capacitance (C) =
potential difference (V) between 1 volt when a charge of 1
the two conductors coulomb is stored in it.
Capacitance is measured in farads (F).
A farad is actually a very large unit. The capacitors that you will meet
will have capacitances of microfarads (μF, 10−6 F), nanofarads (nF, 10−9 F)
or picofarads (pF, 10−12 F).

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Example 1
7  Fields and their consequences

A 4700 μF capacitor is connected to a cell so that the potential

difference across its terminals is 6 V. When it is fully charged:
(a) What is the charge on the positive plate of the capacitor?
(b) How many additional electrons are on the negative plate?
(charge on one electron = 1.6 × 10 −19 C)

Answer
(a) Q = CV = 4700 × 10 −6 × 6 = 0.028 C
0.028 = 1.76 × 1017
(b)
1.6 × 10 −19

Example 2
What is the capacitance of a capacitor that stores 30 μC of charge
when a potential difference of 6 V is applied across it?

Answer Revision activity

charge (Q)
capacitance (C) = Make a list of the uses
pd (V) capacitors both as individual
30 × 10 −6 components and as part of
= = 5 × 10 −6 F = 5 μF
6 an integrated circuit.

Now test yourself

8 (a) A capacitor of capacitance 5 μF is connected to a 6 V supply. What charge is stored in the capacitor?
(b) A 400 pF capacitor carries a charge of 2.5 × 10 −8 C. What is the potential difference across the
plates of the capacitor?

Answer on p. 220

The parallel-plate capacitor

In its most basic form a capacitor is simply two metal plates with a
vacuum between them (Figure 7.11). Such an arrangement is called a +V +Q
parallel-plate capacitor. The two plates of a charged parallel capacitor each
carry charges of the same size but of opposite sign.
Q d
electric field strength between the plates (E) =
ε0 A
where ε0 is the permittivity of free space (page 144).
Area A –V –Q
But if V is the potential difference between the plates: Figure 7.11 The parallel-plate
Q capacitor
E=V =
d ε0 A
Q Exam tip
And therefore, since C = :
V The electric field within a
ε0 A
capacitance (C) of a parallel-plate capacitor = parallel-plate capacitor
d
is the same at all points
between the plates.

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Now test yourself

7  Fields and their consequences

  9 Calculate the capacitance of an air-filled, parallel-plate capacitor formed of two plates, each of area
25 cm2 and separated by 0.2 mm εo = 8.85 × 10-12 F m-1.
10 A school decides to make an air-filled capacitor from two metal plates separated by 0.5 mm. If the
capacitance required is 100 μF what must be the area of each of the plates?

Answers on pp. 220–1

The action of a dielectric + + + + + + + + + +

A dielectric material is one which is non-conducting. If such a material
– – – – – –
is placed in an electric field the charges within its molecules separate,
+ + + + + +
although this separation does not cause conduction (Figure 7.12).
– – – – – –
If a dielectric material is placed between the plates of a charged capacitor, + + + + + +
opposite charges will be induced on the two surfaces of the dielectric.
– – – – – –
This has the effect of reducing the potential difference across the
+ + + + + +
capacitor. The capacitance of the capacitor is increased.
– – – – – –
+ + + + + +
Relative permittivity
It is often useful to compare the electrostatic properties of materials by – – – – – – – – – – –
using a quantity known as the relative permittivity (εr) — also known as
Figure 7.12 Action of a dielectric
the dielectric constant. This is defined using the relation:
permittivity (ε) = relative permittivity (εr) × permittivity of free space (ε0)
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor with a material of relative
permittivity εr filling the space between the plates is:
εrε0A
capacitance (C) =
d
The relative permittivity of most gases is very nearly equal to 1.00, but
for solids and liquids it varies between 80 (water) and 2 (paraffin).
The relative permittivity (εr) can also be defined as the ratio of the Exam tip
capacitance when the space between the plates is a dielectric to that when
Relative permittivity has no
there is a vacuum between the plates.
units — it is a pure number.

Example 1
Calculate the separation of the plates of an air-filled capacitor of Typical mistake
capacitance 20 nF if the plates have an area of 45 cm2. Permittivity of Forgetting to use SI units
free space (ε0) = 8.85 × 10 −12 F m−1. (Take the relative permittivity of air for plate separation and
to be 1.0) area when calculating the
Answer capacitance of a parallel-
εA plate capacitor.
capacitance (C) = 0
d
8.85 × 10 −12 × 45 × 10 −4
20 × 10 −9 =
d
d = 2 × 10  m = 0.002 mm
−6

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Example 2
7  Fields and their consequences

Calculate the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor with plates of

area 50 cm2 when the space between the plates is filled by a sheet of
glass 0.5 mm thick.
Exam tip
Permittivity of free space (ε0) = 8.85 × 10 −12 F m−1; the relative
permittivity of glass = 7.0 Remember that when
Answer substituting for the area in
ε0εrA 8.85 × 10 −12 × 7.0 × 50 × 10 −4 the parallel-plate capacitor
capacitance (C) = = formula it is the area of one
d 5 × 10 −4
of the plates and not the
= 6.2 × 10 −10 F = 0.62 nF total area of both.

Now test yourself

11 Calculate the capacitance of a pair of parallel plates of area 25 cm2 if they are separated by a piece
of Perspex 0.1 mm thick. Take the permittivity of free space to be 8.85 × 10 −12 F m−1 and the relative
permittivity of Perspex to be 3.5.

Answer on p. 221

Energy stored by a capacitor

If a small charge ΔQ is taken from one plate to the other, the work done
will be VΔQ where V is the potential difference between the plates. If the
initial charge on the positive plate is 0 and the final charge is Q, then the
total energy gained in completely discharging the capacitor is:
Q2
energy stored in a capacitor = ½  = ½CV 2 = ½QV
C
The energy stored as a capacitor is charged is shown in Figure 7.13.
V

DQ

V
Area below line =
energy stored = 12 QV

Q
Figure 7.13 Energy stored in a capacitor

Example
What is the energy stored in the following capacitors:
(a) a capacitor of 4700 μF charged to a potential of 240 V?
(b) a capacitor with a charge of 20 nC charged to a potential of 10 V?
(c) a capacitor of 20 μF with a charge of 50 μC?

Answer
(a) energy = ½CV2 = 0.5 × 4700 × 10 −6 × 2402 = 135.4 J
(b) energy = ½QV = 0.5 × 20 × 10 −9 × 10 = 1 × 10 −7 J = 0.1 μJ
Q2 (50 × 10 −6)2
(c) energy = ½  = 0.5 × = 6.25 × 10 −5 J = 0.0625 mJ
C 20 × 10 −6

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Now test yourself

7  Fields and their consequences

12 A capacitor with a potential difference of 100 V between its terminals stores a charge of 5 C. What is
the energy stored by the capacitor?
13 What is the energy stored in the following parallel-plate capacitor in a vacuum: area of the plates
1 m2, separation 1 mm, potential difference 20 V? (permittivity of a vacuum = 8.85 × 10 −12 F m−1)
14 A parallel-plate capacitor is charged so that the potential difference between the plates is V. The
supply is then disconnected and the plates’ separation is reduced. What happens to:
(a) the electric field strength
(b) the charge on the plates
(c) the potential difference between the plates?

Answers on p. 221

Capacitor charge and discharge

When a pd is applied across the capacitor the potential cannot rise to the
applied value instantaneously. As the charge on the terminals builds up to
its final value it tends to repel the addition of further charge.
The rate at which a capacitor can be charged or discharged depends on:
l the capacitance of the capacitor, and
l the resistance of the circuit through which it is being charged or is
discharging. The greater the resistance, the longer the time taken.

Charging a capacitor
In the charging circuit of Figure 7.14, as soon as the switch is closed in
position 1 the battery is connected across the capacitor, current f lows and
the potential difference across the capacitor begins to rise. As more and
more charge builds up on the capacitor plates, the current and the rate of
rise of potential difference both fall. Finally, no further current will f low
when the pd across the capacitor equals that of the supply voltage V0. The
capacitor is then fully charged.
For a capacitor charging:
V = V0(1 – e−t/RC)
Potential
difference (V)

V0

V0 – (V0 /e)
1

+
V0 C R

RC 2RC 3RC
Time (t)

Figure 7.14 Charging a capacitor

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Example
7  Fields and their consequences

A 200 μF capacitor is charged through a resistor of 100 kΩ using a 6 V

DC supply. What is the potential difference across the capacitor 10 s
after the commencement of the charging process?

Answer
V = V0(1 – e−t/RC) = 6(1 − e−10/(100 000 × 0.0002)) = 6(1 − 0.61) = 2.36 V

Now test yourself

15 A 1000 μF capacitor is charged through a 2 kΩ resistor using a 12 V DC supply. How long will it take for
the potential difference across the capacitor to reach 9 V?

Answer on p. 221

Discharging a capacitor
In the circuit of Figure 7.15, as soon as the switch is put in position 2
a ‘large’ current starts to f low and the potential difference across the
capacitor drops. As charge f lows from one plate to the other through the
resistor the charge is neutralised and so the current falls and the rate of
decrease of potential difference also falls.
Eventually the charge on the plates is zero and the current and potential
difference are also zero — the capacitor is fully discharged. The value
of the resistor does not affect the final potential difference across the
capacitor.
V = V0e−t/RC I = I0e−t/RC Q = Q0e−t/RC ln V = ln V0 − t/RC
Potential
difference (V)

V0

+
V0 C R V0 /e

RC 2RC 3RC
Time (t)

Figure 7.15 Discharging a capacitor

Exam tip
The value of a resistor
l The area under a current−time capacitor discharge graph gives the
connected in series with a
charge held by the capacitor. capacitor will not affect the
l The gradient of a charge−time capacitor discharge graph gives the
final potential difference
current f lowing from the capacitor at that moment. across the capacitor — only
l A graph of ln [V0/V] against t will give a linear graph with gradient 1/RC. the time taken to charge or
discharge it.

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Example

7  Fields and their consequences

A capacitor of 1000 μF with a potential difference of 12 V across it is
discharged through a 500 Ω resistor. Calculate the voltage across the
capacitor after 1.5 s.

Answer

V = V0 e−t/RC = 12e−1.5/(500 × 0.001) = 0.6 V

The time constant

The rate at which a capacitor charges or discharges is governed by its
capacitance (C) and the resistance (R) of the circuit through which it is
charged or discharged. The product RC is known as the time constant
for the circuit:
time constant for a capacitor circuit = RC

The time constant is measured in seconds. The bigger the value of RC,
the slower the rate at which the capacitor charges and discharges.
The time for the potential difference across the capacitor to halve is
T½ = 0.69 RC.
The time constant can be measured by using a graph of the discharge of
a capacitor (Figure 7.15). The time taken for the potential difference to
halve is found from the graph and the time constant (RC) calculated from
T½/0.69.

Example
The potential difference across a certain capacitor halves in 20 s
Calculate:
(a) the time constant of the capacitor
(b) the capacitance of the capacitor if the discharge takes place
through a 100 kΩ resistor

Answer
time for p.d. to halve 20
time constant = RC = = = 29 s
0.69 0.69
time constant 29
capacitance (C) = = = 2.9 × 10 −4 F = 290 μF
R 100 × 10 3

Now test yourself

16 A capacitor of 1000 μF with a potential difference of 12 V across it is discharged through a 1000 Ω
resistor. Calculate the voltage across the capacitor after 0.5 s.
17 What is the time constant for circuit where a 10 μF capacitor is charged through a 1000 kΩ resistor?

Answers on p. 221

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Required practical 9
7  Fields and their consequences

Investigation of the charge and discharge of a capacitor

The circuit shown in Figure 7.16 is set up with the two-way switch in the central position. The switch is
moved to position 1 (Figure 7.16a) so that the capacitor charges through R1. The potential difference across
the capacitor is measured at time intervals using the high-resistance voltmeter (V) or a voltage sensor.
When the voltage is constant the switch is moved to position 2 (Figure 7.16b) so that the capacitor
discharges through R2. Once again the variation of potential difference with time is measured.
A graph of pd against time or ln (pd) against time is drawn and hence the time constant can be
calculated.

1 2

+ +
V0 V0 R2
V V

R1 R1

(a) (b)

Figure 7.16 Circuit diagrams for (a) charging and (b) discharging a capacitor

Exam practice
1 A parallel-plate capacitor has plates of area 6 × 10 −2 m2 separated by 1.2 mm. The space between the
plates is filled with dielectric of relative permittivity 2.78. (ε0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 F m−1) The capacitance of
the capacitor is:
A 15.7 pF B 2.78 nF C 1.23 × 10 −12 F D 1.23 nF [1]
2 A parallel-plate air capacitor of area 25 cm and with plates 1 mm apart is charged to a potential of 100 V.
2

(a) Calculate the energy stored in it. [2]

(b) The plates of the capacitor are now moved a further 1 mm apart with the power supply
connected. Calculate the energy change. [3]
(c) If the power supply had been disconnected before the plates had been moved apart, what
would have been the energy change in this case? [2]
3 To have the same energy as a 2.0 V 40 ampere-hour accumulator, a 0.1 F capacitor must be charged
to a potential of:
A 1200 V B 2400 V C 3600 V D 6000 V [1]
4 An uncharged capacitor is connected as shown in Figure 7.16a.
(a) Describe the flow of electrons as the capacitor charges. [1]
(b) Describe the flow of electric current as the capacitor charges. [1]
(c) What determines the final potential difference across the capacitor? [1]
(d) The resistor R1 is now replaced by one of larger resistance. What effect does this have on:
(i) the rate of charging [1]
(ii) the final charge on the capacitor? [1]
5 A capacitor is discharged through a 10 MΩ resistor and it is found that the time constant is 2000 s.
(a) Calculate the value of the capacitor. [2]
(b) Calculate the time for the potential across a 100 μF capacitor to fall to 75 per cent of its
original value if it is discharged through a 10 kΩ resistor. [2]

Answers and quick quiz 7 online

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Magnetic fields

7 Fields and their consequences

Magnetic flux density
Force on a current-carrying wire
The force F on a wire carrying a current at right angles to a magnetic
field (Figure 7.17a) is proportional to:
l the current in the wire I
l the length of the conductor in the field L
l the strength of the field — this is measured by a quantity known as the
magnetic f lux density (B) of the field.

Force Wire

I
B L
N S

(a) View along axis of the wire (b) Wire of length L carrying
current I in a field of flux density B
Figure 7.17 Force on a wire carrying a current in a magnetic field

Magnetic flux can be thought of as the ‘flow of magnetic energy’. The

amount of magnetic flux passing through a given area is the magnetic
flux density (B) and this is measured in teslas (T).

With B in teslas, the force is given by the equation:

force on a wire carrying a current in magnetic field, F = BIL

The flux density of a field of 1 tesla is the force per unit length on a
wire carrying a current of one ampere at right angles to the field.

Example
Calculate the upward force on a power cable of length 150 m running
east–west and carrying a current of 200 A at a place where the
horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field is 10 −5 T.
Answer
The wire will experience a force given by
F = BIL = 10 −5 × 150 × 200 = 0.30 N.

Now test yourself

18 A wire of length 10 cm and mass 3 g is placed at right angles to a horizontal magnetic field of strength
1.2 T. What current must be passed though the wire keep the wire at rest? (g = 9.81 m s−2)

Answer on p. 221

Fleming’s left-hand rule

Professor J. A. Fleming found a simple way of remembering the direction
of the force or motion using your left hand. It involves placing the thumb,
first finger and second finger of the left hand at right angles to each other
(Figure 7.18).
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7  Fields and their consequences

Field
First finger

N SeCond finger
Motion

ThuMb

Current

Figure 7.18 Fleming’s left-hand rule

Required practical 10

Force on a current using a top pan balance

The apparatus is set up as shown in Figure 7.19 and the reading on the top pan balance is adjusted to zero.
The switch is closed and a measured current passed through the rod. The force on the rod is shown on
the balance. By knowing the length of rod in the field the strength (flux density) of the field can be found.

Magnet + – Metal rod

Metal rod

V
Metal
Magnet Magnet rod

245
A

Figure 7.19 Force on a current using a top pan balance

Moving charges in a magnetic field

Force on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field
If a wire carrying a current I is placed in a field of f lux density B:
I = nAvq
The force (F ) on the wire is given by:
F = BIL
where n is the number of charges per metre cubed, A is the cross-
sectional area of the specimen, v is the drift velocity of the charges of
charge q.
If a single particle moves perpendicular to the field (θ = 90° and sin θ = 1)
the force on a charge q is (Figure 7.20):
F = Bqv

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7 Fields and their consequences
Positively
charged particle

Force = Bqv

Force

Magnetic field perpendicular to figure Magnetic field (B)

Figure 7.20 Moving positive charge in a magnetic field

Since the force on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field is always Exam tip
at right angles to the motion (Fleming’s left-hand rule) the path described
will be a circle. Therefore the force on a charged particle moving a The force on a charged
speed v perpendicular to a magnetic field of strength B is: particle that is at rest in a
magnetic field is zero.
mv2
F = Bqv =
r
where r is the radius of the circular path (see centripetal force, page 115).

Example
A proton (mass 1.66 × 10 −27 kg) with a charge-to-mass ratio (q/m) of
9.6 × 107 C kg−1 moves in a circle in a magnetic field of flux density
1.2 T at 4.5 × 107 m s−1.
Calculate the radius of the circular orbit (see centripetal force, page 115).

Answer
mv2 mv 4.5 × 107
radius of orbit = = = = 0.39 m
Bqv Bq 1.2 × 9.6 × 107

Now test yourself

19 A bubble chamber photograph shows a particle moving in a circle of radius 4 mm. If the field in the
chamber is 0.03 T and the velocity of the particle is 2.1 × 107 m s−1 what is the charge-to-mass ratio of
the particle?

Answer on p. 221
Ion source
V
Direction of force on particles of opposite sign
The force on particles of opposite sign moving in a magnetic Magnet
field is in opposite directions. This is clearly shown by the pole
motion of sub-atomic particles in a cloud chamber or bubble
chamber.
Magnetic
The cyclotron field
The force on a charged particle is fundamental to the
operation of a cyclotron. This is basically a circular, D-shaped
evacuated chamber cut into two D-shaped halves with a electrodes
high voltage across the gap. The particles are injected at the Magnet
centre and a magnetic field is applied across the whole of the pole Deflecting
Target magnet
apparatus perpendicular to the Ds so that the particles are
def lected into a circular path (Figure 7.21).
Figure 7.21 The cyclotron

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They start at the centre and are given a ‘kick’ every time they cross the
7 Fields and their consequences

gap between the Ds, so increasing their energy.

Now test yourself

20 Describe and explain what happens to the radius of the orbit of a charged particle as it is accelerated
in a cyclotron?

Answer on p. 221

Magnetic flux and flux linkage

Magnetic flux
Around the magnet there is a magnetic field. The magnetic f lux is a
measure of the magnetic field, taking into account the f lux density and
the extent of the field (Figure 7.22). The magnetic f lux can be different
at different points in the field (e.g. X and Y). Magnetic f lux is given the
symbol Φ and is measured in units called webers (Wb). The amount of
f lux passing through a unit area at right angles to the magnetic field lines
is the f lux density (B) at that point.

Y
N S

One weber is the magnetic

flux that, linking a circuit of
Figure 7.22 Magnetic flux and flux linkage one turn, produces in the
circuit an emf of 1 V when
flux (Φ) = flux density (B) × area through which flux passes (A) the flux is reduced to zero in
1 second.
Φ = BA

If a coil is placed at position C (Figure 7.22) the f lux through the N turns
is N times that through the single loop. The quantity NΦ is called the
f lux linkage for the coil at that point. Coil of area A

flux linkage = NΦ = NBA

Flux linkage through a rotating coil

The f lux linkage through a coil that is rotating in a magnetic
field changes as the angle of the coil with the magnetic field θ
changes (Figure 7.23).
θ

If the coil makes an angle of θ with the field normal to the

plane of the coil the f lux linkage is:
flux linkage = BAN cos θ
Figure 7.23 Flux through a rotating coil

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Note that the axis of the coil is a line at right angles to the face of

7  Fields and their consequences

the coil.

Example
A coil of 200 turns and area 24 cm2 is rotating in a magnetic field of
0.8 T. Calculate the flux linkage through the coil when the plane of the
coil is at 50° to the field.

Answer Exam tip

angle of axis to the field = 90 − 50 = 40° Make sure that you use SI
flux linkage = BAN cos θ = 0.8 × 24 × 10 −4 × 200 × cos 40 = 0.29 Wb units in these calculations

Required practical 11
Flux linkage investigation — search coil and oscilloscope
The apparatus should be set up as shown in Figure 7.24.
Place the search coil in the centre of the helical spring with the plane of the coil perpendicular to the
axis of the spring. Switch on the low-voltage AC supply and turn off the time base of the oscilloscope.
This will give a vertical line on the screen. Determine the value of the induced emf from the length of the
oscilloscope trace. Rotate the coil so that its plane is at an angle θ to the spring's axis and record the
new value of the emf. Repeat this for a series of angles between 0° and 90°.

Low-voltage AC supply

Search coil on holder

Metal helical spring

Time base set to off

Figure 7.24 Flux density measurement — search coil and oscilloscope

Note that complete understanding of this experiment requires a knowledge of electromagnetic
induction, which is covered in the next section.

Now test yourself

21 A coil of 100 turns and area 50 cm2 is placed in a magnetic field of 0.5 T. Calculate the angle between
the axis of the coil and the magnetic field if the flux linkage through the coil is 0.15 Wb.
22 A single-turn square coil with sides 20 cm long is placed with its plane at right angles to a magnetic
field of strength 0.05 T.
(a) What is the flux linkage through the coil?
(b) The coil is now rotated about an axis through its centre, in the plane of the coil and at right
angles to the field until the plane of the coil is at 30° to the field. Calculate the change of flux
through the coil.

Answers on p. 221

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Electromagnetic induction
7  Fields and their consequences

Applications and effects of electromagnetic induction include:

l generators l eddy current damping
l transformers l induction coils
l electromagnetic separators l induction loops at approached to
traffic lights
Faraday’s law
If the magnetic f lux through a conducting coil is altered then an emf will
be generated in the coil (Figure 7.25). Faraday discovered that an emf
could be generated by either:
l moving the coil or the source of f lux relative to each other or
l changing the magnitude of the source of magnetic f lux

Note that the emf is only produced while the f lux linkage is changing.
Faraday summarised the results of his experiments as follows:
l An emf is induced in a coil if the magnetic f lux through the coil
changes.
l The magnitude of the induced emf depends on:
the rate of change of f lux (∆Φ/∆t)
the number of turns on the coil (N)
N∆Φ
magnitude of induced emf ε = rate of change of flux linkage =
∆t

100 µA meter

Coil
N

Iron C cores and clip

1.5 V cell
A B
–
+

Primary and secondary coils 100 µA meter

Figure 7.25 Induced emf

The faster the f lux is changed the greater is the emf produced.

Example
The magnetic flux through a coil of 250 turns is reduced from 2.5 Wb to
0.5 Wb in 3 s. Calculate the emf produced between the two ends of the coil.

Answer
N∆Φ
magnitude of the induced emf = rate of change of flux linkage =
∆t
= 250 × 2 = 167 V
3

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Now test yourself

7 Fields and their consequences

23 It is required to produce an emf of 50 V between the two ends of a coil of 200 turns by reducing the
magnetic flux through it by 2.3 Wb. Calculate the time within which this should be done.

Answer on p. 221

Fleming’s right-hand rule

Fleming proposed a simple rule for giving the direction of the induced
emf and current in one of Faraday’s experiments (Figure 7.26).
Magnetic Field

Motion

Induced Current

Figure 7.26 Fleming’s right-hand rule

Revision activity
If the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand are held at right
Find out about Michael
angles and the first finger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field Faraday’s discovery of
and the thumb in the direction of motion then the second finger gives the electromagnetic induction.
direction of the induced current.

Lenz’s law
Consider the energy changes that occur when a magnet is moved towards
a coil. Assume that the magnet is moved towards the coil with its north Lenz’s law states that the
pole facing towards the coil. Now by Lenz’s law this induces a current direction of the induced
emf is such that it tends
in the coil such that the end of the coil nearest the magnet is an induced
to oppose the change that
north pole. This repels the magnet and work must be done on the magnet
produced it.
to move it in against this repulsion.
The energy used produces the induced emf in the coil.

Eddy currents
These are induced currents in metal objects larger than pieces of wire.
The emfs induced may not be very great but because the resistance of a
lump of metal is low the induced currents can be large.
Since the induced currents always act so as to oppose the motion (Lenz’s
law) eddy currents can be used as a very effective electromagnetic brake.
They also cause energy loss in transformers.

An emf generated in a moving straight wire in a

magnetic field
A straight conductor of length L is moved through a field of f lux density
B. If the conductor moves with velocity v at right angles to the field then
the f lux cut per second will be BLv (since the conductor will sweep out
an area vL every second). (See Figure 7.27.)

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But the rate of cutting f lux is equal to the emf induced in the conductor.
7  Fields and their consequences

Therefore:
emf generated (ε) = BLv

B
L L θ B

v v

(a) (b)

Figure 7.27 Induced emf in a straight wire

If the conductor cuts through the f lux at an angle θ, where θ is the angle
between the magnetic field and the direction of motion:
emf generated (ε) = BLv sin θ
The maximum emf is generated when the conductor moves at right
angles to the field. θ = 90° and so sin θ = sin 90 = 1.

Example
A wire of length 65 cm is moved at a constant speed of 4.5 m s−1
through a magnetic field of flux density 0.2 T. If the wire is moving at
right angles to the field calculate the emf generated between its ends.

Answer
emf generated = BLv = 0.2 × 0.65 × 4.5 = 0.59 V

Now test yourself

24 It is required to produce an emf of 10 V between the two ends of a 2 m long straight wire by moving it
through a magnetic field of flux density 1.5 T at an angle of 25° to the field. Calculate the velocity of
the wire needed.

Answer on p. 221

An emf generated in a rotating coil in a magnetic field

A coil of N turns and area A is rotated at a constant angular velocity ω in
a magnetic field of f lux density B, its axis being perpendicular to the field
(Figure 7.28). When the normal to the coil is at an angle θ to the field the
f lux through the coil is BAN cos θ = BAN cos (ωt), since θ = ωt.
Exam tip
The emf (ε) generated between the ends of the coil is: The maximum value of the
emf (εo) is when θ (= ωt) = 90°
emf generated = BANω sin(ωt)
(when the plane of the coil is
in the plane of the field).
maximum emf, ε 0 = BANω

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The emf is at its maximum value when the wires of the coil are cutting

7  Fields and their consequences

through the f lux at right angles (Figure 7.28b). The root-mean-square
value of the sinusoidal emf is:

Erms = BANω
2

maximum induced emf ε0

ω B

θ
Coil

(a) (b)

Figure 7.28 Induced emf in a rotating coil — varying emf

Figure 7.29 shows the induced emf at corresponding positions of the coil
during its rotation.

a b a b
+ε0 b b
Induced emf

E = E0sinωt = BANω sinωt

a a
0
b a a
Time

a
b b
−ε0
b a b a

Figure 7.29 Coil positions and varying sinusoidal output voltage

Example
A circular coil of 100 turns, each of radius 10 cm, is rotated at
10 revs per second about an axis at right angles to a field of flux
density 0.1 T. Find the position of the coil when the emf across its
ends is a maximum, and calculate this emf. Exam tip

Answer Notice that the angular

velocity used in the
The position of coil when the emf is maximum is when the plane of the
calculations must be in
coil is parallel to the field:
radians per second, where 1
emf = BANω = 0.1 × π × 0.12 × 100 × 20π = 19.74 V rev s−1 = 2π rad s−1.

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Now test yourself
7  Fields and their consequences

25 A circular coil of 200 turns, each of radius 8 cm, is rotated about an axis at right angles to a field of
flux density 0.2 T.
(a) Find the position of the coil when the emf across its ends is zero.
(b) Calculate the required rate of revolution to give a maximum emf of 12 V between the ends of
the coil.

Answer on p. 221

Alternating currents
Direct current is an electric current that f lows in one direction only —
the electrons drifting down the wire one way. If an alternating
voltage is applied they change direction, first moving one way and then
the other, and an alternating current is produced (Figure 7.30).

0 0

Figure 7.30 Alternating voltage or current — variation with time

An alternating current or voltage is one that varies with time about zero.
We will restrict ourselves to a sinusoidal variation only (Figure 7.31).
Voltage

Peak value
rms value
V0

0
Time
T

rms value

Peak value

Figure 7.31 Sinusoidal alternating voltage

Root-mean-square values
The power P used in a resistor R is proportional to the square of the current:
P = I2 R

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But with alternating current the value of I, and therefore of P, changes,

7  Fields and their consequences

and so:
mean value of P = (mean value of I 2) × R = I2R
where:
Irms = mean value of I 2 = rms current
For a sinusoidal variation of current and voltage the rms (root-mean-
square) value of current I and voltage V are related to the peak value I 0
and v0 by the following equations.
Root-mean-square current:
I0
Irms = = 0.707I0
2
Root-mean-square voltage:
V0
Vrms = = 0.707V0
2

Example
In the UK the rms voltage of the mains electrical supply is 230 V.
Calculate the peak voltage.
Exam tip
Answer
Remember that the rms
V0
Vrms = = 0.707V0 value is the square root of
2 the mean-square value of
So the peak value (V0) is 230/0.707 or about 325 V. the current or voltage.

Now test yourself

26 A sinusoidal alternating pd has a peak value of 156 V. Calculate the rms value.
27 What is the mean value of a sinusoidal voltage?

Answers on p. 221

Use of an oscilloscope for measurement and display

An oscilloscope (Figure 7.32) has the following controls:
l on/off switch
l time base — this circuit applies a saw-tooth waveform to the X plates.
The beam is moved from the left-hand side of the screen to the right
during the time that the voltage rises to a maximum, and then is
returned rapidly to the left as the voltage returns to zero.
l X input — voltage that controls the position of the beam in the x direction
l Y input — voltage that controls the position of the beam in the y direction
l Y gain — controls the sensitivity of the beam in the y direction (volts/cm)
l X gain — controls the sensitivity of the beam in the x direction (volts/cm)
l brightness — controls the brightness of the beam

An oscilloscope is a most useful instrument for the measurement and

display of AC waveforms (Figures 7.32 and 7.33).

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7  Fields and their consequences

ON/OFF

Brightness

Slow time base Fast time base

Y input Y gain (V/cm)

X input
X gain (V/cm)
Earth
Large Y gain Small Y gain

Time base (ms/cm)

Figure 7.32 Oscilloscope and the waveforms displayed for a given AC input

No input DC input — DC input — Low-frequency High-frequency

upper plate positive lower plate positive AC input AC input

AC input with Large-amplitude Small-amplitude Voice or Full-wave

a diode AC input AC input music rectified input

Figure 7.33 Oscilloscope displays for different inputs

Measuring voltage
Because of its effectively infinite resistance, the CRO makes an excellent
voltmeter. It has a relatively low sensitivity, but this can be improved by
the use of an internal voltage amplifier.
Most oscilloscopes have a previously calibrated screen giving the
def lection sensitivity in volts per cm or volts per scale division. In this
case a calibration by a DC source is unnecessary.

Measuring frequency
By using the calibrated time base, the input signal of unknown frequency
can be ‘frozen’, and its frequency found directly by comparison with the
scale divisions.
Alternatively, the internal time base can be switched off and a signal
of known frequency applied to the X input. If the signal of unknown
frequency is applied to the Y input, loops called Lissajous figures are formed
on the screen. Analysis of the peaks on the two axes enables the unknown
frequency to be found.

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Now test yourself

7  Fields and their consequences

28 Figure 7.34 shows a sinusoidal voltage displayed on an
Y
oscilloscope screen. If the grid shows cm squares, the
time base has a sensitivity of 2 ms cm−1 and the Y gain
is 5 V cm−1, determine:
(a) the frequency of the signal
(b) the amplitude of the signal
(c) the value of the voltage at point A X

Answer on p. 221
A

Figure 7.34 Oscilloscope screen

Eddy currents
Eddy currents are induced currents in metal objects larger than pieces of
wire; the emfs induced may not be very great but because the resistance
of a lump of metal is low, the induced currents can be large.

The operation of a transformer

In its simplest form a transformer consists of two coils known as the primary
and secondary, wound on a laminated iron former that links both coils
(Figure 7.35). The former, or core as it may be called, must be laminated
otherwise large eddy currents would flow in it. The laminations are usually
E−shaped, and the primary and secondary coils are wound one on top of
the other to improve magnetic linkage, as in Figure 7.35b.

Laminated core

Primary coil Secondary coil

Primary voltage Secondary Coils

(Vp) voltage (Vs)

(a) (b)

Figure 7.35 The transformer

An AC voltage is applied to the primary coil and this produces a changing

magnetic field within it. This changing magnetic field links the secondary
coil and therefore induces an emf in it. The magnitude of this induced emf
(Vs) is related to the emf applied to the primary coil (Vp) by the equation:
Vs Ns
=
Vp Np
where Np and Ns are the number of turns on the primary and secondary
coils respectively.

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Example
7  Fields and their consequences

Calculate the output (secondary) voltage of a 100% efficient

transformer if the primary voltage is 230 V. (number of turns on the
primary = 2000; number of turns on the secondary = 150)

Answer
Vs Ns
= Exam tip
V Np
p
Remember that
VN 230 × 150
Vs = p s = = 16 V transformers will only work
Np 2200 with alternating voltages.

Energy losses and efficiency of a transformer

The energy lost from a transformer may be due to:
l heating in the coils — this can be reduced by cooling the transformer,
usually in oil
l eddy current losses in the core — reduced by the laminated core
l hysteresis loss — every time the direction of the magnetising field is
changed some energy is lost due to heating as the magnetic domains in
the core realign
Despite these energy losses transformers are remarkably efficient (up to
98 % efficiency is common) and in fact among the most efficient
machines ever developed.
IsVs
efficiency of a transformer =
IpVp
If the transfer of energy from primary to secondary is 100 % efficient:
IsVs = IpVp

Therefore:
Vp Np
=
Vs Ns

Example
Calculate the output (secondary) voltage of an 85% efficient transformer
if the primary voltage is 100 V, the primary current is 2 A and the
secondary current 0.9 A.

Answer
0.9 × V
efficiency = 0.85 =
100 × 2
V= 200 × 0.85 = 189 V
0.9

Now test yourself

29 A certain transformer has 1000 windings on the primary coil and 2000 windings on the secondary
coil. Calculate the output voltage when the following voltages are applied to the primary coil:
(a) a 12 V DC voltage
(b) a 25 V AC voltage
In each case assume that the transformer is 88% efficient.

Answer on p. 221

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Transmission of electrical power

7 Fields and their consequences

The transformer is a vital part of the National Grid, which distributes
electrical energy around the country (Figure 7.36).
Town Light industry
Farm Village

T T T T

Heavy industry
T = transformer

400 kV

132 kV

T T T

Power station

Figure 7.36 Transmission of electrical power

Electrical energy is generated in power stations by generators at a potential of

25 kV. It is then stepped up to 400 kV by a transformer and transmitted across
the country in aluminium cables roughly 2 cm in diameter.
High voltages are used because the power loss (I 2R) per kilometre due to
heating within the transmission cable, for a given power output, will be much
less at high voltage and low current than at low voltage and high current.

Example
The resistance of a power cable is 0.1 Ω per km. Calculate the power
loss (I 2R) per km for:
(a) a current of 1000 A
(b) when a 100:1 step-up transformer is used to reduce the current to
10 A

Answer
(a) power loss per km = 1000 × 1000 × 0.1 = 100 000 W
(b) power loss per km = 10 × 10 × 0.1 = 10 W

Now test yourself

30 Compare and contrast the use of aluminium or silver for electrical transmission lines.
Density of aluminium = 2710 kg m-3; density of silver = 10 500 kg m-3
Resistivity of aluminium = 3.21 x 10-8 Ω m; resistivity of silver = 1.6 x 10-8 Ω m
31 It is required to install transmission lines that give a maximum power loss per km of 8 W. If the
current in the power lines is 10 A what is the resistance per km of these lines?

Answers on p. 221

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Exam practice
7  Fields and their consequences

1 (a) What is the unit for magnetic flux density? [1]

(b) Define the unit that you have stated in part (a). [2]
(c) A wire of length 0.6 m carrying a current of 2 A is placed at right angles to a magnetic field.
If the force on the wire due to the magnetic field alone is 0.5 N calculate the strength of the
magnetic field. [2]
2 (a) What is the unit for flux linkage? [1]
(b) Define the unit that you have stated in part (a). [2]
(c) What is the flux linkage through a coil of 50 turns and area of 25 cm2 when it is placed at right
angles to a field of flux density 0.5 T? [2]
3 An electron of mass 9 × 10 −31 kg and charge 1.6 × 10 −19 C moves in a circle of radius 10 mm in a magnetic
field of flux density 6 × 10 −4 T. Its speed in m s−1 is:
A 102 B 10 4 C 106 D 10 3 [1]
4 (a) A straight wire carrying a current I in the direction XY is placed between the poles of a
magnet (Figure 7.37).
Y

Figure 7.37 Magnet poles and a wire

The resultant force on the wire is:
A in the direction XY B at right angles to both XY and NS
C zero D in the direction NS [1]
5 A Boeing 747 with a wingspan of 60 m flies due south at a constant altitude in the northern hemisphere
at 260 m s−1. The vertical component of the Earth’s magnetic field in that area is 4 × 10 −5 T.
(a) Calculate the emf between the wing tips and state which wing is positive. [2]
(b) The aircraft now dives at 10° to the horizontal. Calculate the change in induced emf. (horizontal
component of the Earth’s magnetic field at this point = 2 × 10 −5 T) [3]
6 A helicopter has a rotor with four blades each 6.4 m long and hovers in an area where the vertical
component of the Earth’s field is 4 × 10 −5 T. If, as the rotor rotates, the tips of the rotor blades move
with a speed of 200 m s−1, calculate the induced emf:
(a) between the tip of one blade and the axle [2]
(b) between the tips of two diametrically opposite blades [1]
(c) between the tips of two adjacent blades [1]
7 Describe and explain carefully what would happen to a transformer if the core was made of a single
lump of metal with no laminations. [3]
8 In Japan electricity is transmitted at an rms voltage of 100 V and at 50 Hz.
(a) What is the frequency of the supply? [1]
(b) Calculate the peak voltage. [2]
(c) A transformer with a step-down ratio of 2:1 is used to reduce the voltage. If the
transformer is 85% efficient calculate:
(i) the output rms voltage [2]
(ii) the output current when an rms current of 2.3 A flows in the primary coil [3]

Answers and quick quiz 7 online

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Summary

7  Fields and their consequences

You should now have an understanding of: ● Capacitance charge and discharge — graphical
● Electric fields — Coulomb’s law and representation and calculation
permittivity of free space ● Magnetic fields — magnetic flux density
● Electric field strength — force per unit charge ● Moving charges in magnetic fields — circular
and field lines paths
● Electric potential — potential difference, and ● Magnetic flux and flux linkage — flux through a
equipotential surfaces coil in a magnetic field
● Capacitance — definition (C = Q/V); relative ● Electromagnetic induction — Faraday’s and
permittivity Lenz’s laws
● Parallel-plate capacitors — definition of ● Alternating currents — peak and rms values of
permittivity current and voltage
● Energy stored by a capacitor — calculation and ● The operation of a transformer — transformer
area below the charge–pd graph equation, eddy currents, efficiency,
transmission of electrical power

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8  Nuclear physics

Radioactivity
Rutherford scattering
The idea of atoms as small particles was put forward by the Greeks 2000
years ago, but the structure of the inside of the atom was not understood
until the beginning of the twentieth century.
The English scientist Thomson suggested that the atom, which is a
neutral particle, was made of positive charge with ‘lumps’ of negative
charge inset in it — rather like the plums in a pudding. For this reason it
was known as the plum pudding theory of the atom (Figure 8.1a).
+ Electron
– +
– – Proton
+ +
+ + – +++
Negative ‘plum’ – +
+ Neutron
–
Positive ‘pudding’ +
(a) (b)

Figure 8.1 Plum pudding and nuclear models

The existence of a nucleus within an atom was shown by bombarding a

thin gold foil with alpha particles in an experiment performed in 1911
by Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden. They were studying the passage of
alpha particles through thin pieces of gold foil and found that some of
the alpha particles were able to pass through the film. They then noticed
something that they did not expect. Some of the alpha particles were
being def lected from their original path and, more surprising, one in
about 8000 were actually knocked backwards (Figure 8.2).
Rutherford knew that the alpha particles carried a positive charge so he said Exam tip
that the positive charge of the atom was concentrated in one place at the
The atom is mostly empty
centre of the atom that he called the nucleus, and that the negatively charged space.
particles, the electrons, were in orbit around the nucleus (Figure 8.1b).

Alpha particle
Electron cloud

Nucleus

Figure 8.2 Alpha particle scattering

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α, β and γ radiation

8  Nuclear physics
Nature of radioactive decay
In 1896, a previously unknown type of radiation was discovered. It was
realised that this radiation:
l came from the nucleus of unstable atoms
l was spontaneous — once material containing these unstable nuclei was
formed, emission could take place immediately and without the input
of energy
l was random — it was impossible to predict which nucleus would emit
radiation and when
The properties of α, β and γ radiation are outlined in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1

Property Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)

Range in air A few cm Many cm Metres
Ionising ability Large Small Very small
Stopped by Paper mm of aluminium cm of lead
Charge +2e −e 0
Mass 8000m m 0
Deflection by a magnetic field A little A lot None
Speed <1%c 90%c c

The energy of alpha particles emitted from a particular nucleus can have
only one or two discrete values, dependent on the energy levels in the
nucleus. The energy of emitted beta particles from a particular nucleus
can have a range of values (Figure 8.3) because an antineutrino is also
emitted (see page 16) and the two particles share the available energy.
Number of alpha

particles emitted
particles emitted

Number of beta

Alpha particle energy Beta particle energy

Figure 8.3 Alpha and beta radiation energy spread

Gamma radiation is emitted if the nucleus remains in an excited state
after the alpha or beta emission.

Inverse square law for gamma radiation

The intensity of gamma radiation decreases with
distance, and in a vacuum this decrease follows the
inverse square law. In other words, if the distance (d) Radioactive source
from the source is doubled, the intensity falls to one d
quarter (½2) of the original value, to one ninth (⅓2) if the
2d
distance is trebled and so on (Figure 8.4). In a material
the decrease with distance is more rapid due to the Figure 8.4 Decrease in the intensity of gamma
interaction of the gamma radiation with the material. radiation

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This variation in intensity (I) is given by the equation:
8  Nuclear physics

k
I=
d2

Radiation in medicine
Although radiation is harmful to all cells in the body, the benefits of using
it for radiotherapy and nuclear diagnosis often outweigh the dangers.

Therapy
The purpose of radiotherapy is to destroy malignant cancer cells without
unduly affecting healthy tissue. This is achieved by rotating a beam of
gamma radiation to three or four different positions around the body so that
the paths of the beams cross at the tumour. All cells are affected but the fast-
dividing malignant cells are affected more by the radiation than healthy cells.
Some tumours are treated by the implantation of a beta source within the
tumour. The radiation emitted by the source is absorbed by the tumour.
Revision activity

Diagnosis Write a short account of

the uses of radioisotopes in
An isotope of technetium (99Tcm) is used as a source of gamma radiation for medicine with more detail
medical imaging and diagnosis. This has a short half-life (see page 178) of than described here.
only 6 hours.

The difference between activity and count rate

The activity is the total number of emissions per second in all directions
from the source. However, if you use a Geiger tube (or any other
detector) to measure the number of emissions you will only record a
fraction of the total emissions. This is because normal detectors do not
usually surround the source and so you only detect particles (or photons)
emitted into a small angle (Figure 8.5). This means that the observed
count rate is always much less than the activity of the source.

Decays recorded
by detector
(count rate)
Decays in all
directions
(activity)

Geiger tube Radioactive source

Figure 8.5 Activity and count rate

Background radiation
A Geiger counter placed out in the lab well away from any radioactive
sources will still read non-zero. It will probably record between 20 and

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30 counts per minute. This background radiation is 0.4%

8  Nuclear physics
air travel
around us all the time (Figure 8.6).
0.4% fallout
Background radiation comes from: 0.2% occupational 10%
12% cosmic
<0.1% nuclear waste
l deep space — cosmic rays food rays
14%
l the Sun 12% gamma rays
l radioactive rocks such as granite medical, from the
X-rays etc. ground
l radioactive material in our own bodies
l radon gas from the ground
l the nuclear industry, fallout from nuclear tests and
50% radioactive
medical uses gases in
the home
Radon gas
Radon is a naturally occurring gas that comes from the
decay of uranium. Its short half-life makes it something Figure 8.6 Background radiation
we should be concerned about if it occurs in large
quantities.
Concentrations of radon build up in underground caves and tunnels Exam tip
and can then seep into houses through minute cracks in hardcore and
concrete f loors to become trapped. Modern, well insulated houses The count due to background
are at more risk than older ones because they can act like sealed boxes radiation must be allowed for
in experimental calculations
(Figure 8.7). The danger is not great but it is something that people
such as that on page 180.
should be aware of.

Double glazing Radon trapped

in the house
Solid walls
Concrete
screed
Hardcore Radon seeping up
from the ground

Figure 8.7 Radon gas in a house

Further (non-medical) uses of radioactive isotopes Exam tip

These materials have a variety of uses, some of which are listed below: The uses and hazards of
l dating geological specimens using uranium, rubidium or bismuth radiation depend on the
l dating archaeological specimens using carbon-14 properties given in Table 8.1 —
l measuring paper, foil, steel sheet or plastic thickness using beta radiation in particular, their relative
l sterilisation of foodstuffs ionising ability and hence
l liquid f low measurement range in air and penetration
l tracing sewage or silt in the sea or rivers of materials.
l testing for leaks in pipes
l tracing phosphate fertilisers using phosphorus-32
l smoke alarms

Now test yourself

1 Explain which of the following sources would be suitable for use in a home smoke detector.
60
29
Co gamma emitter 241
9 5
Am alpha emitter 90
38
Sr beta emitter

Answers on p. 221

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Required practical 12
8  Nuclear physics

Investigation of the inverse square law for gamma radiation

Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 8.8, with the end window of the Geiger tube 10 cm from the
source. Record the count rate for this distance.
Ruler

Geiger tube Gamma source

Figure 8.8 Inverse square law investigation

Move the Geiger away from the source and record the count rate every 2.5 cm.
Plot a graph of the count rate (C) against the inverse of the distance of separation (1/d2).

Safety
A radioactivity warning notice should be displayed. Always use tongs to hold the radioactive source, and
do not put your hands between the source and the Geiger counter. Follow all the normal school rules for
the use and handling of radioactive material.

Radioactive decay
Mathematical treatment of radioactive decay
In a sample of radioactive material the number of nuclei (ΔN) decaying in
a short time Δt is proportional to:
l N — the number of radioactive nuclei present at that moment
l Δt — the time over which the measurement is made
l the decay constant (λ) — a property of the element

ΔN = −λNΔt

The quantity ΔN/Δt is the rate of decay, or activity (A), of the source
and is the number of disintegrations per second.
A = ∆N = −λN
∆t
The minus sign is there because the number of radioactive nuclei
decreases as time increases.
The activity is measured in units called becquerels (Bq), where 1 Bq is
one disintegration per second.
The decay constant (λ) can be defined as the probability of a nucleon Exam tip
decaying in the next second. Its unit is s-1.
Remember that decay
The number of radioactive nuclei (N) and the activity (A) of the source equations can be expressed
after a time t can be found using the following equations: in terms of the number
of radioactive nuclei or in
N = N0e−λt terms of the activity of the
A = A0e−λt substance.

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where N 0 is the initial number of nuclei present and A0 is the initial

8  Nuclear physics
activity of the source at time t = 0.
If we plot ln N against t we have a straight-line graph with gradient −λ
and an intercept on the ln N axis of ln N 0 (Figure 8.9).
ln N0 − ln N = λt

ln N
Activity/Bq

ln N0

Gradient = –λ

Time (t) Time (t)

Figure 8.9 Radioactive decay

Example 1
The initial count rate of a sample of radioactive iodine-131 is 40 Bq.
What will be the count rate after:
(a) 24 hours
(b) 2 weeks
(decay constant of iodine = 1.43 × 10 −6 s−1)

Answer
(a) A = A0 e−λt = 40 × e−(1.43 ×10 × 24 × 60 × 60) = 35.4 Bq
–6

(b) A = A0 e−λt = 40 × e−(1.43 ×10 × 24 × 60 × 60 × 14) = 7.09 Bq

–6

Example 2
The count rate due to carbon-14 in a sample of wood taken from an ancient
Egyptian tomb was found to be 6.5 Bq when it was measured in 2016. If the
count rate in living wood is 10 Bq how old is the archeological sample?
(decay constant of carbon-14 = 3.95 × 10 −12 s−1)

Answer

6.5 = 10 × e(−3.95 × 10
−12 × t)

ln 10 = 3.95 × 10 −12 × t
6.5
0.43 = 3.95 × 10 −12 × t

Therefore:

t= 0.357 = 1.09 × 1011 s = 3460 years

3.95 × 10−12

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Now test yourself
8  Nuclear physics

2 Calculate the activity of a sample of caesium-137 in the years:

(a) 2020
(b) 2035
if the activity in 2016 was 185 kBq.
(decay constant of caesium-137 = 7.85 × 10 −10 s−1)
3 A sample of radon gas escapes into a school laboratory. The decay constant of this alpha-emitting gas
is 10 s−1. How long would you need to wait before entering the lab if the safety regulations required the
activity to have fallen to 10 −6 of its original value?

Answers on p. 221

Half-life Typical mistake

As time passes the strength of a radioactive source gets
Not using the correct units
weaker; its rate of decay (∆N/∆t) or activity gets smaller. (s−1) for the decay constant.
The rate at which an unstable nucleus decays depends only

Activity/Bq
on what type of nucleus it is. The decay is a random
process. This means that if we take a sample of 200

unstable nuclei (for example 226Ra) we cannot know

when any individual nucleus is going to decay.
However we can measure what we call the half-life
(T½) for the element in the sample. This is constant
100
(Figure 8.10) and defined as:
l The average time taken for half the original
number of nuclei in a sample of an element
to decay.
or:
l The average time taken for the activity of
a radioactive source to fall to one half of its T½ 2T½ 3T½ 4T½
original value. Time

Figure 8.10 Half-life

Example Exam tip

The activity of a sample of radioactive material with a half-life of Remember that the activity
2 minutes is 384 Bq at the start. What will be the activity after: halves every half-life and
(a) 2 minutes (b) 4 minutes not when the time passed
(c) 8 minutes (d) 16 minutes? doubles.
Answer
(a) One half-life activity = 192
(b) Two half-lives activity = 96
(c) Four half-lives activity = 24
(d) Eight half-lives activity = 1.5

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Half-life and the decay constant

8  Nuclear physics
Half-life is related to the decay constant by the equation:
T½ = ln 2
λ
l can be replaced by (ln 2)/T  in calculations, where appropriate.
1
2

Example 1 Exam tip

A laboratory buys a sample of radioactive material that has a half-life In Example 1, the time and
of 150 years. If the initial activity is 200 Bq what will be the activity the half-life can be kept in
after 10 years? years because they appear
in the formula as a ratio.
Answer

A = A0e−ln 2 t/T½ = 200e−ln 2 ×10/150 = 200e−0.046 = 200 × 0.96 = 191 Bq

Example 2
The decay constant (λ) of a particular isotope (radon-220) is 1.33 × 10−2 s−1.
How long will it take for the activity of a sample of this isotope to decay to
one eighth of its original value?

Answer

half life = 0.693 = 0.693 −2 = 52 s

λ 1.33 × 10
number of half lives required to reduce the activity to one eighth = 3

Therefore:
time needed = 3 × 52 = 156 s

A useful alternative formula for calculating final activity is:

A0
A=
2n
where n is the number of half-lives that have passed.
The formula works not only for simple cases where n is a whole number
(i.e. for one half-life, two half-lives etc.) but also when n is any number
(i.e. 1.2 half-lives, 4.3 half-lives and so on).

Radioactive decay, molar mass and the Avogadro

constant
The number of nuclei in a sample can be related to the mass of the source,
using the molar mass and Avogadro’s number, by the formula:

molar mass (M ) × number of nuclei (N)

mass (m) =
Avogadro constant (NA)

This formula can be used use it to find out the mass of a given source if
we know its activity.

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Example
8  Nuclear physics

A school has a radium-226 source with an activity of 185 000 Bq. What

is the mass of the source?
(Avogadro constant (NA) = 6.02 × 1023 mol−1; decay constant for
radium-226 = 1.35 × 10 −11 s−1)

Answer
Using the formula:

A = − λ N = − λ m NA
M
185 000 = 1.35 × 10 −11 m × 6.02 × 1023
226
Therefore:

m= 185000 × 226 = 5.14 × 10 −6 g = 5.14 μg

1.35 × 10−11 × 6.02 × 1023

Now test yourself

4 A scientist measured the activity due to caesium-137 contamination in a field near to the Chernobyl
power station just after the accident in 1986 and found it to be 10 kBq m−2. If the half-life of caesium-137
is 30 years, what would be the activity in:
(a) 2016 (b) 2026?
5 A radioactive sample decays with a half-life of 10 hours. If the background count is 10 Bq and the
original reading of the Geiger counter is 170 Bq, what is the reading after:
(a) 20 hours (b) 25 hours (c) 30 hours?
6 A sample of radioactive fluorine gave a measured count rate of 45 Bq when measured in a laboratory
where the background count is 2 Bq. What will be the measured count rate after:
(a) 4 hours (b) 12 hours
Comment on your answer to (b). The half-life of radioactive fluorine is 1.8 hours.

Answers on p. 222

Nuclear instability

Variation of N and Z for stable nuclei

The variation in proton and neutron numbers is a very important factor
in our understanding of the behaviour of nuclei. The graph in Figure 8.11
shows the variation of neutron number with proton number for stable
nuclei. For light atoms (such as helium) these two numbers are equal —
there are as many neutrons in the nucleus as there are protons. However,
for more massive elements, the neutron number is much greater than
the proton number. For example, a 235 92
U nucleus contains 92 protons but
143 neutrons.
The position of an unstable isotope relative to the stability line determines
whether the nucleus will decay by β+, β− or α emission.

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Neutron number ( N )

8  Nuclear physics
n ® p + b– + n
A b–

b+

p ® n + b+ + n

Proton number ( Z )

Figure 8.11 Graph of N against Z for stable nuclei

Changes in N and Z caused by radioactive decay

Radioactive decay equations Exam tip
Unstable nuclei may lose some of their excess energy by a variety of
The nucleon number is
radioactive processes. Examples of α, β and γ are shown by the following reduced by 4 in alpha
equations and in Figure 8.12. emission, the proton
Alpha emission: number increases by 1 in
beta (minus) emission and
226
88
Ra → 222
86
Rn + 42He both remain unchanged in
gamma emission.
Beta emission:
90
38
Sr → 90
39
Y + −10 e + 00 ν

Gamma emission:
60
27
Co → 60
27
Co + 00 γ

Gamma ray emission is evidence for excited states within the nucleus.
A, Z – 1 A, Z A, Z + 1
Nucleon number (A)

Neutron number (N )

b+

N, Z
N + 1, Z – 1

b+ b–

a b–
N – 2, Z – 2
A – 4, Z – 2 N – 1, Z + 1
a

Proton number (Z ) Proton number (Z )

Figure 8.12 Alpha and beta emission grids

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Now test yourself
8  Nuclear physics

A
7 In the nuclear reaction 22
11
Na + p → Z X + n the proton number Z and the nucleon number A of the nucleus
X are:

Proton number Z Nucleon number A

A 12 23
B 11 22
C 12 22
D 10 23

8 All the decays in the uranium decay series occur by the emission of just one particle for each change
(sometimes a gamma ray is emitted as well). Write the name of the particle (alpha or beta) that is
emitted at each stage.

Isotope Half-life Particle emitted

Polonium-218 3.1 minutes
Lead-214 27 minutes
Bismuth-214 20 minutes
Polonium-214 1.6 × 10 −4 s
Lead-210 19 years
Bismuth-210 5.0 days
Polonium-210 138 days
Lead-206 stable

Answers on p. 222

Electron capture
An unstable atom may also become stable by a process called electron
capture. An electron from one of the atom’s inner orbits is drawn into
the nucleus, where it combines with a proton to form a neutron. One
possible nuclear equation for this process is:
11
6
C +−10 e → 115B + 00 ν
Revision activity
Make a mind map to
Excited states within the atomic nucleus contrast and compare the
Energy emission in the form of gamma radiation occurs due to transitions nature and properties of
between excited states within the nucleus. This emission is very good alpha, beta and gamma
evidence for the existence of such states. radiation.

Nuclear radius
The radius of the atomic nucleus
Fermi proposed the following equation for the radius of a nucleus (r) in
terms of the nucleon number of the nucleus (A):
r = r0A

where the constant r0, the radius of the hydrogen nucleus, is 1 × 10−15 m = 1 fm.
Since r3 = r03A, nuclear volume is proportional to nuclear mass and so nuclear
matter has a constant density.

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Example

8  Nuclear physics
Calculate the radii of the following nuclei:
(a) carbon-12
(b) gold-197

Answer
(a) r = 10 −15 × 12 = 2.3 × 10 −15 m = 2.3 fm
(b) r = 10 −15 × 197 = 5.8 × 10 −15 m = 5.8 fm

Distance of closest approach

If an alpha particle (charge+2e) with a kinetic energy E α is fired directly
towards a nucleus of change Q it will ‘feel’ a repulsion, which increases
as it gets closer — climbing the potential ‘hill’ surrounding the nucleus.
When all the kinetic energy has been converted to electric potential
energy (see p. 146) the alpha particle (charge q) has reached its distance of
closest approach (dc ) and so comes to rest before moving away from the
nucleus.

Eα = 2eV =  1   2eQ 
 4πε 0   dc 

Therefore:
   2eQ 
distance of closest approach (dc) =  1  
 4πε 0   E α 

Now test yourself

9 Calculate the distance of closest approach between an alpha particle (Z = 2) of energy 4.5 MeV and a
gold nucleus (Z = 79). (ε0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 Fm−1 and e = 1.6 × 10 −19 C)

Answer on p. 222

Calculation of nuclear density Typical mistake

The simplest atomic nucleus is that of hydrogen (one proton) with a Using MeV and not
radius of the order of 10−15 m. The mass of a proton is about 10−27 kg and joules in nuclear physics
this gives a density for the nucleus of the order of 1017 kg m−3. calculations.

Electron diffraction by a nucleus

From the Fermi equation (r = r 0A⅓) we know that the ‘diameter’ of a
nucleon is about 10−15 m and so if we want to have any chance of ‘seeing’
inside a nucleus we need to use a wavelength of this order or even
smaller.
Electrons have wave as well as particle properties, so they can be
diffracted. De Broglie’s equation (wavelength (λ) = h/mv = hc/E, where
h is the Planck constant and E the energy of the electrons) can be used to
calculate their wavelength, which for 300 MeV electrons is 4.1 × 10−15 m.
This is comparable to the diameter of nuclei and so electron diffraction
can be used to determine the size of a nucleus (Figure 8.13). (See also
Figure 2.27 on page 30.)

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Intensity
8 Nuclear physics

−θ +θ
Angle of diffraction

Figure 8.13 Electron diffraction by a nucleus

Example
A 380 MeV electron is diffracted through an angle of 40° by a nucleus.
Calculate the diameter of the nucleus (d).
Angle of diffraction (θ) by a circular obstacle of diameter d is given by:
sin θ = 1.22 λ /d

Answer
−34
electron wavelength = hc = 6.63 × 106 × 3 × 10-19 = 3.11 × 10 −15 m
8

E 380 × 10 × 1.6 × 10
angle of diffraction (θ) = 40°

sin 40 = 0.643 = 1.22λ

d
-15
d = 1.22λ = 1.22 × 3.11 × 10 = 5.90 × 10 −15 m
0.643 0.643

Mass and energy

Einstein’s mass–energy equation
Matter and energy are related by the famous equation proposed by Einstein:
ΔE = Δmc2

The quantity ΔE is the amount of energy produced when a mass Δm is

completely converted to energy, and c is the speed of light (3 × 108 m s−1).

Example
Calculate the energy produced when 150 g of any matter is converted
into energy.

Answer
By Einstein’s equation:
Exam tip
ΔE = Δmc2
Note the use of kg and not g
ΔE = 0.15 × [3 × 108]2 = 1.35 × 1016 J in the calculation.

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Atomic mass unit (u)

8  Nuclear physics
The masses of atoms and subatomic particles are extremely small — for
example, the mass of an oxygen atom is about 3 × 10−26 kg and that of
a neutron about 1.67 × 10−27 kg. It is therefore convenient to define a
new unit to measure them. This is known as the atomic mass unit —
written as u.
One atomic mass unit is defined as one twelfth of the mass of one atom of
the carbon-12 isotope.

1 u = 1 (19.92 × 10−27) kg = 1.661 × 10 −27 kg

12
Exam tip
Alternative units for energy and mass Sometimes masses are
given in MeV and not MeV/c2.
The MeV (see p.28) is related to the joule by:
1 MeV = 106 eV = 1.6 × 10−13 J

But using Einstein’s mass–energy relationship (E = mc 2) we can convert

the units for mass (kg) into alternative units. The units for mass are
MeV/c2. Therefore:
1 u = 1.66 × 10−27 kg = 931.5 MeV/c2 p n

The proton therefore has a rest mass of 1.007 273 u or 938 MeV/c 2 and a

rest energy of 938 MeV.

Nuclear binding energy

Imagine that you were asked to make a nucleus. You are given the
protons and neutrons, asked to measure their masses, make them stick n p
together somehow and then measure the mass of the finished nucleus.
You would find that the mass of the completed nucleus is less than the
total mass of the protons and neutrons from which it was made.
The difference in mass between the mass of the nucleus and that of the
particles of which it is composed is called the mass defect of the nucleus.
Helium-4
The larger the nucleus the larger the mass defect.
The mass defect can be expressed as an energy, and this is called the
binding energy of the nucleus (Figure 8.14).
The binding energies and mass defects for a number of nuclei are shown Figure 8.14 Nuclear binding
in Table 8.2. energy

Table 8.2

Element Mass defect/u Binding energy/MeV

12
6
C (carbon) 0.099 00 92.2
16
8
O (oxygen) 0.137 08 127.6
40
20
Ca (calcium) 0.367 41 342.2
56
26
Fe (iron) 0.528 75 491.8
208
82
Pb (lead) 1.757 84 1637.4
235
92
U (uranium) 1.935 38 1802.8

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Example Exam tip
8  Nuclear physics

Calculate the mass defect and binding energy of the helium-4 nucleus. In these calculations, more
significant figures than
Answer usual must be used because
mass of two protons = 2 × 1.007 28 u = 2.01456 u of the tiny changes.
mass of two neutrons = 2 × 1.008 67 u = 2.01734 u
total mass of the particles = 4.031 9 u
mass of the helium-4 nucleus = 4.001 51 u
mass defect = 0.030 39 u
binding energy of the helium-4 nucleus = 0.030 39 × 931.5 = 28.3 MeV

Binding energy per nucleon

Another useful quantity is the binding energy per nucleon. It is
defined as:
binding energy
binding energy per nucleon =
nucleon number
Figure 8.15 shows the binding energy per nucleon against nucleon
number. Elements with a high binding energy per nucleon are very
difficult to break up. Iron-56 is close to the peak of the curve and has one
of the highest binding energies per nucleon of any isotope.

9
Binding energy per nucleon/MeV

7
Energy released by fission
Energy released by fusion

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Nucleon number (A)

Figure 8.15 Binding energy per nucleon

The part of the curve to the left shows that two light elements can
produce energy by fusion, while the part of the curve to the right shows
that a heavy element can produce energy by fission. Notice that the
diagram has been drawn with the binding energy per nucleon being
shown as positive — this represents the energy needed to separate the
particles.

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Example

8  Nuclear physics
The mass of the isotope 73Li is 7.016 u. Find its binding energy.

Answer
Protons: 3 × 1.007 276 = 3.021 829
Neutrons: 4 × 1.008 665 = 4.034 66
Total = 7.056 489
Nucleus = 7.016
Mass defect = 0.040 489 u
Binding energy = 0.040 489 × 931.5 = 37.70 MeV

Now test yourself

10 The isotope of iron 57
26
Fe has a mass of 56.935 u. Calculate:
(a) the binding energy of the nucleus of 57
26
Fe
(b) the binding energy per nucleon for 26Fe
57

(mass of a proton = 1.007 28 u; mass of a neutron = 1.008 67 u; 1 u = 1.661 × 10 −27 kg = 931.5 MeV)

Answer on p. 222

Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus by the bombardment of
this nucleus by smaller particles — usually neutrons.
There are many possible results of the nuclear fission of an isotope of
uranium, uranium-235. One possible reaction is:
U + 10n → 236
235
92 92
U → 148
57
La + 85
35
Br + 310n + energy

235.044 + 1.0087 = 236.0527 u  147.961 + 84.938 + 3.0261 = 235.9251 u

This reaction has a mass defect of 0.1276 u.

Energy is given out by the reaction because the mass of the products is
less than the total mass of the original nucleus and the neutron.
The mass defect represents a very small amount of energy. However,
when you work out how many nuclei there are in 1 kg of uranium you
can understand why nuclear fission is so important.

Now test yourself

11 If the mass defect in the fission of one nucleus of uranium-235 is 0.1276 u, calculate the energy in
joules available by the fission of 1 kg of uranium-235. (Avogadro’s number = 6.02 × 1023 mol−1)

Answer on p. 222

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Fission and fusion processes
8  Nuclear physics

Induced fission by thermal neutrons

When a thermal neutron is fired at a uranium-235 nucleus, uranium-236
is formed. The uranium-236 nucleus is unstable and may lose the extra
energy in two ways. It can emit radiation (alpha, beta or gamma) or break
apart. This ‘breaking up’ of the nucleus was the first evidence of nuclear
fission (Figure 8.16).
Fission fragments

Neutron

Uranium-235 Uranium-236 Neutrons

Figure 8.16 Induced nuclear fission

Thermal neutrons are ones with velocities of the order of 104 m s−1.
These relatively low velocities allow time for the nucleus to ‘capture’ the
incoming neutron, so forming the unstable nucleus.

Chain reaction and critical mass

Once one nucleus has undergone fission the neutrons that are released
can go on to split further nuclei. If this fission can be sustained a chain
reaction is produced (Figure 8.17). This reaction will proceed at high
speed; the time for an emitted neutron to collide with another nucleus to
produce a second fission is about 0.01 μs.

Fission fragments

Uranium nucleus

Slow neutron

Fast neutrons
Figure 8.17 Chain reaction

Now test yourself

12 Calculate the energy available from the fission of 1 kg of plutonium-239 by the reaction shown below.
Give your answer in joules.
239
94
Pu + 10n → 134
54
Xe + 103
40
Zr + 310n
(Additional nuclear mass data: 239Pu = 239.060 765 u, 134Xe = 133.905 4 u, 103Zr = 102.926 6 u, n = 1.00867 u)

Answer on p. 222

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Thermal nuclear reactors

8  Nuclear physics
A nuclear reactor needs a minimum amount of
fuel called the critical mass (about 15 kg for pure
uranium-235) to sustain a chain reaction. Anything
less than this and the loss of neutrons from the surface
will be too great and the chain reaction will stop.
Important parts of a thermal nuclear reactor
(Figure 8.18) include the following:
l Fuel — in most commercial thermal nuclear Boron control rod
reactors this is usually uranium-235 or 238,
often a mixture. Hot gas
l Moderator — the neutrons produced in a chain Graphite moderator
reaction are moving too fast to cause further fission
in 235U nuclei and they have to be slowed down.
Moderators used are graphite or heavy water. Uranium fuel rod Reactor core Heat
l Control rods — these are designed to control exchanger
the rate of the reaction by absorbing neutrons
without undergoing nuclear fission. Lowering Concrete
them into the reactor core will slow down the
Steel
reaction. Rods of boron steel are used.
l Coolant — a liquid or a gas used to remove
the heat energy from the reactor core and keep
its temperature stable. Coolants may be either
carbon dioxide or water.
l Steel containment vessel — a thick, steel
Cold gas
vessel to contain the high-pressure gas coolant.
l Concrete biological shield — 2–3 m thick, to
Figure 8.18 Thermal nuclear reactor
protect the operators from radiation.

Safety aspects
There are a number of considerations and problems associated with
the commercial use and decommissioning of nuclear fission reactors.
Considerations when choosing the site include:
l transport facilities l a hard-rock site
l environmental aspects l local centres of population
l local industry and commerce l availability of cooling water

For safety, any overheating in the reactor leads to automatic shut-down.

The control rods are held by electromagnets. If the temperature in the
core rises to an unsafe level the current in these magnets is switched off
and the control rods fall into the core, absorbing most of the neutrons and
so shutting off the reaction.
Disposal of nuclear waste
In the UK, low-level waste, such as gloves, cast-off clothing and over
shoes, is encased in cement and stored ‘on site’ for up to 15 years. After
that it is packaged and disposed of as ‘normal’ waste.
The intermediate-level waste with long half-lives, such as fuel containers,
is packed in 500-litre steel drums. These are currently stored (about
50 000 m3 so far).
The most radioactive is the high-level waste, typically 1000 times
more radioactive than intermediate level waste, and is mainly ‘used’
fuel elements taken from reactors. In future, high-level waste from
decommissioning will be stored in 12 m3 steel boxes, with the spaces
between items packed with concrete.
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Decommissioning a nuclear reactor
8  Nuclear physics

Although nuclear power is a very good way of producing energy, there

are problems when the reactor reaches the end of its useful life.
After removal from the reactor ‘used’ fuel elements are stored under water
in ‘ponds’ while they cool. Fuel is reprocessed to take out the uranium
and plutonium but there is still some very toxic waste left behind, which
is then encased in glass blocks. The government has decided to store this
material underground for 50 years before disposal.

Nuclear power and the greenhouse effect

It has been calculated that if the use of nuclear power were expanded,
CO2 emissions could be reduced by up to 30%, thus lowering global
warming by 15%.

Nuclear fusion
If two light nuclei can be joined together we have another way of
releasing energy — this is known as nuclear fusion (Figure 8.19).

p
p p
+ n n + n
n n n
p

Figure 8.19 Nuclear fusion

The most likely fusion reaction is the deuterium (D)–tritium (T) one
shown below:
2
1
D + 31T → 42He + 10n + energy (17.6 MeV)

2.014 102 + 3.016 049 4.002 604 + 1.008 665

This gives a mass defect of 0.018 888 u and available energy of 17.6 MeV.

This is less than for the fission of one nucleus of uranium, but since the
density of deuterium is so much less than that of uranium the yield per
kilogram is comparable. In 1 kg of deuterium there are approximately
3 × 1026 atoms and so the energy released per kilogram is 8.45 × 1014 J.
The big problem here is that both the nuclei are positive and to get them
to fuse we have to somehow make them come very close together, so that
the strong nuclear force becomes greater than the electrostatic repulsion.
The way this is done is to make them collide at very high speed by raising
the temperature of the gas to over 100 million °C — several times hotter
than the centre of the Sun. At these temperatures the gas becomes a
plasma — a sea of electrons and ions — and is a real problem to contain.

Now test yourself

13 Suggest why the critical ignition temperature is higher for a D−D reaction than for a D−T reaction.
14 Calculate the energy released in the following reactions:
(a) D + D → n + 3He (b) D + D → 3H + 1H (c) T + T → 2n + 4He
(Additional nuclear mass data: D = 2.014 102 u; He = 3.016 048 u; H = T = 3.016 049 u; n = 1.00867 u)
3 3

Answers on p. 222

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Exam practice

8  Nuclear physics
  1 One conclusion from the Rutherford scattering experiment is:
A Alpha particles are helium nuclei.
B Electrons do not interact with neutrons.
C The mass and positive charge in a gold atom is concentrated in a nucleus.
D Alpha particles cannot pass through gold foil. [1]
  2 A Geiger counter with an end window of diameter 1.5 cm is placed 20 cm from a cobalt-60 gamma
source containing 1.3 × 108 radioactive nuclei. The counter records a count rate of 200 Bq.
(a) What is the activity of the source? [2]
(b) What is the decay constant for cobalt-60 (using the data from this question)?
Ignore background count in this question. [2]
  3 The decay constant (λ) can be written in terms of the half-life (T½) as:
T½ ln 2
A ln 2 × T½ B C D ln 2 − T½ [1]
ln 2 T½
  4 A sample of wood from an archaeological site is carbon dated. The activity is found to be 600 counts
per gram per hour. If the initial count rate of living wood is 950 counts per gram per hour how old is
the wood sample? (Half-life of carbon-14 = 5570 years; background count has been allowed for.) [3]
  5 A laboratory prepares a 2 μg sample of caesium-137, with half-life of 28 years.
(a) What is its initial activity? [2]
(b) What will its activity be after 100 years? [2]
(c) What is the decay constant for caesium (in s−1)? [2]
(Avogadro constant = 6.02 × 1023)
  6 A patient was given an injection containing a small amount of the isotope sodium-24, which is a beta
emitter with a half-life of 15 hours. The initial activity of the sample was 60 Bq. After a period of
8 hours the activity of a 10 ml sample of blood was found to be 0.08 Bq.
(a) Estimate the volume of the patient’s blood from these measurements. [3]
(b) What assumptions have you made in your calculation? [2]
  7 Show that the binding energy of 58 28
Ni is approximately 492 MeV. (mass of Ni-58 nucleus = 57.9353 u) [3]
  8 Using the binding energy per nucleon graph (Figure 8.15), which of the following gives the best
explanation of why energy can be released in nuclear fission?
A The graph slopes upwards as the nucleon number increases from 1 to 50.
B The graph slopes downwards as the nucleon number increases from 60 to 250.
C Part of the graph has a steep gradient.
D Part of the graph has a shallow gradient. [1]
  9 Explain the difference between the functions of the moderator and the control rods in the operation
of a nuclear fission reactor. [1]
10 (a) Suggest why the shape of the sample of nuclear fuel is important in sustaining a nuclear chain
reaction. [2]
(b) The carbon dioxide codant gas in a nuclear reactor circulates at a pressure of about 4 × 106 Pa.
This requires a very strong steel containment vessel surrounding the reactor core. Why is
such a high pressure needed and what are the resulting requirement for the reactor design? [2]
(c) If the core temperature of a nuclear fission reactor is 300 K calculate the root mean
square speed of thermal neutrons within the core. [2]
(mass of a neutron = 1.67 × 10 −27 kg; Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10 −23 J K−1)

Answers and quick quiz 8 online

Summary
You should now have an understanding of: ● Nuclear radius — closest approach in alpha
● Rutherford scattering — alpha particles scattered particle scattering, dependence of nuclear
by the very small positive atomic nucleus radius on nucleon number, nuclear density,
● Alpha, beta and gamma radiation — their diffraction of electrons by nuclei
nature and properties ● Mass and energy — fission and fusion processes
● Radioactive decay — random nature, decay ● Induced fission — chain reaction, critical mass,
constant, half-life, applications of radioactive decay functions of parts of a nuclear reactor
● Nuclear instability — graph of neutron number ● Safety aspects and decommissioning in
number against proton number nuclear power production

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9  Astrophysics

Telescopes
Astronomical refracting telescope
The main purposes of a telescope used for astronomy are:
Exam tip
l to gather as much light as possible — this is done by using a large
aperture lens or mirror. The amount of light gathered depends on the The power of a lens is 1/f
area of the lens or mirror. where f is the focal length in
l to resolve fine detail — this is also done by using a large aperture lens
metres.
or mirror. The larger the aperture the finer the detail that can be seen.
l to magnify the image of a distant object — this is done by using a lens
or mirror with a long focal length.

Astronomical refracting telescope in normal

adjustment
Figure 9.1 shows an astronomical refracting telescope. A simple
astronomical refractor is usually adjusted so that the final image is at
infinity. This is known as normal adjustment.

Rays from top of object Initial image

position

fo

fe

Rays from bottom of object

Objective lens Eye lens

Final image at infinity

Figure 9.1 Astronomical refracting telescope

The magnification of a telescope in normal adjustment can be worked out
from the formula:
focal length of the objective (fo)
angular magnification =
focal length of the eyepiece lens (fe)

Angular magnification
Angular magnification is related to the increase in the angular size of an
image compared with that of the object from which it was produced.

angular angle subtended by image at the eye (β)

=
magnification   angle subtended by the object at an unaided eye (α)

(See Figure 9.2.)

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9  Astrophysics
Rays from
top of object β
Angular magnification = α
α β β
α
β
I

Figure 9.2 Angular magnification of a telescope

Example
Calculate the magnification of a telescope with an objective of focal
length 1200 mm using two different eyepieces of focal length:
(a) 25 mm
(b) 10 mm

Answer
1200 1200
(a) magnification = = 48×     (b)  magnification = = 120×
25 10

Warning: Never look directly at the Sun, especially when using a

telescope or binoculars. Blindness is likely to result.

Exam tip
Now test yourself
The objective lens of a
1 You have a telescope with an objective lens of 150 cm focal length. telescope has a long focal
You wish to use an eyepiece to give a magnification of 1000×. What length while the eyepiece
focal length of eye lens should you use? lens has a short focal
2 The Moon has a diameter of about 3500 km and is about 400 000 km length.
from the Earth. What is the angle in radians that the Moon subtends
to an observer on the Earth? What is this in degrees?

Answer on p. 222

Reflecting telescope
All mirrors used in astronomical telescopes are silvered on the front
surface, otherwise the light would pass through the glass and result
in colour distortion and multiple images. The metal used is actually
aluminium, vaporised onto the surface of the glass in a vacuum. It does
not ref lect quite so well as silver but is better over the complete range of
wavelengths of visible light.
The curvature of the mirrors is usually accurate to within one eighth of a
wavelength of green light.

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Cassegrain reflector
9  Astrophysics

The Cassegrain ref lecting telescope (Figure 9.3) has an eyepiece below
the main mirror, which means that much heavier detection equipment
can be fitted here. The primary (objective) mirror is large and concave;
the secondary mirror is small and convex. The secondary mirror does
not affect the quality of the image — the small amount of light that it
interrupts is negligible compared with the total amount received by the
main mirror.
Secondary mirror

Eye lens Primary

mirror

Figure 9.3 Cassegrain reflector

Comparison between refractors and reflectors

Disadvantages of a refracting telescope
l The lenses are made of glass and because the light has to go through
them the glass must be perfect with no internal air bubbles.
l The lenses can only be supported around their edges but this is where
they are thinnest and weakest.
l Lenses suffer from colour distortion — this means that when white
light passes through them it is split into the colours of the spectrum.
Because violet light refracts more than red light it is brought to a focus
closer to the lens than the red light, which makes the image coloured
and blurred. This effect is called chromatic aberration (Figure 9.4).

Figure 9.4 Chromatic aberration (much exaggerated)

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Disadvantages of a reflecting telescope

9  Astrophysics
l Rays close to the axis of the mirror are brought to a focus at one point
but those far from the axis meet at a range of different points. The
effective focal length varies for rays at different distances from the axis
(Figure 9.5). This is called spherical aberration and the locus of the
focal points is known as a caustic curve. This defect means that large,
spherical mirrors are not good for giving a focused image over a wide
field of view.

Caustic curve

(a) (b)

Figure 9.5 Spherical aberration (much exaggerated)

Advantages of a reflecting telescope

l The glass of the mirror does not have to be perfect throughout — only
to have a perfect surface.
l The mirror can be supported across the whole of its back.
Exam tip
l It does not suffer from the colour defects of chromatic aberration.
Reflecting telescopes can be
For these reasons all the really large telescopes in the world today are made larger than refractors.
ref lectors. The largest ones have mirrors up to 10 m in diameter.

Sites for an observatory

Land-based telescopes are best placed in observatories on the tops of
mountains, for the following reasons:
l They are above dust and other types of atmospheric pollution.
l They are above low cloud, mist and fog.
l They are far from light pollution from large centres of population.
l The air is thinner and so there is less atmospheric absorption.
l There are fewer convection currents in the air, so the image does not
suffer so much from image shake.
The Hubble Space Telescope is in an even better position — there is no
atmospheric absorption at all in space.

Telescopes using other wavelengths

Single-dish radio telescopes
Radio telescopes operate at radio wavelengths that are considerably longer
than optical wavelengths. For example, interstellar hydrogen both in
our galaxy and other galaxies emits at a wavelength of 21 cm and radio
telescopes are designed to detect this.

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This longer operating wavelength has a number of implications for radio
9  Astrophysics

telescopes:
l At 21 cm the Earth’s atmosphere absorbs a different proportion of the
radiation.
l Radio telescopes can be used in the daytime.
l To get good resolving power a radio telescope must be very large. To
achieve the same resolving power as its optical counterpart a radio Exam tip
telescope would have to be 50 000 times larger (see below).
Radio telescopes have a
l The surface of a radio telescope does not need to be so ‘smooth’ as
much lower resolving power
that of an optical mirror. Accuracies of ±0.005 m are quite acceptable, than those using visible light.
compared with ±0.000 000 1 m for the optical mirror surface.

Large-diameter objectives and CCD devices

Resolving power of telescopes
All telescopes give images that are affected by diffraction at the objective
lens or mirror. This is especially important in astronomy where the
images of two stars that are apparently very close together need to be
separated (Figure 9.6). The aperture of the telescope needs to be as large
as possible to give as little diffraction as possible and so give the telescope
a high resolving power.

Intensity

Source 2 Source 1

Figure 9.6 Resolution of two images in a telescope

Rayleigh criterion
This states that for two images of equal intensity to be resolved the central
maximum of one diffraction pattern must fall no closer than the first
minimum to the centre of the second diffraction pattern (Figure 9.6).
For a circular aperture and a small angle, the smallest resolvable angle
θ (in radians) using a telescope of aperture (diameter) d operating at a
wavelength λ is:

θ = 1.22 λ ≈ λ
d d
Higher resolution is therefore possible with large apertures and with
short-wavelength radiation such as ultraviolet light or X-rays.

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Example

9  Astrophysics
The resolving power of a lens or mirror is 1.22λ/d where λ is the
wavelength used and d is the aperture.
What aperture would be needed to give a resolving power of 10 −3
radians (about 3 minutes of arc) using:
(a) a radio telescope operating at 20 cm wavelength
(b) an optical reflector operating at 600 nm wavelength?

Answer

(a) radio telescope aperture = 1.22 ×−30.2 = 244 m

10

(b) optical telescope aperture = 1.22 × 600 × 10−9 = 0.00073 m = 0.73 mm

−3
10

The largest radio telescope in the world is the Arecibo telescope in Puerto
Exam tip
Rico. It is 300 m across and is built between some small hills that form
a roughly parabolic valley. The valley f loor is paved with almost 40 000 Do not forget to use SI units
aluminium panels, which act as the mirror. in all calculations.

Now test yourself

3 (a) What is maximum resolving power of an amateur astronomer’s 15 cm reflector in the visible range
(400–700 nm)?
(b) Why will the actual resolving power be less when used to ‘separate’ the images of the components
of a double star?

Answer on p. 223

The charge-coupled device (CCD)

A charge-coupled device (CCD) as used in astronomy is a sensitive
semiconductor device that replaces traditional photographic film for
recording images of astronomical objects.
The imaging area, or chip, in the CCD is composed of ‘cells’ made of
thin layers of silicon. As light falls on a cell’s surface a charge is built
up. The charge depends on the total energy of the light that falls on
the cell during the exposure. Therefore the longer the exposure and
the brighter the light the more charge is built up on the individual cell.
The cells are scanned electronically and a digital version of the image is
built up. This can be downloaded to a computer for processing by the
appropriate software.
The imaging area of a CCD camera consists of a grid of a large number of
these cells or pixels. Cameras with over 100 million pixels on the chip are
extensively used by astronomers to take long-exposure images. The chip
is typically about 10 mm × 5 mm and so each pixel has an area of roughly
2.5 × 10−5 mm.
A CCD has many advantages:
l The chips can be used many times.
l They are becoming relatively cheap.
l Unwanted exposures can be discarded.
l Each image taken can be viewed more or less immediately.
l CCD devices can also be made sensitive to radiation outside the visible
spectrum.

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The greater number of pixels per unit area, the greater the resolution of
9  Astrophysics

the CCD.

Quantum efficiency of the eye and a CCD

This is defined as:
number of electrons detected per second
quantum efficiency = × 100%
number of photons incident per second
A device with a high quantum efficiency will produce a large number of
electrons for a given number of incident photons.
Typical values are:
l eye 1−4
l film 4−10
l CCD 70−90

This means that a CCD hugely outperforms the eye.

Classification of stars
Classification by luminosity
Apparent magnitude (m)
The magnitude of a star is a measure of its brightness, and an approximate
scale for stellar magnitudes was devised by the Greek astronomer
Hipparchus. Comparing the brightness of two stars he decided that if one
star was 2.5 times brighter than the other the difference of magnitude
between them was 1. The modem figure is 2.51, such that a difference in
brightness of 100 gives a difference in magnitude of 5 (2.515 = 100).
Bright objects have a negative apparent magnitude while faint objects
have a positive apparent magnitude. The magnitude scale runs from about
−26 for the Sun to around +15 for the faintest stars visible using a large
astronomical telescope.
The dimmest stars that we can see with the unaided eye have an apparent
magnitude of about +6.

Example
If the apparent magnitudes of two stars differ by 4 what is the
difference in their brightness?

Answer
difference in brightness = 2.514 = 40

Now test yourself

4 Two stars differ in brightness by a factor of 1000. What is the difference in their apparent magnitudes?

Answer on p. 223

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Luminosity and brightness

9 Astrophysics
Luminosity is a measure of the total energy given output by a star at all
wavelengths, from gamma radiation to radio waves. This luminosity
depends on:
l the size of the star
l the temperature of the star

The brightness is how bright a star appears when seen from the Earth.
This depends on:
l the actual luminosity of the star
l the distance of the star from the observer on the Earth

Distance measurement and absolute magnitude

Astronomical unit, parsec and light year
1 astronomical unit (AU) is the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun.
1 parsec is the distance at which an object subtends an angle of 1 arc
second using the radius of the Earth’s orbit as the baseline (Figure 9.7).
1 light year is the distance that light travels in free space in 1 year.
1 second
1 light year (= 9.46 × 1015 m) of arc

1 parsec = 3.086 × 1016 m = 3.26 light years

1 megaparsec (Mpc) = 3.26 × 106 light years = 3.086 × 1022 m
1 parsec

Absolute magnitude (M)

How bright a star looks is given by its apparent magnitude. This is different
Radius of
from its absolute magnitude. The apparent magnitude (m), the distance Earth’s orbit
of the star in parsecs (d) and the absolute magnitude (M) are related by the Earth
equation: Sun

Figure 9.7 Definition of the

m − M = 5 log d or M = m − 5 log d parsec
10 10

The absolute magnitude of a star is defined as the apparent magnitude Exam tip
that it would have if placed at a distance of 10 parsecs from the Earth. The greater the luminosity
of a star, the lower its
magnitude value (including
10 parsecs negative).
M>m M<m

M=m

Figure 9.8 Apparent magnitude (m) and absolute magnitude (M)

Table 9.1 gives some examples of the magnitudes and distances of five
bright stars.

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Table 9.1
9  Astrophysics

Star name Distance/pc Apparent magnitude Absolute magnitude

Sirius 2.7 −1.46 1.4
Vega 8.1 0.03 0.6
Arcturus 11 −0.04 −0.2
Aldebaran 21 0.85 −0.3
Rigel* 260 0.12 −7.1
*Rigel is a variable star and so its absolute magnitude and therefore also its apparent magnitude change
slightly with time.

Example 1 Exam tip

Calculate the absolute magnitude of a star of apparent magnitude +2.5 Distances (d and D) should
that is at a distance of 25 pc from the Earth. be in parsecs.

Answer

M = m − 5 log d = 2.5 − 5 log 2.5 = 2.5 − 1.99 = +0.51

10

Example 2
Calculate the distance of a star with an apparent magnitude of +6.0
and an absolute magnitude of +4.0.

Answer

6 − 4 = 5 log d
10
2 = log d = 0.4
5 10
d = 2.5
10
d = 25 pc

Now test yourself

5 (a) A star is 20 pc from the Earth and has an apparent magnitude of −0.7. What is the absolute
magnitude of the star?
(b) A star is 5 pc from the Earth and has an absolute magnitude of +2.6. What is the apparent
magnitude of the star?
(c) A star has an apparent magnitude of −0.2 and an absolute magnitude of +2.0. What is the distance
of the star from Earth in light years? (1 light year = 0.31 parsecs)

Answer on p. 223

Classification by temperature
Black body radiation
The amount of infrared radiation emitted by a body depends on three things:
l the surface area of the body
l the type of surface
l the temperature of the body

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Simple experiments show that rough, black surfaces make the best

9  Astrophysics
emitters and absorbers of radiation at a given temperature.
An ideal absorber would be one that absorbed all the radiation that fell on
it, and also one that emitted the maximum amount of radiation possible
for that area at that temperature. Such a body is known as a black body,
and the radiation emitted by it as black body radiation.

Wien’s displacement law

Figure 9.9 shows the variation of energy emitted with wavelength for two
stars at different temperatures (assumed to behave like black bodies).
Eλ

T = 6000 K

T = 5000 K

300 800 Wavelength (λ)/nm

Figure 9.9 Wien’s displacement law

Some important facts can be deduced from these curves:
l The area between any energy–wavelength curve and the wavelength
axis is proportional to the total energy emitted by the body per unit
area at that temperature.
l The maxima of the curves move towards shorter wavelengths at higher
temperatures.
l The curves for lower temperatures lie completely inside those of higher
temperature.
λmT = constant = 2.90 × 10 −3 m K

where λm is the wavelength at which most energy is emitted, that is, at

the maximum of the curve.

Stefan’s law
Stefan’s law relates the luminosity of a star to its surface area (A) and
surface temperature (T):
power (luminosity) = σAT4

σ is Stefan’s constant and has a value of 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4.

Example 1
Calculate the luminosity of a star of radius 109 m (slightly larger than
our Sun) and surface temperature 6000 K.

Answer
luminosity = σAT4 = 5.67 × 10 −8 × 4 × π × 1018 × 6000 4 = 9.23 × 1026 W

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Example 2
9  Astrophysics

Calculate the temperature of a star with a maximum energy emission

at a wavelength of 400 nm.

Answer
2.90 × 10−3
temperature (T) = = 7250 K
400 × 10−9

Now test yourself

6 Calculate the temperature of a star that has a luminosity of 10 30 W and a radius of 1011 m.
(Stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10 −8 W m−2 K−4)

Answer on p. 223

Use of stellar spectral classes

By looking at the spectrum of a star astronomers can determine:
l the temperature of the star. This can be found by measuring the
variation in intensity across the spectrum. When the wavelength of
the peak intensity is found the temperature can be calculated using
Wien’s law.
l the composition of the star. The chemical composition of the star can
be determined by looking at the absorption lines in the spectrum.
These indicate the presence of particular elements in the star.
The spectra of stars are classified into a number of types, with each type
of star having a letter (Table 9.2).
Table 9.2

Spectral class Intrinsic colour Temperature/K Prominent absorption lines

O Blue 25 000–50 000 He+, He, H
B Blue 11 000–25 000 He, H
A Blue−white 7500–11 000 H (strongest), ionised metals
F White 6000–7500 ionised metals
G Yellow–white 5000–6000 ionised and neutral metals
K Orange 3500–5000 neutral metals
M Red < 3500 neutral atoms, TiO

This list ranges from very hot O-type stars to ‘cool’ M-type stars. O and
B stars are blue–white and M stars reddish in appearance when viewed
from the Earth.
The temperature of the star can be found by measuring the Doppler
broadening of the spectral lines (see page 213).

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The Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram

9  Astrophysics
General shape of the HR diagram
This type of diagram originally showed the variation of the absolute
magnitude of a star against its spectral type.
Spectral type
O B A F G K M
Absolute magnitude

Luminosity (Sun = 1)
Rigel Red supergiants

Betelgeuse
–5 10000
Spica 1000
Arcturus Aldebaran
0 100
Sirius A Red giants
Vega 10
Sun
+5 1

10−1
Main sequence stars
+10 10−2
Sirius B
10−3

+15 10−4
Procyon
White dwarfs 10−5

40 000 25 000 11 000 7500 6000 5000 3500

Surface temperature/K

Figure 9.10 Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

Hot, bright stars are towards the top-left of the diagram while cool and
dim stars are towards the bottom-right. Some large stars, like the red
supergiants, are quite cool, but because of their enormous size they are in
the top-right of the diagram. On the other hand, white dwarfs are hot,
small stars and so appear to the bottom-left.
There is a band of stars that runs from the top-left to the bottom-right
(shown by the dotted line in the diagram). This is called the main
sequence and stars that lie in this area are called main-sequence stars.
These are ‘normal’ stars, while those that lie to one side or other of
this area are ‘unusual’ stars and include white dwarfs, red giants and
supergiants. Supergiant stars can be either hot (e.g. Rigel) or cool (e.g.
Betelgeuse). About 90% of the stars in our region of the galaxy are main-
sequence stars (including our Sun); 10% are white dwarfs and 1% are red
giants or supergiants.

Evolution of stars of similar mass to our Sun

(< about 3.0 M☉)
The life cycle of a star with a mass of less than 3.0 solar masses (M☉) can be
summarised as follows:
1 Particles begin to clump together in a low-density gas cloud.
2 Nuclear fusion begins and the star is ‘born’.
3 Fusion of light elements takes place and the star reaches a stable state in
its ‘main sequence phase’.

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4 Fusion of hydrogen in the core eventually ceases but continues in the
9  Astrophysics

outer shell. This gives an outward pressure so that the star expands to
form a red giant with a high luminosity but lower surface temperature.
5 Eventually layers of the star are blown away as a planetary nebula,
leaving a core.
6 The star core radiates less and shrinks to become a white dwarf and
finally a cold black dwarf.

Evolution of stars of mass many times that of our

Sun (> about 3 M☉)
The life cycle of a star with a mass of more than 3 M☉ can be summarised
as follows:
1 Particles begin to clump together in a low-density gas cloud.
2 Nuclear fusion begins and the star is ‘born’.
3 Fusion of heavier elements takes place — up to iron and nickel.
4 As with lighter stars, the star then passes through a red giant or, in this
case, a red supergiant phase.
5 Eventually the gravitational attraction exceeds the radiation pressure
and a catastrophic collapse occurs. The outer layers collapse in seconds,
reaching speeds of up to 30% of the speed of light. In this case the
shock-wave moves outwards, resulting in a supernova.
6 A neutron star is formed, which then changes further if the mass is
greater than about ten solar masses.
7 For a star of 10 or more solar masses, gravitational compression of the
neutron star continues, eventually forming a black hole.
The evolutions of stars is outlined in Figure 9.11.

Spectral type
O B A F G K M
Absolute magnitude

Luminosity (Sun = 1)

Rigel Red supergiants

Betelgeuse
–5 10000
Spica 1000

0 100
Red giants
10
Sun
+5 1

10−1
Main sequence stars
+10 10−2

10−3

+15 10−4
White dwarfs 10−5

40 000 25 000 11 000 7500 6000 5000 3500

Surface temperature/K

Figure 9.11 Evolution of stars

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Supernovae, neutron stars and black holes

9  Astrophysics
Supernovae
A supernova is the explosive cataclysmic end to the life of a star. A
supernova can produce so much energy that it can brief ly outshine a
galaxy with about 1010 times the luminosity of the Sun! The energy
produced in a supernova explosion can be around 1046 J. This enormous
release of energy may occur in only a few seconds.
A star of mass greater than 1.4 M☉ can become a supernova, but the
precise value depends on how it was formed).

Type 1a (1.4 M☉ < m < 3 M☉)

A type 1a supernova results from the attraction of material to a white

Brightness
dwarf from its companion star in a binary system, increasing both its mass
and core density.
If the mass of the white dwarf reaches more than about 1.4 M☉ with
a correspondingly ‘super-high’ density the star then suffers a violent
collapse, with a huge rise in temperature. The thermal energy produced
causes the star to explode as a supernova; no individual body remains.
Type 1a supernovae are used as standard candles to determine galactic
distances. Since they all have approximately the same absolute magnitude,
0 100 200
a measurement of their apparent magnitude can be used to calculate their
Time (days)
distance.
Figure 9.12 Light curve of a
The light curve for a typical type 1a supernova is shown in Figure 9.12. type 1a supernova

Type II (8 M☉ < m < 50 M☉)

A type II supernova may result in the latter stages of the life of a single
giant star. In the type II supernova the gravitational attraction overcomes
the radiation pressure as the star ‘runs out of fuel’. The outer layers of the
star fall inwards, bounce off the solid core and travel outwards towards
the surface. The shock wave produced moves at up to 10 000 km s−1 and
‘blows away’ most of the outer layers of the star, giving a supernova
explosion. If the final mass of the core is less than about 1.4 M☉ a neutron
star is left behind. If it is greater it collapses to give a black hole.
During the supernova phase, as a rapidly rotating high mass star collapses
to form a neutron star, very high intensity gamma ray emissions occur.
These are known as gamma ray bursts (GRBs). A GRB may last for
several hours and produce as much energy in a few seconds as the Sun
will emit in 10 billion years.

Neutron stars (3 M☉ < m < 10 M☉)

A neutron star is the final phase of a star with a mass of between 3 M☉ and
10 M☉ (where M☉ is the mass of the Sun). The star contracts, the density
increasing to the same as that of an atomic nucleus and electrons combine
with protons to give matter composed only of neutrons. Neutron stars have
a very high magnetic field and a surface gravity up to 1011 that of Earth.

Black holes (m > 10 M☉)

A black hole is an unimaginable concentration of matter formed by
the gravitational collapse of a massive star, usually greater than 10 solar
masses. On approaching a black hole the escape velocity increases and

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increases. Eventually a point will be reached where the escape velocity
9  Astrophysics

is the speed of light — this point is known as the event horizon for the
black hole. The radius of the sphere of the event horizon around the
black hole is known as the Schwarzschild radius (R S).
At the Schwarzschild radius, the escape velocity (VE) is given by:

vE = c = 2GM
RS
where c the speed of light, G the gravitational constant and M the mass of
the star.
At the event horizon, a distance of R S from the centre of the black hole,
the escape velocity will be equal to the speed of light.
Example
Calculate the radius of the event horizon for a black hole with a
mass 50 times that of our Sun. (G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N m2 kg−2; mass of the
Sun = 2 × 10 30 kg; speed of light = 3 × 108 m s−1)

Answer
−11 30
Rs = 2GM2
= 2 × 6.67 × 10 × 1650 × 2 × 10 = 1.5 × 105 m = 150 km
c 9 × 10

Black holes swallow up matter — increasing in mass themselves — and

so their Schwarzschild radius increases as the event horizon expands.
However, if antimatter falls into a black hole then the mass of the black
hole decreases and eventually disappears in a burst of radiation.
Figure 9.13 represents the gravitational fields outside a large star and
a black hole. The depth of the gravitational vortex is much greater for
the black hole than for a heavy star — the escape velocity at the event
horizon being the speed of light.

Event
horizon

Large star

Revision activity
Draw a mind map to show
Black hole the stages in the formation
of a black hole.
Figure 9.13 Gravitational potential curves for a large star and a black hole

Now test yourself

7 Calculate the mass of a black hole that has a Schwarzschild radius of 200 km.
(G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N m2 kg−2; speed of light = 3 × 108 m s−1)

Answer on p. 223

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Cosmology

9  Astrophysics
Doppler effect
The Doppler effect (Figure 9.14) is the apparent change of
frequency and wavelength when a source of waves and an
observer move relative to each other. The Doppler shifts
in frequency (Δf ) and wavelength (Δλ) are given by the
following equations:
doppler shift = ∆λ = v
λ c
doppler shift = ∆f = v
f c
∆λ
where v is the speed of the source and c is the speed of the
waves. λ
In astrophysics astronomers define the quantity v/c as the
red shift (Figure 9.15) and give it the symbol z.
The velocity of the star along a line of sight joining the star
to the Earth can be determined by comparing the spectral Figure 9.14 Doppler effect
lines due to a certain element with the spectral lines of the
same element produced in the laboratory. The shift of the
lines can be measured. Knowing the shift of the lines the
velocity of the star can be found using the equations for
the Doppler effect.
In astrophysics the Doppler effect can also be used to find:
l the speed of one component of a double star system
around the other
l the recession or approach speed of a galaxy or a quasar
l the temperature of the star by the broadening of the
absorption lines in the spectrum

Corona Borealis
Line spectrum of an element

Absorption lines
Velocity 21 400 km s−1

Red shift
Bootes

Red shift

Velocity 39 000 km s−1

Red shift

Hydra
Red shift

Velocity 61 000 km s−1

Figure 9.15 Galactic red shift

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Observations of the spectra of galaxies show that the light coming from Exam tip
9 Astrophysics

many of these is shifted significantly towards the red, which shows that
they are moving away from us at high speeds — many tens of thousands Notice that the wavelength
of kilometres per second. If the Doppler shift of lines within their spectra and frequency shifts depend
on the original wavelength
can be measured, their speed of recession can be calculated.
or frequency — red light is
For very high speeds the simple formula cannot be used and the effects of shifted more than blue for
special relativity have to be allowed for. a given velocity — and that
these changes apply whether
Example 1 the source or observer, or
both, are moving.
A galaxy is moving away from the Earth at 26 000 km s−1. Calculate the
wavelength and frequency change of a 650 nm line in its spectrum.
Take c = 3 × 108 m s−1.

Answer
λv = 650 × 26 000 × 103
wavelength change (Δλ) = = 56.3 nm
c 3 × 108
14 3
frequency change (Δf) = fv = 4.6 × 10 × 26 8000 × 10 = 0.4 × 1014 Hz
c 3 × 10

Example 2
A galaxy is moving relative to the Earth and a 600 nm line in its
spectrum is found to be Doppler shifted by 30 nm towards the red.
(a) Is the galaxy receding or approaching?
(b) Calculate its speed relative to the Earth.

Answer
(a) Receding from the Earth, as shown by the shift towards the longer
wavelength — red.
c∆λ = 3 × 108 × 30 × 10−9
(b) speed of recession = = 1.5 × 107 m s−1
λ 600 × 10−9

The Doppler effect can also be used to measure the speed of one
component of a binary star system about another, as shown in Figure 9.16.

A2 A3
A1
B1
B2 B3

to Earth to Earth to Earth

spectrum spectrum spectrum
blue red blue red blue red

Spectral line Spectral line of A Spectral lines of A and Spectral line Spectral line
of B displaced displaced to red B not displaced to red of A displaced of B displaced
to blue (component A (components A and B to blue to red
(component B receding from us) neither approaching nor (component A (component B
approaching us) receding from us) approaching us) receding from us)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.16 A binary star system — eclipsing variable

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Now test yourself

9  Astrophysics
8 IC3258 is a galaxy in the Virgo cluster that is moving towards the Earth at 500 km s−1. A line in its
spectrum is measured to have a wavelength of 600 nm.
(a) Has this line been red shifted or blue shifted?
(b) What wavelength would be measured if the galaxy was at rest relative to the Earth?
(c) What is the Doppler shift of this line?

Answer on p. 223

Hubble’s law
The Hubble formula provides a very powerful way of determining not
only distances of remote galaxies but also the age of the universe itself.
H0 = v    v = H0 d
d
where H 0 is the Hubble constant, v is the recession speed of the galaxy in
km s-1 and d is the distance of the galaxy from Earth in Mpc. The value of
the Hubble constant will vary with time and measurement technique but
at present:
H0 ≈ 71.5 km s−1 Mpc−1

This means that the velocity of recession of a galaxy increases by 71.5 km s−1

for every 1 Mpc increase in its distance.
Using Hubble’s law the red shift (z) can be written as:

z = v = H0 d
c c

Conversion of Hubble constant to SI units

Take the Hubble constant H 0 to be 71.5 km s−1 Mpc−1 and 1 light year to
be 9.46 × 1015 m:
1 parsec = 3.26 light years = 3.086 × 1016 m

Therefore: 1 Mpc = 3.086 × 1022 m

So: Exam tip
71.5 × 103
71.5 km s  Mpc =
−1 −1
= 2.32 × 10 −18 s−1 It is important to realise that
3.086 × 1016 × 106
the number quoted above as
the value of H0 is the value at
Example
the present time. The value
Find the distance r of the galaxy with a recession velocity of 1200 km s−1 of H0 will have varied over
if the Hubble constant is 71.5 km s−1 Mpc−1. the lifetime of the universe
and will continue to do so in
Answer the future.
Using v = H0r:
v = 1200
r= = 16.78 Mpc = 16.78 × 3.086 × 1022 = 5.19 × 1023 m
H0 71.5
= 5.5 × 107 light years

The galaxy is therefore 55 million light years away.

AQA A-level Physics 209

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Now test yourself
9  Astrophysics

9 The maximum speed of a galaxy relative to the Earth is the speed of light (3 × 10 8 m s−1). Use Hubble’s
law to calculate the maximum radius of the observable universe. Give your answer in both metres
and light years.

Answer on p. 223

The expansion and age of the universe

If we assume that:
l the radius of the universe (R) = velocity of recession of the most distant
galaxies (v) × the age of the universe (t0)
l v = H 0R
l the galaxies have been moving apart with constant velocity since the
beginning of time
the age of the universe (t 0) can be found from the equation:
age of the universe (t0) = R = 1
v H0
t0 = ( 71.5 1× 10 ) × 3.086 × 10
3
22
= 4.32 × 1017 s = 1.37 × 1010 years
    = 13.7 thousand million years

Since t 0 = 1/H 0, a large value of H 0 implies a young universe.

The Big Bang

It is now generally accepted by most astronomers that the universe
as we know it began with an unimaginably huge expansion from an
unimaginably small, unimaginably hot and dense point, between
13.7 billion (1.37 × 1010) and 13.8 billion years ago. We call this the
Big Bang.
Time and space both originated at the same time, with the Big Bang.
Before that there was no space and no time — the Big Bang ‘created’
space and time. We cannot ask what happened before the Big Bang
because before that moment nothing existed — no space and no time!
What happened afterwards is outlined in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3

Time after the Big Bang Nature of the universe Temperature

10 −43
 s
10 −34
–1010 s
10 −10 s Particle soup dominates 1015 K
1 s Neutrons and protons formed 1010 K
3 minutes Helium nuclei formed 109 K
300 000 years Microwave background fills the universe 6000 K
500 000 years Temperature falls further; infrared 750 K
1 million years Atoms form; stars and galaxies exist;
universe becomes transparent
1 billion (109) years The first stars; heavy elements form 18 K (−255°C)
14 billion years The present day 2.7 K (−270.3°C)

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Cosmic microwave background radiation

9  Astrophysics
In 1965 two American astronomers, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson,
were using the antenna at the Bell Laboratories in New Jersey for
scanning the sky when they found that there was a background ‘noise’
(like static in a radio). This uniform signal was in the microwave range,
with a peak at a wavelength of about 2 mm.
By pointing the ‘telescope’ in a variety of directions they concluded
that the interference was not radiation from our galaxy or from extra-
terrestrial radio sources, and because it remained constant throughout
the year it could not have come from the solar system. It seemed to come
from all parts of the sky.
Finally they realised that it was not random noise causing the signal
but something that pervaded the whole universe. This was cosmic
microwave background (CMB) radiation with a ‘temperature’ of
around 2.7 K, and was given an evocative name — the ‘echo of the Big
Bang’. It is the residual radiation predicted by Gamov and others, and Exam tip
is the result of the universe cooling from an unimaginably hot state
The discovery of small
over the intervening 13 billion years. The detection of CMB radiation
discontinuities in the CMB is
supports the Big Bang idea of the universe, because the cooling of the very good evidence for the
universe after the Big Bang would suggest an expansion over many birth of galaxies.
millions of years.

Critical density of the universe

The Hubble constant (H 0) is also important in predicting the ultimate fate
of our universe, which relates to the concept of its critical density. The
velocity of recession of a galaxy can be considered as its escape velocity
from the rest of the universe:
velocity of recession (v) = H0R

where R is the distance of the galaxy.

However:

escape velocity (v) = 2GM

R
Therefore:
3H02
ρ =
8π G
where ρ is the critical density of the universe and G is the gravitational
constant.
(This simplified calculation assumes both constant v and a constant value
of the Hubble constant (H 0).)
If the density of the universe is greater than this the universe will
contract; if it is less, it will expand for ever.

AQA A-level Physics 211

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Example
9  Astrophysics

Calculate the critical density of the universe. (H0 = 71.5 km s−1 Mpc−1;

G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N m2 kg−2)

Answer
3H02 −18 2
critical density (ρ) = = (2.32 × 10 ) × 3−11 = 9.63 × 10 −27 kg m−3
8π G 8 × 3.14 × 6.67 × 10
The mass of a proton is 1.66 × 10 −27 kg, so this density is equivalent to
almost six (5.8) protons in every cubic metre of space.

Now test yourself

10 If the value of the Hubble constant were 70 km s−1 Mpc−1 (a little lower than the currently accepted
value) calculate the critical density of the universe.

Answer on p. 223

The fate of the Universe

At the time of writing (2017) the future state of the universe is

Relative size of the universe

4
uncertain. It is thought that the universe is expanding and that
Open
this expansion is accelerating (shown by the blue line in Figure Accelerating (low density)
3
9.17). This expansion appears to be affected by a form of energy (open)
known as dark energy. We are not sure what this is, how long
2 Flat
it has been active or whether the effects of it are constant or
changing as time passes.
1
We define a quantity Ω where: Closed (high density)
actual average density of matter in the universe 0
Ω=
critical density of the universe −10 Now 10 20 30
Billions of years
The critical density will decide whether the universe is:
Figure 9.17 The fate of the universe
l open — a runaway expansion (Ω < 1)
l f lat — an expansion but slowing (Ω = 1)
l closed — a final contraction known as the Big Crunch (Ω > 1)

Quasars
Quasars (Figure 9.18) are exceptionally luminous star-like sources of
radiation, with very high red shifts. Exam tip

They have intensities between 1012 and 1015 times that of the Sun, which z = v/c cannot be used for
means that a single quasar may emit about 1000 times as much energy as quasars because the very
our whole galaxy. The quasar 3C 273 has an absolute magnitude of −27. high value of v means
relativistic effects.
It is because of this enormous rate of emission of energy that the lifetimes
of quasars are relatively short.
The radiation from quasars is thought to originate from a vast disc of
Exam tip
gas known as an accretion disc, which has been attracted towards the
event horizon of a supermassive black hole at the centre of a galaxy. The Quasars emit all
enormous gravitational pull of the black hole causes the gas in the disc to wavelengths of the
rotate at high speed, finally spiralling into the black hole. electromagnetic spectrum
strongly, from gamma rays
The enormous speeds of molecules within this gas cloud generate a to radio waves but especially
fantastically high temperature, which results in the emission of light of in the radio frequency range.
unimaginable intensity.

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9 Astrophysics
Jet
Black hole

Accretion disc
Jet

Figure 9.18 A quasar

Detection of exoplanets
An exoplanet (Figure 9.19) is a planet orbiting a star other than our Sun.
At the time of writing (2016) exoplanets have only been detected within
our own galaxy.
Methods of detection include:
l Variation in the Doppler shift of the star as the exoplanet and star orbit
a common centre of gravity. Only observable for very large planets.
l Transit of the planet across the face of the star, causing a slight dip in
the intensity of the light from the star received by the observer.
l Changes in the observed spectrum of the star due to absorption of the
starlight by the atmosphere of the exoplanet during transit.
l Direct observation by telescopic imaging.
There are difficulties in detecting exoplanets:
l It involves observation of relatively small objects at a great distance
(at least 10 light years).
l The brightness of the star about which the planet is orbiting.

On 23 July 2015 the discovery of an exoplanet in orbit round a star in the

constellation Cygnus was announced. Named Kepler 452B, it was detected
because the light from its parent star shows a slight dip when the planet
passes in front of it. Kepler 452B seems to be very similar to our Earth; the
surface temperature suggests that water could exist there as a liquid, and
the length of the planet’s year is 385 Earth days. This planet is a billion
years older than the Earth, which may mean that life could already have
developed on it, and is around 1400 light years (430 pc) away from us.
Spectrum of the star

Exoplanet Doppler shift Observed light curve due to exoplanet motion

Oscillation of star Oscillation of spectral lines
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.19 Detection of an exoplanet

AQA A-level Physics 213

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Now test yourself
9  Astrophysics

11 Estimate the change in intensity of light received from a star–exoplanet system when the planet
passes in front of the star if the radius of the planet is 10% of the radius of the star.

Answer on p. 223

Exam practice
1 A simple astronomical refracting telescope has two lenses, an objective lens and an eyepiece lens.
Which statement best describes these two lenses?
A The objective lens has a smaller focal length and smaller power than the eyepiece lens.
B The objective lens has a larger focal length and larger power than the eyepiece lens.
C The objective lens has a larger focal length and smaller power than the eyepiece lens.
D The objective lens has a smaller focal length and smaller power than the eyepiece lens. [1]
2 Under certain conditions the human eye has an aperture with a diameter of 0.4 cm. Calculate the
resolving power of the eye for a wavelength of 600 nm in this state. [2]
3 The event horizon of a black hole is:
A the radius of the black hole
B the radial distance from the centre of a black hole to where the escape velocity is equal to that
of light
C the radial distance from the centre of a black hole to where the escape velocity is zero
D the initial radius of the supermassive star that collapsed to form the black hole [1]
4 Which of the following statements is correct?
A The absolute magnitude of a star is defined as the apparent magnitude that it would have if placed
at a distance of 10 light years from the Earth.
B The apparent magnitude of a star is defined as the absolute magnitude that it would have if placed
at a distance of 10 pc from the Earth.
C A star at a distance of 15 pc from the Earth and an apparent magnitude of +5 will have an absolute
magnitude that is more positive.
D The absolute magnitude of a star is defined as the apparent magnitude that it would have if
placed at a distance of 10 pc from the Earth. [1]
5 (a) Calculate the luminosity of a star of radius 1010 m and surface temperature 5000 K. [3]
(b) Calculate the temperature of a star with maximum energy at a wavelength of 550 nm in its
energy distribution. [2]
6 A certain spectroscopic binary has a massive central star with a smaller one moving round it in a
circular orbit. The orbit period of the smaller star is 2.86 days and when it is moving in the line of
sight as seen from the Earth it has a velocity towards the Earth of 50 km s−1.
(a) What will be the maximum Doppler shift of a line of wavelength 650 nm in the spectrum of the
smaller star? [2]
(b) Sketch the way in which this shift will vary over the time of one complete orbit. [2]
7 The H α spectral line, wavelength 656 nm, observed in the spectrum of the galaxy 3C 273 is Doppler
shifted towards the red by 0.1 μm. Calculate:
(a) the speed of recession of 3C 273 [2]
(b) the distance of 3C 273 when the Doppler shift was measured [2]
Hubble constant = 2.31 × 10 −18 s−1
8 How would a higher value of the Hubble constant affect the predicted amount of dark energy in the
universe? Explain your answer. [3]

Answers and quick quiz 9 online

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Summary

9  Astrophysics
You should now have an understanding of: ● Stellar spectral classes — colour, temperature
● Telescopes — magnification and focal lengths and absorption lines
of objective and eyepiece ● Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram — main
● Reflecting telescopes — Cassegrain reflector, sequence, dwarfs and giants, stellar evolution
comparison between refractors and reflectors ● Supernovae, neutron stars and black holes
● Advantages of large-diameter telescopes — ● Doppler effect — optical and radio frequencies,
greater resolution and light-gathering power double stars, galaxies and quasars
● Classification of stars by luminosity — Wien’s ● Hubble’s law — red shift, big bang theory, age
and Stefan’s laws and size of the universe
● Absolute and apparent magnitude — equation ● Quasars — bright radio sources, large red
relating these quantities shifts, formation from active black holes
● Classification by temperature — black body ● Detection of exoplanets — methods and
radiation; Wien’s and Stefan’s laws difficulties of detection

AQA A-level Physics 215

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Now test yourself answers

Chapter 1   3 (a) They would be aligned with the bars parallel

to each other.
1 0.000025 J = 2.5 × 10 −4 J (b) The received signal would vary in intensity
force mass × acceleration sinusoidally.
2 pressure = = =
area area   4 half a wavelength
kg m s−2 /m2 = kg m−1 s−2   5 The ends of a stretched string will be fixed points.
  6 The received signal is the result of the
Chapter 2 superposition of the signals from the two
transmitters.
  1 (a) 143 λ
distance between maxima = = 30 × 5 = 150 m;
(b) 146 wavelength = 300 m 2
  2 54   7 (a) fringe width = λD/s
  3 (a) 14
  
N 600 × 10 −9 × 0.9
7 = = 0.108 mm
(b) 6C → 14
  
14   
7
N + –10 e + ν−e 0.5 × 10 −3
  4 (a) alpha (b) moved further away by 18 cm
4.5 × 10 −3 × 0.6 × 10 −3
(b)     
238
92
U → 234
   
90
Th + 24  He   8 wavelength =
4
  5 (a) 2 × 10  J
−13
= 6.75 × 10 −7 m = 675 nm
(b) 2 × 10 −15 J   9 Light has a much shorter wavelength.
(c) 4.74 × 10 −19 J 10 Yes — sound waves show diffraction.
(d) 3.32 × 10 −19 J 1
11 (a) d = = 4 × 10 −6 m
(e) 2.84 × 10 −19 J 250 000
(f) 9.95 × 10 −24 J nλ = d sin θ
(g) 7.83 × 10 −28 J 550 × 10 −9
sin θ = = 0.1375
  6 Charge: −1 = +1 + 0 + 0 4 × 10−6
θ = 7.9°
Lepton number: 1 = 1 + 1 + (−1) d sin 90
  7 1.33 × 10 −18 J (b) n = =7
550 × 10 −9
  8 (a) 1.66 × 10 −18 J (c) Seven either side of a central image (15).
(b) 1.0 × 10 −18 J 12 Spectra wider because of the finer ‘grating
(c) 1.5 × 1015 Hz spacing’.
E2 – E1 13 n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
  9 frequency = = 2.46 × 1015 Hz
h refractive index (n1) = 1.47
wavelength = c/f = 122 nm n
14 critical angle = d = 33.3°
nw
10 wavelength = h/mv = 3.97 × 10 −14 m
15 critical angle for the glass = 42°
= 3.97 × 10 −5 nm
maximum angle of incidence at one face ≤ 90°
maximum angle of incidence at the adjacent
Chapter 3 face in the glass = 90 − 42 = 48°
1 2.94 m Therefore total internal reflection will
take place at this face and so the light will
2 Light is electromagnetic radiation (varying
not emerge.
electric and magnetic fields) and this will travel
through a vacuum. Sound requires a medium 16 Different wavelengths of light will have different
to transmit it and so would not be transmitted refractive indices. Therefore these different
though the virtually airless ‘atmosphere’ of wavelengths will travel at different speeds in
the Moon. the fibre. This will give pulse broadening.

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Chapter 4 16 impulse = Ft = area below line = 10.2 N s

Now test yourself answers

impulse = mΔv
  1 bearing 8.2°; speed 353 m s−1 mass = 2.5 kg
  2 horizontal component = 2000 cos 15 = 1932 N 10.2
Δv = = 4.1 m s−1
vertical component = 2000sin15 = 518 N 2.5
17 Using momentum before collision = momentum
  3 Using moment = Fd sin θ:
after collision:
(a) 9.6 Nm
(0.200 × 8) + (1.5 × 0) = 1.7v, so 1.6 = 1.7v
(b) 15 Nm
Therefore v = 0.94 m s−1
(c) 34 Nm
18 (a) force = 500 cos 30 = 433 N
  4 140 = 0.225 × F
(b) force = 500 sin 30 = 250 N
F = 622 N
(c) force = 433 N
  5 Take moments about P:
work done = 433 × 40 = 17 320 J
(1.5 × 6 × 9.8) + (3 × 8) = 112.2 = T cos 35 × 2.4
19 (a) power = Fv = 5000 × 30 = 150 kW
T = 57.1 N
(b) work done = Fs = 7000 × 35 = 245 000 J
  6 (a) 1050 N
20 energy change = 85 × 9.8 × 30 × 0.15 = 3750 J = 3.75 kJ
(b) It will be unchanged. v
21 power = 2000 × 103 = 250 000 × 9.8 ×
  7 (a) 271 m 10
Therefore, v = 8.16 m s−1
(b) 4.4 m s−1
22 M = 400 kg m = 70 kg
(c) −0.07 m s−2
(a) F = ma + mg = 70(a + g)
  8 216 s (3 m 36 s)
s = ut + ½at2
v2 1014 5
  9 a = = = 1.67 × 1015 m s−2 a = 2 × = 0.625 m s−2
2s 2 × 3 × 10 −2 16
10 (a) s = ½gt2 = 78.4 m Therefore reading:
(b) v = gt = 39.2 m s−1 F = 70(9.8 + 0.625) = 70 × 10.425 = 729.75 N
(c) vaverage = 19.6 m s−1 (b) The reading will be constant.
11 (a) (i) 200 m s−1 (c) (i) v2 = u2 + 2as
(ii) 200 m s−1 = 2 × 0.0.625 × 5 = 6.25 v = 2.5 m s−1
(b) (i) v = gt =19.6 m s−1 energy = gravitational potential energy +
(ii) 49 m s−1 kinetic energy = (5 × 470 × 9.8) + ½(470 × 2.52)
(c) v = √2002 + 492 = 205 m s−1 Therefore:
tan θ = 49/200 θ = 13.8° to the horizontal total energy = 23 030 + 1468.75 = 24 498 J
(downwards) = 24.5 kJ
(d) 1500 = 0.5 × 9.8 × t2 (ii) This time there will be no kinetic energy
t = 17.5 s increase.
(e) 3500 m s = 2.5 × 4 = 10 m
12 (a) 0 m s−1 Therefore:
(b) 17.5 m s−1 energy = 470 × 9.8 × 10 = 46 060 J = 46.1 kJ
(c) 9.8 m s−2 downwards 3 × 10 −6
23 density = = 8 × 10 −7 kg m−3
(d) −18.7 m s−1 3.75
24 force = 50 = 9400 × e
(e) 25.6 m s−1 downwards at 47° to the horizontal
e = 5.32 mm
13 total accelerating force = 1150 + 800 = 1950 N
new length = 2.50 + 0.0053 = 2.505 m
1950
acceleration = = 23.5 m s−2 force 30 000
83 25 area = = × 106 = 6 × 10−5 m2
14 F = 550 000 – 49 000 = 60 000 N breaking stress 500
(Note: 30 000 and not 20 000 to allow for the 50%
acceleration = 1.2 m s−2 (allow for the weight of
safety margin.)
the rocket when finding the resultant force)
Therefore each cable must have a cross-
15 (a) net accelerating force = 8000 – 3000 = 5000 N
sectional area of 1.5 × 10 −5 m2.
5000
(b) acceleration = = 2.78 m s−2 1.5 × 10 −5 = πd2 /4
1800
(c) force = ma = 800 × 2.78 = 2222 N d = 4.3 × 10 −3 m = 4.3 mm

AQA A-level Physics 217

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26 additional energy = ½FΔL = 0.5 × 70 × 10−3 = 0.35 J 250 × 200
(e) R = + 100 = 211 Ω
Now test yourself answers

27 (a) L = 0.1 m 250 + 200

FL
e= = 0.05 m (f) 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 109 Ω
EA R 600 150 1200
energy = ½Fe = ½Eae2 /L
  9 (a) R = 50 kW
= ½(5 × 108 × 1 × 10 −6 × 0.052)/0.5 = 6.25 J
Therefore:
(b) ½mv2 = 6.25 v =
(c) v2 = u2 + 2as
√ 2 × 6.25
5 × 10 −3
= 50 m s−1
I=V =
R 50
6
× 10 3 = 0.12 mA

502 = 2 × 9.81 × s (b) The resistance of the LDR will increase and
so the current flowing from the cell will
2500
s= = 127 m decrease.
19.62 6
FL (c) I = × 103 = 0.06 mA when the resistance of
28 extension (e) = 100
EA the LDR is infinite or when it is disconnected
70 × 9.81 × 0.4 × 5 from the circuit.
=
1.8 × 1010 × π × (10 −2)2 10 (a) V = 6 V
= 2.42 × 10 −4 m = 0.242 mm 6
I= = 0.03 A
force 70 × 9.8 686 200
29 stress = = = × 10 −4 12
area π × (1.5 × 10 −2)2 7.068 (b) I = = 0.06 A
200
= 9.70 × 105 Pa 11 (a) energy = 1.5 × 3000 = 4500 J
(b) energy = 1.5 × 200 × 10 −6 × 2.5 × 3600 = 2.7 J
Chapter 5 12 energy = 12 × 200 × 1.5 = 3600 J
20 V2 2302
  1 (a) current = = 5 A 13 power = = = 1.058 kW
5 R 50
600
(b) = 0.5 A 14 power loss = I2R = 4.52 × 0.13 × 0.75
20 × 60 = 1.97 W
  2 (a) charge = It = 2 × 10 = 20 C
15 (a) I3 = 0.096 A flowing clockwise
(b) charge = 5 × 10 −3 × 8 × 60 = 2.4 C
(b) E is as shown
0.2
  3 (a) I = V = = 1.7 mA E = (0.096 × 150) − (0.04 × 100) = 10.4 V
R 120
12 16 (a) I3 = 0.3 A flowing anticlockwise. E must be
(b) I = = 2.55 mA reversed.
4700
6 (b) I3 = 0.3 A flowing clockwise. E is as shown.
(c) I = 4 = 0.6 mA
10 R2
17 V2 = ×V
25 R1 + R2
(d) I = × 106 = 10 μA
2.5 200
(a) V2 = × 12 = 8 V
  4 (a) R = V/I = 12/0.25 = 48 Ω 300
(b) R = 230/10 = 23 Ω 20
(b) V2 = × 10 = 4.4 V
  5 ρ = RA/L = (3 × π × (0.28 × 10 −3)2)/2.5 45
= 2.96 × 10 −7 Ω m
200
  6 R = ρL/A = 0.65 × 10 −3/1.5 × 10 −6 = 433 Ω (c) V2 = × 6 = 2.7 V
450
  7 When it is switched on due to the sudden 18 (a) The output p.d. will fall.
expansion which gives the wire a ‘thermal shock’.
(b) The output p.d. will rise.
  8 (a) 200 + 400 = 600 Ω
19 The output p.d will fall due to the greater loss of
(b) 1 = 1 + 1 = 0.0075 R = 133 Ω energy within the cell due to the greater current
R 400 200 flowing through its internal resistance.
750 × 450
(c) R = = 281 Ω
750 + 450
(d) 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
R 500 500 500
R = 167 Ω

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9781471854798.indb 218 1/16/17 5:41 PM

( )
2
20 T
he voltmeter has such a high resistance that 2 × π × 42 ×106
2 ( 2Tπ r )2 6
= 9.329 × 10

Now test yourself answers

  4 (a) a = v =
86400
when the voltmeter is connected to the cell on =
r r 42 × 10 6 6
42 × 10
its own only 1.3/10 MΩ = 1.3 × 10 −7 A = 0.13 μA
flows in the circuit.   = 0.22 m s −2

The difference in the readings is because when (b) Communication

the 20 Ω resistor is connected more current   5 (a) 0.03 m
flows from the cell and so much more energy is (b) 3 s
lost within the internal resistance.
1.25 (c) 0.33 s
(a) current in the external resistor = = 0.0625 A
20 (d) x = 0.03 sin 2π t = 0.03 sin 2π 0.05
(b) Using E = V + Ir: 3 3
1.3 = 1.25 + 0.0625r = 0.03 sin 2π 0.5 = 0.03 sin 60 = 0.026 m
1.3 – 1.25 3
=r Note the conversion of the radians into
0.0625 degrees in the sine function.
internal resistance, r = 0.8 Ω   6 (a) a and c
E (b) b
21 (a) (i) I =
R+r (c) a and c
I = 2.5 = 0.12 A (d) b
20.15 (e) a and c
(ii) potential difference across the −2
terminals = IR = 0.12 × 20 = 2.48 V 7 T = 2π 10 = 0.2 s
g
(iii) power loss within the
cell = I2r = 0.0154 × 0.15 = 0.0023 W 8 T = 2π m
k
E Therefore:
(b) (i) I =
R+r 2
m = kT 2 = 2.5 ×2 4 = 0.25 kg
I = 2.5 = 2.17 A 4π 4π
1.15
9 period of the motion (T) = 2π L
(ii) potential difference across the g
terminals = IR = 2.18 × 1 = 2.17 A The value of g here is slightly less, so the period
(iii) power loss within the of the pendulum will increase and the clock
cell = I2r = 4.73 × 0.15 = 0.71 W loses time.
10 period of the motion (T) = 2π L = 2π 0.25
g 3.8
Chapter 6 = 1.61 s
11 ω = 2π = 2π = 3.49
T 1.8
  1 (a) T = 2π r = 2 × π × 3 = 3.77 s amplitude = 30 cm/2 = 0.15 m
v 5
(a) maximum kinetic energy = ½mω 2 A2
(b) n = v = 5 × π × 3 = 0.27 s−1 = 0.5 × 1.5 × 3.492 × 0.152 = 0.21 J
2π r 2
(b) This will occur at the point of zero
(c) angular velocity (ω) = v = 5 = 1.67 radians s−1 displacement — the centre of an oscillation.
r 3
2 12 Yes, resonance will result but the amplitude will
(d) 0 (linear acceleration = v = 8.33 m s−2) build up more slowly than if the driving force
r
2 Constant speed and acceleration with constant was equal to the natural frequency.
magnitude (but varying direction). Note that the 13 Let the initial temperature of the rivet be θ.
accelerating force is not constant because its heat energy lost by rivet = 0.15 × 385 × (θ – 35)
direction is constantly changing. = 57.75θ – 2021.25 J
2
  3 (a) F = mv = 4 × 16 = 32 N heat energy gained by water = 0.25 × 4200(35 – 16)
r 2 = 19 950 J
(b) n = v = 4 × π × 2 = 0.32 s−1 Therefore:
2π r 2
57.75θ – 2021.25 = 19 950
(c) At a tangent to the orbit
2
θ = 380.5°C
(d) F = mv = 4 × 16 = 64 N 14 The large specific heat capacity of water means
r 1
that a large amount of heat is needed to heat
the oceans by a significant amount. This means
that the land near to the oceans also varies in
temperature by only relatively small amounts.

AQA A-level Physics 219

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15 thermal energy required = 25 × 10 −3 × 330 000 3PV
24 Use: PV = mNv2 to give N =
Now test yourself answers

+ 225 × 10 –3 × 4200 × 20 = 8250 + 1.89 × 10 4 mv 2

= 27 150 J = 3 × 2 × 105 × 0.1 .
electrical energy input = 60 × t 3.5 × 10−26 × 3.025 × 105
So:
Therefore: 6 × 104
4 N= = 5.67 × 1024
time required = 2.715 × 10 = 453 s 1.059 × 10−20
60 25 average kinetic energy = ½mc2 = 3 RT/NA
16 The steam first condenses, liberating a large 2
3 × 8.3 × 300
amount of heat energy due to latent heat. It then = = 6.2 × 10 −21
 J
2 × 6.04 × 1023
cools to the temperature of the body. The water
simply cools.
17 (a) p1V1 = p2V2 Chapter 7
8 × 3000 = 1 × V2 GMm
1 F =
So: r2
V2 = 3000 × 8 = 24 000 cm3 (a) F = 1.3 × 10 −8 N
However, this is not the volume of gas that (b) F = 1.7 × 10 −10 N
comes out of the cylinder because there will (c) F = 1.5 × 108 N
still be 3000 cm3 of gas left in it.
2 B −GMm
The volume of gas that comes out of r
the cylinder is therefore 24 000 – 3000 3 If the meteoroid starts from infinity with zero
= 21 000 cm3. velocity and is accelerated towards the Earth by
p1 p2 the Earth’s field alone then the greatest speed
(b) T = T that it could have when it reached the Earth is
1 2
the escape velocity of the Earth.
5 × 104 = p2
300 500 4 Diagram B from Figure 7.6. It must agree with
4 the conditions mentioned on page 143.
p2 = 5 × 10 × 500 = 8.3 × 10 4 Pa
300 5 distance around the orbit = 2πR = 2π × 6.6 × 106
V1 V2 = 4.15 × 107 m
18 T = T Time in the orbit:
1 2
T2 4π 2
and so T 2 = R × 4π .
3 2

4 × 10−3 = V2 Can use 3 =

R GM GM
293 373 This gives T = 5398 s.
V2 = 5.1 × 10 −3 m3
Speed in orbit:
19 87.5 − 64 = 0.235 7
100 v = distance = 4.15 × 10 = 7.7 × 10 3 m s−1
time 5398
absolute zero = −64 = −272.3 oC 6 F = eE = ma
0.235
20 pV = nRT Therefore:
−19
T = 273 + 27 = 300 K a = eE = 1.6 × 10 −×311000 = 1.8 × 1014 m s−2
5 m 9 × 10
n = 10 × 5 = 200.8 = 201 moles The electron accelerates parallel to the field
8.3 × 300
21 pV = nRT m = ρV direction (positive to negative).
1 Q
V = 0.04 with n = 1 7 electrostatic potential =
1.2 4πε 0 d
9 −3
p = RT = 8.3 × 353 × 1.2 = 8.79 × 10 4 Pa = 8.99 × 10 × 0.5 × 10 = 9.0 × 106 V
V 0.04 0.5
22 pV = NkT
8 Use = Q :
pV (1.01 × 105 × 5 × 10−3 505 V
N= = =
kT 1.38 × 10−23 × 273.15 3.77 × 10−21 (a) Q = CV = 5 × 10 −6 × 6 = 30 × 10 −6 = 30 μC
     = 1.34 × 1023 −8
(b) V = Q = 2.5 × 10−12 = 63 V
23 Use p = ρc2 to give c2 = 3P/ρ C 400 × 10
(a) 482 m s−1 ε 0 A 8.85 × 10−12 × 25 × 10−4
9 C = =
(b) 389 m s−1 d 2 × 10−4
(c) 490 m s−1  = 1.11 × 10 −10 F = 1.11 × 10 −4 μF
(d) 306 m s−1
(e) 1826 m s−1

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ε0 A 24 emf generated = BLv sin θ
10 C =

Now test yourself answers

d Therefore:
−6
area (A) = Cd = 100 × 10 × 0.5 × 10−3

ε0 −12 v = emf = 10 = 7.9 m s−1
8.85 × 10 BL 1.5 × 2 × sin25
= 5.65 × 10 3 m2 25 (a) Position of minimum emf is when the plane
−12
× 25 × 10−4 of the coil is at right angles to the field.
11 capacitance = 8.85 × 10 × 3.5 −4
10 (b) emf = BANω
= 7.8 × 10 −10 = 0.78 nF Therefore:
12 energy = ½QV = 0.5 × 5 × 100 = 250 J emf = 12 = 12
ω=
ε A BAN 0.2 × π × 0.082 × 200 0.8
13 capacitor energy = ½CV 2 = ½ 0 V 2 = 15 radian s−1 = 2.4 rev s−1
d
= 0.5 × ( 10−3
−12
8.84 × 10 × 1
)
202 = 1.77 × 10 −6 J 26 V =
v0
2
= 0.707v0 = 0.707 × 156 = 110 V

14 (a) Unchanged 27 0
(b) Unchanged 28 (a) T = 14 ms
(c) Decreases f = 1 = 71.4 Hz
T
(
15 V = V0 1– e RC
− t
) (b) amplitude = 21.5 V
(c) voltage = −12.5 V
Therefore:
− t V −V 29 (a) 0
e RC = 0 = 0.25  VpNs  0.88 × 25 × 2000
V0 (b) Vs= 0.88  = = 44 V
t  Np  1000
e RC = 4
30 Aluminium has a lower density (2710 kg m−3)
t = ln 4 = 1.39
RC than silver (10 500 kg m−3) so the power lines
would be lighter — an advantage. However,
Therefore:
the resistivity of aluminium (2.65 × 10 −8 Ω m)
t = 1.39 × 1000 × 10 −6 × 2 × 10 3 = 2.78 s is higher than that of silver (1.6 × 10 −8 Ω m) — a
− t
16 Use V = V0e RC disadvantage. Finally, the cost of aluminium
0.5 (£1.50 per kg) is also less than silver (£335
−
V = 12 × e 1000 × 0.001 = 12e−0.5 = 12 × 0.607 = 7.3 V per kg) — another advantage. (Figures correct
17 time constant = RC = 10 × 10 −6 × 1000 × 10 3 = 10 s at the time of writing in early 2016.)
18 F = BIL = mg 31 power loss per km = 8 = 102 × R
Therefore: Therefore:
mg 0.003 × 9.81 R = 8 = 0.08 Ω km−1
I= = = 0.25 A 100
BL 1.2 × 0.1

19
q
= v = 2.1 × 10
7
= 1.75 × 1011 C kg−1 Chapter 8
m Br 0.03 × 0.004
20 The orbit radius increases. 1 B 24195
Am alpha emitter — short range in air but
highly ionising
21 flux linkage = BAN cos θ
0.15   2 (a) time elapsed = 2020 − 2016 = 4 years
cos θ = = 0.6 = 4 × 3.15 × 107 = 1.26 × 108 s
0.5 × 50 × 10−4 × 100
Therefore: λt = 7.85 × 10 −10 × 1.26 × 108 = 9.89 × 10 −2
θ = 53° = 0.0989
22 (a) flux linkage = BAN = 0.05 × 0.22 × 1 A = A0 e−λt = 185 × 10 3e−0.0989 = 185 × 10 3 × 0.906
= 2 × 10 −3 Wb = 168 × 10 3 = 168 kBq
(b) Axis of coil is now at 90° – 30° = 60° to the (b) time elapsed = 2035 − 2016 = 19 years
field. = 19 × 3.15 × 107 = 5.985 × 108 s
change of flux = 2 × 10 −3 – BAN cos 60 λt = 7.85 × 10 −10 × 5.99 × 108 = 9.89 × 10 −2
= 1 × 10 −3 Wb = 0.470
23 magnitude of the induced emf = rate of change A = A0 e−λt = 185 × 10 3e−0.470 = 185 × 10 3 × 0.625
of flux linkage = 116 × 10 3 = 116 kBq
time (dt) = NdΦ = 200 × 2.3 = 9.2 s 3 λ = 10 s−1
emf 50 A = A0 e−λt

AQA A-level Physics 221

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Therefore: (a) binding energy of the nucleus
Now test yourself answers

A
( )
ln 0 = λt
= 57.4581 − 56.9353 = 0.5228 u = 487 MeV

( )
A A (b) binding energy per nucleon = 0.5228/57
0
6 = 0.00917 u = 8.54 MeV
t = ln A = ln 10 = 13.82 = 1.4 s
λ 10 10 11 235 g of U-235 contain 6.02 × 1023 nuclei.
Therefore 1 kg contains 2.56 × 1024 nuclei.
4 Use A = A0/2n:
mass ‘converted’ to energy due to fission of 1 kg
(a) time difference = 2016 – 1986 = 30 years
= 0.1276 × 2.56 × 1024 = 3.27 × 1023 u
half-lives passed = 1
energy available from fission = 3.27 × 1023 × 931
activity = 5 kBq m−2 = 3.04 × 1026 MeV = 4.9 × 1013 J
(b) time difference = 2026 – 1986 = 40 years 12 In the D–D reaction there are only two neutrons
half-lives passed = 1.33 to ‘spread out’ the repulsive strong nuclear
10 force between the two protons, whereas in the
activity = 1.33 = 4 kBq m−2
2 D–T reaction there are three.
5 reading due to sample alone = 170 – 10 = 160 Bq 13 (a) 2D = 2 × 2.014102 u = 4.08204 u 
(a) Two half-lives have passed. n = 1.008665 u 3
He = 3.016048 u
reading due to source = 160 = 40 mass defect = 0.003491 u = 3.25 MeV
4 = 3.25 × 1.6 × 10 −13 J = 5.2 x 10-13 J
total reading = 40 + background = 50 Bq
(b) 2D = 2 × 2.014102 u = 4.08204 u
(b) 38.3 Bq (use A = A0/2n plus the background
count) 1H = 1.007273 u
(c) 30 Bq 3H = 3.016049 u
6 Use A = A0/2n: mass defect = 0.004882 u = 4.545 MeV
= 4.545 × 1.6 × 10 −13 J = 7.27 x 10-13 J
Count rate = 45 – 2 = 43
(c) 2T = 2 × 3.016049 u = 6.032098
(a) A = 11.2 Bq
2n = 2 × 1.008665 u
(b) A = 2.4 Bq
4He = 4.002604 u
In (b) the count rate due to the source is much
lower than the background count. mass defect = 0.012164 u = 11.3 MeV
= 11.3 × 1.6 × 10 −13 J = 1.8 x 10-13 J
7 C
14 mass difference = (239.060765 + 1.00867)
8
Isotope Half life Particle emitted − (133.9054 + 102.9266 + 3 × 1.00867)
Polonium-218 3.1 minutes Alpha = 240.069435 − 239.85801 = 0.2114 u
Lead-214 27 minutes Beta 1 u is equivalent to 931 MeV or 931 × 1.6 × 10 −13 J.
Bismuth-214 20 minutes Beta Therefore, the energy available from the reaction
is 0.2114 × 931 × 1.6 × 10−13 = 3.15 × 10−11 J.
Polonium-214 1.6 × 10  s −4
Alpha
239 g of 239Pu contains 6.02 × 1023 nuclei.
Lead-210 19 years Beta Therefore, 1 kg contains 2.52 × 1024 nuclei.
Bismuth-210 5.0 days Beta Therefore:
Polonium-210 138 days Alpha energy available from the fission of 1 kg of
Lead-206 Stable – plutonium-239 = 3.15 × 10 −11 × 2.52 × 1024
= 7.93 × 1013 J

9 dc = ( 4πε1 ) qQE
0 α
Chapter 9
9 −19 −19
= 8.99 × 10 × 2 × 1.66× 10 × 79−19× 1.6 × 10 f0
4.5 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 1 M = f
e
= 5.1 × 10 −14 m = 51 fm f
eye lens focal length (fe) = 0 = 0.15 cm
10 number of protons = 26 mass of protons 1000
= 26 × 1.00728 = 26.1893 u 2 l = r θ
number of neutrons = 31 mass of neutrons θ = 3500 = 0.00875 rad  
400000
= 31 × 1.00867 = 31.2688 u
= 0.05o
mass of the nuclear constituents = 57.4581 u

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 2GM  ½
  3 (a) θ = 1.22λ = 1.22 × 400 × 10 = 3.25 × 10 −6 rad
−9
7 For a black hole, c =  , where RS is the
 RS 

Now test yourself answers

D 0.15
1 radian = ( 3600
π
×
)
180 arc seconds Schwarzschild radius.
c 2 × RS 16 5
1.8 × 1022
= 9 × 10 × 2 × 10
(
3.25 × 10 −6 rad = 3.25 × 10 −6 × 3600 × 180
π ) M=
2G 2 × 6.67 × 10 −11 =
1.33 × 10−10

  = 1.35 × 10 32 kg
= 0.671’
  8 (a) Blue shifted — moving towards the Earth.
(b) Atmospheric conditions; colours spread.
4 2.51n = 1000 ( )
(b) λ′ = λ 1 − v
c
Therefore: λ= 600 = 600 = 601 nm
n log 2.51 = log 1000
3 ×108 –5 ×105
8
0.998
3 ×10

So: The line would have a longer wavelength if

n = 7.51 the galaxy was at rest relative to the Earth.

( )
  5 (a) −0.7 − M = 5 log 20
10
(c) 1 nm
9 radius of the observable universe (R)
−0.7 − M = 1.51 8
M = −2.21 = v = 3 × 10 −18 = 1.29 × 1026 m
H 2.32 × 10
( )
(b) m – 2.6 = 5 log 5
10
26
= 1.29 × 1015 = 1.37 × 1010 light years
m = 2.6 + (−1.51) = +1.09 9.46 × 10

( )
(c) –0.2 – 2 = 5 log d
10
10 H = 70 km s−1 Mpc−1
Then:
( )
2
− 2.2 = 5 log d critical density (ρ) = 3H
10 8π G
d = 3.63 pc = 11.8 light years (2.27 × 10−18 )2 × 3
=
6 power = σAT4 = 10 30 = 5.67 × 10 −8 × 4π × (1011)2 × T4 8 × 3.14 × 6.67 × 10−11
Therefore: = 9.22 × 10 −27 kg m−3
T4 = 1030 = 1.4035 × 1014 11 percentage change in observed intensities
−8
5.67 × 10 × 4π × 1022 = percentage change in area of the star visible
So:
(R 2 − r 2 ) × 100 R 2 − (0.01 × R 2 ) × 100
T = 3442 K = = = 1%
R2 R2

AQA A-level Physics 223

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Units, useful formulae and
mathematics

Quantities units and symbols

Quantity Unit Symbol Quantity Unit Symbol
activity becquerel Bq frequency hertz Hz
amount of substance mole mol length metre m
atomic mass unit u u magnetic flux density tesla T
capacitance farad F magnetic flux weber Wb
electric charge coulomb C mass kilogram kg
electric potential moment of a force
volt V newton-metre Nm
difference torque
electric field newton per
N C–1 momentum newton-second Ns
strength coulomb
electromotive force volt V power watt W
electric current ampere A pressure and stress pascal Pa
thermodynamic
electric resistance ohm Ω kelvin K
temperature
gravitational field newton per
N kg–1 time second s
strength kilogram
resistivity ohm-metre Ωm work, energy joule J
force newton N Young modulus pascal Pa

Useful formulae
Absolute magnitude (M): m – M = 5 log(d/10) Moment = force × perpendicular distance from pivot
change in speed
Accelerated motion: a = Momentum = mass × velocity
time taken
v = u + at s = ut + ½at2 v2 = u2 + 2as
Aε0εr
Capacitance (parallel plate) = Photoelectric effect: hf = φ + ½mv2
d
Q2 ΔW energy change power
Capacitance energy = ½QV = ½CV 2 = ½ Potential difference = = =
C Q charge I
work
Capacitance charge: Q = Q0(1 – e–1/RC) Power = = force × velocity
time
V 2
Capacitance discharge: Q = Q0e–1/RC Power (electrical) = VI = = I2R
R
mv2
Centripetal force = = mω 2r Nuclear radius (R) = R0 A
r
charge ΔQ force
Current (I) = = Pressure =
time Δt area
mass
Density (ρ) = Radioactive decay: (activity) A = Δn/Δt = –λn
volume
Diffraction grating maximum: nλ = d sin θ Radioactive decay: n = n0e–λt

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Δf v Δλ v

Units, useful formulae and mathematics

Doppler effect (z) = =   =  v for ≪ c Radioactivity: activity = A0 e–λt
f c λ c
Double slit interference maximum:
λD Radioactivity: half life (T½) = ln 2/λ
fringe width (w) =
s
V λ
Electrical energy = Rayleigh criterion: θ ≈
t D
F
Electric field strength (E) =
Q
V
Electric field strength (E) (uniform field) = sin i ci
d Refractive index (n) = =
1 Q sin r cr
Electric field strength (E) (radial field) =
4πε0 r2
voltage V
Energy (E) = Planck constant (h) × frequency Resistance = =
current I
Series: R = R1 + R2 + R3 etc.
Force = ma
Parallel: 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 etc.
R R1 R2 R3
1 Q1Q2 I0 V
Force between charges = Root mean square: Irms = = 0
4πε0 r2 2 2
Simple harmonic motion
acceleration = –ω 2 x
Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field = BQv x = A cos ωt and v = ±ω A2 – x 2
Helical spring: T = 2π m/k
Simple pendulum: T = 2π L/g
Force on a current carrying wire in a magnetic field
Specific heat capacity (c): Q = mcΔθ
= BIL
Gravitational potential energy = mgΔh Specific latent heat: Q = mL
Gm1m2
Gravitational force = Stefan’s law: P = σ AT 4
r2
GM extension
G and g (radial field): g = 2 Strain (ε) =
r original length
–GM force
Gravitational potential (radial field) = Stress (σ) =
r area
Torque = force × perpendicular distance between
Hubble’s law: v = Hd
forces
Ns Vs
Ideal gas equation: pV = nRT = NkT Transformer: =
Np Vp
NΔϕ distance
Induced emf = Uniform velocity: speed =  s = vt
Δt time
h
Induced emf in a coil = BANωsin ωt Wavelength of particle (λ) = mv

Kinetic energy = ½mv2 Wave speed = frequency × wavelength

Kinetic theory of gases: pV = mN(crms)2 Weight = mg
Magnetic flux (ϕ) = BA Wien’s law: λmaxT = constant
f0
Magnification = Work = force × distance
fe
stress FL
Mass–energy: ΔE = Δmc2 Young modulus = =
strain AΔL
3 3RT
Molecular kinetic energy: ½m(crms)2 = =
2kT 2NA

AQA A-level Physics 225

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Mathematics Area of a circle = πr 2
Units, useful formulae and mathematics

Circumference of a circle = 2πr (one dimension, r)

Make sensible evaluations of numerical expressions
using reasonable approximations such as π = 3. Surface area of a sphere = 4πr 2 (two dimensions,
r to the power 2)
Use scientific notation such as 1.6 × 106 × 2 × 105
= 3.2 × 1011. Volume of a sphere = 4/3πr 3
(three dimensions, r to the power 3)
Change the subject of an algebraic equation. If A
= B × C, then C = A/B and so B = A/C. Surface area of a cylinder = 2πr 2 + 2πrL

Solve algebraic equations of the form: ax 2 + bx + c Volume of a cylinder = πr 2L

= 0 using the formula:
2
roots of the equation = –b ± b – 4ac Use and apply simple theorems such as Pythagoras’.
2a
Trigonometry
Graphs sin A = opposite side/hypotenuse
Recognise the form of simple graphs: linear, x2, 1/x,
log x and ex. cos A = adjacent side/hypotenuse
tan A = opposite side/adjacent side
Logarithms
Equivalent forms of the logarithms of ab, a/b, x n and
Recall that, when θ tends to zero, sin θ tends to θ c,
e kx:
cos θ tends to 1 and tan θ tends to θ c, if θ c is the
log (ab) = log a + log b angle expressed in radians.
log (a/b) = log a – log b
Understand the use of the area below a curve when
log (xn) = n log x
this has a physical significance.
ln(ekx) = kx

Understand the use of the slope of a tangent to a

log implies a number to the base ten and was written curve to express rate of change.
as log10. We now usually write log10 as lg.
ln implies a number to the base e and was written
Useful numbers: e = 2.7183; 1 radian = 57.3o
as loge.
Translate from degrees to radians and vice versa,
where θ radians = (2π/360)θ o.

226 Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

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A centre of gravity and mass 62 destructive interference 40–41

Index
centripetal acceleration and force 115 dielectric 149
absolute magnitude (M) 199–200 chain reaction 188, 189 diffraction 43–45
absolute zero 130–31 change of state 127 of electrons by nucleus 183–84
acceleration 62 charge 93–94, 95, 102, 104, 109, diffraction grating 45–47
centripetal 115 148–49 discharging a capacitor 152–53
due to gravity (g) 67–68 capacitors 150–54 displacement-time graphs 63
and force 73 charge-coupled device (CCD) 197–98 displacement (y) 34, 62, 117
non-uniform 65 charged particles 13, 19 Wien’s law 201
and SHM 116–20 moving in magnetic field 156–57 and work done 78
uniform 66 trajectory in electric field 145–46 distance of closest approach 183
accuracy 9 Charles’s law 129, 133, 134–35 Doppler effect 207–09, 225
activity (A), radiation 174, 176–78 circuits 100–05 double-slit interference 41–43
algebra 226 capacitors 151–54 down quarks 23, 24
alpha particles 15–16, 172–73, conservation of charge and energy drag force 72
181, 183 104–05 ductile materials 88
alternating currents 164–67 electrical energy and power 102–03
amplitude (a) 34, 36, 37–38
angular magnification 192–93
electric current 93–94 E
potential difference 95 eddy currents 161, 167
angular velocity (ω) 114, 116, 138, series and parallel 100–02
162 efficiency 80
circular motion 114–16 of a transformer 168
annihilation of particles 18 cladding, fibre optics 50–51
antinodes, stationary waves 37–39 quantum 198
coherent light source 40, 41 Einstein
antiparticles 16–17 collisions
antiquarks 23–24 mass-energy equation 184
Brownian motion 133–34 photoelectric equation 26
apparent magnitude (m) 198, 199, 200 electron–atom 27–28, 94, 99
artificial gravity 116 elastic collisions 76
electron–proton 20 elastic constant and limit 84, 85
astronomical refracting telescope 192 momentum conserved in 76–77
astronomical unit (AU) 199 elastic strain energy 86–87
components electrical energy 102, 109, 169
astrophysics 192–214 see also circuits
cosmology 207–14 electrical power 103
binary star system 208 electric charge 93
star classification 198–206 of vectors 55–57
telescopes 192–98 electric current 7, 93–94, 95
velocity 70–71 electric fields 144–47
atom, constituents of 13–15 conservation laws
atomic line spectra 29–30 electric field strength 144–45, 146, 148
electrical charge and energy 104 electricity 93–110
atomic mass unit (u) 185, 224 energy principle 80
Avogadro constant 131, 179–80 transmission 169
momentum 76–77 electromagnetic force 19, 20
particle interactions 22, 24
B constructive interference 40–41
electromagnetic induction 160–64
electromagnetic radiation, photon
background radiation 211–12 continuous f low calorimeters 126 model 17
baryon number 21–22 control rods, nuclear reactors 189 electromotive force (emf ) 109
baryons 23 cosmic microwave background electromagnetic induction
beta particles 15–16, 24, 173, 181 (CMB) radiation 211 160–64
Big Bang 210 cosmology 207–14 and internal resistance 109–10
binary star system 208 Coulomb’s law 144 electron capture 20, 182
binding energy 185–87 count rate (C), radiation 174, 176 electron diffraction 30–31, 183–84
black body radiation 200–01 couples 59 electrons 13
black holes 205–06 critical angle 49, 50, 51 electron volt (eV) 8, 28
Boltzmann constant 131, 132 critical density of the universe energy 80–83
Boyle’s law 128, 133, 134 211–12 alternative units for 185
breaking stress 85–86 critical mass 188, 189 elastic strain 86–87
brightness, stars 198–99 current electricity 93–94 electrical 102
brittle materials 88 current-voltage attributes 95–96 levels, atomic 27–28, 29–30
Brownian motion 133–34 cyclotron 157–58 lost from a transformer 168
photon 17–18, 30
C D in SHM 121–22
capacitance 147–50, 153, 224 damped oscillations 122–23 thermal physics 125–28
capacitors dark energy 212 energy stored
charge and discharge 151–53 de Broglie wavelength 31 by a capacitor 150–51
energy stored by 150–51 decay constant 176–79 elastic energy in a wire 87
parallel-plate 148–50 density 83–84 equatorial orbit 142
Cassegrain ref lector 194 critical 211–12 equilibrium 57, 58, 60
cells magnetic f lux 155, 158–59 coplanar forces 58
charge-coupled device (CCD) 197 nuclear 183 principle of moments 60
electric 101, 104–05, 109–10 derived units 8 vectors 57

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equipotential lines/surfaces 146–47 gas constants 131 ionisation 28
Index

error bars, graphs 10 gas laws 128–30, 134–35 isotopes 14–15

errors 9 geometry 226 radioactive 174, 175
escape velocity 142, 205–06, 211 geostationary satellites 142–43
estimation 11–12 geosynchronous orbits 142 K
event horizon, black holes 206 g by free fall 67–68 kaon 21, 24
evolution of stars 203–04 graphs/curves kinetic energy 82–83, 125, 225
exchange particles 19, 21 current-voltage 95, 96 of a molecule 135–36, 225
excited state, electrons 27, 29, 181, energy-wavelength 17 simple harmonic motion 121
182 force-displacement 79 kinetic theory model
exoplanets, detection of 213 force-extension 84, 87 Brownian motion 133–34
explosions 77 force-time 75–76 gases 134–35, 225
and motion 63–65 Kirchhoff ’s rules 104
F simple harmonic motion 118
Faraday’s law 160 stress-strain 88
terminal speed 72
L
Feynman diagrams 20 lasers 41
fibre optics 50–51 uncertainty in 10–11
gravitational acceleration (g) 67–68 Lenz’s law 161
fields lepton number 21, 22
electric 144–47 gravitational fields 138–39
gravitational field strength 67, leptons 21
gravitational 67–68, 138–43 life cycle of stars 203–04
magnetic 155–58, 161–63, 167 139–40, 141, 224
gravitational forces 19, 74, 138–40, 225 lift force 71
first law of thermodynamics 125 light-dependent resistors (LDRs) 107
fission 187–89 gravitational potential 140–41, 225
gravitational potential energy 81, light years 199, 209, 213
Fleming’s left-hand rule 155–56 limiting (static) friction 71
Fleming’s right-hand rule 161 141, 142, 225
gravity logarithms 226
f luorescent lamp 28 longitudinal waves 35
forced oscillations/oscillations 123 artificial 116
centre of 62 luminosity, stars 198–99, 201–02
force fields 138
ground state, electrons 27, 29
forces 19–20, 224, 225 M
centripetal 115
couples and torque 59 H magnetic fields 155–58, 161–63, 167
electromotive 109 hadrons 21, 22 magnetic f lux density 155–56,
equilibrium due to 57 half-life 178–79 158, 159
gravitational 138–40 harmonic frequencies 38–39 magnetic f lux linkage 158–59
Hooke’s law 84–85 heat capacity 125–27 magnetic f lux (Φ) 158, 224, 225
intermolecular 125 heat energy (ΔQ) 127 magnification, angular 192–93, 225
lift and drag 71–72 helical spring 118, 159, 225 main sequence stars 203, 204
magnetic fields 155–58 Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) mass 7, 13, 62, 73, 132, 224
moments 57–58 diagram 203 critical 188, 189
and momentum 75–76 Hooke’s law 84–85 and density 83–84
Hubble constant 209 and energy 184–87
and Newton’s laws 72–74
and momentum 75
stress and strain 85, 87 and universe’s critical density
mass-spring system, SHM 120
work done 78–79 211–12
mass–energy equation 184, 225
force-time graphs 75–76 Hubble’s law 209, 225
material dispersion 51
formulae 224–25
mathematics 226
free electrons 93 I measurement limitations 9–11
free oscillations/vibrations 122 ideal gases 128–33 mechanics 54–83
frequency (f ) 34 kinetic theory model 134–35 see also motion
apparent change of 207–08 impulse 75 conservation of energy 80–83
first harmonic 38 inclined plane 56 moments 57–62
measuring 166 incoherent light source 40 momentum 75–78
standing wave on a string 123 induced (eddy) currents 161, 167 scalars and vectors 54–57
friction 71, 78–79 induced emf 160–61, 225 work, energy and power 78–80
fringe spacing 42–43 in a coil 162–63 medicine, use of radiation in 174
fundamental particles 21–22, 23 induced nuclear fission 188 mesons 24
fusion inelastic collisions 77 metals and resistance 98, 99
nuclear 190, 203–04 interference 40–43 meters 98, 160
specific latent heat of 128 intermolecular forces 125 continuous f low calorimeter 126
internal energy 125 moving coil 106
G internal resistance 109–10 modal dispersion 51
galaxies 207–13 inverse square law moderator, nuclear reactors 189
gamma (γ) radiation 173 force between the bodies, molar gas constant 131
inverse square law 173–74, 176 Newton  138 molar mass (M) 132, 179
radioactive decay 181, 182 gamma radiation 173–74, 176 molecular kinetic energy 135–36

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molecular mass (m) 132 periodic motion 114–24 Rayleigh criterion 196–97

Index
moments 57–62, 224 period (T) 34, 114, 117, 118, 119, 225 red giants 203
momentum 75–77, 224 permittivity of free space 144, red shift (z) 207
motion 149, 150 ref lecting telescopes 193–94
in a vertical circle 115 phase and phase difference 34, 35, 40 ref lection, total internal 49
Newton’s laws 72–74 photoelectric effect 25–27 refracting telescopes 192–93
periodic 114–24 photons and photon energy 17–18, refraction 47–49
projectile 68–71 20, 29, 30 refractive index 47–51, 225
simple harmonic 116–23 Planck’s constant 17 relative permittivity 149
straight line 62–68 De Broglie’s wavelength equation resistance 94, 225
muons 21 31, 183 internal 109–10
work function 26 and temperature 98–99
N planets resistivity (ρ) 96–98
neutrinos 16, 21 exoplanet detection 213 resistors
neutrons 13 Newton’s law of gravitation 138–39 combinations 100–02
neutron number (N) 14, 180, 181 orbits of 142–43 light-dependent 107
thermal 188 plastic materials 88 variable 108
plum pudding theory 172 resolution 9
neutron stars 205
polarisation 36–37 resolving power of telescopes
Newton’s laws
potential difference 95, 96 196–97
gravitation 138–39
see also voltage resonance 123
motion 72–74
electromotive force 109 resultant vector 54–55
nodes, stationary waves 37–39
output voltage 105–06 root mean square values 164–65
non-uniform acceleration 65
potential dividers 105–08 rotating coil
nuclear fission 187–90
potential energy 125 emf generated 162–63
nuclear fusion 190
potential well 25 f lux linkage 158–59
nuclear reactors 189–90
power 80 Rutherford scattering 172
nucleon number (A) 14, 181, 182, 186
nucleus 13, 15, 172–73 electrical 103, 169, 224
electron diffraction by 183–84 nuclear 190 S
nuclear binding energy 185–87 resolution, telescopes 196–97 satellites 142–43
nuclear density 183 precision 9 scalars 54
nuclear instability 15–16, 180–81 prefixes 8 Schwarzschild radius, black holes
nuclear radius 182–83, 224 pressure law 129 206
principle of moments 60–61 search coil 159
O principle of superposition 37 semiconductors 99
progressive waves 34–35 series circuits 100, 101, 225
objects projected, projectile motion projectile motion 68–72 simple harmonic motion (SHM)
68–71 proton number (Z) 14, 15, 180, 181 116–24
observatories, siting of 195
protons 13, 15, 22 energy issues 121
Ohm’s law 95–96
pulse broadening 51 equations 117
optical fibres 50–51
graphs 118
orbits of planets and satellites 142–43
orders of magnitude 11 Q helical spring 118–19
quantities, estimating 11–12 resonance 123
oscillations
quantum efficiency 198 simple pendulum 119–20
free, damped and forced 122–23
quarks 23–24 vibrations 122–23
simple harmonic motion 116–17,
quasars 212–13 simple pendulum 119–20, 225
120
SI units 7–8
oscilloscopes 159, 165–67 conversion of Hubble constant to
output voltage 105–06 R 209
radial electric fields 144–45, 147 Snell’s law of refraction 48
P radial gravitational fields 140 solids, properties of 83–88
pair production 19 radiation 173–76 breaking stress 85–86
parallel circuits 100–02, 225 background 211–12 density 83–84
parallel-plate capacitor 148–50 black body 200–01 ductile and brittle materials 88
parsecs 199 in medicine 174 elastic limit 84–85
particles 13–16 photoelectric effect 25–26 elastic strain energy 86–87
annihilation 18 radioactive decay 176–80 tensile stress and strain 85
antiparticles 16–17 alpha and beta emissions 15–16, 173 space stations 116
classification of 21–22 half-life 178–79 specific charge of a particle 13
interactions 19–20 nuclear instability 180–82 specific heat capacity 125–27, 225
pair production 19 quark model 24 specific latent heat 127–28, 225
quarks and antiquarks 23–24 weak force interaction 20 spectral classes 202
wave-particle duality 30–31 radio telescopes 195–96, 197 spectral lines
path difference 34, 40, 42 radon gas 175 atomic line spectra 29
pendulum 119–20 random errors 9 cosmology 207–08, 213

AQA A-level Physics 229

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speed comparisons 194–95 V
Index

angular 114 radio 195–96

definition of 62 ref lecting 193–94 vaporisation, specific latent heat
of light, and refraction 47, 48 refracting 192–93 of 128
terminal 72 resolving power 196–97 variable resistor 108
uniform motion 73 siting of observatories 195 vectors 54–57
uniform velocity 63, 69 temperature 7 velocity
waves (c) 34 absolute zero 130–31 angular 114
stable nuclei 15 critical (superconductivity) 99 definition 62
variation of N and Z 180–81 and resistance 98–99 escape 142, 205–06, 211
standard candles 205 star classification by 200–02 of galaxy’s recession 209,
standing waves 37–39 tensile stress and strain 85 210, 211
star classification 198–206 Young modulus 88–89 uniform 63, 69, 225
black holes 205–06 terminal speed 72 velocity–time graphs 63–65
distance measurement and absolute thermal capacity 125 virtual photons 20
magnitude 199–200 thermal energy transfer 125–28 viscous drag 72
Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) thermal neutrons, induced voltage 95–96
diagram 203–04 fission 188 alternating 164
by luminosity 198–99 thermal nuclear reactors 189 emf and internal resistance
neutron stars 205 thermal physics 125–36 109–10
by spectra 202 ideal gases 128–33 measuring 106, 166
supernovae 205 molecular kinetic theory transformers 167–69
by temperature 200–02 133–36
state, change of 127–28 thermal energy transfer 125–28 W
static (limiting) friction 71 thermistors 99, 107 watts (W) 80
stationary waves 37–39 thermodynamics, first law of 125 wavelength (λ) 34
Stefan’s law 201–02, 225 threshold frequency 25–26 de Broglie 31
stellar spectral classes 202 time 7, 224 and photon energy 17–18
stopping potential 26–27 time constant, capacitors 153 wave-particle duality 30–31
strain 85, 225 torque 59, 225 waves 34–53
elastic strain energy 86–87 total internal ref lection 49–50 diffraction 43–47
stress-strain curves 88 fibre optics and 50–51 interference 40–43
tensile 88–89 trajectory of charged particles in longitudinal 35
Young modulus 88–89 electric field 145 polarisation 36–37
strangeness (S) 22, 23 transformers 167–69, 225 progressive 34–35
strange quarks 23 transmission of electrical power 169 refraction 47–51
stress 85 transverse waves 36 stationary/standing 37–39
breaking 85–86 trigonometry 226 superposition principle 37
formula for 225 type 1a and type II supernovae 205 transverse 36
stress-strain curves 88 wave speed (c) 34, 225
tensile 85, 88 U weak force 19, 20
Young modulus 88–89 uncertainty 9–11 webers (Wb) 158
strong nuclear force 15, 19, 190 uniform acceleration 66 weight 56, 62, 72, 225
superconductivity 99 uniform electric fields 144–45, 147 white dwarf stars 203, 204, 205
supergiant stars 203 uniform gravitational fields 140 Wien’s displacement law 201
supernovae 205 uniform velocity 63, 69, 225 work done 78–79, 224, 225
superposition principle, waves 37 units 7–8, 224 during stretching of a wire 87
symbols 8, 224 universe by ideal gas 132
systematic errors 9 age and expansion of 210 work function (φ) 26
critical density 211–12
T fate of 212 Y
telescopes 192–98 unstable nuclei 15, 178, 181, 188 Young modulus 88–90, 224, 225
CCDs 197–98 up quarks 23, 24 Young’s double slit experiment 43

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