Table of Contents i

Volume 2
Plumbing Systems
ii ASPE Data Book — Volume 1

The ASPE Data Book is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information for the design and specification of plumbing
systems. The publisher makes no guarantees or warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the data and information contained in
this publication. All data and information are provided with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal,
consulting, engineering, or other professional services. If legal, consulting, or engineering advice or other expert assistance is re-
quired, the services of a competent professional should be engaged.

Copyright © 2000 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers

All rights reserved, including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies by any
photographic process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
tion, or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the publisher.

ISBN 1–891255–12–6
Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Table of Contents iii

Data Book
Volume 2
Plumbing Systems
Data Book Chairperson: Anthony W. Stutes, P.E., CIPE
ASPE Vice-President, Technical: David Chin, P.E., CIPE
Editorial Review: ASPE Technical and Research Committee
Technical and Research Committee
Chairperson: Norman T. Heinig, CIPE

CONTRIBUTORS

Chapter 1 Chapter 7
Michael Granata, P.E. J oseph J . Barbera, P.E., CIPE
Timothy Smith, CIPE J ohn P. Callahan, CIPE
Patrick L. Whitworth, CIPE Paul D. Finnerty, CIPE
Ronald W. Howie, CIPE
Chapter 2 Robert L. Love, P.E., CIPE
Notman T. Heinig, CIPE Steven T. Mayer, CIPE, CET
Saum K. Nour, Ph.D., P.E., CIPE J on G. Moore
Rand J . Refrigeri, P.E.
Chapter 3
Michael Granata, P.E. Chapter 8
Timothy Smith, CIPE A. R. Rubin, Professor of Biological and
Patrick L. Whitworth, CIPE Agricultural Engineering,
North Carolina State University
Chapter 4 Patrick L. Whitworth, CIPE
Patrick L. Whitworth, CIPE
Chapter 9
Chapter 5 National Ground Water Association (NGWA),
Michael Granata, P.E. Westerville, OH
Stephen E. Howe, P.E., CIPE Patrick L. Whitworth, CIPE
Donald L. Sampler, Sr., P.E., CIPE
Chapter 10
Chapter 6 Clarke L. Marshall
Anthony W. Stutes, P.E., CIPE
Chapter 11
Michael Frankel, CIPE
Warren W. Serles

Chapter 12
Michael Frankel, CIPE
iv ASPE Data Book — Volume 1

ABOUT ASPE
The American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE) is the international organization for professionals skilled in
the design and specification of plumbing systems. ASPE is dedicated to the advancement of the science of plumb-
ing engineering, to the professional growth and advancement of its members, and to the health, welfare, and
safety of the public.
The Society disseminates technical data and information, sponsors activities that facilitate interaction with
fellow professionals, and, through research and education programs, expands the base of knowledge of the plumb-
ing engineering industry. ASPE members are leaders in innovative plumbing design, effective materials and
energy use, and the application of advanced techniques from around the world.

WORLDWIDE MEMBERSHIP — ASPE was founded in 1964 and currently has 7,100 members. Spanning the globe,
members are located in the United States, Canada, Asia, Mexico, South America, the South Pacific, Australia,
and Europe. They represent an extensive network of experienced engineers, designers, contractors, educators,
code officials, and manufacturers interested in furthering their careers, their profession, and the industry. ASPE
is at the forefront of technology. In addition, ASPE represents members and promotes the profession among all
segments of the construction industry.

ASPE MEMBERSHIP COMMUNICATION — All members belong to ASPE worldwide and have the opportunity to
belong and participate in one of the 57 state, provincial or local chapters throughout the U.S. and Canada. ASPE
chapters provide the major communication links and the first line of services and programs for the individual
member. Communications with the membership is enhanced through the Society’s bimonthly newsletter, the
AS PE Report, and the monthly magazine, Plum bing Engineer.

TECHNICAL P UBLICATIONS — The Society maintains a comprehensive publishing program, spearheaded by the
profession’s basic reference text, the AS PE Data Book. The Data Book, encompassing forty-five chapters in four
volumes, provides comprehensive details of the accepted practices and design criteria used in the field of plumbing
engineering. New additions that will shortly join ASPE’s published library of professional technical manuals and
handbooks include: High-Technology Pharmaceutical Facilities Design Manual, High-Technology Electronic Facilities
Design Manual, Health Care Facilities and Hospitals Design Manual, and Water Reuse Design Manual.

CONVENTION AND TECHNICAL S YMPOSIUM — The Society hosts biennial Conventions in even-numbered years and
Technical Symposia in odd-numbered years to allow professional plumbing engineers and designers to improve their
skills, learn original concepts, and make important networking contacts to help them stay abreast of current trends
and technologies. In conjunction with each Convention there is an Engineered Plumbing Exposition, the greatest,
largest gathering of plumbing engineering and design products, equipment, and services. Everything from pipes to
pumps to fixtures, from compressors to computers to consulting services is on display, giving engineers and specifiers
the opportunity to view the newest and most innovative materials and equipment available to them.

CERTIFIED IN P LUMBING ENGINEERING — ASPE sponsors a national certification program for engineers and
designers of plumbing systems, which carries the designation “Certified in Plumbing Engineering” or CIPE. The
certification program provides the profession, the plumbing industry, and the general public with a single, com-
prehensive qualification of professional competence for engineers and designers of plumbing systems. The CIPE,
designed exclusively by and for plumbing engineers, tests hundreds of engineers and designers at centers throughout
the United States biennially. Created to provide a single, uniform national credential in the field of engineered
plumbing systems, the CIPE program is not in any way connected to state-regulated Professional Engineer (P.E.)
registration.

ASPE RESEARCH FOUNDATION — The ASPE Research Foundation, established in 1976, is the only indepen-
dent, impartial organization involved in plumbing engineering and design research. The science of plumbing
engineering affects everything . . . from the quality of our drinking water to the conservation of our water resources
to the building codes for plumbing systems. Our lives are impacted daily by the advances made in plumbing
engineering technology through the Foundation’s research and development.
Table of Contents v

Volume 1 Fundamentals of Plumbing Engineering (Revised 1999)

Chapter 1 Plumbing Formulae, Symbols, and Terminology

2 Standard Plumbing Materials and Equipment
3 Plumbing Specifications
4 Plumbing Cost Estimation
5 J ob Preparation, Plumbing Drawing, and Field Checklists
6 Plumbing for Physically Challenged Individuals
7 Energy Conservation in Plumbing Systems
8 Corrosion
9 Seismic Protection of Plumbing Equipment
10 Acoustics in Plumbing Systems

Volume 3 Special Plumbing Systems (Estimated date: 2000)

Chapter 1 Fire Protection Systems (Chapter 7, looseleaf format)

2 Plumbing Design for Health Care Facilities (Chapter 32, looseleaf format)
3 Treatment of Industrial Waste (Chapter 23, looseleaf format)
4 Irrigation Systems (Chapter 29, looseleaf format)
5 Reflecting Pools and Fountains (Chapter 30, looseleaf format)
6 Public Swimming Pools (Chapter 31, looseleaf format)
7 Gasoline and Diesel Oil Systems (Chapter 33, looseleaf format)
8 Steam and Condensate Piping (Chapter 38, looseleaf format)
9 Compressed Air Systems (Chapter 39, looseleaf format)
10 Solar Energy (Chapter 20, looseleaf format)
11 Site Utility Systems

Volume 4 Plumbing Components and Equipment (Estimated revision date: 2002)

Chapter 1 Plumbing Fixtures (Chapter 8, looseleaf format)

2 Piping Systems (Chapter 10, looseleaf format)
3 Valves (Chapter 9, looseleaf format)
4 Pumps (Chapter 11, looseleaf format)
5 Piping Insulation (Chapter 12, looseleaf format)
6 Hangers and Supports (Chapter 13, looseleaf format)
7 Vibration Isolation (Chapter 14, looseleaf format)
8 Grease Interceptors (Chapter 35, looseleaf format)
9 Cross Connection Control (Chapter 24, looseleaf format)
10 Water Conditioning (Chapter 28, looseleaf format)
11 Thermal Expansion and Contractions (Chapter 5, looseleaf format)
12 Potable Water Coolers and Central Water Systems (Chapter 27, looseleaf format)

(The chapters and subjects listed for these volume are subject to modification, adjustment and change.
The contents shown for each volume are proposed and may not represent the final contents of the volume.
A final listing of included chapters for each volume will appear in the actual publication.)
vi ASPE Data Book — Volume 1
Table of Contents vii

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 Sanitary Drainage Systems . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . 1

Introdu ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Flow in Stacks, Bu ildin g Drains, an d Fixtu re Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Flow in Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Flow in Bu ildin g Drain s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Flow in Fixtu re Drain s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Pneu matic Pressu res in a Sanitary Drainage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fixtu re Discharge Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Drainage Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Stack Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Capacities of Sloping Drains . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Steady, Un iform Flow Conditions in Slopin g Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Hazen and Williams Formu la . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Darcy-Weisbach Formu la . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Manning Formu la . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Slope of Horizontal Drainage Piping ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Load or Drainage Pipin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Componen ts of San itary Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Su mps and Ejectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Cleanou ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Floor Drain s and Floor Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Grates/ Strainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Flashing Rin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Sediment Bu cket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Backwater Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Oil In terceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Trap Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Su pports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Noise Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Bu ildin g Sewer In stallation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Kitchen Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Waterproofin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Floor Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
viii ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

J oin ing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Protection from Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Soven t Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

CHAPTER 2 Gray-Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Introdu ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Codes and Stan dards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Design Criteria for Gray-Water Su pply and Consu mption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Design Estimates for Commercial Bu ildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Gray-Water Su pply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Gray-Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Design Estimates for Residen tial Bu ildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Design Estimates for Irrigation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Treatment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Economic Analysis —An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Precau tions . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Pu blic Concern s/ Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Conclu sion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

CHAPTER 3 Vents and Venting . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Section I —Vents and Venting . . ....... . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Pu rposes of Venting . . . . . . . ....... . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Vent Stack Terminal . . . . . . . ....... . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Traps an d Trap Seals . . . . . . ....... . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Factors Affecting Trap Seal Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Su ds Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fixtu re Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Venting as a Means of Redu cin g Trap Seal Losses from In du ced Siph on age . . . 39
Design of Vents to Con trol In du ced Siphon age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Drainage Fixtu re Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Vent Sizes and Length s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
End Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Common Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Stack Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Wet Ven tin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Circu it and Loop Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Relief Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table of Contents ix

Offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Vent Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Combin ation Waste and Vent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Section II —Several Ven ting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Philadelph ia System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Soven t System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Stack Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Wet Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Redu ced-Size Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Section III —Sizing of Several Venting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Redu ced-Size Venting Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
General Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Sizing Procedu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Soven t Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Aerator Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Deaerator Fittin gs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Sizing Procedu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

CHAPTER 4 Storm-Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Gen eral Design Con sideration s for Bu ildings an d Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Part One: Bu ildin g Drainage System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Pipe Sizing and Layou t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Rainfall Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Rainfall Rate Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Secon dary Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Roof Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Drain Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Roof Drain Con stru ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Piping Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
In su lation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Locatin g Vertical Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Horizontal Pipe Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Controlled-Flow Storm Drainage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Part Two: Site Drainage System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Gen eral Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
x ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Site Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
The Rational Method of System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Exterior Pipin g an d Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Su bsu rface Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Sou rce of Su bsu rface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Site Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Drainage Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Trenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Selecting Pipe Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Disposal of Grou n d Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Storm-Water Deten tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Standard Equ ations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Form 4-1 Storm-Drainage Calcu lation s for Roof Drain s and
Vertical Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Form 4-2 Storm-Drainage System Sizing Sh eet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drain age Worksh eet 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drain age Worksh eet 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drain age Worksh eet 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

CHAPTER 5 Cold-Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15

Introdu ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Domestic Cold-Water Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Meter Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Sizing the Water Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Sizing the Water Lin e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Hazen-Williams Formu la . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Factors Affecting Sizin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Pressu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Velocity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Su mmary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Shock Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
System Protection and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Air Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Water Hammer Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Backflow Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Types of Cross-Con nection Control Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Assessmen t of Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Premise Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
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Installation Requ irements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Inadequ ate Water Pressu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Hydropneu matic-Tank System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Gravity-Tank System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Booster-Pu mp System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Excess Water Pressu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Pressu re-Regu lating Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Types of Pressu re-Regu lating Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Sizing, Selection, and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Testing, Cleanin g, an d Disinfection of Domestic, Water-Su pply Systems . . . . . . . 154
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Cleaning and Disinfecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

CHAPTER 6 Domestic Water-Heating Systems . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 57

Introdu ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Basic Formu lae and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Heat Recovery —Electric Water Heaters . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Hot-Water Temperatu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Mixed-Water Temperatu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Hot-Water Temperatu re Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Hot-Water Circu lation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Self-Regu latin g Heat-Trace Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Performan ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Sizing Pressu re an d Temperatu re-Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Temperatu re Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Pressu re Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Thermal Efficien cy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Safety and Health Con cerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Legionella Pneu mophila (Legionn aires’ Disease) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Scaldin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Codes and Stan dards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
xii ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

CHAPTER 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Low and Mediu m-Pressu re Natu ral Gas Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Design Consideration s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Laboratory Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Gas Train Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Gas Boosters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Gas Boosters for Natu ral or Liqu efied Petroleu m Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Materials of Constru ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Design Consideration s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Sizing a Gas Booster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Pipe Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Ligu efied Petroleu m Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Tu bing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Plastic Pipe and Tu bing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Fittin gs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Pipe J oints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Tu bing J oin ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Flexible Gas Hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Indoor . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Ou tdoor . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Warnin g . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Leak Test . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Appen dix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Appendix B — Valu es of Fu el Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

CHAPTER 8 Private Sewage-Disposal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Introdu ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Primary Collection and Treatment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Soil-Absorption Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Gu ide for Estimating Soil Absorption Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Soil Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Clu es to Absorption Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Procedu re for Percolation Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Soil-Absorption System Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Leach ing Tren ches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Table of Contents xiii

Constru ction Con siderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Serial Distribu tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Seepage Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Constru ction Con siderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Seepage Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Constru ction Con siderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Mou nd Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Collection and Treatment Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Alternatives to Gravity Collection and Distribu tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Alternatives to Con ventional Primary-and-Secondary Treatment . . . . . . . . . . 227
Septic Tan ks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Fu nctions of th e Septic Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Biological Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Solids Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Septic Tan k Specification s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Invert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Ou tlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Tank Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Storage above Liqu id Level . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Use of Compartments . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Gen eral Information on Septic Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Ch emicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Miscellaneou s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Distribu tion Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Septic Tank/ Soil-Absorption Systems for Institu tion s an d Recreation al and
Oth er Establishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Water Con servation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Special Fixtu res . . . . . . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Alternative Systems . . . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Special Design . . . . . . . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
In dividu al Aerobic Waste-Water Treatmen t Plan ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Estimating Sewage Qu antities .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

CHAPTER 9 Private Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 39

Introdu ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Sou rces of Su pply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
xiv ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Du g Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Bored Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Driven Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
J etted Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Hydrau lics of Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Protection of Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Water Qu ality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Soften ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Scale and Corrosion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Taste and Odor Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Prophylaxis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
System Elemen ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Pu mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Well Pu mps . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Storage Tan ks . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Su ction Piping . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Pressu re Regu lators ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Su pply Pipin g . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Pipe Installation . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Thru st Blocks . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Depth of Bu ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Initial Operation and Main tenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Additional Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

CHAPTER 1 0 Vacuum Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 3

Introdu ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Fu ndamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Pressu re Measu rement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Un its of Measu remen t and Referen ce Points . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Standard Reference Points and Conversions ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Flow-Rate Measu remen t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Convertin g scfm to acfm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Gen eral Vacu u m Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Adju stin g Vacu u m-Pu mp Rating for Altitu de . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Time for Pu mp to Reach Rated Vacu u m . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Adju stin g Pressu re Drop for Different Vacu u m Pressu res . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Table of Contents xv

Simplified Method of Calcu lating Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

Vacu u m Work Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Vacu u m Sou rce and Sou rce Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Vacu u m Pu mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Gas-Transfer Pu mps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Seal Liqu ids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Vacu u m-Pressu re Gau ges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Bou rdon Gau ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Diaphragm Gau ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Ancillary Equ ipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Laboratory an d Vacu u m Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Codes and Stan dards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Vacu u m Sou rce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Distribu tion Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Pipe Material and J oin ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Sizing Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Vacu u m-Cleaning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Types of System and Equ ipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Codes and Stan dards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Vacu u m Produ cer (Exhau ster) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Silencers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Control an d Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Air-Bleed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Detailed System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Inlet Location and Spacin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Determining the Nu mber of Simu ltaneou s Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Inlet-Valve, Tool, and Hose Sizin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Locatin g the Vacu u m-Produ cer Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Sizing the Pipin g Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Piping-System Friction Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Vacu u m-Produ cer (Exhau ster) Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Separator Selection and Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Gen eral Design Con siderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
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CHAPTER 11 Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification . . . . . . . . . 279

Introdu ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Codes and Stan dards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Basic Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Water Impu rities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Su spended Matter (Particu lates), Tu rbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Dissolved Min erals and Organics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Dissolved Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Volatile Organic Compou n ds (VOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Water Analysis and Impu rity Measu rement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Specific Resistan ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Specific Con du ctance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Total Su spen ded Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Total Organ ic Carbon (TOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Silt Density Index (SDI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Deposits and Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Scale and Slu dge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Biological Fou ling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Predicting Scale Formation and Corrosion Tendencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Temperatu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Langelier Satu ration Index (LSI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Ryzner Stability Index (RI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Aggressiven ess Index (AI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Treatment Meth odologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Aeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Deaeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Dealkalizin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Decarbonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Sin gle-Stage Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Vapor-Compression Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Mu lti-Effect Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Deep-Bed Sand Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Cross-Flow and Tangential-Flow Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Activated Carbon Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Table of Contents xvii

Ion Exch ange and Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

Regenerable Ion Exchan ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Regeneration Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Service Deionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Continu ou s Deionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Water Softenin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Ion-Exchange System Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Membrane Filtration and Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Membrane Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Cross-Flow Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Microbial Con trol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Ch emicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Ultraviolet Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Ozone . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Water Treatment . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Utility Water Treatment .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Initial Filterin g . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Clarification . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Biological Control . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Water Soften in g . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Boiler Feed-Water Condition ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Cooling-Water Condition ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Biological Fou ling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Potable Water Treatmen t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Water Pu rification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Codes and Stan dards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Laboratory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Pharmaceu tical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Feed Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Pu rification System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Central Pu rification Equ ipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Piping Distribu tion Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
System Design Consideration s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
xviii ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

CHAPTER 12 Special-Waste Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Introdu ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Codes and Stan dards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
System Approval Requ irements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Pipe Material an d J oint Selection Con siderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Pipe Sizin g Consideration s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
pH Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
General System Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Acid-Waste Drain age and Vent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Health an d Safety Con cerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Common Types of Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Su lfu ric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Phosph oric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Hydrochloric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Nitric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Hydrobromic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Perchloric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Selection of Laboratory Waste Piping and J oint Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
System Design Con siderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Acid Waste Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Radioactive Waste Drainage an d Vent System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
The Natu re of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Radiation Measu rement . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Units of Radiation . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Allowable Radiation Levels .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Radioactive Materials . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
System Design Criteria . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
The Approval Process and Application Requ iremen ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
General Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Pipe Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
General Design Con siderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Infectiou s an d Biological-Waste Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Codes and Stan dards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Biological Safety Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Liqu id-Waste Decontamination System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
System Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Ch emical-Waste Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Table of Contents xix

Codes and Stan dards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Pipe Material and J oin t Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
System Design Con siderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fire-Su ppression Water Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Flammable an d Volatile Liqu ids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Oil in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Meth ods of Separation and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

ILLUSTRATIONS
Figu re 1-1 Procedu re for Sizing an Offset Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... .6
Figu re 1-2 Basic Floor-Drain Compon en ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figu re 1-3 Pattern Draft for Floor Gratin gs: (a) Sh arp Edge,
(b) Reverse Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figu re 1-4 Types of Floor Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figu re 1-5 Variou s Types of Backwater Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figu re 1-6 Combination Floor Drain and Indirect Waste Receptor . . . . . . . . . 17
Figu re 1-7 Inside-Cau lk Drain Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figu re 1-8 Spigot-Ou tlet Drain Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figu re 1-9 No-Hu b-Ou tlet Drain Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figu re 1-10 IPS or Threaded-Ou tlet Drain Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figu re 1-11 (A) Traditional Two-Pipe System, (B) Typical Sovent Sin gle-Stack
Plu mbing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figu re 2-1 Plu mbin g System Flow Ch arts: (A) Con vention al Plu mbing
System; (B) Recycled-Water System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figu re 2-2 Riser Diagrams: (A) Gray-Water Plu mbing System; (B) Recycled-
Water-Waste System with System Treatment Plant (STP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figu re 2-3 Water Treatment Systems: (A) Types of Gray-Water Treatment
System; (B) Types of Black-Water Treatmen t System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Figu re 2-4 System Design Flow Chart Example (250-Room Hotel) . . . . . . . . . 30
Figu re 2-5 Nomograph for Overview of Prelimin ary Feasibility of
Gray-Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Figu re 3-1 Su ds-Pressu re-Zone Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figu re 3-2 Su ds Venting/ Su ds Pressu re Zon es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figu re 3-3 Loop Vent, with Horizon tal Branch Located (a) at Back Below
Water Closets, (b) Directly Under Water Closets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figu re 3-4 Circu it Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figu re 3-5 Relief Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figu re 3-6 Offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figu re 3-7 Combin ation Waste-and-Ven t System ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figu re 3-8 Philadelphia System . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Figu re 3-9 Wet Venting and Stack Ven tin g . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figu re 3-10 Pipe Layou t Drawing —Two-Story Residen tial Bu ilding, Freezing
xx ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Climate, Schedu le 40 Plastic Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Figu re 3-11 (A) Tradition al Two-Pipe Plu mbin g System; (B) Typical Sovent
Single-Stack Plu mbing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figu re 3-12 Typical Soven t System Aerator Fittin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figu re 3-13 Typical Sovent System Deaerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figu re 3-14 Sovent System Bran ches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figu re 3-15 Soil and Waste Branches Connected into a Horizontal Stack
Offset. Waste Branches Connected into the Pressu re-Relief Line . . . . . . . . 59
Figu re 3-16 Soil and Waste Branches Con nected below a
Deaerator Fitting at th e Bottom of the Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figu re 3-17 Deaerator Fitting Located
above Floor Level of Bu ilding Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figu re 3-18 Soven t Fitting: (A) Single-Side En try (Withou t Waste Inlets);
(B) Dou ble-Side Entry (with Waste In lets) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figu re 3-19 Two Alternative Design Layou ts for Typical Back-to-Back
Bathroom Arrangemen ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figu re 4-1 Piping Layou t for Typical Bu ilding Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figu re 4-2 Pipin g Layou t for Typical Bu ilding Site Plan .. ..... ....... . . . 70
Figu re 4-3 Typical Roof Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..... ....... . . . 80
Figu re 4-4 Typical Roof-Drain In stallations . . . . . . . . . .. ..... ....... . . . 83
Figu re 4-5 4-In. (101-mm) Roof Drain Flow Ch art . . . . .. ..... ....... . . . 84
Figu re 4-6 Clear-Water Waste Branches for Connection to Storm System . . . 84
Figu re 4-7 Typical Expansion J oint or Horizon tal Offset . ..... ....... . . . 87
Figu re 4-8 Typical Roof Drain an d Roof Leader . . . . . . .. ..... ....... . . . 87
Figu re 4-9 Example of a Controlled-Flow Storm-Drainage System . . . . . . . . . 94
Figu re 4-10 Overland Flow Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figu re 4-11 Typical Intensity-Du ration-Frequ ency Cu rves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figu re 4-12 Sou rces of Su bsu rface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figu re 4-13 Borings Revealing the Natu re of the Grou nd, Water Table
Elevation s, and Rock Condition s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Figu re 4-14 Cross Section Illu strating the Concept of the K Factor . . . . . . . 101
Figu re 4-15 Open J oint Pipe Su rrou nded by Filter Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figu re 4-16 Perforated Pipe in Trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figu re 4-17 Pipe and Footing Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figu re 4-18 Pipe in Trench with Dimensions of Filter Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Figu re 4-19 Su mp-Pu mp Discharge to the Storm-Drainage System . . . . . . . 106
Figu re 5-1 Friction Loss of Head Chart, Coefficient of Flow (C) = 140 . . . . . . 118
Figu re 5-1 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figu re 5-2 Conversion of Fixtu re Units, fu , to gpm (L/ s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Figu re 5-3 Conversion of Fixtu re Units, fu , to gpm (L/ s),
Design Load vs. Fixtu re Units, Mixed System . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 126
Figu re 5-4 Typical Friction Losses for Disk-Type Water Meters . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figu re 5-5 Establishing the Governin g Fixtu re or Appliance . .. . . . . . . . . . 129
Figu re 5-6 Determinin g Pressu re Available for Friction .... .. . . . . . . . . . 130
Table of Contents xxi

Figu re 5-7 Pipe Sizing Data, Smooth Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Figu re 5-8 Pipe Sizin g Data, Fairly Smooth Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figu re 5-9 Pipe Sizin g Data, Fairly Rou gh Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figu re 5-10 Pipe Sizin g Data, Rou gh Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figu re 5-11 Air Chambers: (a, b) Plain Air Chambers, (c) Standpipe
Air Chamber, (d) Rech argeable Air Ch amber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figu re 5-12 Hydropneu matic Pressu re System Layou t that Determines th e
Minimu m Tank Pressu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Figu re 5-13 Typical Hydropneu matic Su pply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Figu re 5-14 Piping Con nections for a Gravity Water-Storage Tank
with Reserve Capacity for Firefighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Figu re 7-1 Variations of a Basic Simplex Booster System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Figu re 7-3 Pipe Sizing, Low Pressu re System with an Initial Pressu re
Up to 1 psi (6.9 kPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Figu re 7-4 Pipe Sizing, Any System with an In itial Pressu re
Between 1 and 20 psi (6.9 and 137.8 kPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Figu re 7-5 Typical Diversity Cu rves for Gas Su pply to
High -Rise Apartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Figu re 7-6 Diversity Percen tage for Mu ltifamily Bu ildings (Average) . . . . . . . 195
Figu re 8-1 Th ree Legs of Disposal Field Fed from Cross Fittin g Laid
on Its Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figu re 8-2 Disposal Lines Connected by Headers to Circu mvent Stoppages . 221
Figu re 8-3 Transverse an d Lineal Sections of Drain Field Showing Rock an d
Earth Backfill arou n d Drain Tile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figu re 8-4 Graph Showing Relation Between Percolation Rate an d Allowable
Rate at Sewage Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Figu re 9-1 Well u n der (A) Static and (B) Pu mpin g Condition s . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Figu re 9-2 Typical Gravel Filter Well with a Vertical Tu rbin e Pu mp . . . . . . . 246
Figu re 9-3 Graph Indicating Minimu m Storage-Tank Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Figu re 9-4 Storage-Tank Su ction Piping Detail: (A) Su mp Su ction Alternate,
(B) Anti-Vortex Altern ate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figu re 10-1 Conversion of Vacu u m-Pressu re Measu rements . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Figu re 10-2 Sch ematic Detail of a Typical Laboratory Vacu u m-Pu mp
Assembly .............................................. . 261
Figu re 10-3 Typical Process Vacu u m-Pu mp Du plex Arran gement . . . . . . . . 261
Figu re 10-4 Direct Reading Chart Showing Diversity for
Laboratory Vacu u m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Figu re 10-5 Acceptable Leakage in Vacu u m Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Figu re 10-6 Vacu u m-Cleanin g Piping Friction Loss Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Figu re 10-7 Schematic of a Typical Wet-Vacu u m Cleaning Pu mp Assembly . 276
Figu re 11-1 Typical Water An alysis Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Figu re 11-2 pH of Satu ration for Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Figu re 11-3 Detail of Vapor Compression Still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Figu re 11-4 Detail of Mu lti-Effect Still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Figu re 11-5 Schematic Detail of Large-Scale, Gran u lar-Activated
xxii ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Carbon Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Figu re 11-6 Typical Single-Bed Ion Exchan ger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Figu re 11-7 Typical Du al-Bed Ion Exch anger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Figu re 11-8 Typical Mixed-Bed Ion Exch anger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Figu re 11-9 Sch ematic Operation of a Continu ou s Deionization Unit . . . . . . 306
Figu re 11-10 Hollow-Fiber Reverse-Osmosis Configu ration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Figu re 11-11 Spiral-Wou nd Reverse-Osmosis Configu ration . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Figu re 11-12 Tu bu lar Reverse Osmosis Configu ration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Figu re 11-13 Plate-and-Frame Reverse-Osmosis Configu ration . . . . . . . . . . 310
Figu re 11-14 UV Wavelen gth Spectru m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Figu re 11-15 Principle of Coron a-Disch arge Ozon e Generator . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Figu re 11-16 Typical Pharmaceu tical Water-Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Figu re 12-1 Typical Acid-Resistant Manhole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Figu re 12-2 Typical Large Acid-Neu tralizin g Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Figu re 12-3 Typical Contin u ou s Acid-Waste Treatment System . . . . . . . . . . 338
Figu re 12-4 Typical Oil Interceptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Figu re 12-5 Typical Gravity Draw-Off Installation (A) Plan an d (B) Isometric . 349

TABLES
Table 1-1 Residential Fixtu re-Un it Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Table 1-2 Capacities of Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Table 1-3 Horizontal Fixtu re Branches an d Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Table 1-4 Valu es of R, R2/ 3 , AF, an d AH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Table 1-5 Approximate Discharge Rates an d Velocities in Sloping Drains,
n = 0.015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Table 1-6 Bu ildin g Drains and Sewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .9
Table 1-7 Recommended Grate Open Areas for Variou s Ou tlet Pipe Sizes . . . . 10
Table 1-8 Relative Properties of Selected Plu mbing Materials for
Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 2-1 The National Sanitation Fou ndation’s Stan dard 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 2-2 Design Criteria of Six Typical Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 2-2 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 2-3 Location of th e Gray-Water System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Table 2-4 Su bsu rface Drip Design Criteria of Six Typical Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Table 2-5 Gray-Water Treatment Processes for Normal Process Efficiency . . . 28
Table 2-6 Comparison of Gray-Water System Application s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Table 2-7 Life-Cycle Economic Comparison: Gray-Water Systems
for 250-Room Hotel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 3-1 Su ds Pressu re-Relief Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 3-2 Maximu m Length of Trap Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Table 3-3 Maximu m Distance of Fixtu re Trap from Ven t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Table 3-4 Drain age-Fixtu re-Unit Valu es for Variou s Plu mbing Fixtu res . . . . . 41
Table 3-5 Size an d Length of Ven ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Table of Contents xxiii

Table 3-6 Size of Vent Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Table 3-7 Fixtu re Unit Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Table 3-8 Fixtu re Vents and Stack Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Table 3-9 Conflu ent Ven ts Serving Three Fixtu re or Stack Vents . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 3-10 Conflu en t Vents Servin g Fou r or More Fixtu re or Stack Ven ts,
Sch edu le 40 Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 3-11 Conflu en t Vents Servin g Fou r or More Fixtu re or Stack Ven ts,
Copper Tu be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 3-12 Flow Areas of Pipe an d Tu be, in 2 (10 3 mm 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 3-13 Arterial Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 3-14 Fixtu re Un it Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Table 3-15 Maximu m Fixtu re Un its . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Table 3-16 Size Ru les for Connecting Fixtu res into the Soven t Sin gle-Stack
Drainage Plu mbing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Table 3-17 Minimu m Size of Equ alizing Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Table 3-18 Maximu m Sovent Stack Loadin gs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Table 3-19 Loadin gs for Bu ilding Drain s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Table 4-1 Maximu m Rates of Rainfall for Variou s US Cities, in ./ h (mm/ h ) . . 71
Table 4-2 Sizes of Roof Drain s and Vertical Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Table 4-3 Sizes of Semicircu lar and Equ ivalen t Rectan gu lar Gu tters . . . . . . . 86
Table 4-4 Pipe Sizing Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Table 4-5 Sizes of Scu ppers for Secondary Drain age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Table 4-6 Some Valu es of th e Rational Coefficient C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Table 4-7 Size Ranges for Filter Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Table 5-1 Displacement-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—
Flow-Pressu re Loss Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 5-2 Compou nd-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—
Flow-Pressu re Loss Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 5-3 Tu rbine-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—
Flow-Pressu re Loss Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 5-4 Su rface Rou ghn ess Coefficient (C) Valu es for
Variou s Types of Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Table 5-5 Demand Weigh t of Fixtu res, in Fixtu re Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Table 5-6 Conversions— Gallons per Minu te (Liters per Second) to
Fixtu re Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Table 5-7 Allowance for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings . . . . . 128
Table 5-7 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Table 5-8 Flow and Pressu re Requ ired for Variou s Fixtu res du rin g Flow . . . 129
Table 5-9 Water Pipe Sizin g— Fixtu re Units vs. psi/ 100 ft (kPa/ 100 m),
Type L Copper Tu bing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 133
Table 5-10 Water Pipe Sizing Fixtu re Units versu s psi/ 100 ft. (kPa/ 100 m),
Galvanized Fairly Rou gh Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 136
Table 5-11 Requ ired Air Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 143
Table 5-12 Sizin g an d Selection of Water-Hammer Arresters . . . . . . . . ... . 144
xxiv ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 5-13 Gu ide to the Assessment of Hazard an d Application

of Devices—
Isolation at the Fixtu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Table 5-14 Gu ide to th e Assessment of Facility Hazard and Application
of Devices—
Con tainment of Premise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Table 5-15 Minimu m Flow Rates an d Size of Minimu m Area of RPBD . . . . . 148
Table 6-1 Typical Hot-Water Temperatu res for Plu mbing Fixtu res
and Equ ipmen t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Table 6-2 Hot-Water Mu ltiplier, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Table 6-2 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Table 6-3 Thermal Properties of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Table 6-4 Time/ Water Temperatu re Combination s Produ cing Skin Damage . 170
Table 7-1 Approximate Gas Demand for Common Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Table 7-2 Equ ivalent Length s for Variou s Valve and Fitting Sizes . . . . . . . . 184
Table 7-3 Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizin g Table for Gas Pressu re < 1.5 psi . . . . . . . 186
Table 7-3(M) Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re < 10.3 kPa .. . 187
Table 7-4 Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re < 1.5 psi . . . . .. . 188
Table 7-4(M) Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re < 10.3 kPa .. . 189
Table 7-5 Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizin g Table for Gas Pressu re > 1 psi . . . . . . .. . 190
Table 7-5(M) Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 6.895 kPa . . 191
Table 7-A1 Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizin g Table for Gas Pressu re > 1 psi . . . . .. . 198
Table 7-A1(M) Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 6.895 kPa . 199
Table 7-A2 Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizin g Table for Gas Pressu re > 1 psi . . . . . . . 200
Table 7-A2(M) Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 6.895 kPa . 201
Table 7-A3 Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 1 psi . . . . . . . 202
Table 7-A3(M) Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 6.895 kPa . 203
Table 7-A4 Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 1 psi . . . . . . . 204
Table 7-A4(M) Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 6.895 kPa . 205
Table 7-A5 Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 1 psi . . . . . . . 206
Table 7-A5(M) Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 6.895 kPa . 207
Table 7-A6 Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 1 psi . . . . . . . 208
Table 7-A6(M) Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re > 6.895 kPa . 209
Table 7-A7 Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressu re < 1 psi . . . . . . . 210
Table 7-A7(M) Natu ral Gas Pipe Sizin g Table for Gas Pressu re < 6.9 kPa . . . 211
Table 7-B1 Typical Heatin g Valu es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Table 7-B2 Typical Workin g Pressu res . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Table 7-B3 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Table 7-B4 Specific Gravity Mu ltipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Table 8-1 Minimu m Absorption Area for Private Dwellin gs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Table 8-2 Recommended Distances Between Soil-Absorption System
and Site Featu res . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Table 8-3 Liqu id Capacity of Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Table 8-4 Allowable Slu dge Accu mu lation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Table 8-5 Average Waste-Water Flows from Residential Sou rces . . . . . . . . . 233
Table of Contents xxv

Table 8-6 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Commercial Sou rces . . . . . . . . . 234
Table 8-7 Typical Waste-Water Flows from In stitu tional Sou rces . . . . . . . . . 234
Table 8-8 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Recreation al Sou rces . . . . . . . . . 235
Table 8-9 Qu antities of Sewage Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Table 8-10 Estimated Distribu tion of Sewage Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Table 8-11 Allowable Rate of Sewage Application to a
Soil-Absorption System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Table 9-1 Cu rve Radii for Cast-Iron Pipe, ft (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Table 9-2 Th ru st Block Requ irements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Table 9-3 Area of Bearing Face of Con crete Th ru st Blocks, ft 2 (m 2 ) . . . . . . . 251
Table 9-4 Coefficien ts of Expan sion, in/ in / °F (mm/ mm/ °C) . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Table 10-1 Basic Vacu u m-Pressu re Measu rements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Table 10-2 Conversions from Torr to Variou s Vacu u m-Pressu re Units . . . . . 254
Table 10-3 IP and SI Pressu re Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Table 10-4 Expanded Air Ratio, 29.92/ P, as a Fu nction of Pressu re,
P (in . Hg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Table 10-5 Direct Ratio for Converting scfm to acfm (n L/ s to aL/ s) . . . . . . . 257
Table 10-6 Barometric Pressu re Correspondin g to Altitu de . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Table 10-7 Factor for Flow Rate Redu ction Du e to Altitu de . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Table 10-8 Constant, C, for Findin g Mean Air Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Table 10-9 Diversity Factor for Laboratory Vacu u m Air Systems . . . . . . . . . 263
Table 10-10 Vacu u m-Pu mp Exh au st Pipe Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Table 10-11 Pressu re Loss Data for Sizin g Vacu u m Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Table 10-12 Recommended Sizes of Hand Tools and Hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Table 10-13 Flow Rate and Friction Loss for Vacu u m-Cleaning Tools
and Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Table 10-14 Recommended Velocities for Vacu u m-Cleanin g Systems . . . . . . 271
Table 10-15 Pipe Size Based on Simu ltan eou s Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Table 10-16 Equ ivalent Len gth (ft.) of Vacu u m Clean ing Pipe Fittings . . . . . 274
Table 10-17 Classification of Material for Separator Selection . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Table 11-1 Importan t Elements, Acid Radicals, and Acids in
Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Table 11-2 Convertin g ppm of Impu rities to ppm of Calciu m Carbon ate . . . . 285
Table 11-3 Resistivity and Con du ctivity Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Table 11-4 Prediction of Water Ten den cies by the Langelier Index . . . . . . . . 291
Table 11-5 Nu merical Valu es for Su bstitu tion in Equ ation 11-3 to Find
th e pHs of Satu ration for Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Table 11-6 Prediction of Water Ten den cies by the Ryzner Index . . . . . . . . . . 292
Table 11-7 Typical Cations and Anions Fou nd in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Table 11-8 Comparison of Reverse-Osmosis Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Table 11-9 Recommended Boiler Feed-Water Limits and Steam Pu rity . . . . . 315
Table 11-10 Water-Treatmen t Technology for Small Potable Water Systems . 318
Table 11-11 CAP and ASTM Reagent-Grade Water Specifications . . . . . . . . . 319
xxvi ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 11-12 NCCLS Reagent-Grade Water Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Table 11-13 AAMI/ ANSI Water-Qu ality Stan dards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Table 11-14 ASTM Electronics-Grade Water Standarda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Table 11-15 USP XXII Pu rified-Water and WFI Water-Pu rity Standards . . . . 321
Table 12-1 Drainage Pipe Sizin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Table 12-1 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 1
Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 1

Sanitary
Drainage
Systems

INTRODUCTION of the stack at the level of en try. In any event, as

soon as th e water enters the stack, it is rapidly
A sanitary drain age system generally consists of accelerated downward by the force of gravity, and
horizontal bran ch es, vertical stacks, a bu ildin g before it falls very far, it assu mes th e form of a
drain inside the bu ilding, and a bu ilding sewer sheet arou nd th e wall of the stack, leavin g the
from the bu ildin g wall to the point of disposal. center of the pipe open for the flow of air.
To economically design a sanitary drainage Th is sh eet of water con tin u es to accelerate
system is to u se the smallest pipes th at can rap- u n til th e friction al force exerted by th e wall of
idly carry away th e soiled water from individu al th e stack on th e fallin g sh eet of water equ als
fixtu res withou t clogging the pipes, withou t leav- th e force of gravity. From th at poin t on —if th e
in g s olids in th e pipin g, wit h ou t gen era tin g distance the water falls is great enou gh and pro-
excessive pneu matic pressu res at points where vided that no flow enters the stack at lower levels
th e fixtu re drains connect to th e stack (which to in terfere with th e sh eet—th e sh eet remain s
might cau se the redu ction of trap water seals u n ch an ged in th ickn ess an d velocity u n til it
and force sewer gases back th rou gh inhabitable reach es th e bottom of th e stack. Th e u ltimate
areas), and withou t creatin g u n du e noise. vertical velocity th e sh eet attain s is called th e
“termin al velocity,” an d th e distan ce th e sh eet
Sin ce ven ts an d ven tin g s ys tems are de- mu st fall to attain this terminal velocity is called
scribed in a separate chapter (Chapter 3 of th is th e “termin al len gth .” Followin g are th e formu -
volu me), the following discu ssion centers on the lae developed for termin al velocity an d termin al
drain and waste systems’ design. len gth :

Equa t ion 1 -1
FLOW IN STACKS, BUILDING
2/5
DRAINS, AND FIXTURE DRAINS Q
VT = 3.0
d
Flow in Stacks LT = 0.052VT2
Flow in the drain empties into th e vertical stack where
fitting, which may be a long-tu rn tee-wye or a VT = Termin al velocity in stack, fps (m/ s)
short-tu rn or sanitary tee. Each of these fittings
permits flow from the drain to enter the stack LT = Terminal length below point of flow
with a component directed vertically downward. entry, ft (m)
Depending on th e rate of flow ou t of th e drain Q = Qu antity rate of flow, gpm (L/ s)
into the stack, the diameter of the stack, the type d = Diameter of stack, in. (mm)
of stack fittin g, and the flow down the stack from
higher levels, if any, the discharge from the fix- Terminal velocity is attained at approximately
tu re drain may or may not fill th e cross section 10 to 15 fps (3.05 to 5.22 m/ s), and this velocity
2 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

is attained within 10 to 15 ft (3.05 to 5.22 m) of Flow in Fixture Drains

fall from the point of entry.
Determination of the drain size requ ired is a rela-
At the cen ter of the stack is a core of air that tively simple matter, since the fixtu re drain mu st
is dragged along with the water by friction and be adequ ate only to carry the discharge from the
for wh ich a su pply sou rce mu st be provided if fixtu re to which it is attach ed. Becau se of the
excessive pressures in the stack are to be avoided. problem of self-siph onage, however, it is advis-
The u su al means of su pplying this air is throu gh able to select the diameter of the drain so that
th e stack vent or ven t stack. The entrain ed air th e drain flows little more than h alf fu ll u nder
in the stack cau ses a pressu re redu ction inside th e maximu m discharge conditions likely to be
th e stack, which is cau sed by the frictional ef- imposed by the fixtu re.
fect of the falling sheet of water dragging the core
of air along with it. For example, a lavatory drain capable of car-
ryin g the flow disch arged from a lavatory may
If the sheet of water falling down th e stack still flow fu ll over part or all of its length. There
passes a stack fittin g th rou gh which the dis- are several reasons for this. The vertical compo-
charge from a fixtu re is entering the stack, the nent of the flow ou t of the trap in to th e drain
water from the branch mixes with or deflects the tends to make th e water attach itself to the u p-
rapidly movin g sheet of water. An excess pres- per elements of th e drain, an d a slu g of water is
sure in the drain from which the water is entering formed, filling the drain at th at point. The resu lt
th e stack is requ ired to deflect th e sheet of water is that, if there is n ot su fficien t air aspirated
flowin g downward or mix the branch water with th rou gh the overflow, the pipe will flow fu ll for
it. The resu lt is th at a back pressu re is created part of its length, the average velocity of flow
in the branch, which increases with the flow rate being less than the normal velocity for the rate
and flow velocity down the stack and with the of flow in the drain at a given slope.
rate of flow ou t of th e drain.
If the fixtu re con sidered is a water closet, the
su rge of water from the closet will continu e al-
Flow in Building Drains
most withou t change even along a very long drain
When the sh eet of water reach es th e bend at the u ntil it reaches the stack. Thu s, it can be as-
base of the stack, it tu rns at approximately right su med, for all practical pu rposes, that the su rge
angles in to the bu ilding drain. Flow en ters the cau sed by the discharge of a water closet through
horizontal drain at a relatively high velocity com- a fixtu re drain reaches th e stack or horizon tal
pared to the velocity of flow in a horizontal drain bran ch with practically the same velocity it had
u nder u n iform flow con ditions. Th e slope of the when it left the fixtu re.
bu ilding drain is n ot adequ ate to maintain the
velocity that existed in the sheet when it reached
th e base of the stack. Th e velocity of th e water
PNEUMATIC PRESSURES IN A
flowin g alon g the bu ildin g drain and sewer de- SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM
creases slowly then increases su dden ly as the
depth of flow increases and completely fills the Becau se of the pressu re con ditions in a stack
cross section of the drain . Th is phen omenon is and a bu ilding drain, the waste water does not
called a “h ydrau lic ju mp.” fill the cross section anywhere, so th at the air
can flow freely along with the water. The water
The critical distan ce at which the hydrau lic flowing down the wall of the stack drags air with
ju mp may occu r varies from immediately at the it by friction and carries it th rou gh the bu ildin g
stack fitting to ten times the diameter of the stack drain to the street sewer. The air is th en vented
downstream. Less ju mp occu rs if the horizon tal throu ghou t the main street sewer system so dan-
drain is larger than th e stack. After the hydrau - gerou s pressu res are not bu ild u p.
lic ju mp occu rs and water fills the drain, the pipe
tends to flow fu ll u ntil the friction resistan ce of If air is to en ter the top of the stack to re-
th e pipe retards the flow to th at of u niform flow place that being carried alon g with the water,
con ditions. th ere mu st be a pressu re redu ction inside the
stack. Becau se of the head loss n ecessary to ac-
celerate the air and to provide for the energy loss
at the entran ce, h owever, this pressu re redu c-
tion is very small; it amou nts to only a small
Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 3

fraction of an in ch (a millimeter) of water. What on the plu mbing system was originally proposed
cau ses appreciable pressu re redu ctions is the in 1923 by Dr. Roy B. Hu n ter. The fixtu re-u nit
partial or complete blocking of th e stack by wa- valu es were designed for application in con ju nc-
ter flowin g in t o th e s ta ck from a h orizon ta l tion with the probability of simu ltaneou s u se of
branch. fixtu res to establish th e maximu m permissible
drainage loads expressed in fixtu re u nits rather
A small increase in pn eu matic pressu re will
th an in gallons per min u te (gpm) (L/ s) of drain-
occu r in the bu ilding drain even if there is no
a ge flow. Ta ble 1-1 gives th e recommen ded
complete blocking of th e air flow by a hydrau lic
fixtu re-u nit valu es. The plu mbing engineer mu st
ju mp or by su bmergence of the ou tlet an d the
conform to local code requ irements.
bu ilding sewer. Th is is du e to the decrease in
cross-sectional area available for air flow wh en
th e water flowing in th e drain h as adapted itself Table 1-1 Residential Fixture-Unit Loads
to the slope and diameter of th e drain.
Fixture Fixture Units (fu)

FIXTURE DISCHARGE Bathtub 2

CHARACTERISTICS Clothes washer 3
Dishwasher 2
The disch arge characteristic cu rves—flow rates
Floor drain 3
as a fu n ction of time—for most water-closet
bowls h ave the same gen eral shape, bu t some Laundry tray 2
show a mu ch lower peak and a lon ger period of Lavatory 1
discharge. The discharge characteristics for vari- Shower 2
ou s t ypes of wa t er-clos et bowl, pa rt icu la rly Sink (including dishwasher and
low-flow water closets, h ave a significant impact garbage disposer) 3
on estimating the capacity of a sanitary drain- Water closet (tank type) 4
age system. Oth er plu mbing fixtu res, su ch as
sinks, lavatories, and bathtu bs, may produ ce
similar su rging flows in drain age systems, bu t A fixture unit (fu) is a quantity in terms of
th ey do n ot have as marked an effect as water which the load-producing effects on the plumb-
closets do. ing system of different kinds of plumbing fixtures
are expressed on an arbitrarily chosen scale.
DRAINAGE LOADS Dr. Hunter conceived the idea of assigning a
fixtu re-u nit valu e to represent the degree to
A single-family dwelling contains certain plu mb- which a fixture loads a system when used at the
ing fixtu res—one or more bathroom grou ps, each maximum assu med flow and frequ ency. The
consisting of a water closet, a lavatory, an d a purpose of the fixture-unit concept is to make it
bathtu b or shower stall; a kitchen sin k, dish- possible to calculate the design load on the sys-
washer, and washin g machin e; and, possibly, a tem directly when the system is a combination
set of lau ndry trays. Large bu ildin gs also h ave of different kinds of fixtures, each having a load-
other fixtu res, for example, slop sinks and drink- ing characteristic different than the others.
ing water coolers. The importan t characteristic Current or recently conducted studies of drain-
of these fixtu res is th at th ey are not u sed con- age loads on drainage systems may change these
tinu ou sly. Rather, th ey are u sed with irregu lar values. These include studies of: (1) reduced flow
frequ encies th at vary greatly du ring the day. In from water-saving fixtures; (2) models of stack,
addition, the variou s fixtu res h ave qu ite differ- branch, and house drain flows; and (3) actual
ent discharge characteristics, regarding both the fixture use.
average rate of flow per u se and the du ration of
a single discharge. Con sequ ently, the probabil-
ity of all the fixtu res in the bu ilding operatin g STACK CAPACITIES
simu ltan eou sly is small.
The criterion of flow capacities in drainage stacks
The assignin g of fixtu re-u nit (fu ) valu es to is based on the limitation of the water-occu pied
fixtu res to represent their load-produ cing effect cross section to a specified fraction, r s , of the
4 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

cross section of the stack where terminal veloc- maximu m permissible fixtu re u nits to be con-
ity exists, as su ggested by earlier investigations. veyed by stacks of variou s sizes. The table was
obtained by taking into accou nt th e probability
Flow capacity can be expressed in terms of
of simu ltaneou s u se of fixtu res. For example, the
th e stack diameter and the water cross section:
500 fu is the maximu m loading for a 4-in . (100-
Equa t ion 1 -2 mm) stack, thu s 147 gpm (9.3 L/ s) is equ ivalent
to 500 fu . This is the total load from all branches.
Q = 27.8 ⋅ rs5/3 ⋅ D8/3
It shou ld be noted that there is a restriction
where of the amou nt of flow permitted to enter a stack
Q = Capacity, gpm (L/ s) from any branch when the stack is more than
rs = Ratio of cross-section al area of the th ree branch intervals. If an attempt is made to
sh eet of water to cross-sectional area in trodu ce too large a flow into th e stack at an y
of the stack on e level, the inflow will fill th e stack at th at
level and will even back u p the water above the
D = Diameter of the stack, in. (mm) elevation of inflow, which will cau se violent pres-
Valu es of flow rates based on r = ¼, 7/ 24 , and su re flu ctu ations in the stack—resu lting in the
3 are tabulated in Table 1-2. siphoning of trap seals—and may also cau se slug-
gish flow in the horizontal branch. Th is problem
was solved in a stu dy of stack capacities made
Table 1-2 Capacities of Stacks
by Wyly and Eaton at the National Bu reau of
Flow, gpm (L/s)
Standards, for the Hou sing and Home Finance
Pipe Size, Agen cy, in 1950.
in. (mm) r = 1 /4 r = 7/24 r = 1 /3
The water flowing ou t of the branch can en-
2 (50) 18.5 (1.18) 23.5 (1.48) — ter th e stack on ly by mixin g with th e stream
3 (80) 54 (3.40) 70 (4.41) 85 (5.36)
flowing down the stack or by deflectin g it. Su ch
a deflection of th e high -velocity stream comin g
4 (100) 112 (7.07) 145 (9.14) 180 (11.35)
down the stack can be accomplished only if there
5 (125) 205 (12.93) 270 (17.03) 324 (20.44) is a large enou gh h ydrostatic pressu re in the
6 (150) 330 (20.82) 435 (27.44) 530 (33.43) bran ch , sin ce a force of some kind is requ ired to
8 (200) 710 (44.8) 920 (58.04) 1145 (72.24) deflect the downward flowing stream and there-
10 (250) 1300 (82.0) 1650 (104.1) 2055 (129.65) fore ch an ge its momen tu m. Th is h ydrostatic
pressu re is bu ilt u p by the backing u p of the
12 (300) 2050 (129.3) 2650 (167.2) 3365 (212.3)
water in th e branch u ntil the head th u s created
su ffices to change the momen tu m of the stream
already in the stack enou gh to allow th e flow
Whether or not Equation 1-2 can be used
from the bran ch to enter the stack.
safely to predict stack capacities remains to be
confirmed and accepted. However, it provides a The magnitu de of th e maximu m hydrostatic
definite law of variation of stack capacity with pressu re that shou ld be permitted in the bran ch
diameter; and if this law can be shown to hold as a resu lt of the backin g u p of th e spent water
for the lower part of the range of stack diam- is based on the consideration that this backin g
eters, it should be valid for the larger diameters. u p sh ou ld not be su fficien tly great to cau se the
It should be remembered that both F.M. Dawson water to back u p into a shower stall or to cau se
and Dr. Hunter, in entirely independent investi- slu ggish flow. It is half the diameter of the hori-
gations, came to the conclusion that slugs of zontal branch at its connection to the stack. That
water, with their accompanying violent pressure is, it is the head measu red at the axis of the pipe
fluctuations, did not occur until the stack flowed th at will ju st cau se the branch to flow fu ll n ear
¼ to 3 full. Most model codes have based their th e exit.
stack loading tables on a value of r = ¼ or 7/ 24 .
When a long-tu rn tee-wye is u sed to connect
Th e recommen ded maximu m permis s ible the branch to the stack, the water has a greater
flow in a stack is 7/ 24 of the total cross-sectional vertical velocity when it enters the stack than it
area of the stack. Su bstitu tin g r = 7/ 24 into Equ a- does when a sanitary tee is u sed, and the back
t ion 1 - 2 , t h e c or r es p on d in g m a xim u m pressu res shou ld be smaller in this case for the
permissible flow for th e variou s sizes of pipe in same flows down the stack and in the branch.
gpm (L/ s) can be determin ed. Table 1-3 lists the
Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 5

Table 1-3 shows the maximu m permissible To illustrate clearly the requirements of a
fu loads for san itary stacks. The procedu re for stack with an offset of more than 45° from the
s izin g a mu ltis tory s tack (greater th an th ree vertical, Figu re 1-1 shows th e sizing of a stack
floors) is first to size th e h orizontal bran ch es in a 12-story bu ilding where there is one offset
connected to the stack. This is done by totalin g between the fifth an d sixth floors and another
th e fixtu re u nits connected to each branch and offset below the street floor.
size in accordance with colu mn 2 in Table 1-3.
Sizin g is compu ted as follows:
Next, total all the fixtu re u nits con nected to the
stack and determine the size from the same table, Step 1. Compute the fixtu re units connected to
u n der colu mn 4. Immediately check the n ext the stack. In this case, assume there are 1200
colu mn, “Total at On e Branch Interval,” and de- fixture units connected to the stack from the
termine that this maximu m is not exceeded by street floor throu gh the top floor.
any of th e branch es. If it is exceeded, the size of
Step 2. Size the portion of the stack above the
th e stack as originally determin ed mu st be in-
fifth-floor offset. There are 400 fixtu re units
creased at least on e size, or the loading of the
from the top floor down through the sixth
bran ches mu st be redesigned so that maximu m
floor. According to Table 1-3, colu mn 4, 400
conditions are satisfied. Take, for example, a 4-
fixture units require a 4-in. (100-mm) stack.
in. (100-mm) stack more th an three stories in
height: The maximu m loading for a 4-in. (100- Step 3. Size the offset on the 5th floor. An offset
mm) bran ch is 160 fu , as shown in colu mn 2 of is sized and sloped like a bu ilding drain.
Table 1-3. This load is limited by colu mn 5 of Step 4. Size the lower portion of the stack from
th e same table, which permits only 90 fu to be the fifth floor down throu gh the street floor.
introdu ced into a 4-in . (100-mm) stack in an y The lower portion of the stack mu st be large
on e branch interval. The stack wou ld have to be enough to serve all fixture units connected
increased in size to accommodate any bran ch to it, from the top floor down, in this case,
load exceeding 90 fu . 1200 fixture u nits. According to Table 1-3,
1200 fixtu re units requ ire a 6-in. (150-mm)
Table 1-3 Horizontal Fixture stack.
Branches and Stacks Step 5. Size and slope the offset below the street
floor the same as a building drain.
Maximum Number of Fixture Units
(fu) that May Be Connected to The fixture on the sixth floor should be con-
Stacks with More than nected to the stack at least 2 ft (0.6 m) above the
Any 1 Stack of
Diameter Horizontal 3 or Fewer 3 Branch Intervals offset. If this is not possible, then connect them
of Pipe, Fixture Branch Total Total at 1 separately to the stack at least 2 ft (0.6 m) below
in. (mm) Brancha Intervals for Stack Branch Interval the offset. If this is not possible either, ru n the
fixture drain down to the fifth or fou rth floor and
1½ (40) 3 4 8 2 connect to the stack there.
2 (50) 6 10 24 6
2½ (65) 12 20 42 9 CAPACITIES OF SLOPING DRAINS
b b b
3 (80) 20 48 72 20b
4 (100) 160 240 500 90 Capacities of h orizon tal or sloping drains are
5 (125) 360 540 1100 200 complicated by su rging flow.
6 (150) 620 960 1900 350 The concept of flow on wh ich the determina-
8 (200) 1400 2200 3600 600 tion of drain sizes is based is that of a h ighly
flu ctu ating or su rging condition in the horizon-
10 (250) 2500 3800 5600 1000 tal branches that carry the discharges of fixtu res
12 (300) 3900 6000 8400 1500 to the soil or waste stack. After falling down the
15 (380) 7000 vertical stack, the water is assu med to en ter the
bu ildin g drain with the peaks of the su rges lev-
aDoes not include branches of the building drain. eled off somewhat bu t still in a su rging condition.
bNo more than 2 water closets or bathroom groups within each
branch interval or more than 6 water closets or bathroom groups In a large bu ildin g coverin g con s iderable
on the stack. grou nd area there are probably several primary
6 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

bran ches and certainly at least one secondary Steady, Uniform Flow Conditions in
branch. After the water enters the bu ilding drain, Sloping Drains
th e su rge con tin u es to level off, becoming more
and more nearly u niform, particu larly after the Althou gh the equ ations of steady, u niform flow
hydrau lic ju mp has occu rred. If the secondary in sloping drain s shou ld not be u sed to deter-
bran ch is long en ou gh, an d if th e drain serves a mine the capacities of slopin g drains in which
large n u mber of fixtu res, the flow may become su rging flow exists, flow compu tations based on
su bstantially u niform before it reaches the street th ese formu las afford a rou gh ch eck on valu es
sewer. obtained by th e more complicated methods that

Figure 1-1 Procedure for Sizing an Offset Stack

Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 7

are applicable to su rgin g flow. Hen ce, three of The quantity of flow is equal to the cross-
th e commonly u sed formu las for flow in pipes sectional area of flow times the velocity of flow
will be con sidered: (1) Hazen and Williams, (2) obtained from the above three equations. This
Manning, and (3) Darcy-Weisbach. can be expressed as:

Hazen and Williams formula This formu la is Equa t ion 1 -5 a

u su ally written:
Q = AV
Equa t ion 1 -3 where
V = 1.318 ⋅ C ⋅ R 0.63
⋅ S 0.54
Q = Quantity rate of flow, cfs (m3 / s)
where A = Cross-section al area of flow, ft 2 (m 2 )
V = Mean velocity of flow, fps (m/ s) V = Velocity of flow, fps (m/ s)
C = Hazen and Williams coefficient By substitu ting the valu e of V from Manning’s
R = Hydraulic radiu s of pipe, ft (m) formu la, the qu antity of flow in variou sly sized
drains of the same material can be calcu lated:
S = Slope of pressu re gradient
The exponents of R and S in Equation 1-3 have Equa t ion 1 -5 b
been selected to make the coefficient C as nearly 1.486
constant as possible for different pipe diameters Q = A ⋅ ⋅ R2/3 ⋅ S1/2
n
and for different velocities of flow. Thus, C is ap-
proximately constant for a given pipe roughness. This is the formula used by many plumbing
engineers to deal with sloping drain problems.
Darcy-Weisbach formula In this formu la the The significant hydraulic parameters used in the
dimensionless friction coefficient f varies with the above equation are listed in Table 1-4.
diameter of the pipe, th e velocity of flow, the ki-
nematic viscosity of th e flu id flowing, and the It should be noted that the units in the above
rou ghness of the walls. It is u su ally written: equations should be converted to the proper units
whenever utilizing Equations 1-5a or 1-5b.
Equa t ion 1 -4
fLV2 Slope of Horizontal Drainage Piping
hf =
D 2g Horizontal drain s are designated to flow at half-
where fu ll capacity u nder u n iform flow conditions to
h f = Pressu re drop or friction loss, ft (m) minimize the generation of pneu matic pressu re
flu ctu ation s. A minimu m slope of ¼ in./ ft (6.4
f = Friction coefficient mm/ m) shou ld be provided for pipe 3 in. (80 mm)
L = Length of pipe, ft (m) an d smaller, 8 in./ ft (3.2 mm/ m) for 4–6-in .
(100–150-mm) pipe, and z in./ ft (1.6 mm/ m)
D = Diameter of pipe, ft (m)
for pipe 8 in. (200 mm) and larger. (The designer
V = Mean velocity of flow, fps (m/ s) must confirm required slopes with the local code
g = Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 fps 2 (9.8 authority.) These minimum slopes are required
m/ s 2 ) to maintain a velocity of flow greater than 2 fps
for scouring action. Table 1-5 gives the approxi-
Manning formula The Manning formu la, wh ich mate velocities for given slopes and diameters of
is similar to th e Hazen and Williams formu la, is horizontal drains based on the Manning formula
meant for open-channel flow and is u su ally writ- for ½-fu ll pipe and n = 0.015.
ten:

Equa t ion 1 -5 Load or Drainage Piping

1.486 1.486 Th e recommen ded des ign loa ds for bu ildin g

V = ⋅ R2/3 ⋅ S1/2 = ⋅ R0.67 ⋅ S0.50 drains and sewers are tabu lated in Table 1-6.
n n
This table shows th e maximu m n u mber of fix-
In this formula, n is the Manning coefficient tu re u n its that may be conn ected to any portion
and varies with the roughness of the pipe and of the bu ilding drain or bu ilding sewer for given
the pipe diameter.
8 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 1-4 Values of R, R2/3, AF, and AH

D AF (Cross-Sectional AH (Cross-Sectional
R =
Pipe Size, 4, R2/3, Area for Full Flow), Area for Half-Full Flow),
in. (mm) ft (mm) ft (mm) ft2 (m2) ft2 (m2)

1½ (40) 0.0335 (1.02) 0.1040 (3.17) 0.01412 (0.0013) 0.00706 (0.0006)

2 (50) 0.0417 (1.27) 0.1200 (3.66) 0.02180 (0.0020) 0.01090 (0.0009)

2½ (65) 0.0521 (1.59) 0.1396 (4.24) 0.03408 (0.0031) 0.01704 (0.0015)

3 (80) 0.0625 (1.90) 0.1570 (4.78) 0.04910 (0.0046) 0.02455 (0.0023)

4 (100) 0.0833 (2.54) 0.1910 (5.82) 0.08730 (0.0081) 0.04365 (0.0040)

5 (125) 0.1040 (3.17) 0.2210 (6.74) 0.13640 (0.0127) 0.06820 (0.0063)

6 (150) 0.1250 (3.81) 0.2500 (7.62) 0.19640 (0.0182) 0.09820 (0.0091)

8 (200) 0.1670 (5.09) 0.3030 (9.23) 0.34920 (0.0324) 0.17460 (0.0162)

10 (250) 0.2080 (6.33) 0.3510 (10.70) 0.54540 (0.0506) 0.27270 (0.0253)

12 (300) 0.2500 (7.62) 0.3970 (12.10) 0.78540 (0.0730) 0.39270 (0.0364)

15 (380) 0.3125 (9.53) 0.4610 (14.05) 1.22700 (0.0379) 0.61350 (0.0570)

Table 1-5 Approximate Discharge Rates and Velocities in Sloping Drains, n = 0.015a

½-Full Flow Discharge Rate and Velocity

Actual Inside
1 1 1 1
Diameter /16 in./ft (1.6 mm/m) Slope /8 in./ft (3.2 mm/m) Slope /4 in./ft (6.4 mm/m) Slope /2 in./ft (12.7 mm/m) Slope
of Pipe, Disch., Velocity, Disch., Velocity, Disch., Velocity, Disch. Velocity,
in. (mm) gpm (L/s) fps (mm/s) gpm (L/s) fps (mm/s) gpm (L/s) fps (mm/s) gpm (L/s) fps (mm/s)

14 (31.8) 3.40 (0.21) 1.78 (45.5)

1a (34.9) 3.13 (0.20) 1.34 (0.41) 4.44 (0.28) 1.90 (48.3)
12 (38.9) 3.91 (0.247) 1.42 (0.43) 5.53 (0.35) 2.01 (51.1)
1s (41.28) 4.81 (0.30) 1.50 (0.46) 6.80 (0.38) 2.12 (53.9)
2 (50.8) 8.42 (0.53) 1.72 (0.52) 11.9 (0.75) 2.43 (61.8)
22 (63.5) 10.8 (0.68) 1.41 (0.43) 15.3 (0.97) 1.99 (0.61) 21.6 (1.36) 2.82 (71.7)
3 (76.3) 17.6 (1.11) 1.59 (0.49) 24.8 (1.56) 2.25 (0.69) 35.1 (2.21) 3.19 (81.1)
4 (101.6) 26.70 (1.68) 1.36 (34.6) 37.8 (2.38) 1.93 (0.59) 53.4 (3.37) 2.73 (0.83) 75.5 (4.76) 3.86 (98.2)
5 (127) 48.3 (3.05) 1.58 (40.2) 68.3 (4.30) 2.23 (0.68) 96.6 (6.10) 3.16 (0.96) 137. (8.64) 4.47 (113.7)
6 (152.4) 78.5 (4.83) 1.78 (45.3) 111. (7.00) 2.52 (0.77) 157. (10.) 3.57 (1.09) 222. (14.0) 5.04 (128.2)
8 (203.2) 170. (10.73) 2.17 (55.2) 240. (15.14) 3.07 (0.94) 340. (21.5) 4.34 (1.32) 480. (30.3) 6.13 (155.9)
10 (256) 308. (19.43) 2.52 (64.1) 436. (27.50) 3.56 (1.09) 616. (38.9) 5.04 (1.54) 872. (55.0) 7.12 (181.0)
12 (304.8) 500. (31.55) 2.83 (72.0) 707. (44.60) 4.01 (1.22) 999. (63.0) 5.67 (1.73) 1413. (89.15) 8.02 (204.0)

a n = Manning coefficient, which varies with the roughness of the pipe.

Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 9

slopes and diameters of pipes. For example, an other will remain in operation an d no damage
offset below the lowest bran ch with 1300 fu at ¼ will be cau sed by th e cessation of system opera-
in./ ft (6.4 mm/ m) slope requ ires an 8-in. (200- tion. When a du plex u n it is u sed, each pu mp
mm) pipe. shou ld be sized for 100% flow, an d it is good
practice to have the operation of th e pu mps al-
For devices that provide con tinu ou s or semi-
ternate au tomatically.
continu ou s flow in to the drainage system, su ch
as su mp pu mps, ejectors, and air-con ditionin g Incoming water is collected in the su mp be-
equ ipmen t, a valu e of 2 fu can be assigned for fore it goes down th e drain pipe. Heavy-flow
each gpm (L/ s) of flow. For example, a su mp drains requ ire large su mps to retain greater than
pu mp that discharges at the rate of 200 gpm u su al amou nts of water, th ereby creatin g more
(12.6 L/ s) is equ ivalent to 200 ⋅ 2 =400 fu. head pressu re on the pipe inlet. Most manu fac-
tu rers make their su mps with bottom, side, or
an gle ou tlets an d with in side cau lk, n o-h u b,
COMPONENTS OF SANITARY pu sh -on , spigot, or screwed con nections.
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Cleanouts
Sumps and Ejectors
The cleanou t provides access to horizontal and
Bu ilding drains that can not be discharged to the vertical lines to facilitate inspection and provide
sewer by gravity flow may be disch arged into a a means of removing obstru ctions su ch as solid
tightly covered and vented su mp, from which the objects, greasy wastes, an d hair. Cleanou ts, in
liqu id is lifted and discharged in to the bu ilding’s general, mu st be gas and water-tight, provide
gravity drain age s ys tem by a u toma tic pu mp qu ick an d easy plu g removal, allow ample space
equ ipmen t or by any equ ally efficient meth od for the operation of cleansing tools, have a means
approved by the admin istrative au thority. A du - of adju stment to fin ished su rfaces, be attractive
plex pu mp system shou ld be u sed, so th at, in in appearance, and be designed to su pport what-
th e event of the breakdown of on e pu mp, an- ever traffic is directed over th em.
Some cleanouts are designed with a neoprene
seal plu g, which prevents “freezing” or bindin g
Table 1-6 Building Drains and Sewersa to th e ferru le. All plu gs are machined with a
Maximum Number of Fixture Units that straight or ru nnin g thread and a flared shou lder
May Be Connected to Any Portion of the for the neoprene gasket, permittin g qu ick and
Building Drain or Building Sewer certain removal when n ecessary. A maximu m
Diameter opening is provided for tool access. Recessed
of Pipe, Slope, in./ft (mm/m)
1 1 1 1 covers are available to accommodate carpet, tile,
in. (mm) /16 (1.6) /8 (3.2) /4 (6.4) /2 (12.7)
terrazzo and other su rface fin ishes, and are ad-
ju stable to th e exact floor level established by
2 (50) 21 26 th e adju stable hou sing or by th e set screws.
2½ (65) 24 31
Waste lines are normally laid beneath the
3 (80) 42b 50b
floor slabs at a distance su fficient to provide ad-
4 (100) 180 216 250 equate backfill over the joints. Cleanou ts are then
5 (125) 390 480 575 brou ght u p to floor-level grade by pipe extension
6 (150) 700 840 1,000 pieces. Wh ere the sewer line is at some distance
8 (200) 1400 1600 1,920 2,300 below grade and not easily accessible th rou gh
10 (250) 2500 2900 3,500 4,200 extensions, small pits or manholes with access
covers mu st be installed. When cleanou ts are
12 (300) 2900 4600 5,600 6,700
in stalled in traffic areas, the traffic load mu st be
15 (380) 7000 8300 10,000 12,000 considered wh en the materials of constru ction
aOn-site sewers that serve more than one building may be sized are selected.
according to the current standards and specifications of the ad- The size of th e cleanou t within a bu ildin g
ministrative authority for public sewers.
bNo more than 2 water closets or 2 bathroom groups, except in
shou ld be the same size as the pipin g, u p to 4
single-family dwellings, where no more than 3 water closets or 3
in . (100 mm). For larger size interior piping, 4-
bathroom groups may be installed. in . (100-mm) cleanou ts are adequ ate for th eir
10 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

in t en ded pu rpos e; h owever, 6-in . (150-mm) Floor Drains and Floor Sinks
cleanou ts are recommen ded to allow for a larger
variety of access for sewer video equ ipment. A large-diameter drain with a deep su mp con-
nected to a large-diameter pipe will pass more
Cleanou ts shou ld be provided at the follow- water more rapidly than a smaller drain will.
ing locations: However, economics do not allow th e designer
1. Five ft 0 in. (1.5 m) ou tside or inside the bu ild- arbitrarily to select the largest available drain
ing at the point of exit. when a smaller, less-expensive u nit will do a sat-
isfactory job. High -capacity drains are intended
2. At every change of direction greater than 45°. for u se primarily in location s wh ere th e flow
3. A maximu m distan ce between clean ou ts of reaches h igh rates, su ch as malls, wash down
50 ft (15.1 m) sh ou ld be maintained for pip- areas, and certain indu strial applications. Table
ing 4 in. (100 mm) and smaller, and of 75 ft 1-7, which sh ows min imu m ratios of open grate
(22.9 m) for larger piping. Undergrou nd sani- area based on pipe diameter, is offered as a gu ide
tary sewer piping larger than 10 in. (250 mm) for the selection of drains where the drain pipe
in diameter shou ld be provided with man- diameter is known.
holes at every ch ange of direction and every The only drawback to u sing the open-area-
150 ft (45.7 m). pipe-dia meter-ratio meth od is th at a ll drain
4. At th e base of all stacks. manu factu rers do not list the total open areas of
grates in their catalogs. This information u su -
5. To comply with applicable codes.
ally can be obtained u pon requ est, h owever.
Optional locations inclu de:
For the sizing of floor drains for most indoor
1. At the roof stack termin al. applications, the capacity of a drain is not ex-
2. At the end of h orizontal fixtu re branches or tremely critical beca u s e th e drain ’s primary
waste lin es. fu nction is to h andle minor spillage or fixtu re
overflow. The exceptions are, of cou rse, cases
3. At fixt u r e t r a p s . (Fixt u r e t r a p s ca n b e where equ ipment discharges to th e drain, wh ere
preman u factu red with clean ou t plu gs, al- automatic fire sprinklers may delu ge an area with
th ou gh some codes prohibit the installation large amou nts of water, and wh ere flu shin g of
of th is kind of trap.) th e floor is requ ired for san itation .
Generally located floor drain s or drains in-
stalled to anticipate a failu re may not receive
su fficient water flow to keep th e protective water
seal or plu mbing trap from evaporating; if it does
evaporate, sewer gases will en ter th e space. Au -
t oma tic or ma n u a l t r a p pr imers s h ou ld be
Table 1-7 Recommended Grate Open
in stalled to maintain a proper trap seal. (A small
Areas for Various Outlet Pipe Sizes amou nt of vegetable oil will dramatically redu ce
Recommended Minimum Grate Open Area th e evaporation rate of infrequ ently u sed floor
Transverse Minimum drains and floor sinks.)
Nominal Area of Pipe, Inside Area, Figu re 1-2 sh ows the basic components of a
Pipe Size, in.2a in.2
floor drain.
in. (mm) (× 10 mm2) (× 10 mm2)

1½ (40) 2.04 (1.3) 2.04 (1.3) Grates/ Strainers

2 (50) 3.14 (2.0) 3.14 (2.0) The selection of grates is based on u se and the
3 (80) 7.06 (4.6) 7.06 (4.6) amou nt of flow. Light-traffic areas may have a
4 (100) 12.60 (8.1) 12.06 (8.1) nickel-bronze-finished grate, wh ile mechanical
5 (125) 19.60 (12.7) 19.60 (12.7) areas may have a large, heavy-du ty, du ctile iron
6 (150) 28.30 (18.3) 28.30 (18.3)
grate.
8 (200) 50.25 (32.4) 50.24 (32.4) The wearing of spike-h eeled shoes prompted
th e replacement of grates with a heel-proof, ¼-
aBased on extra-heavy soil pipe, nominal internal diameter.
Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 11

Figure 1 -2 Basic Floor-Drain Components:

(A) Removable Grate; (B) Rust-Resistant Bolts; (C) Integral, One-Piece, Flashing Ring;
(D) Cast Drain Body with Sump; (E) Sediment Bucket (optional).

in.-squ are (6.4-mm) hole design in pu blic toilet into its original position. Ramp-drain gratings
r ooms , corr idors , pa s s a gewa ys , p rom en a de shou ld be slightly convex becau se rapidly flowing
decks, patios, stores, th eaters, an d markets. ramp water has a tendency to flow across the
Thou gh this type of grating h as less drainage grate. A better solu tion to this problem is to place
capacity than the previou s on e, its safety fea- flat-top grates on a level su rface at the bottom of
tu re makes it well worth the change. the ramp, rather than on the ramp slope.
Grates or strain ers shou ld be secu red with A techniqu e in casting grates is the reversal
s tain less-steel s crews in n ickel-bron ze tops . of pattern draft, which removes the razor-sharp
Van dal-proof fasten ers are available from most edges created when grates are bu ffed. See Fig-
ma n u fa ct u rers . Va n da l-proofin g floor dra in u re 1-3. The prevalent bu ffing techniqu e is called
grates is advisable. If there is pu blic access to “scu ff-bu ff’ becau se it gives the grate a slightly
th e roof, consideration mu st be given to protect- u sed appearance. The u se of slots in grates is
ing the ven t open ings from vandals. becoming obsolete becau se of the slicin g edges
th ey create, which cau se excess wear and tear
In school gymnasiu m shower rooms, where
the blocking of flat-top shower drains with paper
towels can cau se flooding, dome grates in the cor-
ners of the room or angle grates against the walls
can be specified in addition to the regular shower
drains. Shower-room gu tters and cu rbs have be-
come u ndesirable because of code requ irements
(a)
and the obviou s dangers involved. Therefore, the
passageways from shower areas into locker areas
need extended-length drains to prevent ru noff
water from entering the locker areas.
Where grates are not secu red and are su bject
to veh icu la r t ra ffic, it is recommen ded th a t
nontilting and/ or tractor-type grates be installed. (b)
When a grate starts to follow a wheel or is hit on
one edge and starts to tilt, the skirt catches the Figure 1 -3 Pattern Draft for Floor Gratings:
side of the drain body and the grate slides back (a) Sharp Edge, (b) Reverse Pattern.
12 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

on the wheels of hand-tru cks and oth er vehicles.

Squ are openings are more desirable because they
shorten th is edge and provide greater drainage
capacity than rou nd holes.

Flashing Ring
This componen t makes an effective seal, which
preven ts water from passing arou nd the drain Figure 1 -4 Types of Floor Drain:
to the area below. (A) Typical Drain with Integral Trap
that May Be Cleaned Through Removable
Strainer at Floor Level;
Sediment Bucket (B) Floor Drain with Combination Cleanout
and Backwater Valve, for Use Where
A “sediment bu cket” is an additional in ternal
Possibility of Backflow Exists;
strainer designed to collect debris that gets by
(C) Drain with Combined Cleanout,
th e regu lar strainer; it is requ ired wh erever the
Backwater Valve, and Sediment Bucket.
drain can receive solids, trash , or grit that cou ld
plu g pipin g. Locations in clu de:
1. Toilet rooms in commercial bu ildings shou ld
be equ ipped with floor drain s with sediment
bu ckets to facilitate cleaning.
Backwater Valves
2. Floor drains with sediment bu ckets must also A backwater valve can be installed on a bu ildin g
be provided in mechanical equ ipment rooms, sewer/ hou se drain when th e drain is lower than
where pu mps, boilers, water chillers, heat th e sewer lin e, when u nu su al sewer su rcharges
exchangers, and HVAC equ ipmen t regu larly may occu r du e to combin ed storm-water an d
d is ch a r ge a n d / or m u s t b e p er iod ica lly san itary sewer systems, or when older mu nici-
drained for maintenance an d repairs. HVAC pal sewers in cu r h igh rates of in filtration . A
equ ipmen t requ ires th e drainage of conden- backwater valve reacts similarly to the way a
sate from cooling coils, u sing indirect drains. check valve does. Th e device consists of a me-
chanical flapper or disc, which requ ires a certain
3. Boilers requ ire drain s with sediment bu ck-
amou n t of main ten an ce; th erefore, atten tion
ets. Strategically located floor drains are also
mu st be given du rin g th e placemen t of th ese
requ ired in bu ildings with wet fire-protection
devices to a free area and access for maintenance.
sprin kler systems to drain water in case
Sediment can accu mu late on the flapper valve
sprinkler heads are activated. The maximu m
seat, preven ting the flapper from closing tigh tly.
temperatu re of liqu ids discharged shou ld be
Also, man y valves employ a spring or mechani-
140°F (60°C).
cal device to exert a positive pressu re on th e
Floor drains shall connect into a trap so con- flapper device, wh ich requ ires occasional lu bri-
stru cted th at it can be readily clean ed and sized cation. Most man u factu rers of backwater valves
to serve efficien tly the pu rpose for which it is provide an access cover plate for maintenan ce,
intended. A deep-seal-type trap or an approved wh ich may also be u sed as a bu ildin g sewer
au tomatic priming device shou ld be provided. The cleanou t.
trap shall be accessible either from the floor-drain
inlet or by a separate clean ou t with in the drain. Figu re 1-5 illu strates variou s types of back-
Figu re 1-4 illu strates several types of drain that water valve that may be installed wh ere th ere is
a possibility of backflow.
meet these conditions.

Accessories Oil Interceptors

In commercial establishmen ts su ch as service
A variety of accessories are available to make
station s, garages, au to-repair shops, dry clean-
th e basic drain adaptable to variou s types of
stru ctu re. The designer mu st know the construc- ers, lau ndries, indu strial plants, and process
tion of th e bu ilding, particu larly the floor and in du stries having machine shops, metal-treat-
in g process rooms, ch emical process or mixin g
deck stru ctu res, to specify the appropriate drain.
Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 13

Grease Interceptors
In t h e dr a in a ge from commercia l kit ch en s ,
grease, fats, and oils mu st be separated from
sewage. This fu n ction is performed by grease in-
terceptors in s talled in drain lin es wh ere th e
presence of grease in the sewage is expected.
It is sometimes practical to disch arge th e
waste from two or more sinks into a single inter-
ceptor. This practice is recommen ded only wh en
all th e fixtu res are close togeth er to avoid instal-
Figure 1 -5 Various Types of ling long piping runs to the interceptor. The closer
Backwater Valve th e interceptor can be installed to the fixtu re(s)
th e better. The lon ger the ru n of pipe, the cooler
th e waste water is. As the waste water cools, the
grease congeals, coatin g an d clogging th e inte-
rior of the pipe.
rooms, etc., there is always the problem of flam-
mable or volatile liqu ids enterin g the drainage The procedu res for sizing grease interceptors
system, which can contamin ate the sewer line are as follows:
and cau se a seriou s fire or explosive condition .
1. Determin e the cu bic conten t of th e fixtu res
Oil interceptors are designed to separate and by mu ltiplying length by width by depth.
collect oils and other light-density, volatile liq-
2. Determin e the capacity in gallon s (1 gal =
u ids, wh ich wou ld otherwise be disch arged into
231 in. 3 ) (liters [1 L = 1000 cm 3 ]).
the drainage system. An oil interceptor is requ ired
wherever lu bricating oil, cu tting oil, kerosene, 3. Determin e the actu al drainage load. The fix-
gasolin e, diesel fu el, aircraft fu el, n aphtha, par- tu re is u su ally filled to abou t 75% of capacity
affin, trisodiu m phosphate, or other light-density with waste water. Th e items being washed
and volatile liqu ids are present in or arou nd the displace abou t 25% of the fixtu re con tent.
drainage system. Therefore, actu al drain age load = 75% of fix-
tu re capacity.
The interceptor is fu rnished with a sediment
bu cket, which collects debris, small parts, chips, 4. Determine the flow rate an d the drainage pe-
particles, and other sedimen t that are frequ ently riod. In gen eral, good practice dictates a
presen t in indu strial waste from these types of 1-min drainage period; however, where con-
facility an d cou ld clog the drainage system. A ditions permit, a 2-min period is acceptable.
gasketed, removable cover permits access for The drainage period is the actu al time re-
cleaning the interceptor. To elimin ate pressu re qu ired to completely empty the fixtu re.
bu ildu p in side the interceptor, a conn ection on Actu al drainage load
each side of th e body allows th e venting of the 5. Flow rate =
Drainage period
interceptor.
6. Select the interceptor that corresponds to the
Oil interceptors are sized in accordance with flow rate calcu lated.
th e maximu m anticipated gpm (L/ s) flow rate of
waste water that cou ld be disch arged th rou gh It is recommended to provide th e au tomatic
th e drains they serve. A flow-con trol fitting of removal of grease from the interceptor to a stor-
th e exact gpm (L/ s) interceptor rating ensu res age tank that can be clean ed regu larly.
maximu m oil in terception efficiency. If this flow
rating is exceeded, the separation of the oil from Trap Primers
th e waste water will n ot occu r.
In lieu of deep-seal P-traps, many ju risdictions
Oil draw-off pipes, u sed in con ju nction with requ ire trap primers on floor and fixtu re drains
a su pplemental waste oil storage tan k, can im- th at are consistently u sed on an infrequ ent ba-
prove efficiency and prolong system maintenance sis. General-pu rpose, mechan ical-room drains;
and cleaning. toilet-room drains; and seasonable, condensate
drains fall into this category. A trap primer allows
14 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

small amou nts of water to trickle into th e device bu ildin g settlement may be significant, special
to prevent the loss of the trap seal throu gh evapo- hanging arran gements may be n ecessary. Un-
ration . Maintaining proper water-trap seals is dergrou n d piping sh ou ld be continu ou sly and
critical to keeping sewer gases from entering oc- firmly su pported, bu t blocking below metal pipe
cu pied spaces. (Refer to Chapter 3 of this volu me, is u su ally acceptable. Consu lt the manu factu rer
“Vents and Venting Systems.”) Some ju risdictions for recommen dations for pipin g materials not
allow manu al trap primers, which consist of a covered in the code an d for special problems.
manu al valve on a domestic water su pply divert-
Han gers shou ld be design ed adequ ately. To
ing water to, or directly conn ected to, the fixtu re
protect from damage by bu ilding occu pants, al-
trap. Au tomatic trap primers are widely accepted.
low at least a 250-lb (113.4-kg) safety factor when
Followin g are some of the different types:
design in g han gers. See Data Book , Volu me 4,
1. Electric-operated, s olenoid valves . These can Chapter 6 for fu rther information.
be programmed to operate at predetermined
Seismic restraint must also be considered.
and regu lar intervals. They require a power
sou rce and should be specified to fail in the
closed position. MATERIALS
2. Pres s ure-differential-actuated valves . These
are connected to or installed in-line on a do- Materials recommended for soil an d waste pip-
mestic water line. They discharge a small ing, installed above grou n d within bu ildings, are
amou nt of water each time there is a change copper alloy, copper, cast iron (hu b-and-spigot
in the domestic-water-line pressure. Pressure or h u bless), galvan ized steel, lead, or PVC plas-
flu ctu ates u pon fixtu re u se and/ or flu sh- tic pipe. Undergrou nd bu ilding drains shou ld be
valve operation. cast-iron soil pipe, hard-temper copper tube, ABS
3. Fixture s upply -w ater ty pe. These devices are or PVC, PVDF, DWV pattern schedu le 40 plastic
pipe with compression join ts or cou plings, in-
mounted on the tailpiece of a flushometer
stalled with a minimu m cover of 12 in. (300 mm).
valve to collect a small portion of water as it
Corrosive wastes requ ire su itably acid-resistant
cascades toward the bowl. The flushometer
materials su ch as high-silicon cast iron, boro-
tailpiece is typically protected from back-si-
phonage by the vacu um breaker mou nted at silicate glass, polypropylene, etc. (Note: Some
the tailpiece entrance. blood analyzers disharge sodium azide. It forms
a very dangerous, explosive compound with cop-
4. Fixture w aste-w ater ty pe. These devices are per pipes. Either other piping must be used or
mounted on the trap of frequ ently used fix- the sodium azide mu st be kept out of the sys-
tures. A tapping at the overflow line will allow tem.) The materials u sed for pipe fittings mu st
small amounts of waste water to enter an be compatible with the materials utilized for pip-
adjacent, infrequently used drain as the trap ing. Fittings should sweep in the direction of flow
surges du ring use. a n d h a ve smooth in terior su rfa ces with ou t
Automatic trap primers can be obtained as ledges, shou lders, or redu ctions that may ob-
pre-engineered devices, which have approvals stru ct the flow in piping.
that are widely accepted. All direct connections Drains specified with cast-iron or PVC bod-
between the sewer system and the potable water ies shou ld be su itable for most installations.
system must be protected from contamination Where extra corrosion resistance is requ ired,
potential. The above-referenced primers can be high-silica cast iron, polypropylene, borosilicate
manu factured with, or fitted with, devices that glass, stainless steel, galvanized iron, or other
are approved to prevent cross-contamination. acid-resisting material should be selected. Where
a sediment bucket is used, it shou ld be bronze
Supports or galvanized or stainless steel. Enameled sedi-
ment buckets are impractical becau se they chip
The location of pipe su pports is u su ally speci- when cleaned.
fied by code. They are located to maintain a slope
that is as u niform as possible and will not change In the selection of materials for top surfaces,
with time. In th is regard, the rigidity of pipe and such as grates, where floor drains are visible in
joints an d the possibility of creep an d beddin g finished areas, appearance is a prime consider-
settlemen t are primary con sideration s. Wh en ation. As cast iron will rust and galvanizing and
Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 15

chrome plating will eventually be worn off by traf- 2. Shallow fill. Where shallow amounts of fill
fic, t h e p r efe r r e d m a t er ia l is s olid , ca s t exist, the trench can be over excavated to
n ickel-bron ze, wh ich main tain s its attractive accept a bed of sand, crushed stone, or simi-
appearance. In a swimmin g pool, however, ch lo- lar material that is easily compacted. Bedding
rin e n ecessitates th e u se of ch lorine-resistant should be installed in lifts (layers), with each
materials. For large grates that will be su bject to lift compacted to ensu re optimum compac-
hand-tru ck or forklift traffic, a du ctile iron grate t ion of t h e b edd in g. Th e b ed mu s t b e
with or with ou t a nickel-bron ze veneer is recom- compacted in alignment with the proposed
mended. pitch and grade of the sewer. It is recom-
m en d ed t h a t p ip e join t s or b ell h u b
Polish ed brass or bron ze for floor service has
depressions be hand prepared du e to the
th e disadvantage of discolorin g u nless th ere is
coarser cru s h ed ston e. Th e soil bea rin g
constant traffic over it. Cast alu minu m has also
weight determines trench widths and bed-
been fou nd in adequ ate for certain floor-service
ding thickness.
applications du e to excessive oxidation and its
inability to withstand abrasion . 3. Deep fill. Where deep amounts of fill exist,
the engineer shou ld consult a geotechnical
Noise Transmission engineer, who will perform soil borings to de-
termine the depths at which soils with proper
Noise tran smission along pipes may be redu ced bearing capacities exist. Solutions inclu de
by avoidin g direct metal-to-metal con n ection s. compacting existing fill by physical means
Noise tran smission th rou gh pipe walls is gen - or removing existing fill and replacing it with
erally redu ced by u sing h eavier materials. Noise crushed stone stru ctural fill.
tran smission to th e bu ildin g may be redu ced 4. Back filling. Backfilling of the trench is ju st
by isolatin g piping with resilien t materials, su ch as critical as the compaction of the trench
as ru gs, belts, plastic, or in su lation . See Table bed and the strength of existing soils. Im-
1-8 for r ela t ive n ois e-in s u la t ion a bs or ption proper backfill placement can dislodge pipe
valu es. and cau se u neven sewer settlement, with
physical depressions in the surface. The type
of backfill material and compaction require-
BUILDING SEWER INSTALLATION ments need to be reviewed to coordinate with
the type of permanent surface. Landscaped
The installation of bu ilding sewers (hou se drains) areas are more forgiving of improper backfill
is very critical to the operation of the sewer. In- placement than hard surface areas, su ch as
adequ ate bedding in poor soils may allow the concrete or bituminous paving.
sewer to settle, cau sing dips an d low points in
th e sewer. The settlement of sewers interru pts Care must be taken when u sing mechanical
flow, dimin ish es min imu m cleansin g velocity, means to compact soils above piping. Me-
redu ces capacity, and creates a point where sol- chanical compaction of the first layer above
ids can drop ou t of su spension and collect. the pipe by vibrating or tampin g devices
should be done with caution. Compacting the
The following are some gu idelines for install- soil in 6-in. (150-mm) layers is recommended
ing bu ilding sewers/ drains: for a good backfill.
1. Compacted fill. Where natural soil or com- Proper sewer bedding and trench backfill re-
p a ct ed fill exis t s , t h e t r en ch mu s t b e sults in an installation that can be cou nted
excavated in alignment with the proposed u pon for long, trou ble-free service.
pitch and grade of the sewer. Depressions
need to be cu t out along the trench line to
accept the additional diameter at the piping SANITATION
joint or bell hub. A layer of sand or pea gravel
is placed as a bed in the excavated trench All d r a in s s h ou ld b e clea n ed p er iod ica lly,
because it is easily compacted under the pipe, particu larly those in markets, hospitals, food-
allowing more accurate alignment of the pipe processing areas, animal sh elters, morgu es, and
pitch. The pipe settles into the bed and is other location s where sanitation is importan t.
firmly su pported over its entire length.
16 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Where sanitation is importan t, an acid-re- ter-su pply line to a drain , a vacu u m breaker in-
sisting enameled interior in floor drains is widely stalled according to code mu st be provided.
accepted. The rou gh su rfaces of either brass or
iron castings collect and hold germs, fu ngu s-
la den s cu m, a n d fin e debris , wh ich u s u ally KITCHEN AREAS
accompany drain waste. There is n o easy or sat-
isfactory way to clean these rou gh su rfaces; the When selecting kitchen drains, the designer mu st
most practical approach is to en amel them. The know th e qu antity of liqu id and solid waste the
improved sanitation compensates for the added drains will be requ ired to accept, as well as which
expense. However, pipe th reads cannot be cu t equ ipmen t emits waste on a regu lar basis and
into enameled metals becau se the enameling will which produces waste only by accidental spillage.
chip off in th e area of the machining. Also, pipe
Floor-cleanin g procedu res shou ld be ascer-
th reads themselves cann ot be enameled; there- tained to determine the amou nt of water u sed. If
fore, ca u lked join t s s h ou ld be s pecified on any amou nt of solid waste is to be drained, re-
enameled drains. Most adju stable floor drains
cep t or s m u s t b e s p ecified wit h r em ova b le
u tilize a threaded head that allows elevation ad-
sediment bu ckets made of galvanized or stain-
ju s t men t s . Th e d ra in s ca n n ot be en a meled
less steel. Also, there mu st be enou gh vertical
becau se of this adju sting th read. However, th ere
clearance over these drains to conveniently re-
are other adju stable drains that u se slidin g lu gs move the sediment bu ckets for cleaning.
on a cast thread and may be enameled.
Many kitchen planners mou nt kitchen equ ip-
Another point to remember is that a grate or
ment on a 5-in. (125-mm) cu rb. Placing the drain
th e top ledge of a drain can be enameled, bu t
on top of th e cu rb an d u n der th e equ ipment
the enamel will not tolerate traffic abrasion with-
makes conn ection of in direct drain lines diffi-
ou t showing scratches and, eventu ally, chipping.
cu lt an d the receptor in accessible for inspection
The solu tion to this problem is a stain less-steel and cleaning. Mou nting th e receptor in front of
or nickel-bronze rim and grate over the enam- th e cu rb takes u p floor space, and th e myriad
eled drain body, a common practice on indirect
in direct drain s th at discharge in to it create a
waste receptors, sometimes referred to as “floor
potential hazard for employees who may trip over
sin ks.” Specifiers seem to favor the squ are, indi-
th em. The solu tion requ ires close coordination
rect waste receptor, bu t the rou nd receptor is
between the engineer and the kitch en designer.
easier to clean and has better an tisplash char-
acteristics. For cases where the choice of squ are
or rou nd is influ enced by the floor pattern, rou nd
sin ks with squ are tops are available.
In application s su ch as hospital morgu es,
cystoscopic rooms, au topsy laboratories, slau gh-
terhou ses, and animal den s, the enameled drain
is fitted with a flu shin g rim. Th is is most advis-
able where blood or other objectionable materials
might cling to the side walls of th e drain.
Where the waste bein g drained can create a
stoppage in the trap, a heel inlet on the trap with
a flu shin g con nection is recommended in addi-
tion to th e flu shing rim, which merely keeps the
drain sides clean. (This option may not be al-
lowed by certain codes.) A 2-in. (50-mm) trap
flu shes more effectively than a 3-in. (80-mm) trap
becau se it allows th e flu sh in g stream to drill
th rou gh the debris rath er th an completely flu sh
it ou t. A valve in th e water lin e to the drain is
th e best way to operate th e flu shin g-rim drain.
Flu sh valves h ave been u sed an d save some wa-
ter; h owever, th ey a re n ot a s con ven ien t or Figure 1 -6 Combination Floor Drain
effective as a shu toff valve. In an y flu shing wa- and Indirect Waste Receptor
Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 17

Figure 1-6 shows an arrangement whereby any with adju stable tops to attain an installation that
spillage in front of the cu rb can be drained by is flu sh with the fin ished floor.
half of the receptor, while indirect drains are
neatly tucked away.
JOINING METHODS
Where equipment is on the floor level and an
indirect waste receptor must be provided u nder Drain and cleanou t ou tlets are manu factu red in
the equ ipment, a shallow bu cket that can easily fou r basic types:
be removed is recommended.
1. Ins ide caulk . In this arrangement, the pipe
extends up into the drain body and oakum is
WATERPROOFING packed around the pipe tightly against the in-
side of the outlet. Molten lead is then poured
Whenever a cast-iron drain is cemented into a into this ring and later stamped or caulked to
slab, separation du e to expansion an d contrac- correct for lead shrinkage. Current installa-
tion occu rs and creates several problems. One tion meth ods u se a flexible gasket for a
is the con stant wet area in the crevice arou nd caulking material. See Figure 1-7.
th e drain th at promotes mildew odor an d the
2. Spigot outlet. This type utilizes the cau lking
breeding of bacteria. Seepage to the floor below
method as outlined above, except that the
is also a possibility. This problem can be cor-
spigot ou tlet is caulked into the hu b or bell
rected by a seepage or flashing flange. Weep holes
of the downstream pipe or fitting. See Figure
in the flashing flange direct moistu re into the
1-8.
drain. Also, this flange accepts membrane ma-
terial and, when u sed, the flashin g ring sh ou ld 3. Pus h-s eal gas k eted outlet. This type utilizes
lock th e membrane to the flange. a neoprene gasket similar to standard ASTM
C564 neoprene gaskets approved for hub-
One prevalent misconception abou t the flash-
an d-spigot, cast-iron s oil pipe. A ribbed
ing flange is th at it can have weep holes wh en
neoprene gasket is applied to the accepting
u sed with cleanou ts. In this case, there can be
pipe thu s allowing the drain ou tlet to be
no weep h oles into the cleanou t for th e moistu re
pu shed onto the pipe.
to ru n to. Weep holes shou ld also be eliminated
from the flashing flanges of drain s, su ch as re- 4. No-hub. This type utilizes a spigot (with no
flection -pool drains, wh ere the drain en trance is bead on the end) that is stubbed into a neo-
shu t off by an overflow standpipe to maintain a prene cou pling with a stainless-steel bolting
certain water level. ban d (or oth er type of clampin g device),
which, in tu rn, accepts a downstream piece
The term “nonpu nctu ring,” u sed in reference
of pipe or headless fitting. See Figu re 1-9.
to membrane-flashing, ring-secu ring methods, is
now obsolete as secu ring bolts have been moved 5. IPS or threaded. This type is a tapered female
inboard on flashing L flanges and the membrane thread in the drain outlet designed to accept
need not be pu nctu red to get a seal. Of the vari- the tapered male thread of a downstream piece
ous arrangements, this bolting method allows the of pipe or fitting. See Figure 1-10.
greatest squ eeze pressu re on the membrane.

FLOOR LEVELING
A major problem in s ettin g floor dra in s an d
cleanou ts occu rs when the concrete is pou red
level with the top of the u nit, ign oring the fact
th at the addition of tile on the floor will cau se
th e drain or cleanou t to be lower than th e su r-
rou nding su rface. To solve the problem, cleanouts
can be specified with tappings in the cover rim
to jack the top part of the cleanou t u p to the
finished floor level. Floor drains can be fu rnished
Figure 1 -7 Inside-Caulk Drain Body
18 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

THERMAL EXPANSION sis is to be performed du e to excessive stresses

or to the differing expansion characteristics of
When excessive thermal expansion is anticipated, materials. See Data Book , Volu me 2, Chapter 5
the pipe movement shou ld be controlled to avoid for further information.
harmfu l changes in slope or damage. This may
be done by anch oring, u sin g expansion joints,
or u sing expansion loops or ben ds. When an- PROTECTION FROM DAMAGE
choring, avoid excessive stress on the stru ctu re
and th e pipe. Piping or mechan ical engin eerin g Followin g are some common types of damage to
handbooks shou ld be con su lted if stress analy- anticipate and some methods of protection:
Hazard Protection
Abrasion Plastic or ru bber sleeves.
Insu lation where copper
pipe leaves slab.
Condensation Insu lation on piping.
Corrosion See Data Book , Vol. 1, Ch. 8,
“Corrosion.”
Earth loads Stron ger pipe or pipe
Figure 1 -8 Spigot-Outlet Drain Body sleeves.
Expansion and Flexible joints, loops, swing
contraction joints, or offsets.
Fire Bu ilding con stru ction
arou nd pipe. Some ju risdic-
tion s requ ire metal piping
with in 2 ft (0.6 m) of an
entry into a firewall. Mu st
main tain fire ratin gs.
Heat Keeping thermoplastic pipe
away from sou rces of heat or
u sing in su lation.
Nails Using ferrou s pipe, steel
sleeves, steel plates or space
pipe away from possible n ail
penetration zon e.

Figure 1 -9 No-Hub-Outlet Drain Body Seismic Bracing pipe and providin g

flexible joints at conn ection
between pipin g braced to
walls or stru ctu re and
piping braced to the ceiling
and between stories (where
th ere will be differen tial
movements).
Settlement Sleeves or flexible joints.
When embedded in concrete,
covering with three layers of
15-lb (6.8-kg) felt.
Su nlight Protectin g thermoplastic
Figure 1 -1 0 IPS or Threaded- pipe by insu lation and
Outlet Drain Body jacket or shading to avoid
warping.
Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 19

Vandals Installing pipe above reach and negative pressu res at or n ear the zero line
or in areas protected by throu ghou t the system. Soil stack and vent com-
bu ilding constru ction. bin e in to a s in gle s oven t stack. Figu re 1-11
Su pport pipin g well en ou gh illu strates a typical soven t single-stack plu mb-
to withstan d 250 lb (113.4 in g system.
kg) hangin g on the moving
pipe.
RESEARCH
Wood shrinkage Providing slip joints and
clearance for pipe when The advent an d u se of u ltra-low-flow water clos-
wood shrinks. Approxi- et s , a n d to s ome ext en t ot h er wa t er-s a vin g
mately s in. (16 mm)/ floor fixtu res, h as brou gh t into qu estion the loadin g
is adequate for usual frame on dr a in a ge s ys t em s a n d h ow t h e redu ced
construction, based on 4% amou nt of water “carries” solids in the system.
shrinkage perpendicular to Still to be con firmed is th at the slope of conven-
wood grain. Shrinkage along tional drain age piping allows solids to remain in
the grain does not usually su spension u ntil mixed with other flows in the
exceed 0.2%. drainage system. Fu rther research is requ ired
to determine the proper slopes of drain age pip-
in g and that the release of water from fixtu res is
SOVENT SYSTEMS
properly timed to ensu re that solids are carried
su fficien t distances.
The sovent single-stack plu mbin g system is a
san itary drainage system developed to improve There have been nu merou s stu dies, particu -
and simplify soil, waste, an d vent plu mbing in larly in th e Un ited Kin gdom, of redu ced-size
mu ltistory bu ildings. ventin g. These stu dies are discu ssed in more
depth in Chapter 3 of this volu me, “Vents and
The basic design criteria for soven t drainage
Venting Systems.”
plu mbin g systems for mu ltistory bu ildin gs is
based on experience gained in the design and
constru ction of sovent systems serving many liv- REFERENCES
ing u nits an d on exten sive experimental work
on a plu mbing test tower. The criteria to be u sed 1. Dau gherty, Robert L., J oseph B. Fran zin i, and
as gu idelin es in design work mu st be obtained E. J oh n Fin nemore. 1985. Flu id mech an ics with
from the designer and/ or manu factu rer of sovent en gin eerin g a pplica t ion s . 8t h ed. New York:
systems. McGraw-Hill.
2. Dawson , F.M., an d A.A. Kalinske. 1937. Report
The sovent system has fou r parts: a drain, on hy draulics and pneumatics of plumbing drain-
waste, and vent (DWV) stack; a soven t aerator age s y s tems . State University of Iowa Stu dies in
fitting at each floor level; drain , waste, and vent Engineering, Bulletin no. 10.
(DWV) h or izon t a l b r a n ch es ; a n d a s oven t
3. Wyly and Eaton. 1950. National Bureau of Stan-
deaerator fitting at the base of the stack. The dards, Housing and Home Finance Agency.
two special fittings, th e aerator and deaerator,
are the basis for the self-venting featu res of the
sovent system.
The fu nction s of the aerator are (1) to limit
th e velocity of both liqu id and air in the stack,
(2) to prevent the cross section of the stack from
filling with a plu g of water, and (3) to mix effi-
ciently th e waste flowin g in the branches with
th e air in the stack. Th e deaerator fitting sepa-
rates the air flow in the stack from the liqu id,
ensu ring smooth en try in to the bu ildin g drain
and relieving the positive pressu re at the bottom
of the stack. The resu lt is a single stack that is
self venting with the fittings balancin g positive
20 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(A) (B)

Figure 1-11 (A) Traditional Two-Pipe System,

(B) Typical Sovent Single-Stack Plumbing System.
Chapter 2 — Gray-Water Systems 21

Gray-Water
Systems

INTRODUCTION Gray-water systems h ave been u sed in vari-

ou s areas of the world. In man y regions, water is
One of th e means of conserving water is to re- a critical resou rce and extreme measu res to op-
cycle it. Non pota ble wa ter s ys tems th at u s e timize the u se of water are sometimes necessary.
recycled water are commonly referred to as “gray- Water reu se offers a considerable savings of wa-
water systems.” ter resou rces, which is appealing in localities
where the u n dergrou nd aqu ifers are in danger
There is n o single definition of gray water. of depletion or wh ere adequ ate su pplies of water
The definitions of a variety of recycled waters are not available. Waste-water management is
are interchangeable. In general, th e term “gray also a sign ificant reason for the u se of gray-wa-
wa t er” is in t en ded t o in clu de a ppropria t ely ter systems.
treated water th at h as been recovered from typi-
ca l fixt u r es , s u ch a s la va t or ies , ba t h t u b s , On-site reclamation and recycling of relatively
showers, and clothes washers. Waste potentially clean, n onpotable water is considered for the fol-
containing grease, su ch as that from kitchens lowing reason s:
and dishwashers, as well as waste from food dis- 1. In areas where th e code man dates that gray
p os a ls in k it ch en s is exclu d ed d u e t o t h e water be u sed wh ere the availability of po-
possibility of solid articles. Recycled water is in-
table water is in short su pply or restricted.
ten ded to in clu de “clea n ” wa ter a ddition a lly
treated to remove bacteria, h eavy metals, and 2. For projects wh ere pu blic liqu id s ewa ge
organ ic material. “Black water,” on th e oth er disposal capacity is either limited or inad-
hand, is water recovered from plu mbin g fixtu res equ ate.
discharging h u man excrement, su ch as water 3. For econ omic reasons becau se obtaining po-
closets and u rinals, and cooling-tower water (be- table water or disposing of liqu id waste is
cau se of the chemicals involved in its treatment). very costly.
Rainwater is anoth er excellent sou rce of water.
It can be collected in cistern s for u se in a wide 4. For economic reasons, where payback will
variety of n onpotable u ses with little or no treat- occu r in less th an 2 years an d wh ere recy-
men t. Rainwater in cisterns can also be u sed for cling will redu ce sewer and water u sage fees,
an emergency su pply of drinking water if it is resu lting in su bstantial savings in operatin g
appropriately treated prior to u se. This chapter costs.
is limited to the discu ssion of gray water only. Appropriately treated gray water is commonly
u sed for the following proposes:
1. Flu shin g water for water closets and u rinals.
Not e: This chapter is written primarily to familiarize the
reader with the general su bject area. It is not intended to be 2. Landscape irrigation .
u sed for system design withou t reference and adherence to 3. Coolin g-tower makeu p.
other technical data and local code requ irements.
22 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

4. Decorative pool an d fou ntain fill water. Figu re 2-1 shows flow ch arts for a conven-
tional plu mbing system an d a recycled water
5. Floor and gen eral h ard su rface wash down.
system. In the recycled-water flow system, the
6. Lau n dry prerin se water. gray water and black water sou rces are clearly
The most common pu rpose is to provide water defined. The u se of the gray-water system is also
for the flu shin g of u rin als and water closets, es- defined, n amely, for all nonpotable water sys-
pecially in high-rises, hotels, and large dwellings. tems, cooling-tower water requ irements, and the
irrigation system.
Figu re 2-2(A) shows single-line diagrams of
CODES AND STANDARDS a gray-water plu mbing system to bathtu bs and
lavatories and a recycled, gray-water system with
There are n o nationally or regionally established a gray-water treatmen t plan t from bath tu bs,
model codes that mandate the u se of gray water. lavatories, and water closets. The reu sed water
The Uniform Plumbing Code discu sses gray wa- (gray water) from the fixtu res is pu mped for re-
ter bu t limits the discu ssion to single-family u se in the water closets. Th is figu re shows the
dwellings. Many specific local areas have estab- isometric piping of a gray-water system with the
lished standards and guidelines for the use of su pply and drainage piping arrangement. The
gray water in facilities and homes. Where gray- basic plu mbin g su pply with hot water system
water use is permitted, local health departments feeds the lavatories and the bathtu bs, which, in
have established minimum-treatment standards. tu rn, act as a sou rce for the gray-water system.
In these localities, the engineer mu st check for In Figu re 2-2(B), th e efflu ent storage as well as
regulations applicable to gray water, as is done the sewage treatmen t plan t (STP) u tilize the gray
for plumbing and building codes. water to rou te to the coolin g tower, irrigation,
The National Sanitation Foundation’s Stan- and wash -down systems, an d th e water-closet
dard 41, which regu lates the minimu m water fixtu res.
qu ality for recycled waste water, is shown in Table A gray-water system requ ires modifications
2-1. Th e gray-water qu ality mu s t be verified to th e standard plu mbin g systems th rou gh ou t a
again st Table 2-1 an d existing local regu lations, facility. There will be du plicate drainage systems.
if any, before u se. Instead of all the liqu id discharged from all the
plu mbing fixtu res going to th e san itary sewer,
Table 2-1 The National Sanitation selected fixtu res will h ave their efflu ent rou ted
Foundation’s Standard 41 for recovery by th e gray-water treatment system.
The remainder will go to the sanitary sewer. There
Component Maximum Limits also will be du plicate water su pplies: potable
water will go to lavatories, sinks, sh owers, etc.,
Biological oxygen demand 5 ppm (5 mg/L) and gray water to water closets, u rinals, and
Suspended solids 5 ppm (5 mg/L)
other fixtu res, depen ding on the qu ality of the
gray-water treatment.
Total coliform 2.2 counts/26.4 gal
(2.2 counts/100 mL) Sp ecia l ca r e m u s t b e t a k en d u r in g t h e
Nitrogen removal 85–95% in stallation of a gray-water system. Clear iden ti-
fication and labeling of the gray-water system is
mandatory. This will minimize the risk of cross
conn ection du rin g installation or repair of the
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION system.
Many n ewly formed, plann ed commu nities
Gray-water systems collect the dilute waste water have adopted gray-water systems for th eir irri-
discharged from lavatories, service sinks, baths, gation systems. Warnin g signs of “nonpotable
lau ndry tu bs, sh owers, an d other similar types water” or colored PVC pipin g are now visible
of fixtu res. Th is water is then filtered an d/ or across city landscapes. Blu e dye has become a
treated u ntil it reach es a level of qu ality consis- clear iden tification of the u se of gray water.
tent with its inten ded reu se. The pipin g network
distribu tes it to sou rces not u sed for hu man con-
su mption in a safe and distinctive man ner.
Chapter 2 — Gray-Water Systems 23

(A)

(B)

Figure 2 -1 Plumbing System Flow Charts:

(A) Conventional Plumbing System; (B) Recycled-Water System.

System Components DESIGN CRITERIA FOR GRAY-

WATER SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION
The following components are generally u sed for
most systems. Their arrangement and type de- It is estimated that q of the waste water dis-
pend on th e specific treatmen t system selected. charged from a typical household in 1 day is gray
water. The remaining waste water (that is, 3 of
1. A separate gray-water collection piping sys-
the discharge) is black water from water closets.
tem.
The discharge from the separate piping system
2. A primary waste-treatmen t system con sist- supplying the gray-water system should be sized
ing of tu rbidity removal, storage, biological based on the applicable plumbing code.
treatment, and filtering.
The following issues should be considered in
3. Disinfecting systems consisting of ozone, u l- the design of any gray-water system:
traviolet irradiation, ch lorin e, or iodine.
1. The design flow is based on the number of
4. Treated water storage and system distribu - people in a facility.
tion pressu re pu mps and piping.
24 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(A)

(B)

Figure 2-2 Riser Diagrams: (A) Gray-Water Plumbing System; (B) Recycled-Water-Waste
System with System Treatment Plant (STP).
Not es, Figure 2-2 (A):1. Gray water can also be u tilized for other u ses, su ch as irrigation, cooling tower makeu p, etc., provided
treatment is adequ ate. 2. Common vent for both drainage stacks.
Chapter 2 — Gray-Water Systems 25

2. Lavatory use is estimated at 0.25 gal/ use 500-employee office. Th is demand cou ld be su p-
(0.95 L/ use). plied in part by the 1 gal/ person/ day available
from th e fixtu res iden tified in th e gray-water
3. Men use urinals 75%of the time and water
su pply section above.
closets 25%of the time.
4. The average person uses a toilet 3 times a In shoppin g cen ters, flow rates are based on
day. squ are feet (m 2 ) of space, not the n u mber of per-
sons. Th e flow demand is gallons per day per
squ are foot (0.06 gpd/ ft 2 [0.23 L/ day/ 0.1 m 2 ]).
Design Estimates for Commercial
Buildings Th e calcu lation s in food service resemble
th ose for grease in terceptor sizin g. The nu mber
Gray-water supply Estimates of gray-water su p- of seats, the hou rs of operation, single-servin g
ply sou rces vary in commercial bu ildings. In an u tensils, and other, similar factors chan ge the
office bu ilding, fixtu res su ch as lavatories, water equ ations for gray-water calcu lations.
coolers, mop sinks, and coffee sinks are estimated
to generate 1 gal/ day/ person (3.79 L/ day/ per- Design Estimates for Residential
son). For an office bu ildin g with 500 employees, Buildings
we wou ld expect to be able to recover 500 gal/
day (1823 L/ day) for gray-water reu se. Based on (a) Th e nu mber of occu pants of each dwellin g
5 working days/ week and 50 weeks/ year annu al u nit shall be calcu lated as follows:
use, 125,000 gal/ yr (473 175 L/ yr) could be avail-
Occu pan ts, first bedroom: 2
able for gray-water reu se.
Occu pan ts, each addition al bedroom: 1
Gray-water demand The gray-water demand for (b) Th e estimated gray-water flows for each oc-
an office bu ilding is estimated based on 3 toilet cu pant sh all be calcu lated as follows:
or u rin al u ses/ day/ person. For calcu lation pu r-
poses, assu me the popu lation is 50% male and Sh owers, bathtu bs, and wash basin s:
50% female, and that men u se u rinals 75% of 25 gpd (95 L/ day)/ occu pant
th e time and water closets 25% of the time. For Lau ndry: 15 gpd (57 L/ day)/ occu pant
an office bu ilding with 500 employees, we wou ld
estimate the gray-water deman d as follows: (c) Th e total nu mber of occu pants shall be mu l-
tiplied by the applicable estimated gray-water
250 males ⋅ 3 flushes/ day ⋅ 0.5 gal/ flush discharge as provided above, and the type of
(urinals ) ⋅ 75%usage =281 gal/ day fixtu res connected to the gray-water system.
250 males ⋅ 3 flushes/ day ⋅ 1.6 gal/ flush Example 2-1 Single-family dwelling, 3 bedrooms
(water closets ) ⋅ 25%usage =300 gal/ day with showers, bathtubs, wash basins, and lau n-
250 women ⋅ 3 flushes/ day ⋅ 1.6 gal/ flush dry facilities all connected to the gray-water
(water closets) =1200 gal/ day system:

TOTALgray-water demand = 1781gal/ day = Total number of occupants = 2 + 1 + 1 = 4

approx. 445,250 gal/ yr Estimated gray-water flow = 4 ⋅ (25 + 15) =
[250 males ⋅ 3 flushes/ day ⋅ 1.89 L/ flush 160 gpd
(urinals ) ⋅ 75%usage =1063 L/ day [4 ⋅ (95 +57) =608 L/ day]
250 males ⋅ 3 flushes/ day⋅ 6.06 L/ flush (wa-
ter closets ) ⋅ 25%usage =1136 L/ day Example 2-2 Single-family dwelling, 4 bedrooms
with only the clothes washer connected to the
250 women ⋅ 3 flushes/ day ⋅ 6.06 L/ flush gray-water system:
(water closets) =4545 L/ day
Total nu mber of occu pants = 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 5
TOTAL gray-water demand = 6744 L/ day =
Estimated gray-water flow = 5 ⋅ 15 =75 gpd
approx. 1 686 000 L/ yr]
(5 ⋅ 57 =285 L/ day)
This example shows that approximately 3.6
gal/ person/ day (13.5 L/ person/ day) is needed
to supply gray water to toilets and urinals for a
26 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Design Estimates for Irrigation Systems of the section . No excavation for an irrigation/
disposal field shall extend within 5 vertical ft (1.5
Gray-water system design and selection depends m) of the high est known seasonal grou nd water,
on a variety of elements: location , soil type, the nor shall it extend to a depth where gray water
sou rce of water su pply, the type of treatment may con taminate the grou nd water or ocean wa-
facility, and the application of reu se. Additional t er. Th e a pplica n t s h a ll s u pply eviden ce of
requ irements are noted for th e reu se of gray- grou n d-water depth to th e satisfaction of the
water systems for irrigation systems. Some of administrative au thority.
th e parameters are grou nd-water level, geologi-
cal stability of the region, plot plan, and distances
of irrigation from adjacent properties, lakes, lot
lin es, drain age ch an n els, water su pply lin es,
su rface slope, wells, and in teraction of gray-wa- Table 2-2
t er s ys t ems wit h pr iva t e s ewa ge dis pos a ls . Design Criteria of Six Typical Soils
Inspection and testing is an inh erent part of the
design. Type of Soil Minimum Minimum
Irrigation Area Absorption Capacity
System compon en ts mu st be secu rely in - (ft2/100 gal of (min/in.
stalled and the manu factu rer properly identified. estimated gray-water of irrigation area/
The h olding tanks mu st be in stalled in dry lev- discharge/day) day)
els, and, if u ndergrou nd, contamination issu es
mu st be accou nted for. Th e au thorities havin g Coarse sand or gravel 20 5.0
ju risdiction shall review all plans, and qu alified
Fine sand 25 4.0
and experienced contractors shall install the sys-
tem in accordance with the contract docu ments. Sandy loam 40 2.5
To design a gray-water system, on e mu st esti- Sandy clay 60 1.7
mate the sou rce of water su pply. Separate design Clay with considerable
parameters become important for reu se in bu ild- sand or gravel 90 1.1
in gs or in irriga tion s ys tems . For irriga t ion Clay with small amount
systems, the requ ired area of su bsu rface mu st of sand or gravel 120 0.8
be designed based on soil analysis. The follow-
ing paragraph clearly defines the design issu es Source: IAPMO, 1997, Uniform Plumbing Code, Appendix G.
for irrigation facilities:
Each va lved zon e s h all h ave a min imu m
effective irrigation area in squ are feet (squ are
meters) as determined by Table 2-2 for the type Table 2-2 (M)
of soil fou nd in the excavation. Table 2-2 gives Design Criteria of Six Typical Soils
th e design criteria for the u se of gray-water sys-
tems in variou s types of soil (coarse san d or Type of Soil Minimum Minimum
Irrigation/Leaching Absorption Capacity
gravel, fine sand, sandy loam, san dy clay, mixed
Area (min/m2
clay). As the soil weight decreases and th e soil 2
(m / L of of irrigation/
becomes less porou s, the minimu m squ are feet estimated gray-water leaching area/
(squ are meters) needed for leachin g increases. discharge/day) day)
Coarse sand or gravel needs a 20-ft 2 irrigation
area per 100 gal (1.86 m 2 per 379 L) of estimated Coarse sand or
gray-water discharge per day. Clay with a small gravel 0.005 5.0
amou nt of sand or gravel requ ires 120 ft 2 per
Fine sand 0.006 4.0
100 gal (11.15 m 2 per 379 L) of estimated gray
water per day. The area of the irrigation/ disposal Sandy loam 0.010 2.5
field sh all be equ al to th e aggregate length of the Sandy clay 0.015 1.7
perforated pipe section s within th e valved zone Clay with considerable
times the width of the proposed irrigation / dis- sand or gravel 0.022 1.1
posal field. Each proposed gray-water system Clay with small amount
shall include at least three valved zones, and each of sand or gravel 0.030 0.8
zone shall be in compliance with the provisions
Source: IAPMO, 1997, Uniform Plumbing Code, Appendix G.
Chapter 2 — Gray-Water Systems 27

Table 2-3 identifies th e location and separa- be a min imu m of 50 ft (15.2 m) from su rge tanks
tion distances from a variety of stru ctu res and and 100 ft (30.5 m) from irrigation fields. Simi-
en viron men ts . For example, a n y bu ildin g or larly, th e distance from the pu blic water main to
stru ctu re shall be a minimu m of 5 ft (1.5 m) from a su rge tan k sh all be a minimu m of 10 ft (3.1
a gray-water su rge tank. The minimu m distance m). The table also identifies additional restric-
from any property lines to a gray-water su rge tion s.
ta n k is 5 ft (1.5 m). Crit ica l a rea s s u ch a s
See Table 2-4 for the design of th e gray-wa-
streams, lakes, seepage pits, or cesspools sh all
ter distribu tion in su bsu rface drip systems for
variou s types of soil. This table gives th e mini-
mu m dis ch arge, in gallon s / day, for effective
Table 2-3 irrigation distribu tion. “Emitters” are defined as
Location of the Gray-Water System orifices with a minimu m flow path of 120 microns
(µ) and sh all have a tolerance of manu factu rin g
Element Minimum Horizontal Distance from variation equ al to n o more than 7%.
Irrigation
Holding Tank, Disposal Field,
ft (mm) ft (mm) TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Buildings or structures 5.2 (1524) 2.3 (610) Treatment systems vary widely. The treatment
system con ditions the recovered water to a de-
Property line adjoining gree consistent with both the intended u se of
private property 5 (1524) 5 (1524)
th e conditioned water and th e design requ ire-
Water supply wells 50 (15 240) 100 (30 480) ments of the design engineer, the applicable code,
Streams and lakes 50 (15 240) 50.5 (15 240)
or the responsible code official—whichever is the
most stringent. Typical waste-water (gray-water
Seepage pits or cesspools 5 (1524) 5 (1524) an d black-water) treatments u sed for variou s
Disposal field and 100% types of project are depicted in Figu re 2-3. The
expansion area 5 (1524) 4.6 (1219) size of the treatment systems available vary from
th ose installed for individu al private dwellings
Septic tank 0 (0) 5 (1524) to those serving mu ltiple facilities. As th e treat-
On-site domestic water ment facility becomes more complex, the nu mber
service line 5 (1524) 5 (1524) of treatment activities increases an d the qu ality
Pressurized public
of the water improves. Some of the treatment
water main 10 (3048) 10.7 (3048) activities are basic screen ing, flow equ alization,
biological treatment, filtration, coagu lation, sedi-
men tation, disin fections, reclaimed water tank,
m em b r a n e filt r a t ion , a n d a ct iva t ed ca r bon
filtration.
Table 2-4
Subsurface Drip Design Criteria Th e s election of a treatmen t sys tem als o
of Six Typical Soils depends on the qu ality and type of the influ ent
water. To decide which is the most appropriate
Type of Soil Minimum Minimum Number treatment, th e kinds of fixtu re discharge to be
Emitter of Emitters per u sed for reclaiming and the treatment requ ire-
Discharge, gal/day (L/day) ments of the au thorities mu st be determined.
gal/day of Gray-Water
(L/day) Production Table 2-5 describes the types of filtration and
water-treatment processes most commonly u sed
in th e gray-water treatment process. Dependin g
Sand 1.8 (6.8) 0.6
on the types of filtration , the degree and types of
Sandy loam 1.4 (5.3) 0.7 components filtered vary. Basic filtration con-
Loam 1.2 (4.5) 0.9 centrates on redu cing su spended solids and does
Clay loam 0.9 (3.4) 1.1 not absorb nitrogen or phosph ates. Coagu lation
Silty clay 0.6 (2.3) 1.6 assists in bu ilding u p the solid filtration and adds
Clay 0.5 (1.9) 2 phosphates to th e list. Chlorin ation is signifi-
28 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(A)

(B)

Figure 2-3 Water Treatment Systems:

(A) Types of Gray-Water Treatment System; (B) Types of Black-Water Treatment System

Table 2-5 Gray-Water Treatment Processes for Normal Process Efficiency

Biological Chemical Total

Suspended Oxygen Oxygen Phosphates, Dissolved
Process Solids Demand Demand P0-4 Nitrogen Solids

Filtration 80 40 35 0 0 0
Coagulation / filtration 90 50 40 85 0 15
Chlorination 0 20a 20a 0 0 0
Tertiary treatment 95 95 910 15-60 50-70 80
Absorphan (carbon filtration) 0 60-80 70 0 10 5

a Nominal, additional removals possible with super chlorination and extended contact time.
Chapter 2 — Gray-Water Systems 29

can t on ly on oxygen deman d issu es. Tertiary and plant life to prevent scaling of pipes and fou l-
treatmen t in clu des filtration of all categories. in g of valves or equ ipment.
Absorphan , or carbon filtration , con cen trates
prima rily on biologica l an d ch emical oxygen
demands. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS—
AN EXAMPLE
Table 2-6 shows the design elements of gray-
water system treatments. In the type A treatment, Table 2-7 gives the life cycle econ omic compari-
separate gray-water riser piping and water-closet son of a gray-water system for a 250-room resort
piping is requ ired. This type of treatment con-
h otel. Th e cost of th e con ven tional system is
s is t s of filt r a t ion , ch lor in a t ion , a n d color
based on water and sewer ann u al consu mption.
modifications. The system re-feeds the water clos-
The min imu m gray-water system, Type A treat-
ets. The enhanced version of the type A treatment
m en t fa cilit y, wou ld h a ve a n in it ia l fixed
adds color as well as ch emical treatmen ts. If the
estimated cost of $87,500.00. This cost amor-
water sou rce contains high percentages of soaps tized over 15 years with 12% in terest will resu lt
or foamin g agents, th e addition of defoamin g
in an annu al cost for payment of the in itial capi-
agents is highly recommended. Increased condi-
tal cost. This ann u al cost, plu s th e water and
tioning of th e water will increase th e u se of the
sewer cost, plu s the treatment equ ipment main-
water for other applications, su ch as cooling tow-
tenance cost is n ear the annu al cost for the hotel
ers. Type B treatmen ts give the complete tertiary management. With maximu m gray-water treat-
treatment of the water and permit th e u se of ment, Type B, the total annu al cost does not
water for a wide variety of reu se applications.
decrease very mu ch. In fact, statistically they
The biological an d chemical oxygen treatmen ts
are n early the same. Given th is data, the only
are mandatory for the high con centration s of fe-
reasons to provide gray water in facilities are gov-
cal matter. The addition of chemical treatment,
ernmental or institu tional incentives. In addition,
filtration, and/ or carbon absorption con ditions th e cost of sewage as well as the cost of water
the water for a wide variety of applications. Treat- consu mption may become the decisive factors.
men t qu ality also mu st take in to accou n t the
An y in crease in th e cost of sewage or water,
chemical compou nd of the water requ ired for u se
cau sed perh aps by a drou gh t in a region , can
in piping, cooling towers, indu strial applications,
alter the life-cycle econ omics.

Table 2-6 Comparison of Gray-Water System Applications

Potential Sewage
System Piping Treatment Gray-Water Uses Water Savingsa Savingsa

Conventional Base None N/A 0 0

Type A Separate Filtration, Water closets 20,000 gal/day 20,000 gal/day

(minimal gray-water chlorination, (75 708 L/day) (75 708 L/day)
treatment) riser/separate color 17% (inc. irrigation), 26%
WC stack 22% (without
irrigation)

Type A Separate Chemical Water closets, 35,000 gal/day, 35,000 gal/day

(enhanced gray-water filtration, cooling towers, (132 489 L/day) (132 489 L/day)
treatment) riser/separate chlorination, irrigation (pos.) 30% (incl. irrigation), 46%
WC stack color 38% (without
irrigation)

Type B Separate Tertiary All nonpotable 61,000 gal/day, N/A

gray-water riser sewage uses (230 909 L/day)
treatment 52% (incl. irrigation)
a Values for savings noted are based on the 250-room resort hotel example. Percentages based on normal usage of 117,850 gal/day,
Including irrigation, and 91,150 gal/day, without irrigation.
30 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

Figure 2 -4 System Design Flow Chart Example (250 -Room Hotel):

(A) Conventional Plumbing System; (B) Recycling for Water Closets; (C) Recycling for Water
Closets and Cooling Tower; (D) Recycling for Water Closets, Cooling Tower, and Irrigation
Chapter 2 — Gray-Water Systems 31

Table 2-7 Life-Cycle Economic Comparison: To u se the nomograph, proceed as follows:

Gray-Water Systems for 250-Room Hotel 1. Enter the lower right portion of the nomo-
graph with the anticipated total potable water
Installed System
consu mption for all u sers (based on a con-
Type A Type B ventional system).
(Minimal
Conventional Gray (Gray
2. Move vertically u p to the combined utility cost
System Water) Water) for wa t er pu rch a s e a n d s a n ita ry s ewa ge
charges (e.g., $1.25/ 1000 gal [3785 L] for wa-
ter, and $0.75/ 1000 gal [3785 L] for sewage).
Fixed Cost 0.000 $87,500 $259,000
3. Move horizontally to the left to form baseline
Life 20 yr 15 yr 15 yr
(Base system)
X.

Cost of money 12% 12% 12%

4. Enter the u pper right portion of the nomo-
graph with the estimated addition al cost of
Capital recovery th e gray-water system (addition al pipin g,
factor N/A 0.1468.2 0.14682 storage, and treatmen t equ ipment).
Amortized first cost 0 $12,846 $38,026 5. Move vertically down to the annu al in terest
Utility costs 0 0 0 rate (cost of money) u sed in the analysis.
Water ($1.40/ 6. Move h or izon t a lly t o t h e left t o for m
1000 gal $59,395 $49,315 $28,299 baselin e Y.
[3785 L])
7. If the proposed system is a Type A gray-wa-
Sewage ($0.50/ ter system, go to the in tersection of baseline
1000 gal $13,706 $10,106 0 X and the system A cu rve (lower left qu ad-
[3785 L]) ran t) of the n omograph.
Operational cost 0 0 0 8. If a Type B gray-water system is being stu d-
Treatment ied, go to the intersection of baseline X and
equipment 0 $1,240 $6,305 th e system B cu rve.
9. From the appropriate intersection, move ver-
Total Annual Cost $73,101 $73,507 $72,630 tically u p to the horizon tal separation line
and then u p and left at the indicated 45°
angle to an in tersection with baseline Y.
The complete water flow chart of th e 250- 10. From th is in tersection point, move vertically
room hotel is shown in Figu re 2-4. As depicted down on ce again to th e in tersection with
in Table 2-6, th e water-flow-rate savin gs are baseline X.
clearly defined.
11. If this final (circled) intersection is in the lower
Before on e considers u sing a gray-water sys- righ t field, the system appears prelimin arily
tem, it is desirable to be able to evalu ate qu ickly, feasible and shou ld be su bjected to a more
on a preliminary basis, the potential economic detailed economic analysis.
feasibility of the proposed sch eme. To facilitate
th is, a nomograph su ch as th at shown in Figu re 12. If the fin al intersection falls to th e left and
2-5 can be u sed. This an alysis shows th e varia- above th e sector dividin g lin e, then th e eco-
t ion in in t er es t r a t es , va r ia t ion in cos t of nomic feasibility of the sch eme is strongly
combined water and sewage, the water daily u se, su spect.
and cost of total systems based on two types of Note: Obvious ly , the many variable inputs that must be
treatmen ts, A an d B. Movemen t th rou gh th e cons idered in a detailed economic analy s is do not lend
thems elves to an eas y -to-us e nomograph. Many of thes e
chart from an interest rate (based on th e cu r- inputs have been s implified by mak ing normal as s umptions
rent economy) to the combined cost of sewage about s uch things as ratios of reus e, relative quantities of
and water (based on mu nicipalities) to the water w ater cons umption, and s ew age dis charge. Thus , w hile the
consu mption (based on bu ilding occu pancy) and nomograph does give a quick and relatively good indication
of feas ibility , it does not replace a detailed economic
to the type of treatment facility (based on the evaluation. This is particularly true if the s cheme under
pu rity requ ired) can provide an approximate cost consideration has anticipated hy draulic flow patterns that
for a gray-water system. differ mark edly from the relative us es outlined in Figure 2-5.
32 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 2 -5 Nomograph for Overview of Preliminary Feasibility of Gray-Water Systems

As a region’s popu lation grows, the u tiliza- PRECAUTIONS

tion of limited water s u pplies becomes more
critical, and the need for conservation becomes Since gray water poses a potential h ealth haz-
more obviou s, eviden ced by regu lation, a change ard, a great deal of care mu st be exercised once
in the types of plu mbing fixtu res, pu blic edu ca- su ch a system is in stalled. One of th e greatest
tion and volu n tary participation, or an increase dangers is the possibility that the gray water will
in water and sewage system charges. In addi- be inadverten tly con nected to th e potable-water
tion, th e economic capabilities of a mu nicipality system. To avoid this possibility, the water itself
determine its capability for adding sewage-treat- and the piping mu st be made easily distingu ish-
men t facilities and meetin g the demands of the able, anti-cross-connection precau tions mu st be
commu n ity. taken, and appropriate alarms mu st be installed.
Chapter 2 — Gray-Water Systems 33

Treated water cou ld be colored by food dye not be attractive to the occu pants of a newly oc-
th at is biodegradable. Fixtu res cou ld be bou ght cu pied high-rise. Edu catin g the u sers of gray
in th e color of the water if the water color will be water is imperative. An u n derstandin g of th e
fou nd objectionable. sou rce and the associated dangers and limita-
tions of gray water is essen tial to acceptance by
The piping system itself must be clearly iden-
th e general pu blic. To draw a parallel, the gen-
tified with labels placed visibly along the run of
eral pu blic is n ow fu lly aware of the dangers of
the pipe. If possible, the piping material should be
electricity, yet life withou t electricity is consid-
different so that the possibility of mistaking and
ered to be abnormal.
interconnecting the two systems will be u nlikely.
An economic analysis of gray-water systems
The most important consideration is the edu -
in h ealth-care facilities may favor du al plu mb-
cation of individu als and th e staff of a facility
in g systems. However, th e presen ce of viru ses,
with a gray-water system. An explanation of the
bacteria, and biological contamination in health-
dangers an d proper operating instru ction s will
care gray-water s ys tems (th rou gh lavatories,
ensu re th at an informed staff will operate and
bathtu bs, showers, and sin ks) may increase the
main tain th e system in a correct manner.
cost of water treatmen t. Also there is a legiti-
mate con cern regarding the spread of disease
PUBLIC CONCERNS/ ACCEPTANCE th rou gh su ch gray-water systems that mu st not
be overlooked. Therefore, the application of gray-
Although gray-water systems have been approved water systems in h ealth-care facilities may be a
less attractive option becau se of the possibility
for general u se in different parts of the world
of biological contamination.
and have been designed in a variety of forms, it
is still u nfamiliar to many city and cou nty gov-
ernmen ts, plu mbing and facility engineers, and CONCLUSION
th e general pu blic. An exception is th e Baha-
mas, wh ere th e local code man dates du al or
This Data Book chapter began with the definition
gray-water systems in all occu pancies.
of gray water and ended with a discussion of its
Alth ou gh the u se of gray water is a proven public acceptance. It touched briefly on the de-
cost-effective altern ative to th e u se of potable s ign elemen ts of th e plu mbin g s ys tem a n d
water in variou s systems, th ere is relu ctance on identified the variations among different facilities.
th e part of au thorities to approve it. Some rea- The economic analysis of the gray-water system
sons inclu de: can become the decisive issue that determines
whether a gray-water system is even considered
1. There is no generally accepted standard for
for a project. This analysis can be extrapolated
th e qu ality of recycled water. Several states
for any other projects and variations.
in th e US, J apan , and the Caribbean h ave
adopted codes and gu idelines, bu t for most For the full design of gray-water systems, the
of the world th ere is no standard. This has reader should refer to other technical data books.
resu lted in rejection of the systems or lon g Water treatment is one of the backbones of the
delays during the approval process of projects gray-water system. For the water-flow calcu la-
while the qu ality of the water is in qu estion. tions with all the required pumps, piping, and
con trols, th e reader is referred to th e ASPE
2. Regu latory an d plu mbing codes that do not
Manual on Gray Water (forthcoming).
have an y specific restrictions against u sin g
gray water or have ambigu ou s langu age that Finally, water shortages, government subsi-
cou ld be interpreted for its u se bu t whose dies, tax incentives, the facility limitations of local
officials impose special standards due to their governments, and popu lation growth will be the
lack of experien ce. primary motivators for designers and project
Alth ou gh th e u se of gray water is ideal in engineers to consider gray-water system selec-
certain circu mstances, the su ccess of gray wa- tions in their designs.
ter will depend solely on pu blic acceptance, and
th at will requ ire an adequ ate edu cational effort.
The u se of colored water in water closets may
34 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

REFERENCES
1. Atienze, J ., and J . Craytor. 1995. Plu mbin g effi-
ciency th rou gh gray-water recycling. Cons ulting
Specify ing Engineer. (March): 58.
2. Baltimore, MD, Dept. of Pu blic Works. J u n e
1966. Commercial w ater us e res earch project, by
J . B. Wolf, F. P. Linaweaver, and J .C. Center.
3. Du mfries Triangle and Occoqu an-Woodbridge
Sanitary District, Woodbridge, VA. Water us es
s tudy , by G. D. Gray and J . J . Woodcock.
4. International Association of Plumbing and Me-
ch a n ical Officia ls (IAPMO). 1998. Ca liforn ia
plumbing code. Walnut, CA.
5. IAPMO. 1997. Uniform plumbing code.
6. Konen, Thomas P. 1986. Water u se in office
buildings. Plumbing Engineer Magazine. J uly/ Au-
gu st.
7. Lehr, Valentine A. 1987. Gray-water systems.
Heating/ Piping/ Air Conditioning. J anuary.
8. n.a. 1997. Water: Use of treated sewage on rise
in state. Los Angeles Tim es , August 17: A36.
9. Siegrist, R., and W. C. Boyle. 1976. Characteris-
tics of rural household waste water. Journal of
the Environmental Engineering Divis ion, (J une):
533.
10. US Dept. of Commerce, National Information Ser-
vices. 1978. Management of s mall w as te flow s ,
by Wisconsin University, PB-286-560.
11. US General Services Administration. 1995. Wa-
ter management: A comprehensive approach for
facility managers.
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 35

Vents and
Venting

Venting systems are often the least u nderstood lead to gu rglin g noises and slu ggish waste flow.
of the basic plu mbing design concepts. The com- Sewer ventilation is requ ired by some local au -
plete venting of a bu ilding drain age system is a thorities to promote flow in th e sewer an d to
very complicated su bject, as can be seen from redu ce the concentration of dangerou s and cor-
th e great variety of venting systems th at may be rosive gases.
involved. It is n ot feasible to cover all the vent-
ing variations in this ch apter. However, to foster Vent Stack Terminal
u nderstanding, the preparation of venting tables
for stacks an d for horizon tal branches for vari- A “vent stack terminal” is the part of the ventin g
ou s venting systems is discu ssed. system that extends throu gh the roof, thu s keep-
in g the drain age system open to atmosph eric
Owing to the fact th at the condition s that
pressu re. Th ou gh it may be small by compari-
tend to produ ce pneu matic pressures in the vent-
son to the overall sanitary drain age piping, the
ing system that exceed or are below atmospheric
vent stack terminal is an important portion of
pressu re by considerable amounts vary so greatly
from case to case, and since the bu ildin g drain th e system. Throu gh th e terminal ven t, air at
may be wholly or partly su bmerged—or not su b- atmospheric pressu re en ters the drainage sys-
tem to h old in balance th e water seal con tained
merged at all—wh ere it enters the street sewer,
in each fixtu re trap. The balance of atmospheric
it is n ot feasible to lay down ru les that will apply
air pressu re and gravitational pu ll on the waste-
to th e venting of all designs.
water mass follows th e prin ciples ou tlin ed in
Chapter 1 of this volu me, “Sanitary Drain age
SECTION I — Systems.” Vent stack terminals n eed to be sized
VENTS AND VENTING in accordan ce with local codes and/ or good en-
gin eering practices.
Purposes of Venting Good engin eerin g practices inclu de the fol-
lowing:
Vent systems are installed to elimin ate trap si-
ph on age, redu ce back pressu re an d vacu u m 1. In crease th e terminal pipe by two sizes at 18
s u rges , promote th e rapid an d silen t flow of in . (455 mm) below the roof line. Th is allows
wastes, and ven tilate the sewer. Trap siphonage for the interior bu ilding space (which is u su -
redu ces or eliminates the trap seal and leads to ally warmer) to provide a con vecting flow of
an insanitary and hazardou s condition. Pressu re in terior bu ilding heat, keeping the vent ter-
and vacu u m su rges cau se objectionable move- minal at the roof from freezing closed.
men ts of the water in the h ighly visible water 2. Project the vent terminal in accordance with
closet traps as well as affect th e trap seals in all ju risdictional bu ilding codes and in a distant
fixtu res. Excessive pressu re cau ses bu bbles of relationship from air intake lou vers, windows,
sewer gas to flow throu gh traps. Unven ted traps doors, and other roof openings, 10 ft (3 m)
36 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

minimu m. Sewer gases will be forced u pward extent as the fixtu re gradu ally empties after the
th rou gh th e terminal stack by the weight of siphon is broken. Glass plu mbing is a convenient
the waste water, therefore, the vent pressu res way to observe th is phenomenon. Water-closet
versu s the air intake volu mes need to be con- traps mu st always be siphoned to achieve a flu sh.
sidered. Water closets are designed so that th e water-
closet trap is refilled. Traps can also be siphoned
3. Provide minimu m 4-in. (101.6-mm) diameter
vent stack termin als. Experience has proved when there is excessive vacu u m in the system.
th at a 4-in. (101.6-mm) termin al allows an
adequ ate volu me of air to enter the plu mb- Factors Affecting Trap Seal Loss
ing system, and its effective opening is not
as easily con stricted by foreign matter, ice, Based on the preceding, the following will redu ce
snow, or vermin as the opening of a smaller th e dan ger of seal siph onage of th e trap:
diameter pipe wou ld be. (It sh ou ld be n oted 1. Redu ce the depth of the overflow rim in fix-
th at most codes requ ire on ly that one 3-in. tu res.
[76-mm] vent to atmosph ere be provided for
each bu ilding drain.) 2. Flatten th e bottoms of fixtu res.

Winds of su fficien t force can affect th e fu nc- 3. Avoid h igh-su ds detergents.

tion of the venting system. A strong wind blowing 4. Provide smaller discharge openin gs on the
across the effective opening of the vent stack ter- fixtu res.
minal can create u nbalanced air pressures within
5. Reduce the distance (tailpiece length) between
th e system. Protective devices are available bu t
th e fixtu re and the trap.
may be su sceptible to frost closu re. Care mu st
also be taken in locating the vent terminals with 6. In crease th e size of the trap and trap arm.
respect to bu ilding walls, high er adjacent roofs, 7. Redu ce the vacu u m on th e disch arge side of
parapet walls, etc., as these may affect the proper th e trap.
flow of air in to and ou t of the venting system.
8. Provide a vent near the trap ou tlet.
Traps and Trap Seals There are th ree predominan t ways in which
traps seals are redu ced. The first way occu rs
Traps are installed at the plu mbing fixtu res to wh en t h e pn eu m a t ic-pr es s u r e flu ct u a t ion s
preven t sewer gas and odors from escaping into cau sed by th e discharge of fixtu res other than
the bu ilding and to keep insects and vermin ou t- th e fixtu re to wh ich a particu lar trap is attached
s ide. Th ey are u s u a lly requ ired to be of th e siphon water ou t of the trap u ntil the positive
water-seal, self-scou ring type. part of the flu ctu ation occu rs. The second way
Oth er types may be necessary to save pre- is by the discharge of th e fixtu re to which the
ciou s metal or to keep h armfu l material ou t of trap is attached. The third way of redu cing trap
the drainage system. Special code approvals may seals is by th e bu ildu p of high -su ds detergents.
be necessary in these cases. The trap seal may It is recommended that the first phenomenon
be lost wh en a fixtu re is drained. Du rin g drain- described be called “indu ced siphonage” an d the
age, water drops throu gh the fixtu re ou tlet down second “self-siph on age.”
the tailpiece, acquiring momentu m. This momen-
t u m is t r a n s fer r ed t o t r a p-s ea l wa t er . Th e Suds Venting
combined water then flows ou t of th e trap down
th e trap arm at a rate depending on slope and High -su dsin g detergents may be expected to be
momentu m. Th e momentu m will be increased if u sed in kitchen sinks, dishwashers, and clothes-
th ere is a vacu u m in the drain age system. If the washing mach ines in residential occu pancies.
trap arm fills with water (either actu ally or effec- These su ds disru pt the venting action and spread
tively becau se of su ds in the trap arm), th e trap th rou gh the lower portions of mu ltistory drain-
water may siphon. (For this reason , most codes age systems. Th e more tu rbu lence, the greater
limit the distance from the fixtu re to the trap th e su ds. In some cases, su ds back u p th rou gh
weir to 24 in . [0.6 m].) Some water will remain in th e traps and even spill ou t on the floor. They
th e trap, bu t the water seal will be lost or re- cau se an in crease in the pressu re an d vacu u m
du ced. The trap is u su ally replenished to some levels in the systems. They affect both single-
stack and conventional systems. Solu tions to the
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 37

problem may in volve avoidin g su ds pres su re sudsy detergents are used, a zone shall
zon es , con n ectin g th e s u ds -produ cin g s ta ck be considered to exist downstream in the
downstream of all other stacks, and increasin g horizontal drain from the base of the
the size of the horizontal bu ilding drain to achieve stack an d both u pstream an d down -
les s res trict ive flow of a ir a n d wa ter. Us in g s t r ea m of t h e n ext offs et fit t in g
streamlin e fittings, su ch as wyes, tends to re- downstream.
du ce su ds formation . Ch eck valves in fixtu re Zone 4. In a soil or waste system, which
tailpieces have been u sed to fix problem instal- serves fixtures on two or more floors and
lation s. receives wastes from fixtu res wherein
The Nation al Stan dard Plu mbing Code, one sudsy detergents are used, a zone shall
of the tradition al codes, lists th e following spe- be considered to exist in the vent stack
cial requ iremen ts to avoid su ds problems: extending u pstream from the point of
connection to the base of the soil or waste
1. Where required. Where kitchen sinks, laun-
stack. See Figure 3-2.
dry trays, laundry washing machines, and
similar fixtu res in which sudsy detergents
are normally u sed, discharge at an u pper Fixture Vents
level into a soil or waste stack which drain- The discharge of a lavatory or sink is qu ite high
age and vent piping for such lower fixtures at first, decreasing a little as the depth in the
shall be arranged so as to avoid connection basin decreases, u ntil su dden ly the rate of dis-
to suds pressure zones in the sanitary drain- ch a rge fa lls ra pidly t o n ea rly zero, with th e
age and vent systems, or a su ds relief vent,
relieving to a nonpressure zone shall be pro-
vided at each suds pressure zone where such
connections are installed. In multistory build- Table 3-1 Suds Pressure-Relief Vents
ings, with more than six branch intervals of
Waste Size, Relief Vent Size,
fixtures described above, separate waste and
in. (mm) in. (mm)
vent stacks for the lower four branch inter-
vals of fixtures shall be required. See Table
1½ (38) 2 (51)
3-1.
2 (51) 2 (51)
2. Suds pres s ure zones. Suds pressure zones
shall be considered to exist at the following 2½ (63) 2 (51)
locations in sanitary drainage and vent sys- 3 (76) 2 (51)
tems as indicated in Table 3-1. See Figure 3-1. 4 (101) 3 (76)
Zone 1. In a soil or waste stack, which 5 (127) 4 (101)
serves fixtures on two or more floors and 6 (152) 5 (127)
receives wastes from fixtu res wherein
8 (203) 6 (152)
sudsy detergents are used, a zone shall be
considered to exist in the vertical portion Extent of Suds Pressure Zones for Various Size
upstream of an offset fitting and the riser Soil and Waste Piping,
to the upper section of the system, in the Extent of Zone (Measured from Fittings)
horizontal portion downstream of this fit- Stack Size, Upstream, Downstream,
ting and in the horizontal portion upstream in. (mm) U, ft (m) D, ft (m)
of the offset immediately preceding the next
offset fitting. See Table 3-1. 1½ (38) 5 (1.5) 1½ (0.45)
Zone 2. In a soil or waste stack, which 2 (51) 7 (2.1) 1½ (0.45)
serves fixtures on two or more floors and
2½ (63) 8 (2.4) 2 (0.61)
receives wastes from fixtu res wherein
sudsy detergents are used, a zone shall be 3 (76) 10 (3.0) 2½ (0.76)
considered to exist at the base of the stack 4 (101) 13 (4.0) 3½ (1.1)
and extending upstream. See Table 3-1. 5 (127) 17 (5.2) 4 (1.2)
Zone 3. In a soil or waste system, which 6 (152) 20 (6.1) 5 (1.5)
serves fixtures on two or more floors and
receives wastes from fixtu res wherein Note: For use with Figure 3-1.
38 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 3-1 Suds-Pressure-Zone Diagram

coincidental formation of a vortex wh ich allows pu blished. Tests of the siphonage of fixtu re traps
air to be su cked down in to the drain. Air th at is were made as early as 1880, bu t no record of
drawn throu gh the fixtu re passes down the drain in vestigations of self-siphonage at su ch an early
in the form of bu bbles that are dragged alon g date h as been fou nd. Perh aps the most system-
th e h igh es t elemen t of th e dra in . If th ere is atic in vestigation of the su bject was made by
enou gh air travelin g with th e water, when the J ohn L. French and Herbert N. Eaton. A fu ll-
flow from the fixtu re falls off, th e bu bbles enable scale test was con du cted by th em to determine
th e water to break loose from th e u pper element th e factors that affect self-siphonage and, more
of the drain , so th at the piston effect of water particu larly, to establish limits on drain lengths,
th at wou ld otherwise occu r is often prevented. If slopes, diameters, and other pertinent variables
th e slu g of water continu es to fill th e cross sec- that wou ld ensu re that excessive trap-seal losses
tion as the flow decreases, it moves downstream du e to self-siphon age wou ld not occu r.
slowly, creating a redu ced pressure behind it that
Based on these early research resu lts, lengths
su cks the water ou t of the trap ju st as h appens
of nominally sized, h orizontal, u n ven ted waste
when the redu ced pressu re is du e to indu ced
pipes believed to be safe against self-siphonage
siphonage.
have been established. For example, the Uniform
Only a limited amou nt of data on the self- Plumbing Code has a section on the maximum
siphonage of plu mbing-fixtu re traps h ave been length of the trap arm stating as follows:
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 39

Figure 3-2 Suds Venting/ Suds Pressure Zones

“Each fixtu re trap shall have a protecting vent It s h ou ld be n oted th at th e International

so located that the developed length of th e trap Plumbing Code requ irements differ significantly
arm from the trap weir to the inner edge of the from these. They are set forth as follows:
vent shall be within th e distan ce given in Table
“Each fixtu re trap shall have a protecting vent
3-2, bu t in n o case less than two (2) times the
located so that the slope and the developed length
diameter of the trap arm.”
in the fixtu re drain from th e trap weir to the vent
fitting are with in the requ iremen ts set forth in
Table 3-2 Maximum Length of Trap Arm Table 3-3.”

Diameter of Distance— Vent ing as a Means of Reducing Trap

Trap Arm, in. (mm) Trap to Vent, ft (m) Seal Losses from Induced Siphonage
1¼ (32) 2½ (0.76) Spent water and other wastes from plu mbing fix-
1½ (38) 3½ (1.1) tu res enter vertical stacks throu gh branch drains
where th e flow is described as separated flow.
2 (51) 5 (1.5)
The waste water travels alon g the lower portion
3 (76) 6 (1.8) of the drain allowin g the free movement of air in
4 (101) 10 (3.0) th e u pper portion of the condu it. Shortly after
40 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 3-3 Maximum Distance of conventional formu la for expressing losses other
Fixture Trap from Vent than those associated with flow in long, straight
pipes. This can be expressed as:
Size of
Fixture Slope, Distance Equa t ion 3 -1
Size of Trap, Drain, in./ft from Trap,
fLV2
in. (mm) in. (mm) (cm/m) ft (m) hf =
D2g
14 (32) 14 (32) 4 (12.5) 32 (1.07) where
14 (32) 12 (40) 4 (12.5) 5 (1.52)
hf = Head loss du e to friction, ft (m) of
12 (40) 12 (40) 4 (12.5) 5 (1.52) air colu mn
12 (40) 2 (51) 4 (12.5) 6 (1.83)
f = Coefficient of friction corresponding
2 (51) 2 (51) 4 (12.5) 8 (2.44) to th e rou gh ness of the pipe su rface
3 (76) 3 (76) 8 (25) 10 (3.05) and the diameter of the pipe
4 (101) 4 (101) 8 (25) 12 (3.66) L = Length of piping, ft (m)
V = Velocity of flow, fps (m/ s)
entering the stack, the waste water attaches it- D = Diameter of pipin g, ft (m)
self to th e walls of the vertical pipe formin g an g = Gravitation al acceleration, 32.2 ft/
annu lar flow. The fallin g water drags with it air s 2 (9.8 m/ s 2 )
th at in a con ven tion al plu mbing drain age sys-
tem is removed throu gh the extensive network The maximu m permissible length of vent pip-
of vents in addition to the bu ilding drain. in g is expressed as:

The capacity of a given design is governed by Equa t ion 3 -2

th e system’s ability to manage the incoming air hfd5
in su ch a way that the pressu re excu rsions, posi- L =
t ive a n d n ega t ive, will b e wit h in cer t a in (0.03109)fq2
acceptable limits. Positive pressu res are high and where
often the cau se of failu re in systems with com-
plex bu ildin g drain s. Th e main ven t stack is L = Length of piping, ft (m)
designed to remove the expected air with a pres- hf = Head loss du e to friction, ft (m) of
su re loss less th an 1 in . (25.4 mm) of water flu id colu mn
colu mn. In tall bu ildin gs, the fallin g water de-
d = Diameter of pipin g, in. (mm)
velops large n egative pressu res, wh ich cau se
failu res by siphoning th e water from traps. f = Coefficient of friction corresponding
to th e rou gh ness of the pipe su rface
and the diameter of the pipe
Design of Vents to Cont rol Induced
Siphonage q = Qu antity rate of flow, gpm (L/ s)

In most plu mbing codes a loading table for vents Drainage Fixture Units
is provided. The pu rpose of su ch a table is to give
the information necessary to design the vent stack The selection of the size and length of vent pip-
for the delivery of the amou nt of air requ ired for in g requ ires design or installation information
th e control of pn eu matic pressu res at critical abou t the size of the soil and/ or waste stack and
points in the drainage system within limits of ±1 th e fixtu re u nit (derived from the su pply system
in. (25.4 mm) of water colu mn from atmospheric design ) loads connected to the stack. Total fix-
pressu re. If this range of pressu re can be main- t u r e u n it s con n ect ed t o t h e s t a ck ca n b e
t a in ed , t h e effect s of p n eu m a t ic-p r es s u r e compu ted in accordance with Table 3-4. Fixtu re
flu ctu ations on the fixtu re-trap seals will be neg- u nits are really weightin g factors that effectively
ligible. The dimensions of pipes required to deliver convert th e variou s types of fixtu re, having dif-
given qu antities of air at a pressu re drop of 1 in. ferent probabilities of u se, to equ ivalent nu mbers
(25.4 mm) of water column can be computed from of an arbitrarily ch osen type of fixtu re with a
the Darcy-Weisbach Formu la combined with the single probability of u se. In other words, th e fix-
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 41

Table 3-4 Drainage-Fixture-Unit Values tu re u nit assigned to each kin d of fixtu re repre-
for Various Plumbing Fixtures sents the degree to which it loads th e system.
The design er shou ld confirm or adju st th is data
Type of Fixture or Drainage-Fixture- based on the local code.
Group of Fixtures Unit Value (dfu)
Vent Sizes and Lengt hs
Automatic clothes washer (2-in. [51 mm] standpipe) 3
Bathroom group consisting of a water closet, The above two equ ation s are u sefu l for compu t-
lavatory, and bathtub or shower stall: in g lengths and diameters of vent pipes requ ired
Flushometer valve closet 8
to carry given rates of air flow. Appropriate val-
Tank-type closet 6
Bathtub (with or without overhead shower)a 2 u es of the friction coefficien t shou ld be u sed in
Bidet 1 applying these equ ations. For any particular pipe,
Clinic Sink 6 “f” is an in verse fu nction of the Reyn old’s nu m-
Combination sink-and-tray with food-waste grinder 4 b er (t u r b u len ce ) a n d in cr ea s e s wit h t h e
Combination sink-and-tray with one rou ghness of pipe material relative to diameter.
1½-in. (38 mm) trap 2
Combination sink-and-tray with separate The size of ven t piping shall be determined
1½-in. (38 mm) trap 3 from its length and the total nu mber of fixtu re
Dental unit or cuspidor 1 u nits connected th ereto, as set forth in Table
Dental lavatory 1 3-5. Note, in Table 3-5, that some codes limit
Drinking fountain ½ th e maximu m len gth located in the horizon tal
Dishwasher, domestic 2 position du e to h igher friction losses in horizon-
Floor drains with 2-in. (51 mm) waste 3 tal pipin g. On average, codes may limit th at
Kitchen sink, domestic, with one 1½-in. (38 mm) trap 2 20-50% of maximu m length be located in the
Kitchen sink, domestic, with food-waste grinder 2 horizontal position.
Kitchen sink, domestic, with food-waste grinder
and dishwasher 1½-in. (38 mm) trap 3
Kitchen sink, domestic, with dishwasher End Venting
1½-in. (38 mm) trap 3
Lavatory with 1¼-in. (32-mm) waste 1 “End venting” is a system of floor drains whose
Laundry trap (1 or 2 compartments) 2 bran ch arms do n ot exceed 15 ft (4.5 m) and are
Shower stall, domestic 2 sloped at 8 in./ ft (3.2 mm/ m) (1%) to a main
Showers (group) per headb 2 drain that is sized two pipe diameters larger,
Sinks: therefore allowing the main drain to be end
Surgeon’s 3 vented. The theory is that the system is over-
Flushing rim (with valve) 6
sized allowing the sewer always to flow partially
Service (trap standard) 3
Service (P trap) 2
full, thus permitting air to circulate above. (This
Pot, scullery, etc.b 4 configuration is similar to a combination waste-
Urinal, pedestal, syphon jet blowout 6 and-vent system.)
Urinal, wall lip 4
Urinal, stall, washout 4 Common Vent
Urinal, trough (each 6-ft [1.8 m] section) 2
Wash sink (circular or multiple) each set of faucets 2 A common vent may be u sed for two fixtu res set
Water closet, tank-operated 4 on the same floor level bu t connecting at differ-
Water closet, valve-operated 6 ent levels in the stack, provided that the vertical
Fixtures not listed above:
drain is one pipe diameter larger th an the u pper
Trap size 1¼ in. (32 mm) or less 1
Trap size 1½ in. (38 mm) 2 fixtu re drain bu t in no case smaller than the
Trap size 2 in. (51 mm) 3 lower fixtu re drain , or wh ichever is the larger,
Trap size 2½ in. (63 mm) 4 and that both drains conform to th e distances
Trap size 3 in. (76 mm) 5 from trap to vent for variou s size drains.
Trap size 4 in. (101 mm) 6
a A shower head over a bathtub does not increase the fixture-unit Stack Venting
value.
b See Chapter 1 of this volume for the method of computing equiva- A grou p of fixtu res, con sisting of one bathroom
lent fixture values for devices or equipment that discharges grou p and a kitchen sink or combination fixtu res,
continuous or semicontinuous flows into sanitary drainage sys- may be installed withou t individu al fixtu re vents
tems.
42 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 3-5 Size and Length of Vents

Size of
Soil or Fixture Diameter of Vent Required, in. (mm)
Waste Units
1¼ (32) 1½ (38) 2 (51) 2½ (63) 3 (76) 4 (101) 5 (127) 6 (152) 8 (203)
Stack, Con-
in. (mm) nected Maximum Length of Vent, ft (m)

1½ (38) 8 50 (15.2) 150 (45.7)

2 (51) 12 30 (9.1) 75 (22.8) 200 (61)

2 (51) 20 26 (7.9) 50 (15.2) 150 (45.7)

2½ (63) 42 30 (9.1) 100 (30.5) 300 (91.4)

3 (76) 10 30 (9.1) 100 (30.5) 100 (30.5) 600 (182.9)

3 (76) 30 60 (18.3) 200 (61) 500 (152.4)

3 (76) 60 50 (15.2) 80 (27.8) 400 (122)

4 (101) 100 35 (10.7) 100 (30.5) 260 (79.2) 1000 (304.8)

4 (101) 200 30 (9.1) 90 (27.4) 250 (76.2) 900 (274.3)

4 (101) 500 20 (6.1) 70 (21.3) 180 (54.9) 700 (213.4)

5 (127) 200 35 (10.7) 80 (27.8) 350 (106.7) 1000 (304.8)

5 (127) 500 30 (9.1) 70 (21.3) 300 (91.4) 900 (274.3)

5 (127) 1100 20 (6.1) 50 (15.2) 200 (61) 700 (213.4)

6 (152) 350 25 (7.6) 50 (15.2) 200 (61) 400 (122) 1300 (396.6)

6 (152) 620 15 (4.6) 30 (9.1) 125 (38) 300 (91.4) 1100 (335.3)

6 (152) 960 24 (7.3) 100 (30.5) 250 (76.2) 1000 (304.8)

6 (152) 1900 20 (6.1) 70 (21.3) 200 (61) 700 (213.0)

8 (203) 600 50 (15.2) 150 (43.7) 500 (152.4) 1300 (396.6)

8 (203) 1400 40 (12.2) 100 (30.5) 400 (122) 1200 (365.8)

8 (203) 2200 30 (9.1) 80 (27.8) 350 (106.7) 1100 (335.3)

8 (203) 3600 25 (7.6) 60 (18.3) 250 (76.2) 800 (243.8)

10 (254) 1000 75 (22.9) 125 (38) 1000 (304.8)

10 (254) 2500 50 (15.2) 100 (30.5) 500 (152.4)

10 (254) 3800 30 (9.1) 80 (27.8) 350 (106.7)

10 (254) 5600 25 (7.6) 60 (18.3) 250 (76.2)

Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 43

in a one-story bu ildin g or on the top floor of a Table 3-6 Size of Vent Stacks
bu ilding, provided each fixtu re drain connects
independently to the stack, an d the water closet Diam. of Vent Stacks
and bath tu b or sh ower-stall drain en ters the No. of Wet-Vented Fixtures in. mm
stack at the same level and in accordance with
trap-arm requ iremen ts. 1 or 2 bathtubs or showers 2 50.8
When a sink or combination fixtu re connects 3–5 bathtubs or showers 2½ 63.5
to the stack-ven ted bath room grou p and wh en 6–9 bathtubs or showers 3 76.2
the street sewer is sufficiently overloaded to cause 10–16 bathtubs or showers 4 101.6
frequ ent su bmersion of the bu ildin g sewer, a
relief ven t or back-ven ted fixtu re shall be con-
nected to the stack below the stack-vented water Circuit and Loop Venting
closet or bathtu b. A bran ch soil or waste pipe to which two bu t not
more than eight water closets (except blowou t
Wet Venting type), pedestal u rinals, trap standard to floor,
shower stalls, or floor drains are con nected in
If allowed by local codes, a single-bathroom grou p battery may be vented by a circu it or loop vent
of fixtu res may be in stalled with a drain from a which takes off in fron t of the last fixtu re con-
back-vented lavatory, kitchen sink, or combina- nection. In addition, lower-floor branches serving
tion fixtu re servin g as a wet vent for a bathtu b more th an three water closets sh all be provided
or shower stall and for the water closet, provided with a relief vent taken off in front of the first
th at: fixtu re conn ection. When lavatories or similar
1. Not more than one fixtu re u nit is drained into fixtu res discharge above su ch branches, each
a 1½-in. (38-mm) diameter wet vent or not vertical branch shall be provided with a continu -
more than fou r fixtu re u nits drain into a 2-in. ou s ven t.
(51-mm) diameter wet ven t. Figu re 3-3 represents a typical loop-vented,
2. The horizontal branch conn ects to the stack water-closet row in stalled on the top floor of a
at the same level as the water-closet drain or bu ildin g or in a one-story bu ilding. Figu re 3-3(a)
below the water-closet drain when installed shows the horizontal branch installed at the back
on the top floor. below the water closet. Figu re 3-3(b) is the same
toilet room, except th at the horizontal branch is
Bathroom grou ps con sisting of two lavato- directly u nder the water closets.
ries an d two bathtu bs or shower stalls back to
back on a top floor may be in stalled on the same Figu re 3-4 illu strates a toilet arrangement
horizontal bran ch with a common vent for the similar to that shown in Figu re 3-3 except that
lavatories and with no back vent for the bath- th e in stallation applies to a mu ltistory bu ilding.
tu bs or shower stalls and for the water closets, A circu it vent is similar to a loop vent except
provided the wet vent is 2 in. (51 mm) in diam- th at a circu it ven t connects in to the ven t stack.
eter an d th e length of the fixtu re drain conforms
When the circu it, loop, or relief vent conn ec-
to Table 3-2.
tions are taken off th e h orizontal branch, the
On th e lower floors of a mu ltistory bu ilding, vent branch connection sh all be taken off at a
th e waste pipe from on e or two lavatories may vertical angle or from the top of the horizon tal
be u sed as a wet vent for one or two bathtu bs or branch.
showers, provided that:
In sizing, th e diameter of a circu it or loop
1. The wet vent and its extension to the vent vent sh all be made n ot less th an the size of the
stack is 2 in. (51 mm) in diameter. diameter of the vent stack, or on e half the size of
th e dia meter of th e h orizon ta l s oil or wa s te
2. Each water closet below the top floor is in-
bran ch , whichever is smaller.
dividu ally back-ven ted.
3. The vent stack is sized as shown in Table 3-6. When fixtu res are conn ected to one horizon-
tal branch throu gh a dou ble wye or a sanitary
tee in a vertical position, a common vent for each
two fixtu res back to back with a dou ble conn ec-
44 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 3-4 Circuit Vent

Figure 3 -3 Loop Vent, with Horizontal

Branch Located (a) at Back Below Water
Closets, (b) Directly Under Water Closets.

tion shall be provided. Th e common vent sh all of the pipe ou t of line bu t in to a lin e approxi-
be installed in a vertical position as a continu a- mately parallel with the other section. The offset
tion of th e dou ble connection. distance can be estimated according to the fol-
lowing:
Relief Vents Pipe Size, Horizontal Offset,
in. (mm) in. (mm)
Soil an d waste stacks in bu ildings having more
th an ten branch intervals sh all be provided with 2 (51) 5 (127)
a relief ven t at each tenth interval installed, be- 3 (76) 7 (177)
ginning with the top floor. The size of the relief 4 (101) 10 (254)
vent shall be equ al to th e size of the ven t stack
5 (127) 12 (303)
to which it connects. The lower end of each relief
ven t sh all con n ect to th e soil or waste stack 6 (152) 14 (354)
throu gh a wye below th e horizontal branch serv- 8 (203) 18 (455)
ing the floor, and the u pper end shall conn ect to
th e ven t stack throu gh a wye n ot less than 3 ft Offsets less than 45° from the horizontal in
(0.9 m) above th e floor level. a soil or waste stack sh all comply with the fol-
lowing:
In order to balance the pressu res th at are
constantly changin g within th e plu mbing sys- 1. Offsets may be vented as two separate soil
tem, it is necessary to provide a relief ven t at or waste stacks, namely, the stack section
various intervals, particularly in multistory bu ild- below the offset and the stack section above
in gs . Figu r e 3 -5 illu s t r a t es im p or t a n t th e offset.
requ irements for the installation of a relief vent.
2. Offsets may be vented by installing a relief
vent as a vertical contin u ation of the lower
Offset section of th e stack or as a side vent con-
nected to the lower section between the offset
An offset in a ru n of pipin g consists of a combi-
a n d t h e n ext lower fixt u re or h orizon ta l
nation of elbows or bends that brings one section
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 45

bran ch. The u pper section of the offset sh all with the requ irements of Table 3-5, the nu mber
be provided with a yoke vent. The diameter of u nits being th e su m of all u nits on all stacks
of the vents sh all be not less than the diam- conn ected thereto, and th e developed len gth be-
eter of th e main vent or of the soil and waste in g th e longest vent length from th e intersection
stack, whichever is smaller. at the base of the most distant stack to the vent
terminal in the open air as a direct extension of
Figu re 3-6 illu strates th e requ irements for
installation . on e stack.

Vent Headers Combination Waste and Vent Systems

These are horizontal wet-vented systems. They
Stack vents and vent stacks may be connected
are u sed wh ere walls are not available for vents.
in to a common ven t h eader at th e top of th e
They depen d on oversized drainage pipes to pre-
stacks and then exten ded to th e open air at one
vent loss of trap seal. Su rge loads are not allowed.
point. This header shall be sized in accordance

Figure 3 -5 Relief Vent

46 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Grease-produ cing fixtu res are not allowed, as This system limits the trap arm length to re-
scou ring action is poor. They are u sed primarily du ce su ction bu ildup. The size of the main stack
for extended floor or shower-drain in stallations, is increased to limit pressu re and vacuu m bu ild-
for floor sinks for markets or restau rants, and up. See Figure 3-8. Check with the local authorities
for worktables in sch ools. See Figu re 3-7. Some to see if this system is allowed. Contact the City of
codes also allow sinks an d lavatories to be in- Philadelphia for specific requirements.
stalled with this type of system. Check the local
code for requ irements. Sovent System
The performance of the sovent plu mbin g system
SECTION II — is based mainly on the aerator, which is requ ired
SEVERAL VENTING SYSTEMS on each floor level, and the deaerator at the base
of the stack. The aerator provides an offset and
Philadelphia System entrance chamber to divert the main flow arou nd
th e branch in let and permit a gradu al mixing of
Philadelph ia or one pipe system refers to u sin g th e bran ch flow with the main stack flow. These
on e stack in stead of h avin g separate drainage fittings limit th e velocity of both liqu id waste and
and ven t stacks. These systems depen d on re- air in the stack and create minimu m tu rbu lence
lieving the pressu res by making the pipe larger in side the fitting ch amber. The resu ltin g air flow
th an requ ired for drainage pipe in a two-pipe and associated pressu re flu ctu ation are there-
system. These systems also u se u nvented traps fore less. The deaerator in stalled at the base and
(“s” traps) that depend on oversized traps and at every change of direction of the stack from
refill from flat bottom fixtu res to maintain the vertical to horizontal acts to separate the air flow
trap seal. from the fixture in the stack, ensu ring the smooth

Figure 3-6 Offset

Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 47

entry of liqu id into th e bu ilding drain and reliev- fixtu res are stack vented, econ omy of in stalla-
ing the positive pressu re generated in the stack’s tion is ach ieved.
base. It is obviou s th at th ese fittings balan ce
However, with th is type of venting, certain
positive and negative pressu re at or near zero
precau tions mu st be observed if th e trap seals
th rou gh ou t the entire system u n der con ditions
of the stack-vented fixtu res are not to be depleted
of normal u sage.
excessively by the pneu matic-pressu re variations
with in th e stack. One precau tion that mu st be
Stack Venting observed is to connect the fixtu res on the floor
in qu estion to the stack in the proper order ver-
In stack ventin g the fixtu res are connected in- tically upward. They should be connected in order
dependently throu gh their fixtu re drains to the
of decreasing rate of disch arge in th e u pward
drainage stack withou t any ven tin g other than
direction. Thu s the lavatory drain shou ld be the
what is afforded throu gh the stack and stack
drain that is high est on the stack. Th e reason
vent. Since no back ven ting is u sed when the

Figure 3-7 Combination Waste-and-Vent System

48 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 3 -8 Philadelphia System

Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 49

for this is th at the discharge of a fixtu re drain

into the stack cau ses pressu re redu ction for some
distance below th e point of entry, and th is pres-
su re redu ction is greater th e greater th e rate of
discharge. (See Figu re 3-9.)
Another precau tion that is observed in the
United States is to permit stack venting only in
sin gle-story stru ctu res or on th e top floor of
mu ltistory bu ildings.
It shou ld be noted, however, that the British
have installed some systems with stack ventin g
on every floor of mu ltistory bu ildings and report
th at it is working satisfactorily.

Wet Venting
A “wet vent” is on e that ven ts a particu lar fix-
tu re an d at the same time receives the disch arge
from other fixtu res (see Figu re 3-9). In practice,
su ch a vent receives the discharge only from low-
rate fixtu res, su ch as lavatories, sinks, etc., never
from a water closet or from a nu mber of fixtu res.
The principal object of u sing wet vents is to
redu ce the vent piping requ ired for a given in-
stallation by makin g individu al pipes serve two
pu rposes. Becau se wet ven tin g simplifies th e
drainage system an d thereby decreases the cost
of in stallation, there is an increasing tendency Figure 3-9 Wet Venting and
amon g code-writing au thorities to permit its u se Stack Venting
u nder su itable restrictions that are necessary to
preven t excessive trap seal losses.
mance under various loading conditions (National
Dr. R. Hu n ter, at th e Nation al Bu reau of Bu reau of Stan dards 1974). At th e same time,
Standards, con du cted tests on wet ventin g and the ten-story wet-vent system in Stevens’s Bu ild-
reported the resu lts in Recommended Minimum in g Technology Research Laboratory h ad been
Requirements for Plumbing in Dw ellings and Simi- modified by redu cing the vents one to three pipe
lar Buildings . He pointed ou t that, under certain sizes in accordance with plans and specifications
conditions, wet venting cou ld be u sed withou t fu rnished by the National Bu reau of Standards
danger of reducing trap seals excessively. In a (NBS) an d th e condu ctin g of a series of tests
later pu blication he indicated that bathroom u nder variou s loading conditions. Based on the
fixtures back to back can be wet vented satisfac- t es t loa ds impos ed, t h e redu ced-s ize ven t s
torily, provided the bathtub drains between the selected for u se in this stu dy appear to be ad-
wet vent and the bathtub trap are laid on a u ni- equ ate with regard to trap-seal retention and
form s lope a n d ot h erwis e comply wit h t h e blow-back for a ten -story bu ilding (Steven s In-
conditions necessary to prevent excessive self- stitu te of Techn ology 1973). In 1976, a report
siphonage. described the experimen tal findings of tests on a
fu ll-scale, two-story plu mbing system with re-
Reduced-Size Venting du ced-size ven ts u n der a ran ge of operatin g
condition s inclu din g having the ven t terminals
In 1972, a laboratory stu dy of one-story and split- closed and the bu ilding drain su bmerged. Re-
level experimen tal drain age systems where the su lts indicate that dry-vent piping in one and
vents varied from one to six pipe sizes smaller two-s tory h ou s in g u n its ca n s afely be made
th an th ose presently specified by codes showed smaller than presently allowed by design with-
satisfactory h ydrau lic an d pn eu matic perfor- ou t jeopardizin g the trap seals.
50 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

SECTION III— level rim of the fixture served. An arterial vent is

SIZING OF SEVERAL VENTING installed for systems with more than one floor of
SYSTEMS fixtures (the drainage piping between the arterial
vent and the street sewer is at least the same size
Reduced-Size Venting Design as the arterial vent). Vents that are subject to
freezing are of traditional size; vent terminals are
This system may allow economies in ventin g de- screened (free openings are at least 150% of the
sign in low-rise residential bu ildings. It is similar required flow area and openings face down); and
to traditional codes, bu t allows smaller size vents. drainage pipes are the size required by traditional
It is limited to special condition s and requ ires codes. Always consult with the local plumbing
th at ven t pipes not be restricted by produ cts of code enforcement agency or other governmental
corrosion. department having jurisdiction before designing
the system to be sure this sizing method is ac-
General limitations Reduced-size venting is lim- ceptable under the applicable code.
ited to water fall from the highest fixtu re to the
bu ilding drain or its horizontal branches of 15 ft
(4.6 m) for residential occu pancies and residen-
tial-type fixtu res. Redu ced-size vents mu st be of Table 3-7 Fixture Unit Loads
corrosion-resistant materials, su ch as copper or
plastic; mu st slope to the drain; mu st not be lo- Fixture Fixture Units
cated where a stoppage cou ld cau se waste to back
up into them (e.g., a single-compartment sink with Bathtub or shower 2
a garbage disposer that cou ld pu mp waste into Clothes washer 3
the vent pipe in the event of stoppage below the Dish washer 2
vent); mu st not be installed within 1½ ft (0.5 m) Floor drain 3
developed length from a clothes-washer trap arm;
Laundry tray 2
and mu st be independent of other systems. (Ex-
Lavatory 1
ception: The drains from th ese systems may
connect to any other system in gravity-flow build- Sink (including dishwasher and
garbage disposer) 3
ing sewers.) Fixture and stack vents are traditional
sizes up to at least 6 in. (152 mm) above the flood Water closet (tank type) 4

Table 3-8 Fixture Vents and Stack Vents

Elevation of Trap Centerline, Arm above Load Served by Vent Nominal Size of Fixture
Type of Vent Centerline of Its Horizontal Drain, ft (m) (fixture units) or Stack Vent, in. (mm)

Fixture vent for one trap Up to 8 (2.4) 3 or less ½ (12.7)a

4 ¾ (19)a
8–16 (2.4–4.9) 3 or less ¾ (19)
4 1 (25.4)
Fixture vent for two traps Up to 8 (2.4) 3 or less ¾ (19)a
4–6 1 (25.4)
7 and 8 1¼ (32)
8–16 (2.4–4.9) 6 or less 1 (25.4)
7 and 8 1¼ (32)
Stack vent Up to 8 (2.4) 6 or less 1 (25.4)
7–15 1¼ (32)
16–29 1½ (38)
8–16 (2.4–4.9) 6 or less 1¼ (32)
7–15 1½ (38)
16–29 2 (51)
aIncrease one pipe size for two-story systems.
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 51

Sizing procedure The following steps sh ou ld Table 3-9 Confluent Vents Serving
be followed in the design of redu ced-size vent- Three Fixture or Stack Vents
ing:
Nominal Size of Fixture or Stack Vent, Nominal Size of
1. Prepare a pipe layou t drawing.
in. (mm) Confluent Vent,
2. Determine th e fixtu re u nits for each fixtu re Largest Next to Largest Smallest in (mm.)
vent an d each stack vent u sing Table 3-7.
3. Size fixtu re and stack ven ts u sin g Table 3-8. ½ (12.7) ½ (12.7) ½ (12.7) ¾ (19)
4. Size conflu ent ven ts, beginning at the vents ¾ (19) ¾ (19)a ¾ (19)a 1 (25.4)
farth est from their termination. 1 (25.4) 1 (25.4)a ¾ (19)a 1¼ (31)
A. Wh en a conflu en t vent serves two fixtu re 1 (25.4) 1 (25.4) 1 (25.4) 1½ (38)
vents, two stack vents, or one fixtu re vent
and on e stack vent, make th e conflu ent 1¼ (31) ¾ (19)a ¾ (19)a 1½ (38)
vent one pipe size larger than th e ven ts 1¼ (31) 1 (25.4) ½ (12.7) 1½ (38)
served.
1¼ (31) 1 (25.4) ¾ (19) 2 (51)
B. Wh en a conflu ent vent serves any com-
bin ation of three fixtu re ven ts and stack
vents, size the conflu ent vent u sing Table 1¼ (31) 1¼ (31) ½ (12.7) 1½ (38)
3-9. 1¼ (31) 1¼ (31) ¾ (19) 2 (51)
C. When a conflu ent vent serves any com- 1½ (38) 1¼ (31) a
1¼ (31) a
2 (51)
bination of fou r or more fixtu re and stack a
vents, size the conflu ent vent u sing Table 1½ (38) 1½ (38) 1 (25.4) 2 (51)
3-10 or 3-11. For flow areas of pipe and 1½ (38) 1½ (38) 1¼ (31) 3 (76)
tu be, u se Table 3-12.
aOr smaller.

Table 3-10 Confluent Vents Serving Four or More Fixture or Stack Vents, Schedule 40 Pipe

Nominal Size of Confluent Vent, in. (mm)

Size of Largest
Vent Served, 1 (25.4) 1¼ (31) 1½ (38) 2(51) 2½ (63) 3(76) 4 (101)
2 3 2
in. (mm) Total Flow Area of Vents Served, in (10 mm )

½ (12.7) 1.2–2.5 2.5–7.5 7.5–14

(0.8–1.6) (1.6–4.8) (4.8–9.0)
¾ (19) 1.4–4.2 4.2–7.9 7.9– 21
(0.9–2.7) (2.7–5.1) (5.1–13.6)
1 (25.4) 1.8–2.6 2.6–4.8 4.8–13 13–27
(1.2–1.7) (1.7–3.1) (3.1–8.4) (8.4–17.4)
1¼ (31) 2.4–2.8 2.8–6.7 6.7–15 15–36
(1.6–1.8) (1.8–4.3) (4.3–9.7) (9.7–23.2)
1½ (38) 2.9–5.5 5.5–11 11–27 27 to 79
(1.9–3.6) (3.6–7.1) (7.1–17.4) (17.4 to 51.0)
2 (51) 3.8–6.8 6.8–16 16 to 48
(2.5–4.4) (4.4–10.3) (10.3 to 31.0)
2½ (63) 5.7–11 to 34
(3.7–7.1) (7.1 to 21.9)
3 (76) 8.3 to 22
(5.4 to 14.2)
52 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 3-11 Confluent Vents Serving Four or More Fixture or Stack Vents, Copper Tube

Nominal Size of Confluent Vent, in. (mm)

Size of Type M Type DWV
Largest
Vent Served, ¾ (19) 1 (25.4) 1¼ (31) 1½ (38) 2 (51) 3 (76) 4 (101)
in. (mm) Total Flow Area of Vents Served, in2 (103 mm2)

½ (12.7) 1.0–1.1 1.1–3.0 3.0–7.0 7.0–14

(0.6–0.7) (0.7–1.9) (1.9–4.5) (4.5–9.0)
¾ (19) 1.3–1.5 1.5–3.4 3.4–6.7 6.7–21
(0.8–1.0) (1.0–2.2) (2.2–4.3) (4.3–13.6)
1 (25.4) 1.6–2.0 2.0–4.0 4.0–12 12–60
(1.0–1.3) (1.3–2.6) (2.6–7.7) (7.7–38.7)
1¼ (31) 2.1–2.7 2.7–8.1 8.1–40 40–120
(1.4–1.7) (1.7–5.2) (5.2–25.8) (25.8–77.4)
1½ (38) 2.6–5.7 5.7–28 28–85
(1.7–3.7) (3.7–18.1) (18.1–54.8)
2 (51) 4.1–16 16–49
(2.7–10.3) (10.3–31.6)
3 (76) 8–22
(5.2–14.2)

5. Wh en a vent is longer th an 25 ft (7.6 m) de- Table 3-12 Flow Areas of Pipe and Tube,
veloped length between the trap arm an d the in2 (103 mm2)
roof termin ation, in crease the vent one pipe
size over its entire len gth. Nominal
Size, Schedule Copper Tube
6. Wh en servin g more than on e floor level of in. (mm) 40 Pipe Type M Type DWV
fixtu res, provide an arterial ven t, connected
to the largest drain and n ear the bu ildin g
¼ (12.7) 0.3 (0.2) 0.25 (0.2) —
sewer. Size th e arterial vent u sing Table 3-
13. Th e arterial ven t may also serve as a ½ (19) 0.53 (0.3) 0.52 (0.3) —
conflu ent ven t an d fixtu re vent. Increase the 1 (25.4) 0.86 (0.6) 0.87 (0.6) —
connecting drain size to equ al th e arterial
1¼ (31) 1.5 (1.0) — 1.32 (0.9)
vent size to vent the system properly.
1½ (38) 2.04 (1.3) — 1.87 (1.2)
7. When a portion of the vent is su bject to freez-
ing, in crease that portion to th e traditional 2 (51) 3.36 (2.2) — 3.27 (2.1)
size. 2½ (63) 4.79 (3.1) — —

Installation The design engineer shou ld explain 3 (76) 7.39 (4.8) — 7.24 (4.7)
the special requ irements of the reduced-size vent- 4 (101) 12.7 (8.2) — 12.6 (8.1)
in g m et h od t o t h e in s t a ller , wh o m a y b e
u nfamiliar with them. More detailed drawings
may be necessary to describe th e system com- Table 3-13 Arterial Vents
plet ely. Th e en gin eer s h ou ld m a k e r egu la r
inspections to be su re that the design conditions Load on System Length of Arterial Nominal Size of
(fixture units) Vent, ft (m) Arterial Vent, in. (mm)
are met in the field. Also, the owner shou ld be
given copies of the plu mbing drawings for per-
manent records so that fu tu re additions can be 10 or less 36 (11) or less 1½ (38)
properly sized. over 36 (11) to 120 (36.6) 2 (51)
11–30 30 (9.1) or less 1½ (38)
over 30 (9.1) to 100 (30.5) 2 (51)
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 53

Example. The following design example illu strates the redu ced-size venting method:
Conditions . Two-story residential building, freezing climate, Schedu le 40 plastic vents.
Step 1. Prepare a pipe layout. See Figu re 3-10.
Step 2. Determine fixture and stack vent sizes by u sing Table 3-8.
Number of Elevation, Load (from Table 3-7) Size,
Vent Pipe Fixture Traps Vent Stack ft (m) (fixture units) in. (mm)

1 1 no 5 (1.5) 3 ½ (12.7)
2 2 no 5 (1.5) 5 1 (25.4)
3 2 yes 15 (4.6) 5 1¼ (31)
4 3 yes 15 (4.6) 7 1½ (38)
5 1 no 4 (1.2) 3 ½ (12.7)

Step 3. Determine confluent vent size.

Sizes, Area (from Table 3-12), Size,
Vent Pipe Number in. (mm) in2 (mm2) in. (mm)

20 2 1, 1 (25.4, 25.4) (vents 1 & 2) — 1¼ (31) (one size over 1)

21 3 1¼, 1, 1 (31, 25.4, 25.4) (vents 1, 2, and 3) — 2 (51) (from Table 3-10)
22 4 1 (25.4) (vent 1) 0.86 (0.6) 2 (51) (from Table 3-10)
1 (25.4) (vent 2) 0.86 (0.6)
1¼ (31) (vent 3) 1.5 (1.0)
1½ (38) (vent 4) 2.04 (1.3)

Step 4. No vent is longer than 25 ft (7.6 m); therefore, no increase is necessary.

Step 5. Determine arterial vent size from Table 3-13.
Vent Pipe Load (fixture units) Length, ft (m) Size, in. (mm)

4, 22, and 23 23 5 (1.5) 1½ (38)

Step 6. Increase all vents that are subject to freezing conditions to traditional sizes.
Vent Pipe Load (fixture units) Length ft, (m) Size, in. (mm)

22 23 4½ (1.4) 2 (51)a
23 23 1½ (0.5) 3 (76)b

a Traditional size.
b Size required to prevent frost closure.

Vent 22 was 2 in. (51 mm), Step 3.

Vent 23 (extension of vent 22) should be increased from 2 in. (51 mm), Step 4, to 3 in. (76 mm).
Increase bathtub drain to 2 in. (51 mm).
54 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 3 -1 0 Pipe Layout Drawing – Two-Story Residential Building,

Freezing Climate, Schedule 4 0 Plastic Vents

Sovent Systems fit t in g a t ea ch floor level; DWV h or izon t a l

bran ch es; and a soven t deaerator fittin g at the
The sovent system is a single-stack system that base of the stack. The two special fittings, the
ma y a llow econ omies in dra in a ge a n d ven t aerator and the deaerator, are the basis for the
systems. Th ere are n o limits to heigh ts or occu - self-ventin g featu res of the sovent system. Soil
pancies, bu t there are special design ru les. The stack an d ven t combin e in to a sin gle soven t
effects of excess su ds shou ld be considered. stack. Figu re 3-11 illu strates a typical sovent
Always consu lt with th e local plu mbing code single-stack plu mbing system an d a traditional
enforcement agency or other governmen tal de- two-pipe system.
partment having jurisdiction before designing the
Aerator fittings The sovent system aerator fit-
system to make su re th is system is acceptable
ting con sists of an offset at the u pper stack inlet
u nder the local code.
con n ection , a mixin g ch amber, on e or more
The sovent system has fou r parts: a drain, bran ch inlets, one or more waste inlets for the
waste, and vent (DWV) stack; a soven t aerator conn ection of smaller waste bran ches, a baffle
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 55

(A) (B)

Figure 3-11 (A) Traditional Two-Pipe Plumbing System;

(B) Typical Sovent Single-Stack Plumbing System.
56 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

in th e center of the ch amber with an apertu re is designed to overcome the tendency of the fall-
between it and the top of the fitting, and the stack in g waste to bu ild u p excessive back pressu re at
ou tlet at the bottom of th e fitting. The aerator th e bottom of th e stack when the flow is deceler-
fitting provides a chamber where the flow of soil ated by the ben d into th e horizontal drain. The
and waste from horizontal branches can u nite deaerator provides a meth od of separating air
smoothly with the air and liqu id already flowin g from system flow and equ alizing pressu re bu ild-
in the stack. u ps. The configu ration of the deaerator fittin g
cau ses part of th e air fallin g with th e liqu id and
The aerator fittin g performs this fu n ction ef-
solid in the stack to be ejected throu gh th e pres-
ficiently so that n o plu g of water forms across
su re relief line to the top of th e bu ilding drain
th e stack to cau se pressu re an d vacu u m flu c-
while the balance goes in to the drain with the
tu ations that cou ld blow or siphon fixtu re trap
soil an d waste.
seals. The aerator also slows the flow down the
stack at each floor level.
Aerator fittings are installed in the sovent
system at every floor level, wh ere there is a soil
bran ch or where th ere is n o soil branch bu t a
waste bran ch equ al in diameter to, or on e size
smaller th an, the stack. At a floor level where
th e aerator fitting is not needed (e.g., on a 4-in.
[101-mm] stack wh ere there is no soil bran ch
and only a 2-in . [51-mm] waste branch enters),
a dou ble in-line offset is u sed in place of the aera-
tor fitting. This offset redu ces the vertical velocity
in the stack between floor intervals in a man ner
similar to the aerator fitting (see Figu re 3-12).

Deaerator fittings The sovent system deaerator

fittin g con sists of an air separation ch amber
having an intern al n ose piece, a stack inlet, a
pressu re-relief ou tlet at the top, and a stack ou t-
let at the bottom. (See Figu re 3-13.) The deaerator
fitting at th e bottom of th e stack fu n ction s in
combination with the aerator fittings above to
make the single stack self venting. The deaerator

Figure 3 -12 Typical Figure 3 -13 Typical

Sovent System Aerator Fitting Sovent System Deaerator
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 57

Sizing procedure The following steps sh ou ld mu st be one pipe size larger than the size of the
be followed in the design of th is system: larger stack below the tie line.

1. Prepare a layou t drawing. An aerator fitting is requ ired at each level

where one of the following horizontal branches
2. Determine the loading on each section of pipe. enters the sovent stack: (1) a soil branch, (2) a
3. Size th e stack. waste branch the same size as the sovent stack,
or (3) a waste branch one DWV tu be size smaller
4. Size th e bran ch es.
than the sovent stack. A 2-in. (51-mm) horizon-
5. Select the fittings above th e bu ilding drain. tal waste branch may be entered directly into a
4-in. (101-mm) sovent soil stack. At any floor level
6. Design the connections to the bu ilding drain.
where an aerator fitting is not requ ired, a dou ble
7. Size th e bu ildin g drain. in-line offset is bu ilt into the stack at the nominal
(For additional illu strations of requ iremen ts, floor interval. This maintains the lowered fall rate
see Copper Developmen t Association listing in of the sovent system within the stack.
References.) The size of the stack is determined by the num-
ber of fixtu re u nits connected, as with traditional
St a ck Th e s ta ck mu s t be ca rried fu ll s ize
sanitary systems. (See Tables 3-14 and 3-15.)
through the roof to the atmosphere. Two stacks
can be tied together at the top, above the highest Bra nches The starting point in sizing the hori-
fixture, with only one stack extending through zontal soil and waste branches is to determine
the roof. If the distance between the two stacks is the fixture-u nit loading based on the variou s fix-
20 ft (6.1 m) or less, the horizontal line that ties tu res an d applian ces in th e system des ign .
the two verticals together, pitched at ¼ in./ ft (20.8 According to traditional practice, the maximum
mm/ m), can be the same diameter as the stack nu mber of fixtu re-units that may be connected
that terminates below the roof level. If the dis- to branches and branch arms of variou s sizes is
tance is greater than 20 ft (6.1 m), the line mu st shown in Table 3-14. Tailpiece, trap, trap arm,
be one size larger than the terminated stack. An and branch sizes for the individu al fixtu re con-
inverted long-tu rn fitting is u sed at the ju nction. nections are shown in Table 3-16 (see Figures
The common stack extending throu gh the roof 3-14 and 3-15).

Figure 3 -1 4 Sovent System Branches

58 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 3-14 Fixture Unit Loads

Fixture-Unit Value Minimum Size of

Fixture Type as Load Factor Trap, in. (mm)

1 bathroom group (water closet, lavatory, and bath tub or shower stall) . Tank-type closet 6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flush-valve closet 8
Bathtuba (with or without overhead shower) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Bathtuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 (51)
Bidet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Nominal 1½ (38)
Combination sink and tray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1½ (38)
Combination sink and tray with food-disposal unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Separate 1½ (38) traps
Dental unit or cuspidor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ½ 1¼ (31)
Dental lavatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1¼ (31)
Drinking fountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ½ 1 (25.4)
Dishwasher,b domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Floor drainsc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 (51)
Kitchen sink, domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Kitchen sink, domestic, with food-disposal unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1½ (38)
Lavatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1¼ (31)
Lavatory, barber, beauty parlor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Lavatory, surgeon’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Laundry tray (1 or 2 compartments) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Shower stall, domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 (51)
Showers (group) per head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sinks
Surgeon’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1½ (38)
Flushing rim (with valve) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3 (76)
Service (trap standard) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 (76)
Service (P trap) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 (51)
Pot, scullery etc.b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1½ (38)
Urinal, pedestal, syphon, jet, blowout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Nominal 3 (76)
Urinal, wall lip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1½ (38)
Urinal stall, washout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 (51)
Urinal troughb (each 2-ft section) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Wash sinkb (circular or multiple, each set of faucets) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Nominal 1½ (38)
Water closet
Tank-operated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Nominal 3 (76)
Valve-operated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3 (76)

a A shower head over a bathtub does not increase the fixture value.
b See following note for method of computing unit value of fixtures.
c Size of floor drain shall be determined by the area of surface water to be drained.

Table 3-14 Fixture Unit Loads (cont’d)

Note: Fixtu res n ot lis ted in th e a bove ta ble s h a ll be es tim a ted Table 3-15 Maximum Fixture Units
a s follow s :

Fixture Drain or Trap Size, Branch

in. (mm) Fixture-Unit Value Size, Fixture
in. (mm) Units Exception
1¼ (32) and smaller 1
1½ (38) 2 2 (51) 6a No 6-unit fixtures or traps
2 (51) 3 3 (76) 35 Only two 6-unit fixtures or traps
2½ (63) 4
3 (76) 5 4 (101) 180
4 (101) 6 a4, if simultaneous discharge of more than 4 fu is probable.
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 59

Figure 3-15 Soil and Waste Branches Connected into a Horizontal Stack Offset.
Waste Branches Connected into the Pressure-Relief Line.

Branch sizes mu st be increased over the sizes downstream side of the fitting at the begin-
shown in Tables 3-15 and 3-16 u nder th e fol- ning of the vertical drop in qu estion.
lowing conditions:
2. When three 90° changes in direction (u sin g
1. A second vertical drop downstream from a trap 90° elbows or similar one-diameter radiu s
arm or any vertical drop of more than 3 ft (0.9 tu rns) occu r in a horizon tal branch , it mu st
m) requ ires an increase of one pipe size at the be in creased on e pipe size at th e u pstream
side of the third 90° ch ange in direction. If a
90° change in direction in the horizon tal can
be made with two 45° elbow fittings, or with
Table 3-16 Size Rules for an extra long-term elbow (more than one and
Connecting Fixtures into the Sovent on e h alf diameter radiu s), th is ru le does not
Single-Stack Drainage Plumbing System apply.
Tailpiece, Trap, Trap Arm, Branch, 3. When a branch serves two water closets and
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) on e or more addition al fixtu res, the soil line
mu st be increased to 4 in. (101 mm). Start-
1¼ (31) 1¼ (31) 1½ (38) 2 (51) in g at the most remote fixtu re and movin g
toward the stack, the branch size is increased
1¼ (31) 1½ (38) 2 (51) 2 (51)
to 4 in . (101 mm) at the point where it has
1½ (38) 1½ (38) 2 (51) 2 (51) picked u p one water closet and one additional
2 (51) 2 (51) 3 (76)a 3 (76) fixtu re closer to the stack.
Note: Diameter is shown for each permitted combination of ele- 4. When a soil branch exceeds 12 ft (3.7 m) in
ments. horizontal length, it sh ou ld be increased one
a2 in. (51 mm) for stall shower, floor drain, or automatic washing pipe size.
machine standpipe drain.
60 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

5. Wh en a waste branch exceeds 15 ft (4.6 m) Connection DWV Fitting

in horizontal len gth , it sh ou ld be increased
From trap arm to upper Single 90° elbow; for two
on e pipe size.
vertical branch terminal lavatories double elbow
Not e: It is best to install a secondary pressu re- (short turn); for two sinks
equ alizing line when the horizontal length 90° elbow plus a 45° elbow
exceeds 27 ft (8.2 m) in cases (4) and (5) From vertical branch to Long turn T-Y, 45° wye
above. horizontal branch and 45° or 90° elbow
(exception: soil branches
Fit t ings An aerator fitting is requ ired at each require long turn 90°
level wh ere on e of th e followin g h orizon t a l elbows for all 90°
bran ch es en ters th e s oven t s tack: (1) a soil changes in direction)
branch, (2) a waste branch the same size as the From horizontal branch Single 90° elbow or
sovent stack, or (3) a waste branch one DWV to vertical branch double elbow
tu be size smaller than the sovent stack. A 2-in.
From horizontal to 45° wye and 45° elbow,
(51-mm) horizontal waste branch may be entered
horizontal (exception: long turn T-Y or 90° elbow
directly into a 4-in. (101-mm) sovent soil stack. soil branches require long
At a floor level where the aerator fitting is turn 90° elbows for all
90° changes in direction)
not needed (e.g., on a 4-in. [101-mm] stack where
there is no soil branch and only a 2-in. [51-mm] From waste branch to stack Sanitary tee
waste branch enters), a dou ble in-line offset is
From branch below the Long turn T-Y or a 45°
u sed in place of the aerator fitting. deaerator fitting to stack, wye and a 45° elbow
At the deaerator outlet, the stack is connected to building drain, to
horizontal offset or to
into the horizontal drain throu gh a long-tu rn fit-
pressure relief line
ting arrangement. Downstream, at least 4 ft (1.2
m) from this point, the pressu re relief line from
the top of the deaerator fitting is connected into Pressure-equalizing lines As an alternative to
the top of the bu ilding drain. A deaerator fitting, the sizing procedu res previou sly ou tlined and
with its pressu re-relief line connection, is in- increasing the branch sizes, a pressu re-equ aliz-
stalled in this way at the base of every sovent ing line may be u sed. Where this is done, a 1-in.
stack and also at every offset (vertical-horizon- (25.4-mm) or larger line is u sed to equ alize the
tal-vertical) in a stack. In the latter case, the pressu re in the branch by connecting it from the
pressu re-relief line is tied into the stack imme- top of the discharge side of the trap to one of the
diately below the horizontal portion. following locations:
Waste branches at least one pipe size smaller 1. The top of the sovent aerator, u sing a special
than the stack may be led directly into the sovent inlet in the top of the fitting.
aerator fitting throu gh a waste entry. Smaller 2. The atmosphere, via a run that may also con-
waste branches may be led directly into a stack nect with similar upper floor fixtu res.
fitting.
3. The stack, at least 3 ft (0.9 m) above the aera-
Where there is an offset (vertical-horizontal- tor at that floor level or immediately below one
vertical) in the stack, a deaerator fitting, with its at a higher level, using a DWV tee fitting.
pressure-relief line, must be installed. This elimi-
nates the need for a deaerator fitting at the base Of the three locations, the top of the aerator
of the stack if no branches enter the stack below is the preferred one. The minimu m size of the
the stack offset and provided that dou ble in-line pressu re-equ alizing line depends on the branch
offsets occu r at every nominal floor interval. At length, as shown in Table 3-17.
a stack offset of less than 60° with th e vertical The three recommended vent connection points
no deaerator fitting is needed. are based on the formula of Prandtl-Colebrook
The following mu st be observed with regard (drain half full, roughness Kb = 0.04 in. [1.0 mm]).
to fittin gs in sovent systems: Fixture units are according to Hunter’s curve for
peak load (NBS Monograph 31).

Build ing d ra in connect i ons Ea ch s oven t

stack normally empties throu gh a deaerator,
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 61

Table 3-17 Minimum Size of top of the bu ildin g drain is throu gh a 45° wye
Equalizing Line fitting. (See Figu res 3-16 an d 3-17.)
The deaerator fitting may be installed at a
Branch Length, Up to 8 Fixture 8–353 Fixture
floor level above th e base of th e stack if design
ft (m) Units, in. (mm) Units, in. (mm)
condition s dictate and no fixtu res are attached
in to the stack below it. Where this is done, the
Up to 30 (up to 9.1) 1 (25.4) 1½ (38) traditional ru les for connecting the deaerator fit-
30–40 (9.1–12.2) 1¼ (31) 2 (51) ting are followed; however, a lon ger relief line
will be requ ired to reach the prescribed conn ec-
40–50 (12.2–15.2) 1½ (38) 2 (51)
tion point in the horizontal drain. Dou ble in-line
Over 50 (over 15.2) 2 (51) 3 (76) offsets mu st be installed in th e stack at normal
floor in tervals below the deaerator.

which sh ou ld be in stalled as close as possible to Two stacks may be combined before they en-
th e bu ilding drain. ter the bu ilding drain. The size of the continu ing
common stack is determined by the total fixtu re
The deaerator outlet is connected to the build- loading on the combined stacks. Fixtu res may be
ing drain throu gh a long-tu rn 90° elbow (radiu s connected into the stack immediately below the
of at least 1½ diameter), throu gh two 45° elbows deaerator fitting and into the bu ilding drain be-
or wyes, or th rou gh a long-tu rn (more th an 1½ tween the base of the stack and the point where
diameter) T-Y fittin g. The relief line venting the the pressu re-relief line ties into the building drain.
deaerator ch amber in to th e h orizon tal drain Fixtu res may also be connected below a deaerator
shou ld be 3 in. (76 mm) and shou ld be connected fitting into a horizontal offset in a stack. Two-in.
into the top of th e horizon tal drain at least 4 ft (51-mm) waste branches may be connected into
(1.2 m) downstream from the base of th e stack. the 3-in. (76-mm) deaerator pressu re-relief line
Connection of the pressu re-relief line into the by u sing a Y-branch fitting.

Figure 3-16 Soil and Waste Branches Connected below a

Deaerator Fitting at the Bottom of the Stack
62 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Sovent fit t ing Two basic types of sovent aera-

tor fitting meet the needs of most stack designs:
the dou ble-side-entry fitting and the single-side-
entry fitting. Face-entry fittings and top-entry
fittings are u sed in special cases. (See Figu re
3-18.)
Branch inlets can be of any size to accom-
modate standard DWV tu be. When u sing the
single-entry fitting, th e inlet con nections are
normally 3 in. (76 mm). When the dou ble-side-
entry fitting is used, the branch inlet connections
may be 4 or 3 in. (101 or 76 mm), depending on
the branch loading. Branches u nder 3 in. (76
mm) in size can be connected into the aerator
fittings with 3 and 4-in. (76 and 101-mm) en-
tries by u s in g a ppropria te redu cer fit t in gs .
Alternatively, fittings can be ordered to accom-
modate smaller branches. However, economical
design is more likely to dictate the u se of fittings
with waste inlets to take smaller branches.
Consider a typical apartment-house, back-
to-back bathroom grou ping, as shown in Plan A
of Figu re 3-19, and assume a ten-story building.
Stack size will be 4 in. (101 mm). The branches
are sized and designed as follows:
1. The lavatories, with a trap arm size of 1½ in.
(38 mm), are join ed in to a vertical waste
bran ch of 2-in. (51-mm) size, according to
Figure 3 -17 Deaerator Fitting Located
Table 3-16. Since there is only one vertical
above Floor Level of Building Drain
drop in the branch serving th e lavatories, it
remains 2 in. (51 mm) all the way to the aera-
tor fitting waste inlet.
2. Water closets requ ire a minimu m soil-branch
size of 3 in. (76 mm). Since the branch serv-
in g th e two water clos ets a ls o s erves a n
additional fixtu re, it mu st be increased to 4
in. (101 mm) for entry into the aerator fitting.
An altern ative design for th e bran ch es is
shown in Plan B of Figu re 3-19, wh ich assu mes
th at a drop ceiling is n ot possible an d the fou r
bathrooms mu st be served by two 4-in. (101-mm)
stacks.

Installation The design engineer should explain

th e special requ iremen ts of th e sovent system to
th e in staller, who may be u nfamiliar with them.
More detailed drawings may be necessary to de-
s cribe th e s ys t em complet ely. Th e en gin eer
(A) (B) shou ld make regu lar inspections to be su re that
th e design conditions are met in th e field. Also,
Figure 3 -1 8 Sovent Fitting: (A) Single-Side th e own er shou ld be given copies of the plu mb-
Entry (Without Waste Inlets); (B) Double- in g drawin gs for perma n en t records s o th a t
Side Entry (with Waste Inlets) fu tu re additions can be properly sized.
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 63

Table 3-18 Maximum Sovent Table 3-19 Loadings for Building Drains
Stack Loadings
Drain Suggested Maximum Fixture Units
Stack Size, in. (mm) Maximum Fixture Units Size, -in./ft ¼-in./ft ½-in./ft
in. (mm) (12.5 cm/m) (25 cm/m) (50 cm/m)
3 (76) 64a Fall (1%) Fall (2%) Fall (4%)
4 (101) 500
5 (127) 1100 4 (101) 36 100 200
5 (127) 150 350 650
6 (152) 1900
6 (152) 430 850 1400
aIncluding no more than 8 water closets. 8 (203) 1700 2700 3900

Figure 3-19 Two Alternative Design Layouts for

Typical Back-to-Back Bathroom Arrangements
64 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

GLOSSARY Horiz ont a l bra nch d ra in A drain branch pipe

extending laterally from a soil or waste stack or
For the pu rposes of this chapter, the followin g bu ilding drain, with or withou t vertical sections
terms have the meanin gs indicated. or branches, that receives the discharge from
one or more fixture drains and condu cts it to
Air a d mit t a nce va lve This is a mechanical de- the soil or waste stack or to the bu ilding drain.
vice that allows the introdu ction of air into the
venting system bu t prevents the discharge of air Insa nit a ry (unsa nit a ry) A condition that is
from the venting system. It redu ces the volu me contrary to sanitary principles or is inju riou s to
of the venting system and may redu ce the nu m- health.
ber of vents required to terminate to atmosphere.
Loop vent A circuit vent that loops back to con-
This device can be u sed only when the system
nect with a stack vent instead of a vent stack.
experiences negative pressu re flu ctu ations.
Offset A combination of elbows or bends that
Ba t t ery of fixt ures Any group of two or more
brings one section of the pipe ou t of line bu t into
similar adjacent fixtu res that discharge into a
a line approximately parallel with the other sec-
common horizontal waste or soil branch. tion.
Branch int erval The distance along a soil or Relief vent An au xiliary vent that permits ad-
waste stack, corresponding in general to a story
ditional circu lation of air in or between drainage
height but in no case less than 8 ft (2.4 m), within
and vent systems.
which the horizontal branches from one floor or
story of a bu ilding are connected to the stack. St ack vent ing A method of venting a fixtu re
or fixtu res throu gh the soil or waste stack.
Building d ra in That part of the lowest piping
of a drainage system that receives discharges Tra p a rm That portion of a fixtu re drain be-
from the soil, waste, and other drainage pipes tween a trap and its vent.
inside the walls of the building and conveys them
Tra p sea l The maximu m vertical depth of liq-
to the building sewer beginning 3–5 ft (1–1.5 m)
u id that a trap will retain, measu red between
ou tside the bu ilding wall.
the crown weir and the top of the dip of the trap.
Circuit vent A branch vent that serves two or
Vent st a ck A vertical vent pipe that is installed
more traps and extends from the downstream
to provide circulation of air to and from the drain-
side of the highest fixtu re connection of a hori-
age system and that extends through one or more
zontal branch to the vent stack.
stories.
Combinat ion wa st e-a nd -vent syst em A spe-
Vent st a ck t ermina l The vertical termination
cia lly en gin eer ed s ys t em of wa s t e p ip in g
point that normally extends u p throu gh the roof
embodying the horizontal wet venting of one or
of the bu ilding, thu s venting to the atmosphere.
more sinks or floor drains by means of a com-
mon waste and vent pipe adequ ately sized to Wet vent A vent that receives the discharge of
provide free movement of air above the flow line wastes from sources other than water closets and
of the drain. kitchen sinks.
Common vent A vent connected at the com-
mon connection of two fixture drains and serving
as a vent for both fixtu res.
Cont inuous vent A vertical vent that is a con-
tinu ation of the drain to which it connects.
Dra ina ge fixt ure unit (d fu or fu) A measu re
of the probable discharge into the drainage sys-
tem by variou s types of plu mbing fixtu re. The
drainage-fixtu re-unit valu e for a particu lar fix-
tu re depen ds on its volu me rate of drainage
discharge, on the du ration of a single drainage
operation, and on the average time between su c-
cessive operations.
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 65

REFERENCES
1. American Society of Plu mbin g Engin eers (ASPE)
Research Fou n dation. 1978. Red uced-s ize vent-
ing d es ign, by E. Brownstein. Westlake Village,
CA.
2. Copper Development Association, Inc. Copper
s ovent s ingle-s tack plumbing s y s tem handbook
s upplement. New York.
3. Manas, Vincent T. 1957. National plumbing code
handbook . New York: McGraw-Hill.
4. National Association of Home Bu ilders Research
Foundation. 1971. Performance of reduced-s iz e
venting in res idential drain, w as te and vent s y s -
tem . Report LR 210-17.
5. National Association of Plu mbing-Heating-Cool-
in g Con t r a ct or s a n d Am er ica n Societ y of
Plu mbing Engin eers. 1973. National s tand ard
plumbing code.
6. National Bu reau of Stan dards. 1923. Recom -
mended m inim um requirements for plumbing in
dw ellings and s imilar buildings , by Dr. R. Hunter.
7. National Bu reau of Standards. 1974. Laboratory
s tudies of the hy draulic performance of one-s tory
and s plit-level res idential plumbing s y s tems w ith
red uced-s iz e vents , by R. S. Wyly, G. C. Sherlin,
and R. W. Beau soliel. Report no. BBS 49.
8. National Bureau of Standards. n.d. Monograph
no. 31.
9. Stevens Institute of Technology. 1973. An inves -
t iga t ion of th e a d e qu a cy of p e rform a n ce of
reduced-s ize vents ins talled on a ten-s tory drain,
w as te and vent s y s tem , by T. K. Konen and T.
J ackson. Report SIT-DL-73-1708.
66 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 67

Storm-
Drainage
Systems

GENERAL DESIGN tem, n ot allowing for gravity drainage, th e drain-

CONSIDERATIONS FOR BUILDINGS age mu st be pu mped. When a pu blic means of
AND SITES disposal is not available, the discharge sh ou ld
be directed to a safe point of disposal as approved
Storm-drain age systems convey rainwater from by the ju risdictional au thority for storm-water
bu ildings, su rface ru n off from all types of pre- control.
cipitation, grou nd water, and su bsu rface water. The storm sewer shou ld be separate from the
The drainage may inclu de rainwater from park- sanitary sewer system u n less there is an ap-
ing lots, roadways, roofs of stru ctu res, and u n- proved combined storm/ sanitary sewer system
developed areas of a site. available. Su ch systems have become a rarity
Depending on the approval of the local ad- becau se of the additional loads imposed on the
ministrative au thority, some clear-water wastes, mu nicipal sewage disposal plants; also, overflow
su ch as condensate from HVAC u nits, u ntreated cou ld cau se direct contamination of the local
coolin g-tower water, ice-machine discharge, and streams and waterways. Federal govern men t
pon d overflow, may be allowed to be con du cted regu lations proh ibit the u se of combined sewers
to the storm-drainage system. These discharges for an y pu blic system that receives federal fu nd-
mu st exclu de an y chemicals or sanitary flow. in g. Con trolled-flow s torm-dra in age s ys tems
should be considered in all combined storm/ sani-
If an y oils are directed to the storm system, tary sewer systems.
an oil separator mu st be provided to separate
th e oils prior to disch arge to a pu blic storm sys- If the storm-drainage piping does connect to
tem. The local au th ority mu st approve all drain- the sanitary sewer, the storm drain mu st be prop-
a ge pla n s , in clu d in g det en t ion a n d ou t fa ll erly trapped prior to its connection. Storm-drain-
stru ctu res, an d mu st issu e permits. age stacks do n ot requ ire venting becau se there
is no need to control hydraulic or pneu matic pres-
Bu ildin g s ites s h ou ld be provided with a su res within any fixed limits. Negative pressu res
means for drainin g water from roofs, paved ar- occu r at the top of the stack and positive pres-
eas, areaways, yards, and all oth er areas where su res exist at th e bottom of the stack. Becau se
th e collection or u ncontrolled flow of rain water th e stack is n ot vented, pressu res can become
cou ld cau se damage to a bu ilding, overload local rather h igh, creatin g tu rbu lence at the base of
streams, or present a hazard to th e pu blic. The th e stack kn own as the “hydrau lic ju mp” phe-
storm-drainage systems shou ld provide a con- nomenon . In gen eral, su percritical flow can be
du it or ch ann el from th e point of collection to an ch a n ged to s u bcrit ica l flow on ly by pa s s in g
approved point of disposal, usu ally a public storm th rou gh a h ydrau lic ju mp. The extreme tu rbu -
sewer system or drain age can als. lence in a hydrau lic ju mp will dissipate energy
If the bu ilding storm-drainage system is at a rapidly, cau sin g a sharp drop in the total h ead
lower elevation than the pu blic storm sewer sys- between the su percritical an d su bcritical states
68 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

of flow. No connections sh ou ld be made within pable of withstanding all anticipated abu ses,
th e area where hydrau lic ju mp may occu r. corrosion, weather, and expected expansion and
contraction.
It may be more advantageou s to rou te the
storm an d sanitary mains separately to the ex- Underground piping shou ld be of cast iron
terior of the bu ilding before they are tied together (service or extra-heavy weight, depending on the
in the combined system, with a trap separatin g loads exerted on the pipe), ductile iron, hard-
th e systems. Traps shou ld be either located in- temper copper, aluminum, ABS, PVC-DWV, con-
side th e bu ilding or bu ried, with access, below crete or extra-strength vitrified clay. If plastic
th e frostlin e to prevent freezin g. Connection of piping is used, a proper class B bedding must be
th e storm leaders to the sanitary sewer sh ou ld provided for adequate laying and support of the
be a minimu m of 10 ft (3.1 m) downstream from pipe. Plastic piping does not have the scour re-
any san itary connection to prevent the hydrau - sistance of metal piping, especially at the base
lic ju mp from disru pting flow wh en th e storm elbow. Alu minum pipe and other metallic pipe
drains are discharging and cau sing backu ps in in corrosive soils must be wrapped or coated.
th e san itary system. Piping cast in columns should be type L copper
or plastic. All materials must be approved by the
Rainwater is normally conveyed from the area
local code body. See other Data Book chapters
being drain ed at th e same rate at which it is
on piping and drainage for data on pipe sched-
collected, u nless controlled-flow systems are u ti-
u les, joining methods, plumbing drains, etc.
lized to alleviate overtaxation of the pu blic storm
sewers. Th e rate of the water flow to be drained
is determin ed by t h e s ize of t h e a rea bein g PART ONE: BUILDING DRAINAGE
drained, the rou ghness coefficien t and infiltra- SYSTEM DESIGN
tion rate of the area being drained, and the rate
of rainfall. Rainfall intensity charts pu blished by
The design of drainage systems sh ou ld be based
th e National Weather Service and the adminis- on sou nd engineering ju dgment with stan dard
trative au thority having ju risdiction shou ld be engineering methods governing the basic aspects
consu lted when determinin g the rate of rainfall
of drain age systems. Special local conditions,
for the area of th e cou ntry in which a bu ildin g is
bu ildin g and site characteristics, an d code au -
being constru cted.
th ority requ irements may n ecessitate a u n iqu e
Pon ding may be allowable in areas su ch as a design . The designer shou ld keep in mind that
paved schoolyard, where it wou ld cau se few prob- th e codes are minimu m stan dards only. All de-
lems beca u s e of t h e n or ma l in a ct ivit y in a signs mu st meet, or exceed, the local code re-
sch oolyard du ring rainy periods. If the stru ctu re quirements.
can not tolerate the additional weight imposed
by the ponding of th e water or if th e ponding of Design Criteria
water may cau se a hazard to the pu blic, the more
strin gent of design considerations may be ap- The following items shou ld be considered wh en
propriate. establishin g the design criteria:
Similar to the requ irements for sanitary sys- 1. Local climatic conditions . Rainfall rate, snow
tems and per th e local code au th ority, all sys- depth, freezing conditions, frost line, etc., as
tems mu st be properly tested u pon completion. determined from National Weather Service
publications.

MATERIALS 2. Building cons truction. Type of roof, pattern of

drainage slopes, vertical wall heights, para-
pet heights, scu pper sizes and locations,
Materials for aboveground piping in bu ildings
emergency drain requirements and locations,
should be brass, copper pipe or tube type DWV,
pipe space allocations in the ceiling space,
cast-iron, galvanized or black steel, lead, alu mi-
wall and chase locations, etc.
num, ABS or PVC-DWV. Care shou ld be taken
in the u se of plastic piping because of its higher 3. Departments having juris diction. Design rain-
expansion and contraction characteristics, re- fall rate, minimum pipe size and slope, over-
quired su pports, and possible noise problems. flow requirements, extent of overflow pipe and
Exposed leaders or downspou ts shou ld be ca- discharge requirements, method of connec-
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 69

tion to th e pu blic storm sewer, safe meth od th e base of an y stack, as high pressu re can
of disposal if th e pu blic storm sewer is not exist in this zon e du e to hydrau lic ju mp.
available, controlled-flow roof drain age, re-
8. Th e size of the bu ilding overflow storm drain
tention / detention, etc.
is based on the accu mu lated flow from the
4. Site conditions. Location, size, topography and overflow drain leaders u pstream. Means for
elevation, soil conditions and type, water th e disposal of th e overflow drain disch arge
table, location and pipe material of public mu s t meet th e requ iremen ts of th e loca l
storm sewer, location of existing manholes, codes. Local codes may not allow open dis-
location of other u tilities within the site, etc. charge on the street, especially in north ern
climates; therefore, it may be n ecessary to
Pipe Sizing and Layout tie to th e pu blic storm sewer separately from
th e primary drainage system. Both may be
Th e s torm-dra in age s ys tem(s ) requ ired for a rou ted to the same manhole bu t with sepa-
bu ilding an d site of simple design are shown in rate inlets.
Figu res 4-1 and 4-2. The following points shou ld
9. Th e size of the area drain piping is based on
be considered:
th e collection area plu s a percentage of the
1. Roof drains an d pipe sizing are based on the adjacent wall areas draining into th e collec-
collection areas, th e slope of th e pipe, and tion area.
th e rainfall rate. 10. The size of an areaway or stairwell drain pip-
2. Overflow drain s and piping are equ ivalen t to ing is based on the collection area plu s a per-
th e roof drains served, and th e basis of the cen t a ge of t h e a d ja cen t wa ll a r ea s n ot
sizing is th e same as it is for roof drains. previou sly calcu lated draining in to the area-
These drains should be piped separately from way or stairwell.
th e primary system to a separate disposal 11. The size of the catch basin piping is based
point so th at blockage of th e primary drain- on the “rational method” (see discu ssion u n-
age system will not affect the overflow drain- der “Site Drainage” in Part Two of this chap-
age system. ter).
3. Th e collection area for deck an d balcon y 12. The size of the storm drain from the catch
drains, where there is an adjacent vertical basins is based on the cu mu lative flows from
wall face, is based on the horizontal collec- th e catch basins u pstream.
tion area plu s a percentage of the adjacent
vertical wall areas. 13. Th e drain from th e lower-level deck drain
sh ou ld conn ect to the horizon tal storm main
4. The sizes of the mains are based on the ac- a min imu m of 10 ft (3.3 m) downstream of
cu mu lated flows of the drains and drain lead- th e base of an y stack, as high pressu re can
ers u pstream. exist in this zon e du e to hydrau lic ju mp.
5. The bu ilding storm-drain size is based on the
total of the horizontal collection areas plu s a Rainfall Rates
percen tage of the vertical wall areas on the
on e side of th e bu ilding that con tribu tes the Rainfall rate tables Table 4-1 lists the maxi-
greatest flow. mu m rainfall rates for variou s US cities. These
6. Sizes of main s down stream of su mp pu mps rates are also listed for variou s rain fall intensi-
are based on the accu mu lated flows of grav- ties, both in du ration len gth an d in retu rn pe-
ity drains u pstream plu s the discharge ca- r iod . Ta b le 4 -1 a llows t h e s elect ion of a
pacity of any su mp pu mps u pstream. precipitation -frequ en cy valu e for a 10-year or
100-year retu rn period with du rations of 5 min,
7. The pipe size of the su mp pu mp discharge is 15 min, or 60 min. Other retu rn periods and
based on the capacity of the pu mp bu t is nor- du rations can be selected by interpolation be-
mally th e same as th e disch arge pipe size of tween the valu es listed, as follows:
th e pu mp. For du plex pu mps that may oper-
ate simu ltaneou sly, th e combined disch arge Equa t ion 4 -1
capacity shou ld be u sed. The discharge pipe
shou ld connect to the horizon tal storm main 10-min value = 0.59 (15-min value) +
a min imu m of 10 ft (3.3 m) downstream of 0.41 (5-min value)
70 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 4 -1 Piping Layout for Figure 4 -2 Piping Layout for

Typical Building Elevation Typical Building Site Plan
Note: A = Roof drains and pipe, B = Overflow drains and Note: E = Building storm drain, H = Building overflow storm
piping, C = Collection area for deck and balcony drains, D = drain, I = Area drain piping, J = Area-way/ stairwell drain
Storm leaders, E = Building storm drain, F = Main down- piping, K = Catch basin piping, L = Storm drain from the
stream of sump pump, G = Su mp pump discharge, H = catch basin.
Building overflow storm drain, I = Area drain piping, J =
Area-way/ stairwell drain piping, M = Connection of lower
deck drain to horizontal storm main.

Equat ion 4-2 rainfall rate is averaged over the period, is sig-
nificantly heavier than a 60-min du ration total
30-min value = 0.49 (60-min value) + for a 60-min period.
0.51 (15-min value)
The local code having ju risdiction shou ld be
The “retu rn period” determin es the rainfall consu lted to determine the rate of rain fall that
h is t ory u s ed in th e calcu la t ion s a n d is t h e is applicable for the design areas. A minimu m
estimated average period of time between occu r- design shou ld be for a 10-year, 5-min storm for
rences of a rainfall rate that equ als or exceeds th e bu ildin g roof an d for the site.
th e design condition . A 100-year retu rn period
will in clu de heavier storms than a 10-year re- Design for th e most stringen t rainfall inten-
tu rn period and requ ires the u se of a h eavier sities may not be necessary if a secondary drain-
rainfall intensity. age system is provided, su ch as scu ppers in a
parapet wall or a separately piped secon dary
The “du ration ” determin es the len gth of time drainage system, th at will accept the overflow.
to be u tilized in the rainfall calcu lation s. Nor- Therefore, the design may be based on a more
mally, the inten sity of a storm is mu ch h eavier liberal design storm of a 100-year retu rn period,
taken over a sh orter du ration an d decreases as 60-min du ration , as opposed to a more conser-
th e storm progresses. Du rin g a flash flood or vative 100-year retu rn period, 5-min du ration.
su mmer storm, a delu ge of precipitation may
occu r for a short du ration and taper off. There- Secondary drainage systems Some codes re-
fore, the amou n t of rainfall for a 5-min du ra- qu ire that the primary drainage system be de-
tion, projected over a 60-min period where the s ign ed for th e les s s trin gen t va lu e, with th e
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 71

Table 4-1 Maximum Rates of Rainfall for Various US Cities, in./h (mm/h)

Frequency and Duration of Storm

100-Yr., 5 Min. 100-Yr., 15-Min. 100-Yr., 60-Min. 10-Yr., 5-Min.

Alabama:
Birmingham 10.08 (256.0) 7.28 (184.9) 3.7 (94.0) 7.50 (190.5)
Huntsville 9.96 (253.0) 7.08 (179.8) 3.3 (83.8) 7.30 (185.4)
Mobile 10.80 (274.3) 8.00 (203.2) 4.5 (114.3) 8.18 (207.8)
Montgomery 10.26 (260.6) 7.60 (193.0) 3.8 7.73 (196.4)

Alaska:
Fairbanks Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.00 (25.4) 3.70 (94.0)
Juneau state precipitation map. 0.60 (15.2) 1.70 (43.2)

Arizona: Use NOAA atlas for detailed

Phoenix state precipitation map. 2.2 (55.9) 4.30 (109.2)

Arkansas:
Bentonville 10.20 (259.1) 7.24 (183.9) 3.62 (91.9) 7.38 (187.4)
Ft. Smith 10.20 (259.1) 7.28 (184.9) 3.9 (99.1) 7.41 (188.1)
Little Rock 9.96 (253.0) 7.16 (181.9) 3.7 (94.0) 7.36 (186.9)

California:
Eureka 1.5 (38.1) 2.70 (68.6)
Fresno 1.90 (48.3) 3.60 (91.4)
Los Angeles 2.00 (50.8) 3.60 (91.4)
Mt. Tamalpais 1.50 (38.1) 2.50 (63.5)
Pt. Reyes 1.50 (38.1) 2.40 (61.0)
Red Bluff Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.75 (44.5) 3.80 (96.5)
Sacramento state precipitation map. 1.30 (33.0) 3.00 (76.2)
San Diego 1.50 (38.1) 3.30 (83.8)
San Francisco 1.50 (38.1) 3.00 (76.2)
San Jose 1.50 (38.1) 2.00 (50.8)
San Luis Obispo 1.5 (38.1) 3.10 (78.7)

Colorado:
Denver Use NOAA atlas for detailed 2.2 (55.9) 5.70 (144.8)
Grand Junction state precipitation map. 1.70 (43.2) 3.00 (76.2)
Pueblo 2.50 (63.5) 5.00 (127.0)
Wagon Wheel Gap 1.90 (48.3) 3.60 (91.4)

Connecticut:
Hartford 8.70 (221.0) 5.96 (151.4) 2.8 (71.1) 6.23 (158.2)

(Continued)
72 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(Table 4-1 continued) Frequency and Duration of Storm

100-Yr., 5 Min. 100-Yr., 15-Min. 100-Yr., 60-Min. 10-Yr., 5-Min.

New Haven 9.00 (228.6) 6.00 (152.4) 3.0 6.42 (163.1)

Delaware:
Dover 9.48 (240.8) 7.00 (177.8) 3.5 (88.9) 6.93 (176.1)

District of Columbia:
Washington 9.72 (246.9) 7.22 (183.4) 4.0 (101.6) 7.10 (180.4)

Florida:
Jacksonville 10.08 (256.0) 8.08 (205.2) 4.3 (109.2) 7.86 (199.6)
Key West 9.12 (231.6) 7.24 (183.9) 4.28 (108.7) 7.07 (179.6)
Miami 9.84 (249.9) 8.80 (223.5) 4.5 (114.3) 7.69 (195.4)
Orlando 10.80 (274.3) 8.40 (213.4) 4.50 (114.3) 8.42 (213.9)
Pensacola 10.80 (274.3) 8.08 (205.2) 4.60 (116.8) 8.18 (207.8)
Tampa 10.80 (274.3) 8.40 (213.4) 4.2 (106.7) 8.33 (211.6)
Tallahassee 10.50 (266.7) 8.04 (204.2) 4.1 8.05 (204.4)

Georgia:
Atlanta 9.90 (251.5) 7.12 (180.9) 3.5 (88.9) 7.33 (186.2)
Augusta 9.84 (249.9) 7.20 (182.9) 4.00 (101.6) 7.33 (186.2)
Macon 10.08 (256.0) 7.40 (188.0) 3.7 (94.0) 7.62 (193.6)
Savannah 9.60 (243.8) 7.60 (193.0) 4.0 (101.6) 7.44 (188.9)
Thomasville 10.44 (265.2) 7.88 (200.2) 4.0 (101.6) 7.96 (202.2)

Hawaii: Use NOAA atlas for detailed 3.00 (76.2) 5.2 (132.1)
Honolulu state precipitation map.

Idaho:
Boise Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.0 (25.4) 2.7 (68.6)
Lewiston state precipitation map. 1.0 (25.4) 3.1 (78.7)
Pocatello 1.20 (30.5) 3.7 (94.0)

Illinois:
Cairo 9.84 (249.9) 6.96 (176.8) 3.40 (86.4) 7.16 (181.8)
Chicago 9.30 (236.2) 6.60 (167.6) 2.7 (68.6) 6.76 (171.8)
Peoria 9.72 (246.9) 6.88 (174.8) 2.9 () 7.04 (178.9)
Springfield 9.84 (249.9) 7.12 (180.9) 3.0 (76.2) 7.10 (180.3)

Indiana:
Evansville 9.72 (246.9) 6.80 (172.7) 3.0 (76.2) 7.04 (178.9)
Ft. Wayne 9.24 (234.7) 6.48 (164.6) 2.85 (72.4) 6.65 (168.9)

(Continued)
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 73

(Table 4-1 continued) Frequency and Duration of Storm

100-Yr., 5 Min. 100-Yr., 15-Min. 100-Yr., 60-Min. 10-Yr., 5-Min.

Indianapolis 9.42 (239.3) 6.60 (167.6) 2.8 (71.1) 6.82 (173.2)

Terre Haute 9.66 (245.4) 6.72 (170.7) 3.18 (80.8) 7.02 (178.2)

Iowa:
Charles City 9.96 (253.0) 7.08 (179.8) 3.35 (85.1) 7.06 (179.4)
Davenport 9.84 (249.9) 7.00 (177.8) 3.0 (76.2) 7.04 (178.7)
Des Moines 10.32 (262.1) 7.28 (184.9) 3.4 (86.4) 7.31 (185.7)
Dubuque 9.84 (249.9) 6.94 (176.3) 3.30 (83.8) 7.01 (178.0)
Keokuk 9.96 (253.0) 7.08 (179.8) 3.30 (83.8) 7.15 (181.6)
Sioux City 10.44 (265.2) 7.32 (185.9) 3.6 (91.4) 7.34 (186.3)

Kansas:
Concordia 10.44 (265.2) 7.48 (190.0) 3.75 (95.3) 7.37 (187.1)
Dodge City 10.20 (259.1) 7.24 (183.9) 3.45 (87.6) 7.20 (182.8)
Goodland 9.96 (253.0) 6.80 (172.7) 3.5 (88.9) 6.85 (174.1)
Iola 10.44 (265.2) 7.32 (185.9) 3.62 (91.9) 7.40 (187.9)
Topeka 10.50 (266.7) 7.40 (188.0) 3.8 (96.5) 7.39 (187.8)
Wichita 10.50 (266.7) 7.50 (190.5) 3.9 (99.1) 7.51 (190.8)

Kentucky:
Lexington 9.36 (237.7) 6.56 (166.6) 2.9 () 6.82 (173.3)
Louisville 9.36 (237.7) 6.56 (166.6) 2.8 (71.1) 6.88 (174.8)

Louisiana:
Alexandria 10.50 (266.7) 7.96 (202.2) 4.30 (109.2) 7.99 (202.9)
New Orleans 10.92 (277.4) 8.20 (208.3) 4.5 (114.3) 8.30 (210.7)
Shreveport 10.44 (265.2) 7.60 (193.0) 4.0 (101.6) 7.81 (198.4)

Maine:
Eastport 6.60 (167.6) 4.60 (116.8) 2.20 (55.9) 4.63 (117.6)
Portland 7.56 (192.0) 5.12 (130.1) 2.25 (57.2) 5.36 (136.1)
Presque Isle 6.96 (176.8) 4.68 (118.9) 2.05 (52.1) 4.91 (124.7)

Maryland:
Baltimore 9.72 (246.9) 7.24 (183.9) 3.5 (88.9) 7.11 (180.7)
Cambridge 9.60 (243.8) 7.24 (183.9) 3.25 (82.6) 7.05 (179.0)
Cumberland 9.30 (236.2) 6.56 (166.6) 2.75 (69.9) 6.76 (171.8)

Massachusetts:
Boston 7.20 (182.9) 5.20 (132.1) 2.7 (68.6) 5.26 (133.5)
Nantucket 7.20 (182.9) 5.12 (130.1) 2.50 (63.5) 5.32 (135.0)
(Continued)
74 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(Table 4-1 continued) Frequency and Duration of Storm

100-Yr., 5 Min. 100-Yr., 15-Min. 100-Yr., 60-Min. 10-Yr., 5-Min.

Springfield 8.64 (219.5) 6.00 (152.4) 2.70 (68.6) 6.20 (157.5)

Michigan:
Alpena 8.64 (219.5) 5.60 (142.2) 2.50 (63.5) 6.02 (153.0)
Detroit 8.88 (225.6) 5.92 (150.4) 2.5 (63.5) 6.37 (161.7)
Escanaba 8.88 (225.6) 5.60 (142.2) 2.40 (61.0) 6.22 (158.0)
Grand Rapids 9.00 (228.6) 6.00 (152.4) 2.6 (66.0) 6.48 (164.6)
Houghton 8.40 (213.4) 5.20 (132.1) 2.40 (61.0) 6.00 (152.5)
Lansing 9.24 (234.7) 6.10 (154.9) 2.80 (71.1) 6.62 (168.1)
Marquette 8.40 (213.4) 5.20 (132.1) 2.40 (61.0) 5.97 (151.7)
Port Huron 8.76 (222.5) 5.80 (147.3) 2.70 (68.6) 6.31 (160.4)
Ste. Marie 7.80 (198.1) 5.20 (132.1) 2.25 (57.2) 5.59 (141.9)

Minnesota:
Duluth 9.48 (240.8) 6.40 (162.6) 2.6 (66.0) 6.70 (170.1)
Minneapolis 9.96 (253.0) 6.88 (174.8) 3.0 (76.2) 7.00 (177.8)
Moorhead 10.02 (254.4) 6.88 (174.8) 3.20 (81.3) 6.88 (174.7)
Worthington 10.50 (266.7) 7.30 (185.4) 3.4 (86.4) 7.29 (185.2)

Mississippi:
Biloxi 11.04 (280.4) 8.10 (205.7) 4.5 (114.3) 8.35 (212.1)
Meridian 10.32 (262.1) 7.64 (194.1) 4.05 (102.9) 7.82 (198.6)
Tupeto 9.96 (253.0) 7.20 (182.9) 3.60 (91.4) 7.72 (196.0)
Vicksburg 10.44 (265.2) 7.68 (195.1) 4.20 (106.7) 7.87 (199.9)

Missouri:
Columbia 10.08 (256.0) 7.20 (182.9) 3.80 (96.5) 7.20 (183.0)
Hannibal 10.02 (254.5) 7.08 (179.8) 3.75 (95.3) 7.18 (182.3)
Kansas City 10.44 (265.2) 7.34 (186.4) 3.65 (92.7) 7.37 (187.1)
Poplar Bluff 9.96 (253.0) 7.08 (179.8) 3.55 (90.2) 7.27 (184.6)
St. Joseph 10.44 (265.2) 7.36 (186.9) 3.65 (92.7) 7.37 (187.1)
St. Louis 9.90 (251.5) 7.00 (177.8) 3.2 (81.3) 7.12 (180.9)
Springfield 10.14 (257.6) 7.20 (182.9) 3.7 (94.0) 7.23 (183.7)

Montana:
Havre 1.60 (40.6) 4.30 (109.2)
Helena Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.50 (38.1) 3.80 (96.5)
Kalispell state precipitation map. 1.20 (30.5) 3.30 (83.8)
Miles City 2.15 (54.6) 7.00 (177.8)
Missoula 1.30 (33.0) 2.70 (68.6)

(Continued)
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 75

(Table 4-1 continued) Frequency and Duration of Storm

100-Yr., 5 Min. 100-Yr., 15-Min. 100-Yr., 60-Min. 10-Yr., 5-Min.

Nebraska:
Lincoln 10.50 (266.1) 7.44 (189.0) 3.80 (96.5) 7.39 (187.8)
North Platte 10.02 (254.5) 6.80 (172.7) 3.35 (85.1) 6.88 (174.7)
Omaha 10.50 (266.1) 7.38 (187.5) 3.6 (91.4) 7.39 (187.8)
Scottsbluff 9.60 (243.8) 6.40 (162.6) 3.15 (80.0) 6.41 (162.7)
Valentine 9.96 (253.0) 6.84 (173.7) 3.25 (82.6) 6.78 (172.2)

Nevada:
Reno Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.2 (30.5) 3.20 (81.3)
Tonopah state precipitation map. 1.00 (25.4) 3.00 (76.2)
Winnemucca 1.00 (25.4) 2.70 (68.6)

New Hampshire:
Berlin 7.80 (198.1) 5.36 (136.1) 2.2 (55.9) 5.64 (143.4)
Concord 7.92 (201.2) 5.60 (142.2) 2.50 (63.5) 5.73 (145.5)

New Jersey:
Atlantic City 9.36 (237.7) 6.72 (170.7) 3.4 (86.4) 6.82 (173.3)
Paterson 9.24 (234.7) 6.52 (165.6) 3.00 (76.2) 6.65 (168.9)
Trenton 9.30 (236.2) 6.72 (170.7) 3.2 (81.3) 6.71 (170.3)

New Mexico:
Albuquerque Use NOAA atlas for detailed 2.00 (50.8) 3.70 (94.0)
Roswell state precipitation map. 2.60 (66.0) 5.40 (137.2)
Santa Fe 2.00 (50.8) 4.40 (111.8)

New York:
Albany 9.12 (231.6) 6.24 (158.5) 2.50 (63.5) 6.48 (164.5)
Binghamton 8.82 (224.0) 5.72 (145.3) 2.4 (61.0) 6.34 (161.1)
Buffalo 8.40 (213.4) 5.34 (135.6) 2.30 (58.4) 5.97 (151.7)
Canton 8.10 (205.7) 5.24 (133.1) 2.25 (57.2) 5.84 (148.3)
Messena 7.86 (199.6) 5.20 (132.1) 2.25 (57.2) 5.61 (142.6)
New York 9.24 (234.7) 6.40 (162.6) 3.1 (78.7) 6.65 (168.9)
Oswego 8.28 (210.3) 5.50 (139.7) 2.20 (55.9) 5.81 (147.6)
Rochester 8.28 (210.3) 5.20 (132.1) 2.20 (55.9) 5.80 (147.3)
Syracuse 8.64 (219.5) 5.32 (135.1) 2.4 (61.0) 6.06 (154.0)

North Carolina:
Asheville 9.60 (243.8) 6.84 (173.7) 3.2 (81.3) 6.99 (177.5)
Charlotte 9.84 (249.9) 6.92 (175.8) 3.4 (86.4) 7.24 (183.9)
Greensboro 9.84 (249.9) 7.00 (177.8) 3.30 (83.8) 7.22 (183.4)
(Continued)
76 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(Table 4-1 continued) Frequency and Duration of Storm

100-Yr., 5 Min. 100-Yr., 15-Min. 100-Yr., 60-Min. 10-Yr., 5-Min.

Hatteras 9.36 (237.7) 6.88 (174.8) 4.15 (105.4) 7.07 (179.6)

Raleigh 9.84 (249.9) 7.28 (184.9) 4.0 (101.6) 7.29 (185.1)
Wilmington 9.48 (240.8) 7.36 (186.9) 4.4 (111.8) 7.14 (181.4)

North Dakota:
Bismarck 9.84 (249.9) 6.40 (162.6) 2.7 (68.6) 6.57 (166.9)
Devil’s Lake 9.96 (253.0) 6.48 (164.6) 2.82 (71.6) 6.67 (169.5)
Williston 9.00 (228.6) 6.00 (152.4) 2.60 (66.0) 6.00 (152.5)

Ohio:
Cincinnati 9.30 (236.2) 6.52 (165.6) 2.8 (71.1) 6.79 (172.4)
Cleveland 8.76 (222.5) 5.92 (150.4) 2.4 (61.0) 6.31 (160.4)
Columbus 9.00 (228.6) 6.42 (163.1) 2.7 (68.6) 6.57 (166.9)
Steubenville 8.88 (225.6) 6.00 (152.4) 2.70 (68.6) 6.44 (163.7)
Toledo 8.94 (227.1) 6.04 (153.4) 2.6 (66.0) 6.46 (164.1)

Oklahoma:
Hooker 10.08 (256.0) 7.12 (180.8) 3.30 (83.8) 7.08 (180.0)
Oklahoma City 10.50 (266.7) 7.42 (188.5) 4.1 () 7.58 (192.6)
Tulsa 10.38 (263.7) 7.40 (188.0) 3.80 (96.5) 7.52 (190.9)

Oregon:
Baker Use NOAA atlas for detailed 0.90 (22.9) 3.30 (83.8)
Portland state precipitation map. 1.3 (33.0) 3.00 (76.2)
Roseburg 1.40 (35.6) 3.60 (91.4)

Pennsylvania:
Bradford 8.64 (219.5) 5.60 (142.4) 2.50 (63.5) 6.11 (155.2)
Erie 8.64 (219.5) 5.68 (144.3) 2.4 (61.0) 6.14 (156.0)
Harrisburg 9.36 (237.7) 6.92 (175.8) 2.9 () 6.76 (171.8)
Philadelphia 9.36 (237.7) 6.88 (174.8) 3.2 (81.3) 6.76 (171.8)
Pittsburg 8.82 (224.0) 5.96 (151.4) 2.5 (63.5) 6.40 (162.6)
Reading 9.36 (237.7) 6.80 (172.7) 3.05 (77.5) 6.81 (172.9)
Scranton 9.12 (231.6) 6.20 (157.5) 2.8 (71.1) 6.56 (166.8)

Puerto Rico: Use NOAA atlas for detailed

San Juan state precipitation map. 2.50 (63.5) 5.70 (144.8)

Rhode Island:
Block Island 8.16 (207.3) 5.54 (140.7) 2.75 (69.9) 5.90 (149.8)
Providence 7.80 (198.1) 5.40 (137.2) 2.9 () 5.64 (143.4)
(Continued)
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 77

(Table 4-1 continued) Frequency and Duration of Storm

100-Yr., 5 Min. 100-Yr., 15-Min. 100-Yr., 60-Min. 10-Yr., 5-Min.

South Carolina:
Charleston 9.36 (237.7) 7.48 (190.0) 4.1 () 7.24 (183.8)
Columbia 9.90 (251.5) 6.40 (162.6) 3.5 (88.9) 7.35 (186.6)
Greenville 9.84 (249.9) 7.36 (186.9) 3.3 (83.8) 7.17 (182.1)

South Dakota:
Aberdeen 10.02 (254.5) 7.08 (179.8) 3.30 (83.8) 6.82 (173.2)
Pierre 9.90 (251.5) 6.80 (172.7) 3.10 (78.7) 6.69 (169.9)
Rapid City 9.84 (249.9) 6.36 (161.5) 2.7 (68.6) 6.51 (165.4)
Yankton 10.44 (265.2) 7.28 (184.9) 3.62 (91.9) 7.25 (184.1)

Tennessee:
Chattanooga 9.84 (249.9) 7.00 (177.8) 3.50 (88.9) 7.32 (188.9)
Knoxville 9.00 (228.6) 6.60 (167.6) 3.1 (78.7) 6.66 (169.2)
Memphis 9.96 (253.0) 7.14 (181.4) 3.5 (88.9) 7.37 (187.3)
Nashville 9.84 (249.9) 6.92 (175.8) 3.0 (76.2) 7.10 (180.3)

Texas:
Abilene 10.38 (263.7) 7.32 (185.9) 3.70 (94.0) 7.43 (188.7)
Amarillo 10.20 (259.1) 7.24 (183.9) 3.55 (90.2) 7.30 (185.4)
Austin 10.50 (266.7) 7.68 (195.1) 4.25 (108.0) 7.69 (195.3)
Brownsville 10.68 (271.3) 7.92 (201.2) 4.40 (111.8) 7.89 (200.4)
Corpus Christi 10.68 (271.3) 8.00 (203.2) 4.6 (116.8) 7.92 (201.2)
Dallas 10.50 (266.7) 7.50 (190.5) 4.2 (106.7) 7.63 (193.8)
Del Rio 10.20 (259.1) 7.29 (185.1) 4.00 (101.6) 7.32 (186.0)
El Paso 6.60 (167.6) 5.60 (142.2) 2.0 (50.8) 4.57 (116.1)
Fort Worth 10.50 (266.7) 7.50 (190.5) 3.90 (99.1) 7.60 (193.1)
Galveston 10.92 (277.4) 8.10 (205.7) 4.70 (119.4) 8.30 (210.7)
Houston 10.80 (274.3) 8.04 (204.2) 4.5 (114.3) 8.18 (207.8)
Palestine 10.44 (265.2) 7.60 (193.0) 4.00 (101.6) 7.79 (197.8)
Port Arthur 10.92 (277.4) 8.08 (205.2) 4.65 (118.1) 8.30 (210.7)
San Antonio 10.50 (266.7) 7.70 (195.6) 4.4 (111.8) 7.61 (193.2)
Tyler 10.38 (263.7) 7.52 (191.0) 3.90 (99.1) 7.76 (197.0)

Utah:
Modena Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.50 (38.1) 3.80 (96.5)
Salt Lake City state precipitation map. 1.30 (33.0) 3.40 (86.4)

Vermont:
Brattleboro 8.40 (213.4) 5.88 (149.4) 2.40 (61.0) 6.02 (152.9)
Burlington 8.16 (207.3) 5.52 (140.2) 2.3 () 5.75 (146.0)
(Continued)
78 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(Table 4-1 continued) Frequency and Duration of Storm

100-Yr., 5 Min. 100-Yr., 15-Min. 100-Yr., 60-Min. 10-Yr., 5-Min.

Rutland 8.28 (210.3) 5.60 (142.2) 2.4 (61.0) 5.92 (150.4)

Virginia:
Lynchburg 9.60 (243.8) 6.56 (166.6) 2.75 (69.9) 7.06 (179.3)
Norfolk 9.54 (242.3) 7.20 (182.9) 4.0 (101.6) 7.11 (180.6)
Richmond 9.84 (249.9) 7.28 (184.9) 4.0 (101.6) 7.23 (183.6)
Winchester 9.48 (240.8) 6.68 (169.7) 2.75 (69.9) 6.88 (174.6)
Wytheville 9.30 (236.2) 6.50 (165.1) 3.25 (82.6) 6.76 (171.8)

Washington:
North Head 1.00 (25.4) 2.80 (71.1)
Port Angeles 1.10 (27.9) 2.20 (55.9)
Seattle Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.0 (25.4) 2.20 (55.9)
Spokane state precipitation map. 1.00 (25.4) 3.10 (78.7)
Tacoma 1.00 (25.4) 2.80 (71.1)
Tatoosh Island 1.00 (25.4) 3.20 (81.3)
Walla Walla 1.00 (25.4) 2.70 (68.6)
Yakima 1.10 (27.9) 2.60 (66.0)

West Virginia:
Charleston 9.00 (228.6) 6.34 (161.0) 2.9 () 6.57 (166.9)
Elkins 8.94 (227.1) 6.32 (160.5) 2.75 (69.9) 6.53 (165.8)
Parkersburg 9.06 (230.1) 6.34 (161.0) 2.75 (69.9) 6.62 (168.0)

Wisconsin:
Green Bay 9.00 (228.6) 6.12 (155.4) 2.5 (63.5) 6.42 (163.1)
LaCrosse 9.84 (249.9) 6.90 (175.3) 2.9 () 6.98 (177.2)
Madison 9.48 (240.8) 6.70 (170.2) 3.12 (79.2) 6.79 (172.4)
Milwaukee 9.12 (231.6) 6.48 (164.6) 2.7 (68.6) 6.60 (167.7)
Spooner 9.66 (245.4) 6.52 (165.6) 2.85 (72.4) 6.81 (172.9)

Wyoming:
Cheyenne 2.5 (63.5) 5.60 (142.2)
Lander Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.50 (38.1) 3.70 (94.0)
Sheridan state precipitation map. 1.70 (43.2) 5.20 (132.1)
Yellowstone Park 1.40 (35.6) 2.50 (63.5)

Sources: Table 4-1 is based on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum NWS HYDRO-35, except for
the 12 western states. NWS Technical Paper no. 25 was used for the following 12 western states: Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii,
Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. The NOAA Atlas 2: Precipitation–Frequency Atlas of the
Western United States (11 Volumes, 1973) should also be utilized in the design for the 12 western states.
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 79

secondary drainage system han dlin g any over- sible benefits of ponding. The plu mbing engineer
flow th at may occu r wh en heavier storms arise. shou ld also en su re th at the drain s are located
These same codes may requ ire that the second- in th e low points of the roof to limit deflection —
ary drainage systems be design ed for th e more which cou ld cau se ponding and sh ifting of the
strin gent valu es, for when th e primary drainage roof low point—and located to minimize the hori-
systems may be clogged. The Standard Plumbing zontal piping ru ns.
Code, effective in 1990, requ ires that the pri-
mary drainage system be designed for a 100-year, Drain location The first roof drain sh ou ld not
60-min rainfall frequency; also, the secondary be farth er than 50 ft (15.2 m) from the en d of a
drainage system must be designed for a 100-year, valley, the maximu m distance between drains
15-min rainfall frequency. The two systems’ com- shou ld be 200 ft (61 m). With a roof slope of ¼
bin ed capacities wou ld exceed the requ ired ca- in ./ ft (21 mm/ m) and a distance of 20 ft (6.1 m)
pacity for a 100-year, 5-min storm. If a rainfall from the roof high point to the roof drain, the
heavier than the design rainfall occu rred, the two depth of water at the drain wou ld be approxi-
systems wou ld work together to carry th e in- mately 5 in. (12.7 cm). The parapet wall scu p-
creased load. pers wou ld be set at 5 in. (12.7 cm) above the
roof low point. A maximu m weight at the drain
An argu ment can be made for u sing the most th at wou ld be tran smitted to the roof stru ctu ral
conservative rainfall rates in th e design of roof supports wou ld be 26 psf (126.9 kg/ m 2 ) live load,
drainage systems. Th e shortcomings of u n der- which wou ld exceed the capacity of a normal 20
designed roof drainage systems h ave had dra- psf (97.7 kg/ m 2 ) roof live load (30 psf [146.5 kg/
matic resu lts when roofs collapsed. The designer m 2 ] live load in sn ow areas). The designer mu st
mu st weigh the liabilities of an u nder-designed closely coordinate the drainage system design
drainage system again st th e economic ben efit of with the roof stru ctu ral design.
maybe only one pipe size. In con sideration for
the safety of life and the protection of the owner’s All penetration s throu gh the roof mu st be
property, u se of the most con servative design sealed watertight. Metal flashing, 18–24 in. (0.46-
may be appropriate. 0.61 m) squ are or rou n d, is often s u gges ted
arou nd the roof drain becau se of th e heavy wear
and the likelihood that it will be a leakage prob-
Roof Drainage
lem area; it is u su ally placed between the roof-
in g plies. This flashing may also be u sed to form
Coordination Th e bu ilding roof transfers the
a roof su mp to collect the storm water prior to
combined weight of live and dead loads to the
its entering the drain. (A squ are opening is easier
su pporting stru ctu re. Th e su pporting stru ctu re to cu t into th e roof th an a rou n d opening.)
may be con stru cted of steel, concrete, wood, or
other materials. Live loads inclu de snow, rain, Most codes requ ire a minimu m of two roof
wind, etc. Dead loads in clu de HVAC u nits, roof drains on roofs with areas less th an 10,000 ft 2
drains, and the roof deck. (929 m 2 ), an d fou r drains on roofs exceedin g
10,000 ft 2 (929 m 2 ). Some codes allow a maxi-
Locating the roof drain s sh ou ld be a coop-
mu m roof area per drain of 10,000 ft 2 (929 m 2 ),
erative effort among th e arch itect, the stru ctu ral bu t this may requ ire that the drain s and associ-
engineer, and the plu mbing engin eer. The ar- ated piping be excessively large. To con trol labor
chitect is familiar with th e bu ilding constru c-
costs an d avoid potential fu rrin g an d footin g
tion, parapets, walls, chase locations, available
depth problems with the piping, a maximu m area
headroom for pipe ru ns, roof constru ction , and
of 5000 ft 2 (465 m 2)per drain and a maximu m
the waterproofing membrane. The stru ctu ral en-
drain and leader size of 8 in. (203 mm) sh ou ld
gineer is familiar with the stru ctu ral su pport lay- be considered.
ou t, roof slopes, colu mn orientation, footing sizes
and depths, and the maximu m allowable roof The designer mu st be aware of the location
loading. of roof expansion joints. These joints may pro-
hibit rain water flow across th e roof, thu s divid-
The plu mbing engineer can provide in forma-
in g the roof into fixed drainage areas. At least
tion con cern in g th e maximu m roof areas per
two roof drain s shou ld be provided for each roof
drain, wall and colu mn furring-ou t requirements, drainage area, no matter how small.
headroom requ irements, ceilin g space requ ire-
men ts, minimu m footing depths, and the pos-
80 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

The roof drain sh ou ld be a minimu m of 12– a terrace, u sed as a parking deck with h eavy
18 in. (0.30-0.61 m) from an y parapet wall or traffic, or u sed to retain rainwater to limit the
other obstru ction to allow for proper flashing. efflu ent to the storm sewer system.
The drains shou ld be located a minimu m of 10 ft
Roof drains, other than for flat decks, shou ld
(3.05 m) from an y bu ilding opening or air in-
have strainers th at extend a min imu m of 4 in.
take. The min imu m roof drain size sh ou ld be 2
(100 mm) above the roof su rface immediately ad-
in. (50.8 mm) for decks and 3 in. (76.2 mm) where
jacen t to the drain. Strainers for the roof drains
leaves are possible. In selecting the size of the
shall h ave an available in let area not less than
roof drain, all of th e horizontal roof area from
1½ times the area of th e leader that serves the
adjacent high points sloping to the drain mu st
drain. Dome-type strainers are requ ired to pre-
be taken in to accou nt.
vent the en tran ce of leaves, debris, birds, and
Ad ja cent surfa ces The roof drain mu st also small animals. Flat-deck strainers, for u se on
receive drainage of rainwater from other roof ar- su n decks, promenades, and parking garages
eas, su ch as penthou ses, that du mp onto the wh ere regu lar mainten an ce may be expected,
roof area being calcu lated and from the adjacent shall h ave an available inlet area not less th an 2
vertical walls that discharge onto the horizontal times the area of the leader that serves the drain.
roof su rface. Some codes requ ire that 50% of all Heel-proof strainers may be requ ired if su bjected
vertical wall areas be added to the horizontal roof to pedestrian traffic.
area. Other codes u se complex formu lae for vari- The flash ing ring is u sed to attach the roof
ou s wall configurations. These formu lae are nor- waterproofing membrane to the drain body to
mally excessive for roof areas that have more than main tain the watertigh t integrity of th e roof. An
one vertical wall or multiple-story walls with run- u nderdeck clamp shou ld be u tilized for secu rin g
off directed to the horizontal roof su rface. Rain th e drain to the metal or wood decking; pou red
seldomly falls in a totally vertical direction. De- concrete roofs do not requ ire these clamps. Drain
pending on the wind conditions, the angle of rain- receivers sh ou ld be u sed on drain s for concrete
fall could be as mu ch as 60° to the vertical or
more. The wind, particu larly in high-rise bu ild-
ings, can blow the rain off a vertical wall and
away from the building su rfaces.
Th e h eigh t above a h orizon tal su rface at
which the wind removes more than 50% of the
rainwater from the wall su rfaces has not been
determined. Fu rther stu dy is requ ired before lo-
cal codes can be contradicted; therefore, the lo-
cal code concerning vertical wall contribu tion of
rainwater to horizontal surfaces shou ld be com-
plied with as a minimu m.

Roof drain construction Standard roof drains

have th ree basic parts: th e strainer, the flashin g
ring with gravel stop, and the drain body or sump.
The strainers may be cast-iron coated or poly-
ethylene dome type (for u se where leaves may be
encou ntered) or flat type (for su nroofs, areaways,
and parking decks). Standard roof drain con-
stru ction is sh own in Figu re 4-3. The roof drain
types for all the common roof types are depicted
in Figu re 4-4.
When selecting the type of drain to be u sed,
th e engin eer mu st kn ow th e roof constru ction
and thickness. The roof may be flat or pitched, Figure 4-3 Typical Roof Drain
u sed to retain water for coolin g pu rposes, h ave
a sprinkler system for cooling pu rposes, u sed as Source: Reprinted, by permission, from the J ay R. Smith
catalog.
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 81

decks. Drains th at may receive san d an d grit increase resulted in an u navailable rectangu lar
shou ld be provided with sediment bu ckets. size, the next larger stock size was shown. The
ratio of width to depth of rectangu lar leaders
Piping syst em d esign Once the rainfall rate shou ld not exceed 3:1. Use Form 4-1, fou nd in
has been determined, the drains must be selected th e Appen dix at th e end of this ch apter, for
and the piping system designed. Determining the project roof drain and vertical leader sizing cal-
rate of rainfall for a system’s design requ ires re- cu lations that can be maintained in the project
searching th e requ iremen ts for the particu lar files.
stru ctu re u nder con sideration. Secondary (over-
flow) drainage systems are requ ired on bu ildings Gut t ers a nd d ownspout s For sizing horizon-
with parapet walls–or an y oth er con stru ction tal gu tters, refer to Table 4-3. This table depicts
arou n d th e perimeter of the roof that wou ld en- semicircu lar gu tters and the equ ivalent rectan-
trap rainwater on the roof. gu lar gu tters. The method of selecting sizes is
similar to that u sed for rou nd and rectangu lar
Conventional roof drainage systems are de-
leaders. Gu tters shou ld be a minimu m of 4 in.
sign ed to remove rainwater as rapidly as it falls
(100 mm) wide—th e more th e roof slope, the
on a roof.
wider th e gu tter shou ld be to prevent the rain-
Example 4 -1 . For Greenville, Sou th Carolin a, water from planing over the gu tter withou t en-
for a 100-year retu rn period with a 5-min du ra- tering. The minimu m slope th e gu tter shou ld
tion, Table 4-1 shows a precipitation-frequ ency main tain is z in./ ft (1.6 mm/ m).
valu e of 9.84 in./ h/ ft 2 (249.9 mm/ h/ ft 2). If a roof
Downspouts from the gutter should be sheet
area of 1850 ft 2 (172 m 2 ) per drain is u sed, the
metal (which is less susceptible to freezing than
roof drain an d vertical pipe section (roof drain
nonmetal materials) to 5 ft (1.5 m) above grade
leader or downspou t) wou ld be sized for a rain-
and cast iron or ductile iron to the tie-in with
fall intensity of 9.84 in./ h/ ft 2 ⋅ 1850 ft2 = 18,204
the underground piping, as this type of piping is
in./ h (249.9 mm/ h/ ft 2 ⋅ 172 m2 = 42 982.8 mm/
more resistant to damage. Downspouts should
h). To convert in ./ h to gallons per min u te (gpm),
be a minimum size of 1¾ ⋅ 2¼ in. (44.4 ⋅ 57.2
mu ltiply by th e va lu e of 0.0104 gpm/ in ./ h :
mm)and should be a maximumof 75 ft (22.8 m)
18,204 in./ h ⋅ 0.0104 gpm/ in./ h = 189.3 gpm
apart (the American Bridge Co. recommends 40
per drain. As seen in the engineering sheet for a
ft [12.2 m]). Outlets that dump onto grade on
4-in. roofdrain (Figure 4-5), the drain can handle
splashbacks or are indirectly tied to the under-
varied flow rates depending on the developed
ground piping may be provided with screens or
head of water at the drain. If the purpose of the
strainers for filtering debris and sediment. For
drain design is to drain the rainwater from the
residential construction, 5½-in . (139.7-mm)
roof as quicklyas it collects, the design must be
minimu m semicircu lar gu tters shou ld be u sed,
capable of handling the peak flow rate with a
and leaders/ downspou ts sh ou ld be 3 or 4 in .
low head of water at the drain. Therefore, the
(76.2 or 101.6 mm) rou n d, or 2 ⋅ 3 in. (50.8 ⋅
maximum flow rates per drain shown in Table
76.2 mm) or 2 ⋅ 4 in. (50.8 ⋅ 101.6 mm) rectan-
4-2 are to be considered conservative.
gular.
After calculating the peak flow to the roof
drains, refer toTable 4-2 for sizingthe roofdrains Piping coordination Any piping layou t mu st
and the vertical pipe sections. The roof drain be coordinated with the other trades that may
leader should be sized at least to match the roof be affected, su ch as architectu re for fu rrin g-in
drain connection. Round and rectangular lead- th e proper colu mn s for vertical leaders (als o
ers are shown. known as condu ctors or downspou ts)–and stru c-
tu ral engin eerin g for pipe su pport and footin g
Rect angular leaders A rectangular leader, be- depths. Other u tilities, su ch as piping, du ctwork,
cau se of its fou r sides and corners, experiences and condu it ru ns, may also be affected.
a greater friction loss than the equ ivalent rou nd
If interior floor/ hu b drains, drains from lower
leader, which diminishes its carrying capacity.
roofs, clear-water wastes, or areaway drain s are
To compensate for this increased friction loss, a
conn ected to the storm system inside the bu ild-
rectangu lar leader should be at least 10% larger
in g (if allowed by the ju risdiction al au thority),
than a rou nd leader to provide the same capac-
th e drain s mu st connect at least 10 pipe diam-
ity. Table 4-2 has been adju sted to inclu de the
eters (10 ft [3.0 m] minimu m) down stream of the
10% increase for rectangu lar leaders. If the 10%
82 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(A)

(B)

(C)
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 83

(D)

(E)

(F)

Figure 4-4 Typical Roof-Drain Installations: (A) Steel or Concrete Roof Deck with Insulation
Tapered to the Drain; (B) Precast or Steel Substrate with an Inverted-Membrane Type Roof; (C)
Parapet Drain in Poured Concrete Deck with Downspout Elbow; (D) Planting Area Drain in
Raised Planter Box; (E) Indirect Waste for HVAC Equipment on Concrete Roof Deck; (F) Prom-
enade Drain in Precast Deck with Synthetic Flooring and Underdeck Clamp.
Source: Reprinted by permission of Tyler Pipe/ The Wade Division, Tyler, Texas.
84 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 4 -5 4-In. (1 01 -mm) Roof Drain Flow Chart

Source: Reprinted by permission of the J osam Company from the Design Engineering Sheet.

last offset fittin g. Clear-water wastes shou ld be

properly trapped and vented (see Figu re 4-6).
Traps mu st be the same size as th e horizon tal
drain to wh ich th ey are connected and sh ou ld
be provided with 4-in. (102-mm) minimum, deep-
seal p-traps, or with water from trap primers or
frequ ently u sed fixtu res to maintain the trap seal
for drains not receiving water on a regu lar basis.
Becau se of the excessive pressu re th at may
exist in the leader, a low-level drain may become
th e vent to relieve the pressu re, blowing water
and air from the drain. These drains are su bject
to backflow and shou ld be provided with back- Figure 4 -6 Clear-Water Waste Branches for
water valves and vented, or rou ted separately to Connection to Storm System
tie to the system beyond the point of excess pres-
Source: Reprinted, by permission, from The Illustrated Na-
sure. If backwater valves are used, they can cause tional Plumbing Code Des ign Manual (Ballanco & Shumann
th e areas affected not to allow drain age and a 1987).
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 85

Table 4-2 Sizes of Roof Drains and Vertical Pipes

Diameter of Leader, in. (mm) Cross-Sectional Water Contact Maximum Discharge

Dimensions of Leader, in. (mm) Area, in.2 (cm2) Area, in.2 (cm2) Capacity, gpm (L/s)a

2 (50.8) 3.14 (20.3) 6.28 (40.5) 30 (1.2)

2 ⋅ 2 (50.8 ⋅ 50.8) 4.00 (25.8) 8.00 (51.6) 30 (1.2)
1½ ⋅ 2½ (38.1 ⋅ 63.5) 3.75 (24.2) 8.00 (51.6) 30 (1.2)
2½ (63.5) 4.91 (31.7) 7.85 (50.6) 54 (3.4)
2½ ⋅ 2½ (63.5 ⋅ 63.5) 6.25 (40.3) 9.00 (58.1) 54 (3.4)
3 (76.2) 7.07 (45.6) 9.42 (60.8) 92 (5.8)
2 ⋅ 4 (50.8 ⋅ 101.6) 8.00 (51.6) 12.00 (77.4) 92 (5.8)
2½ ⋅ 3 (63.5 ⋅ 76.2) 7.50 (48.4) 11.00 (71.0) 92 (5.8)
4 (101.6) 12.57 (81.1) 12.57 (81.1) 192 (12.1)
3 ⋅ 4¼ (76.2 ⋅ 107.6) 12.75 (82.3) 14.50 (93.6) 192 (12.1)
3½ ⋅ 4 (88.9 ⋅ 101.6) 14.00 (90.3) 14.00 (90.3) 192 (12.1)
5 (127) 19.06 (123.0) 15.07 (97.2) 360 (22.7)
4 ⋅ 5 (101.6 ⋅ 127) 20.00 (129.0) 18.00 (116.1) 360 (22.7)
4½ ⋅ 4½ (114.3 ⋅ 114.3) 20.25 (130.6) 18.00 (116.1) 360 (22.7)
6 (152.4) 28.27 (183.4) 18.85 (121.6) 563 (35.5)
5 ⋅ 6 (127 ⋅ 152.4) 30.00 (193.5) 22.00 (141.9) 563 (35.5)
5½ ⋅ 5½ (139.7 ⋅ 139.7) 30.25 (195.2) 22.00 (141.9) 563 (35.5)
8 (203.2) 50.27 (324.3) 25.14 (162.2) 1208 (76.2)
6 ⋅ 8 (152.4 ⋅ 203.2) 48.00 (309.7) 28.00 (180.6) 1208 (76.2)
a With approximately 1¾-in. (45-mm) head of water at the drain.

buildup of water may occur. Horizontal piping of in gs or, where exposed, drip marks on the floor-
clear-water wastes and vents should be sized as in g.
a sanitary drainage branch is. When such pip-
ing is tied to a leader, an upright wye should be Locating vertical leaders Locating th e verti-
utilized. cal leaders within th e bu ilding has several ad-
vantages: convenience, safety, appearances, and
Expansion Expansion and improper anchoring freeze protection. However, leaders located on the
of the vertical pipe h ave cau sed roof drains to be exterior can be in stalled at a mu ch lower cost
pu sh ed u p above the roof deck, destroying the and do n ot take u p any valu able floor space.
integrity of th e roof waterproofin g by tearin g the
To keep the nu mber of leaders to a minimu m,
flash ing and the waterproofing membran e. Th is
th e leaders may combine flows from more than
problem can be more apparent in high-rise bu ild-
on e roof drain, from a roof drain and a lower-
ings and bu ildin gs where the exposed leader is
su bjected to cold rain water or meltin g sn ow and deck drain, from a roof drain an d clear-water
ice th at enters piping at the ambien t tempera- wastes, or from an y combination of the above.
The engineer mu st inclu de the addition al flows
tu re of th e bu ilding. An expan sion joint at the
when calcu latin g the leader size. This method is
roof drain or a horizon tal section of the bran ch
especially beneficial in keeping the costs of high-
lin e sh ou ld be provided to accommodate th e
rise bu ildings contained.
movement of the leader withou t affecting the roof
drain. See Figu re 4-7. If the leaders are to be located at th e bu ild-
in g colu mn s , t h e colu mn foot in gs mu s t be
Insulation The horizontal section of pipe and dropped correspon din gly to accommodate the
the roof-drain body shou ld be insu lated, per cold elbow at the base of the leader (stack). The base
water installation s with a vapor barrier, to con- elbow shou ld be a long sweep ben d to help alle-
trol condensation. See Figu re 4-8. Low-tempera- viate any excess pressu res in th e downstream
t u r e liqu id flow in t h e p ip in g will ca u s e pipe, an d th e elbow sh ou ld be properly su p-
condensation to form on the ou tside of the pip- ported. Th e elbow may rest directly on the col-
ing, possibly cau sing stain damage to th e ceil- u mn footing to act as a su pport (see Figu re 4-8).
86 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

A riser clamp shou ld be provided at each floor be protected by metal or concrete gu ards or re-
line for su pport of the leader. Also a clean ou t cessed in the wall and constru cted of a ferrou s
shou ld be provided at th e base of all stacks to alloy pipe, su ch as cast iron, to 5 ft (1.5 m) above
allow the base elbow to be rodded ou t. th e paving or loading platforms.
If blockage occu rs in the drainage system and If an offset is 45° or less, the leader can be
backs u p in th e vertical leader, the piping sys- sized as a vertical pipe. If the offset is greater
tem may be su bjected to a head pressu re that is th an 45°, the pipe mu st be sized as a horizon tal
greater than the join ing system is designed for. pipe. To avoid stoppages du e to leaves, ice, etc.,
To preven t joint failu re, pressu re pipe may be th e leader can not be redu ced in size in th e di-
considered for the piping system. All exterior lead- rection of flow th rou ghou t its len gth . For ex-
ers that may be exposed to damage, su ch as oc- ample, an 8-in. (203-mm) horizon tal line mu st
cu rs in parking or tru ck-loading areas, sh ou ld

Table 4-3 Sizes of Semicircular and Equivalent Rectangular Gutters

Diameter of Gutter, in. (mm) Cross-Sectional Water Contact, Slope,a Capacity,

Dimensions of Gutter, in. (mm) Area, in.2 (mm2) Area, in.2 (cm2) in./ft (mm/m) gpm (L/min)

3 (76.2) 3.53 (22.83) 4.70 (30.32) z (1.6) —

3 (76.2) 3.53 (22.83) 4.70 (30.32) 8 (3.2) —
1½ ⋅ 2½ (38.1 ⋅ 63.4) 3.75 (24.25) 5.50 (35.48) ¼ (6.4) 26 (97.5)
1½ ⋅ 2½ (38.1 ⋅ 63.5) 3.75 (24.25) 5.50 (35.48) ½ (12.7) 40 (150)
4 (101.6) 6.28 (40.61) 6.28 (40.52) z (1.6) —
4 (101.6) 6.28 (40.61) 6.28 (40.52) 8 (3.2) 39 (146.25)
2¼ ⋅ 3 (57.2 ⋅ 76) 6.75 (43.65) 7.50 (48.50) ¼ (6.4) 55 (206.25)
2¼ ⋅ 3 (57.2 ⋅ 76) 6.75 (43.65) 7.50 (48.50) ½ (12.7) 87 (326.25)
5 (127) 9.82 (63.50) 7.85 (50.76) z (1.6) —
5 (127) 9.82 (63.50) 7.85 (50.76) 8 (3.2) 74 (277.5)
4 ⋅ 2½ (101.6 ⋅ 63.4) 10.00 (64.67) 9.00 (58.20) ¼ (6.4) 106 (397.5)
3 ⋅ 3½ (76 ⋅ 88.9) 10.00 (64.67) 9.00 (58.20) ½ (12.7) 156 (585)
6 (152) 14.14 (91.44) 9.43 (60.9) z (1.6) —
6 (152) 14.14 (91.44) 9.43 (60.9) 8 (3.2) 110 (412.5)
3⋅ 5 (76 ⋅ 127) 15.00 (97.00) 11.00 (71.14) ¼ (6.4) 157 (588.75)
3⋅ 5 (76 ⋅ 127) 15.00 (97.00) 11.00 (71.14) ½ (12.7) 225 (843.75)
8 (203.2) 25.27 (163.42) 12.57 (81.29) z (1.6) 172 (645)
8 (203.2) 25.27 (163.42) 12.57 (81.29) 8 (3.2) 247 (926.25)
4½ ⋅ 6 (114.3 ⋅ 152.4) 27.00 (174.6) 15.00 (97.00) ¼ (6.4) 348 (1305)
4½ ⋅ 6 (114.3 ⋅ 152.4) 27.00 (174.6) 15.00 (97.00) ½ (12.7) 494 (1852.5)
10 (254) 39.77 (257.19) 15.70 (101.52) z (1.6) 331 (1241.25)
10 (254) 39.77 (257.19) 15.70 (101.52) 8 (3.2) 472 (1770)
5⋅ 8 (127 ⋅ 203.2) 40.00 (258.7) 18.00 (116.40) ¼ (6.4) 651 (2440.25)
4 ⋅ 10 (101.6 ⋅ 254) 40.00 (258.7) 18.00 (116.40) ½ (12.7) 1055 (3956.25)
Note: Figures are based on the Chezy Formula for Discharge of Circular Sewers, n = 0.013, and gutter flowing full.
aMinimum velocity of 2 fps (0.6 m/s).
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 87

Figure 4-7 Typical Expansion Joint or Horizontal Offset

Source: Reprinted, by permission, from Plumbing Des ign and Ins tallation Reference Guide (Hicks 1986).

Figure 4-8 Typical Roof Drain and Roof Leader

Source: Reprinted, by permission, from
Cas t Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings Engineering Manual (Cast-Iron Soil Pipe Institu te 1976).
88 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

tie to an 8-in . (203-mm) vertical leader, even if n = Coefficient of rou ghness, constan t
Table 4-2 requ ires a smaller size. Vertical lead-
The rou ghness coefficient of th e pipe can be
ers shou ld be tied to the horizontal main with
affected by age, corrosion, misalign ment of the
single-wye fittings; dou ble-wye fittings shou ld be
pipe, solid deposits in the pipe, and tree roots or
avoided.
other obstru ctions. Table 4-4 sh ows the types of
Horizontal pipe sizing Th e horizontal pipin g pipe material that are available for each of the
shou ld be sized to flow fu ll u n der u niform flow listed sizes. It also shows the variou s capacities
conditions at the peak flow rate, as opposed to of the piping at different slopes. Th e greater the
san itary sewers, which are designed to flow ½ to slope is, th e high er th e capacity, bu t th e greater
Q full. A minimum velocity of 2 ft/ s (fps) (0.61 the slope, the deeper the line and the more exca-
m/ s) should be maintained to properly scour the vation requ ired. This may cau se significant prob-
pipe of grit, sand, and debris. (Some authorities lems when the engineer is trying to tie in to an
recommend a minimum velocity of 3 fps [0.91 existing storm sewer or “daylight” (i.e., discharge
m/ s] to keep the sediment in suspension.) to the open atmosph ere as opposed to in to an
u ndergrou nd pipe) to a ditch or canal.
The horizontal piping must be properly sup-
ported, with bell holes provided for underground Secondary drainage systems may be either
bell-and-spigot piping. Use Form 4-2, in the Ap- scu ppers, wh ich allow the entrapped rain water
pendix at the end of this chapter, to calculate to overflow the roof, or a separately piped drain-
the storm-drain horizontal main size. Cleanouts age system to a separate point of discharge. Scu p-
should be provided at any change in direction pers shall be sized in accordan ce with Table 4-5.
exceeding 45° and at any chan ge in pipe size, The secon dary piping system shall be designed
and to meet any applicable local code requ ire- similarly to th e way the primary drain age sys-
men ts for dis ta n ces between clean ou ts . Th e tem was designed. Some codes and designers
cleanou ts sh ou ld be extended u p to grade or the prefer that the discharge from secondary drain-
floor above, or ou t to the wall face with a wall age systems be readily noticeable, to ensu re the
plate. The location of clean ou t plu gs above ceil- prompt repair of the primary drainage systems.
ings may cau se damage to the ceiling when the If the storm-drainage system receives con-
pipe mu st be cleaned. tinu ou s or in termittent flow from su mp pu mps,
Avoid ru nning horizontal piping above the air-conditioning units, or similar devices, the flow
ceilings of compu ter rooms, kitchens, and food- shou ld be added to the drainage system, either
preparation areas. A pipe ru ptu re above one of on the roof if the disch arge is onto the roof, or in
th ese areas cou ld cau se major damage and con- th e pipin g if the discharge ties directly to the
tamination. Piping u nder bu ilding slabs sh ou ld drainage system.
be avoided if feasible; as pipe leaks cou ld erode After the system has been laid ou t and sized,
th e fill below slabs and cau se th e slab to crack. th e designer shou ld review th e proposed system
Once the peak flow has been determined, the to determine if revisions to th e layou t wou ld im-
Manning Formu la (Equ ation 4-3) shou ld be u sed prove the system from the standpoint of ease of
for sizing; refer to Table 4-4. in stallation, cost of materials and/ or coordina-
tion with oth er trades.
Equa t ion 4 -3
Controlled-flow storm-drainage system In lieu
1.486 of sizin g the storm-drainage system on the basis
Q = ⋅ A ⋅ R .67
⋅ S .5
n of the actu al maximu m projected roof areas, the
roof drainage system (or a part of it) may be sized
where on the equ ivalen t or adju sted projected roof ar-
Q = Flow rate, ft 3 / s (m 3 / s) eas th at resu lt from th e con trolled flow and the
A = Area, ft 2 (m 2 ) storage of storm water on the roof.
R = Hydrau lic radiu s of pipe = D/ 4, ft Controlled-flow systems collect the rainwa-
(m) ter on th e roof and release th e flow slowly to the
drainage system. These systems can provide sig-
[D = Diameter of pipe, ft (m)]
nificant installation savings by requ iring smaller
S = Hydrau lic slope, ft/ ft (m/ m) roof drains, smaller diameter piping and smaller
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 89

Table 4-4 Pipe Sizing Chart

Slope Discharge Capacity Velocity

Pipe Pipe Size, in./ft % gpm cfs fps

Material in. (mm) (cm/m) (L/s) (L/s) (m/s)

Cast iron 2 (50) ¼ (25) 2.1 19 (1.199) 0.043 (1.217) 1.97 (0.591)
PVC-DWV 2 (50) ½ (50) 4.2 27 (1.703) 0.061 (1.726) 2.80 (0.840)
Steel 2 (50) 1 (100) 8.3 39 (2.460) 0.086 (2.434) 3.94 (1.182)
Cast iron 3 (80) 8 (12.5) 1.0 40 (2.523) 0.090 (2.547) 1.83 (0.549)
Ductile iron 3 (80) ¼ (25) 2.1 57 (3.596) 0.127 (3.594) 2.59 (0.867)
PVC-DWV 3 (80) ½ (50) 4.2 81 (5.109) 0.180 (5.094) 3.67 (1.101)
Steel 3 (80) 1 (100) 8.3 114 (7.191) 0.254 (7.188) 5.17 (1.551)
Cast iron 4 (100) 8 (12.5) 1.0 87 (5.488) 0.194 (5.490) 2.22 (0.666)
Ductile iron 4 (100) ¼ (25) 2.1 123 (7.759) 0.274 (7.754) 3.14 (0.942)
PVC-DWV 4 (100) ½ (50) 4.2 174 (10.976) 0.390 (11.037) 4.47 (1.341)
Steel 4 (100) 1 (100) 8.3 247 (15.581) 0.550 (15.565) 6.30 (1.890)
Concrete
Vitrified clay
Cast iron 6 (150) z (6.3) 0.5 178 (11.228) 0.397 (10.726) 2.02 (0.606)
Ductile iron 6 (150) 8 (12.5) 1.0 257 (16.212) 0.572 (16.188) 2.91 (0.873)
PVC-DWV 6 (150) x (18.8) 1.5 309 (19.492) 0.687 (19.442) 3.50 (1.050)
Steel 6 (150) ¼ (25) 2.1 363 (22.898) 0.808 (22.866) 4.11 (1.233)
Concrete 6 (150) c (31.3) 2.5 398 (25.106) 0.887 (25.102) 4.52 (1.356)
Vitrified clay 6 (150) a (37.5) 3.0 436 (27.503) 0.972 (27.508) 4.95 (1.485)
6 (150) v (43.8) 3.5 471 (29.711) 1.050 (29.715) 5.35 (1.605)
6 (150) ½ (50) 4.2 514 (32.423) 1.145 (32.404) 5.83 (1.749)
6 (150) s (62.5) 5.0 563 (35.514) 1.255 (35.517) 6.39 (1.917)
6 (150) ¾ (75) 6.0 617 (38.920) 1.375 (38.913) 7.00 (2.100)
6 (150) d (87.5) 7.0 666 (42.011) 1.485 (42.026) 7.56 (2.268)
Cast iron 8 (200) 0.2 243 (15.328) 0.541 (15.291) 1.55 (0.465)
Ductile iron 8 (200) 0.4 343 (21.636) 0.765 (21.650) 2.19 (0.657)
PVC-DWV 8 (200) z (6.3) 0.5 420 (26.494) 0.937 (26.517) 2.68 (0.804)
Steel 8 (200) 0.8 485 (30.594) 1.082 (30.621) 3.10 (0.930)
Concrete 8 (200) 8 (12.5) 1.0 554 (34.946) 1.234 (34.922) 3.53 (1.059)
Vitrified clay 8 (200) x (18.8) 1.5 665 (41.948) 1.481 (41.912) 4.24 (1.272)
8 (200) ¼ (25) 2.1 782 (49.329) 1.742 (49.299) 4.99 (1.497)
8 (200) c (31.3) 2.5 858 (54.123) 1.912 (54.110) 5.48 (1.644)
8 (200) a (37.5) 3.0 940 (59.295) 2.095 (59.289) 6.00 (1.800)
8 (200) v (43.8) 3.5 1,015 (64.026) 2.263 (64.043) 6.48 (1.944)
8 (200) ½ (50) 4.2 1,107 (69.830) 2.467 (69.816) 7.06 (2.118)
8 (200) b (56.3) 4.5 1,152 (72.668) 2.566 (72.618) 7.35 (2.205)
Cast iron 10 (250) 0.2 439 (27.692) 0.980 (27.751) 1.80 (0.540)
Ductile iron 10 (250) 0.4 621 (39.173) 1.380 (39.054) 2.53 (0.759)
PVC-DWV 10 (250) z (6.3) 0.5 761 (48.004) 1.700 (48.110) 3.12 (0.936)
Steel 10 (250) 0.8 879 (55.447) 1.960 (55.468) 3.59 (1.077)
Concrete 10 (250) 8 (12.5) 1.0 1,002 (63.206) 2.230 (63.109) 4.09 (1.227)
Vitrified clay 10 (250) x (18.8) 1.5 1,203 (75.885) 2.680 (75.844) 4.91 (1.473)
10 (250) ¼ (25) 2.1 1,414 (89.195) 3.150 (89.145) 5.78 (1.734)
10 (250) c (31.3) 2.5 1,553 (97.963) 3.460 (97.918) 6.34 (1.902)
10 (250) a (37.5) 3.0 1,701 (107.299) 3.790 (107.257) 6.95 (2.085)
10 (250) v (43.8) 3.5 1,837 (115.878) 4.090 (115.747) 7.50 (2.250)
Cast iron 12 (300) 0.2 715 (45.102) 1.590 (44.997) 2.02 (0.606)
Ductile iron 12 (300) 0.4 1,012 (63.837) 2.250 (63.675) 2.86 (0.600)

(Continued)
90 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(Table 4-4 continued) Slope Discharge Capacity Velocity

Pipe Pipe Size, in./ft % gpm cfs fps

Material in. (mm) (cm/m) (L/s) (L/s) (m/s)

PVC-DWV 12 (300) z (6.3) 0.6 1,239 (78.156) 2.760 (78.108) 3.51 (1.053)
Steel 12 (300) 0.8 1,431 (90.267) 3.190 (90.277) 4.06 (1.218)
Concrete 12 (300) 8 (12.5) 1.0 1,632 (102.947) 3.640 (103.012) 4.63 (1.389)
Vitrified clay 12 (300) 1.2 1,752 (110.516) 3.900 (110.370) 4.97 (1.491)
12 (300) 1.4 1,893 (119.410) 4.220 (119.426) 5.37 (1.611)
12 (300) 1.6 2,024 (127.674) 4.510 (127.633) 5.74 (1.722)
12 (300) 1.8 2,146 (135.370) 4.780 (135.274) 6.09 (1.827)
12 (300) ¼ (25) 2.1 2,304 (145.336) 5.130 (145.179) 6.53 (1.959)
12 (300) 2.2 2,373 (149.689) 5.290 (149.707) 6.74 (2.022)
12 (300) 2.4 2,478 (156.312) 5.520 (156.216) 7.03 (2.109)
Ductile iron 14 (350) 0.1 760 (47.941) 1.690 (47.827) 1.58 (0.474)
PVC-DWV 14 (350) 0.2 1,074 (67.748) 2.390 (67.637) 2.24 (0.672)
Steel 14 (350) 0.3 1,316 (83.013) 2.930 (82.919) 2.74 (0.822)
14 (350) 0.4 1,519 (95.819) 3.380 (95.654) 3.16 (0.948)
14 (350) z (6.3) 0.5 1,699 (107.173) 3.780 (106.974) 3.54 (1.062)
14 (350) 0.6 1,861 (117.392) 4.150 (117.445) 3.88 (1.164)
14 (350) 0.7 2,010 (126.791) 4.480 (126.784) 4.19 (1.257)
14 (350) 0.8 2,149 (135.559) 4.790 (135.557) 4.48 (1.344)
14 (350) 0.9 2,279 (143.759) 5.080 (143.764) 4.75 (1.425)
14 (350) 8 (12.5) 1.0 2,450 (154.546) 5.460 (154.518) 5.11 (1.533)
14 (350) 1.1 2,519 (158.899) 5.610 (158.763) 5.25 (1.575)
14 (350) 1.2 2,631 (165.963) 5.860 (165.838) 5.48 (1.644)
14 (350) 1.3 2,739 (172.776) 6.100 (172.630) 5.71 (1.713)
14 (350) 1.4 2,842 (179.273) 6.330 (179.139) 5.92 (1.776)
14 (350) x (18.8) 1.5 2,942 (185.581) 6.560 (185.648) 6.14 (1.842)
14 (350) 1.6 3,039 (191.700) 6.770 (191.591) 6.33 (1.899)
14 (350) 1.7 3,132 (197.567) 6.980 (197.534) 6.53 (1.959)
Cast iron 15 (375) 0.1 918 (57.907) 2.040 (57.766) 1.66 (0.498)
Ductile iron 15 (375) 0.2 1,298 (81.878) 2.890 (81.787) 2.36 (0.708)
Concrete 15 (375) 0.3 1,590 (100.297) 3.540 (100.182) 2.89 (0.867)
Vitrified clay 15 (375) 0.4 1,835 (115.752) 4.090 (115.747) 3.33 (0.999)
15 (375) z (6.3) 0.5 2,052 (129.440) 4.570 (129.331) 3.72 (1.116)
15 (375) 0.6 2,248 (141.804) 5.010 (141.783) 4.08 (1.224)
15 (375) 0.7 2,428 (153.158) 5.410 (153.103) 4.41 (1.323)
15 (375) 0.8 2,596 (163.756) 5.780 (163.574) 4.71 (1.413)
15 (375) 0.9 2,753 (173.659) 6.130 (173.479) 5.00 (1.500)
15 (375) 8 (12.5) 1.0 2,960 (186.717) 6.600 (186.780) 5.38 (1.614)
15 (375) 1.1 3,044 (192.016) 6.780 (191.874) 5.53 (1.659)
15 (375) 1.2 3,179 (200.531) 7.080 (200.364) 5.77 (1.731)
15 (375) 1.3 3,309 (208.732) 7.370 (208.571) 6.01 (1.803)
15 (375) 1.4 3,434 (216.617) 7.650 (216.495) 6.23 (1.869)
15 (375) x (18.8) 1.5 3,554 (224.186) 7.920 (224.136) 6.45 (1.935)
15 (375) 1.6 3,671 (231.567) 8.180 (213.494) 6.67 (2.001)
15 (375) 1.7 3,784 (238.695) 8.430 (238.569) 6.87 (2.061)
Ductile iron 16 (400) 0.1 1,049 (66.171) 2.340 (66.222) 1.66 (0.498)
PVC-DWV 16 (400) 0.2 1,484 (93.611) 3.310 (93.673) 2.35 (0.705)
Steel 16 (400) 0.3 1,817 (114.616) 4.050 (114.615) 2.87 (0.861)
16 (400) 0.4 2,099 (132.405) 4.680 (132.444) 3.32 (0.996)
16 (400) z (6.3) 0.5 2,346 (147.986) 5.230 (148.009) 3.71 (1.113)

(Continued)
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 91

(Table 4-4 continued) Slope Discharge Capacity Velocity

Pipe Pipe Size, in./ft % gpm cfs fps

Material in. (mm) (cm/m) (L/s) (L/s) (m/s)

16 (400) 0.6 2,570 (162.116) 5.730 (162.159) 4.06 (1.218)

16 (400) 0.7 2,776 (175.110) 6.190 (175.177) 4.39 (1.317)
16 (400) 0.8 2,968 (187.221) 6.610 (187.063) 4.69 (1.407)
16 (400) 0.9 3,148 (198.576) 7.010 (198.383) 4.97 (1.491)
16 (400) 8 (12.5) 1.0 3,385 (213.526) 7.540 (213.382) 5.35 (1.605)
16 (400) 1.1 3,480 (219.518) 7.750 (219.325) 5.50 (1.650)
16 (400) 1.2 3,635 (229.296) 8.100 (229.230) 5.74 (1.722)
16 (400) 1.3 3,783 (238.632) 8.430 (238.569) 5.98 (1.794)
16 (400) 1.4 3,926 (247.652) 8.750 (247.625) 6.21 (1.863)
16 (400) x (18.8) 1.5 4,064 (256.357) 9.050 (256.115) 6.42 (1.957)
Ductile iron 18 (450) 0.1 1,486 (93.737) 3.310 (93.673) 1.87 (0.561)
Steel 18 (450) 0.2 2,101 (132.531) 4.680 (132.444) 2.65 (0.795)
Concrete 18 (450) 0.3 2,574 (162.368) 5.730 (162.159) 3.24 (0.972)
Vitrified clay 18 (450) 0.4 2,972 (187.474) 6.620 (187.346) 3.75 (1.125)
18 (450) z (6.3) 0.5 3,322 (209.552) 7.400 (209.420) 4.19 (1.257)
18 (450) 0.6 3,640 (229.611) 8.110 (229.513) 4.59 (1.377)
18 (450) 0.7 3,931 (247.967) 8.760 (247.908) 4.96 (1.488)
18 (450) 0.8 4,203 (265.125) 9.360 (264.888) 5.30 (1.590)
18 (450) 0.9 4,458 (281.211) 9.930 (281.019) 5.62 (1.686)
18 (450) 8 (12.5) 1.0 4,793 (302.342) 10.680 (302.244) 6.04 (1.812)
18 (450) 1.1 4,928 (310.858) 10.980 (310.734) 6.21 (1.863)
18 (450) 1.2 5,147 (324.673) 11.470 (324.601) 6.49 (1.947)
18 (450) 1.3 5,357 (337.920) 11.940 (337.902) 6.76 (2.028)
18 (450) 1.4 5,560 (350.725) 12.390 (350.637) 7.01 (2.103)
Ductile iron 20 (500) 0.1 1,971 (124.331) 4.390 (124.237) 2.01 (0.603)
Steel 20 (500) 0.2 2,787 (175.804) 6.210 (175.743) 2.85 (0.855)
20 (500) 0.3 3,414 (215.355) 7.610 (215.363) 3.49 (1.064)
20 (500) 0.4 3,942 (248.661) 8.780 (248.474) 4.03 (1.209)
20 (500) z (6.3) 0.5 4,407 (277.994) 9.820 (277.906) 4.50 (1.350)
20 (500) 0.6 4,828 (304.550) 10.760 (304.508) 4.93 (1.479)
20 (500) 0.7 5,215 (328.962) 11.620 (328.846) 5.33 (1.599)
20 (500) 0.8 5,575 (351.671) 12.420 (351.486) 5.69 (1.707)
20 (500) 0.9 5,913 (372.992) 13.170 (372.711) 6.04 (1.812)
20 (500) 8 (12.5) 1.0 6,357 (401.000) 14.160 (400.728) 6.49 (1.947)
20 (500) 1.1 6,537 (412.354) 14.560 (412.048) 6.68 (2.004)
20 (500) 1.2 6,828 (430.710) 15.210 (430.443) 6.97 (2.091)
Concrete 21 (520) 0.1 2,242 (141.425) 5.000 (141.500) 2.08 (0.624)
Vitrified clay 21 (520) 0.2 3,171 (200.027) 7.070 (200.081) 2.94 (0.882)
21 (520) 0.3 3,884 (245.042) 8.650 (244.795) 3.60 (1.080)
21 (520) 0.4 4,485 (282.914) 9.990 (282.717) 4.15 (1.245)
21 (520) z (6.3) 0.5 5,014 (316.283) 11.170 (316.111) 4.64 (1.392)
21 (520) 0.6 5,493 (346.498) 12.240 (346.392) 5.09 (1.527)
21 (520) 0.7 5,933 (374.254) 13.220 (374.126) 5.50 (1.650)
21 (520) 0.8 6,343 (400.116) 14.130 (399.879) 5.88 (1.764)
21 (520) 0.9 6,727 (424.339) 14.990 (424.217) 6.23 (1.869)
21 (520) 8 (12.5) 1.0 7,233 (456.258) 16.120 (456.468) 6.70 (2.010)
21 (520) 1.1 7,437 (469.126) 16.570 (469.210) 6.89 (2.067)
Ductile iron 24 (600) 0.05 2,265 (142.876) 5.040 (142.632) 1.60 (0.480)
Steel 24 (600) 0.1 3,204 (202.108) 7.140 (202.062) 2.27 (0.681)
Concrete 24 (600) 0.2 4,531 (285.815) 10.090 (285.547) 3.21 (0.963)

(Continued)
92 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(Table 4-4 continued) Slope Discharge Capacity Velocity

Pipe Pipe Size, in./ft % gpm cfs fps

Material in. (mm) (cm/m) (L/s) (L/s) (m/s)

Vitrified clay 24 (600) 0.3 5,549 (350.031) 12.360 (349.788) 3.93 (1.179)
24 (600) 0.4 6,408 (404.217) 14.280 (404.124) 4.54 (1.362)
24 (600) z (6.3) 0.5 7,164 (451.905) 15.960 (451.668) 5.08 (1.524)
24 (600) 0.6 7,848 (495.052) 17.480 (494.684) 5.56 (1.668)
24 (600) 0.7 8,477 (534.729) 18.890 (534.587) 6.01 (1.803)
24 (600) 0.8 9,062 (571.631) 20.190 (571.377) 6.43 1.929)
Concrete 27 (685) 0.05 3,102 (195.674) 6.910 (195.553) 1.74 (0.522)
27 (685) 0.1 4,387 (276.732) 9.770 (276.491) 2.46 (0.738)
27 (685) 0.2 6,204 (391.348) 13.820 (391.106) 3.48 (1.044)
27 (685) 0.3 7,599 (749.345) 16.930 (479.119) 4.26 (1.278)
27 (685) 0.4 8,774 (553.464) 19.550 (553.265) 4.92 (1.476)
27 (685) z (6.3) 0.5 9,810 (618.815) 21.860 (618.638) 5.50 (1.650)
27 (685) 0.6 10,746 (677.858) 23.940 (677.502) 6.02 (1.806)
27 (685) 0.7 11,607 (732.170) 25.860 (731.838) 6.50 (1.950)
Ductile iron 30 (760) 0.05 4,111 (259.322) 9.160 (259.228) 1.87 (0.561)
Steel 30 (760) 0.1 5,813 (366.684) 12.950 (366.485) 2.64 (0.792)
Concrete 30 (760) 0.2 8,221 (518.581) 18.320 (518.456) 3.73 (1.119)
Vitrified clay 30 (760) 0.3 10,069 (635.153) 22.430 (634.769) 4.57 (1.371)
30 (760) 0.4 11,626 (733.368) 25.900 (732.970) 5.28 (1.584)
30 (760) z (6.3) 0.5 12,999 (819.977) 28.960 (819.568) 5.90 (1.770)
30 (760) 0.6 14,239 (898.196) 31.730 (897.959) 6.46 (1.938)
Concrete 33 (840) 0.05 5,302 (334.450) 11.810 (334.223) 1.99 (0.597)
Vitrified clay 33 (840) 0.1 7,498 (472.974) 16.700 (472.610) 2.81 (0.843)
33 (840) 0.2 10,603 (668.837) 23.620 (668.446) 3.98 (1.194)
33 (840) 0.3 12,986 (819.157) 28.930 (818.719) 4.87 (1.461)
33 (840) 0.4 14,995 (945.885) 33.410 (945.503) 5.62 (1.686)
33 (840) z (6.3) 0.5 16,765 (1057.536) 37.350 (1057.005) 6.29 (1.887)
33 (840) 0.6 18,365 (1158.464) 40.920 (1158.036) 6.89 (2.067)
Ductile iron 36 (915) 0.05 6,688 (421.879) 14.900 (421.670) 2.11 (0.633)
Steel 36 (915) 0.1 9,458 (596.611) 21.070 (596.281) 2.98 (0.894)
Concrete 36 (915) 0.2 13,376 (843.758) 29.800 (843.340) 4.22 (1.266)
Vitrified clay 36 (915) 0.3 16,382 (1033.377) 36.500 (1032.950) 5.16 (1.548)
36 (915) 0.4 18,917 (1193.284) 42.150 (1192.845) 5.96 (1.788)
36 (915) z (6.3) 0.5 21,149 (1334.079) 47.120 (1333.496) 6.67 (2.001)

Notes:
1. Calculations for the discharge of circular sewers are based on the Manning Formula: Q = 1.486 AR2/3 S1/2

2. Pipe capacities for sewers are based on an “ ” value of 0.013. This may vary somewhat with depth of flow and with pipe materials as
follows:
Vitrified clay, concrete, unlined ductile iron = 0.013
Cast iron, uncoated = 0.015
Steel = 0.012
PVC-DWV = 0.009
Corrugated = 0.024
3. Pipe capacities are based on the pipe flowing full.
4. Velocity of flow shall not be less than 2 fps (0.61 m/s).
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 93

Table 4-5 Sizes of Scuppers for Secondary Drainage

Length, L, of Weir, in. (cm)

Head, H, 4 (10.2) 6 (15.2) 8 (20.3) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 18 (45.7) 24 (61.0) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 48 (121.9)
in. (cm) Capacity, gpm (L/s)

1 10.7 (0.7) 17.4 (1.1) 23.4 (1.5) 29.3 (1.8) 35.4 (2.2) 53.4 (3.4) 71.5 (4.5) 89.5 (5.6) 107.5 (6.8) 143.7 (9.1)
2 30.5 (1.9) 47.5 (3.0) 64.4 (4.1) 81.4 (5.1) 98.5 (6.2) 149.4 (9.4) 200.3 (12.6) 251.1 (15.8) 302.0 (19.1) 404.0 (25.5)
3 52.9 (3.3) 84.1 (5.3) 115.2 (7.3) 146.3 (9.2) 177.8 (11.2) 271.4 (17.1) 364.9 (23.0) 458.5 (28.9) 552.0 (34.8) 739.0 (46.6)
4 76.7 (4.8) 124.6 (7.9) 172.6 (10.9) 220.5 (13.9) 269.0 (17.0) 413.3 (26.1) 557.5 (35.2) 701.8 (44.3) 846.0 (53.4) 1135.0 (71.6)
6 123.3 (7.8) 211.4 (13.3) 299.5 (18.9) 387.5 (24.4) 476.5 (30.1) 741.1 (46.8) 1005.8 (63.5) 1270.4 (80.1) 1535.0 (96.8) 2067.5 (130.4)

Source: Reprinted by permission of the Ingersol-Rand Co.1981. 16th ed.

Note: Calculations are based on the Francis Formula:
Q = 3.33 (L – 0.2H) H1.5
where
Q = Flow rate, ft3/s (m3/s)
L = Length of scupper opening, ft (m) (Should be 4 to 8 times H.)
H = Head on scupper, ft (m) (Measured 6 ft [1.83 m] back from opening.)

diameter storm sewers. These systems also h elp The flow-control devices mu st be acceptable
to alleviate flooding in overtaxed pu blic storm to the administrative au thority. Valves, orifices,
sewers or drainage canals du ring heavy rainfalls. or mechanical devices are n ot permitted to re-
The impact on the sewage treatmen t plant for a strict or control flow. The roof drains are pro-
combined storm/ sanitary sewer is considerably vided with weirs, wh ich are eith er parabolic,
lessened by the u se of controlled-flow roof-drain- adju stable rectan gu lar, or triangu lar, and which
age systems. act like small dams to control flow into the drains.
For stan dard, con trolled-flow roof-drain con -
Controlled-flow systems shou ld not be u sed
stru ction, see Figu re 4-9.
if the roof is u sed for fu nctions preclu ding water
storage, su ch as a su n deck or a parking level, or Certain roof-design details mu st be incorpo-
if not allowed by the au th ority havin g ju risdic- rated into the finished roof. Th e water depth on
tion. Holding the water on the roof in creases the th e roof mu st not exceed 3 in. (80 mm) on dead-
stru ctu ral costs and may requ ire a different roof- flat roofs and an average maximu m depth of 3
covering material. in . (80 mm) for pitched roofs (6 in. [150 mm]
94 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

maximu m from th e high point to the low point of a min imu m of 30 lb/ ft 2 (psf) (1.44 kPa) loadin g
th e roof) du ring the storm. The depth of water to provide a safety factor above the 15.6 psf (0.75
mu st be representative of th e depth over all the kPa) represen ted by the 3-in. (76.2-mm) design
roof and mu st assu me th e primary drains are depth of water. The roof sh ou ld be level an d 45°
blocked. The drain -down time is the time, mea- can ts sh ou ld be installed at any wall or parapet.
su red in h ou rs, for the roof to completely drain The flashin g shou ld extend at least 6 in. (152.4
a ft er t h e s t or m h a s r ea ch ed it s m a xim u m mm) above the roof level. Doors open ing onto
in ten s ity an d du ration an d h as cea s ed. Th e th e roof mu st be provided with a cu rb at least 4
drain-down time mu st be in accordance with the in . (101 mm) high. Flow-control devices sh ou ld
local code bu t shou ld not exceed 24 h ou rs (12– be protected by strainers an d in no case sh ou ld
17 hou rs maximu m recommended). th e roof su rface in the vicinity of the drain be
recessed to create a reservoir.
The flow-control device shou ld be installed
so that the rate of discharge of the water sh ou ld Roof-drain man u factu rers have done mu ch
not exceed th e rate allowed. The roof design for research on engin eering criteria and parameters
controlled-flow roof drainage shou ld be based on regardin g the head of water on the roof for the
weir design in con trolled-flow roof drain s, and
th ey have established su ggested design proce-
du res with flow capacities and charts.
Secondary roof drainage is requ ired in case
th e primary drains are blocked, as is discu ssed
earlier in this chapter. Secondary drain age sys-
tems can redu ce the savings potential of con-
trolled-flow roof drainage systems. If scu ppers
are u tilized, they sh ou ld be placed ½ in . (12.7
mm) above th e maximu m design ated head, 3½
in . (88.9 mm) above the roof level. On e scu pper,
or secon dary drain, shou ld be provided for each
roof drain.

Figure 4-9 Example of a

Controlled-Flow Drain
Source: Reprinted, by permission, from the J ay R. Smith
catalog.
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 95

PART TWO: applied to the su rface, and it assu mes that the
SITE DRAINAGE SYSTEM DESIGN ru noff coefficient wou ld remain constant.
Th e Ra t ion a l Met h od of s t or m -dra in a ge
General Design Considerations design states that the peak disch arge is approxi-
mately equ al to the produ ct of the area drained,
Part One of this chapter discu ssed gen eral crite- th e ru noff coefficien t, an d th e maximu m rainfall
ria th at mu st be considered in the design of both in tensity, or:
roof and site drain age systems, in clu ding mate-
rials, rain fall rates, and pipe sizin g. Th ese gen- Equa t ion 4 -4
eral design considerations apply to Part Two also. Q = CIA
The tables and figu res u sed to illustrate the chap-
ter are consecu tive from Part One to Part Two. where
Q = Rainfall runoff, ft 3/ s (m 3 / s)
Site Drainage C = Su rface ru noff, coefficien t (depen -
When large areas with fewer drainage points– dent on the su rface of the area
su ch as commercial or indu strial sites, parkin g drained)
lots, h ighways, airports or whole cities–requ ire I = Rainfall intensity, in./ h (mm/ h )
storm drain age, th e methods and tables fou nd A = Drainage area, acres (m 2)
in most codes are n ot applicable. Th e solu tions
obtain ed u sing those methods wou ld resu lt in Not e: 1 acre = 43,560 ft 2 (4047 m 2 )
systems that are oversized for the flows involved The “ru n off coefficient” is that portion of rain
and are far too large to be econ omically feasible. th at falls on an area and flows off as free water
The reason is th at, in large systems, time is and is not lost to infiltration into the soil, ponding
requ ired for flows to peak at th e in lets and accu - in su rface depressions, or evaporation (expressed
mu late in the piping system. Becau se of this time as a decimal). Con stru ction increases have in-
factor, the peak flow in the piping does not n ec- creas ed th e n u mber of imperviou s s u rfa ces ,
essarily coincide with the peak rain fall. The de- which also increases the qu antity of ru noff. Table
sign of large storm-drainage systems u su ally is 4-6 lists some valu es for the ru noff coefficien t as
th e responsibility of the civil en gineer; however, reported in th e American Society of Civil Engi-
th e applicable th eories and principles are often neers ’ Manual on the Des ign and Cons truction of
u sed by th e plu mbing engineer. Sanitary and Storm Sew ers .

The rate of ru n off from an area is in flu enced The rate of runoff is hard to accurately evalu-
by many factors, su ch as: ate and is impacted by the precipitation rate,

1. In tensity and du ration of the rainfall.

2. Type, imperviou sness, and moistu re content
Table 4-6 Some Values of the
of th e soil.
Rational Coefficient C
3. Slope of the su rfaces.
Surface Type C Value
4. Type an d amou nt of vegetation.
5. Su rface reten tion. Bituminous streets 0.70–0.95
Concrete streets 0.80–0.95
6. Temperatu re of the air, water, and soil.
Driveways, walks 0.75–0.85
Roofs 0.75–1.00
The Rational Method of System Design Lawns, sandy soil
Flat, 2% 0.05–0.10
The “Ration al Method” is the most u niversally Average, 2–7% 0.10–0.15
applied and recommen ded way of calcu latin g Steep, 7% 0.15–0.20
ru noff becau se it takes all th ese factors in to ac- Lawns, heavy soil
cou nt. Th is method assu mes that, if rain were Flat, 2% 0.13–0.17
to fall on a totally imperviou s su rface at a con- Average, 2–7% 0.18–0.22
stant rate long enou gh, water wou ld eventu ally Steep, 7% 0.25–0.35
Unimproved areas 0.10–0.30
ru n off of the su rface at the same rate as it was
96 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

su rface composition an d slope, du ration of the positions. Th e ru noff coefficient can be weighted
precipitation, an d the degree of satu ration of the and calcu lated as follows:
soil. The infiltration rate is mu ch greater for loose
san dy soils than for h ard clay type soils. Once Equa t ion 4 -5
satu rated, th e soil will not absorb any more wa- (A1 ⋅ C1) + (A2 ⋅ C2) + (A3 ⋅ C3) +...(An ⋅ Cn)
ter, which cau ses greater ru noff. The longer the Cw =
du ration of the precipitation and the steeper the A1 + A2 + A3 +...An
slope of the grou nd, the lower are the rate of
where
infiltration an d th e amou n t of water h eld in de-
pressions. Cw = Su rface ru noff
Most en gineering designers make u se of in- A1 = Drainage area, by su rface type, ft 2
formation reported in tabu lar or graph ic form, (m 2 )
inserting local conditions per their experience and C1 = Ru noff coefficient, by su rface type
practice. Most sites have variou s su rface com-

Figure 4 -10 Overland Flow Time

Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 97

The weighted ru noff coefficient mu st be re- valu e districts, 10 to 20 years or higher retu rn
calcu lated for each drain age point becau se the periods often are selected. Local conditions and
variables may ch ange. practice n ormally dictate the selection of these
design criteria.
The time of concentration is the su m of the
overland flow time plu s the time of flow in the After t c and the rainfall frequ ency have been
pipe above the section of the pipe being designed. ascertained, th e rainfall intensity, I, may be ob-
The overland flow time is u su ally taken from a tained from Table 4-1. For valu es different than
nomograph adapted from sou rces su ch as the th ose listed in Table 4-1, the rainfall intensity is
Engineering Manual of the War Department. See u su ally obtained by making u se of a set of rain-
Figure 4-10 for an example. fall intensity-du ration-frequ en cy cu rves for the
area of design, su ch as those shown in Figu re
Water travels faster across imperviou s sur-
4-11.
faces, such as roofs or parking areas, than across
absorbent su rfaces su ch as grassy or wooded The tribu tary area can be accu rately mea-
areas. Flow time in piping is usu ally determined su red from a site plan showing contou rs and
by u sing the Manning Formu la to find the veloc- noting that water can only flow from higher el-
ity in the piping. If the velocity and the distance evations to the drain inlet u nder consideration.
of flow are known, the time can be calcu lated. The total tribu tary area may extend beyond prop-
The time of concentration is needed to determine erty lines.
the rainfall intensity affecting the flow at that
point in the system, a minimum of 10 min. Exa mple 4 -2

In the application of the Rational Method, a Calcu late the storm-water ru noff into one inlet
rainfall intensity, I, must be used, which repre- from a tribu tary area having a grassy area of 0.5
sents the average intensity of a storm of given acres, a pavement area of 0.5 acres, and a roof
frequency for the time of concentration, t c. The area of 0.2 acres, for a total area of 1.20 acres.
frequ ency chosen is largely a matter of econ om- The water must flow across 100 ft (30.5 m) of
ics. grassy area and across 100 ft (30.5 m) of pave-
ment from the most remote point of the tribu-
Factors related to the choice of a design fre- tary area. The slope of the grass su rface is 2%.
qu ency have already been discu ssed. Frequ en- The slope of the pavement is 1%. The design
cies of 1 to 10 years are common ly u sed where storm frequ ency is 20 years. The roof drains flow
residential areas are to be protected. For high er-

Figure 4-1 1 Typical Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves

98 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

on to the grassy area at the most remote point of th at th e pu blic storm system h as the capacity
th e tribu tary area. for the projected flow. If the available capacity is
not su fficient to handle the additional flow, ei-
Solution th er a controlled-flow roof drainage system or a
The weighted coefficient of ru noff for the entire retention basin, or both , may be requ ired. The
area will be calculated using Equation 4-5. The designer mu st coordinate the pipin g layou t with
time of concentration will then be determined. other u ndergrou nd u tilities.
The runoff rate will then be calcu lated using the The pipe shou ld h ave a minimu m exterior
Rational Method Formula (Equation 4-4). Assume size of 10 in. (254 mm) u nless oth erwise n oted
coefficients of ru noff for the variou s portions of by the local code au thority and shou ld maintain
the tribu tary area to be as follows: grassy area = a minimu m velocity of 2–3 ft/ s (fps) (0.61-0.91
0.15, pavement = 0.90, and the roof = 1.00. m/ s); maximu m velocity sh ou ld be 30 fps (9.1
Therefore, the weighted ru noff coefficient is: m/ s) to limit erosion of the pipe in terior. Use
(0.50 × 0.15) + (0.50 ⋅ 0.90) + (0.20 ⋅ 1.00) Table 4-4 for sizing th e exterior piping, this siz-
Cw = in g is based on the Manning Formu la. Th e flow
0.50 + 0.50 + 0.20 rates from oth er inlets shou ld be accu mu lated
0.725 throu gh the piping system. Use Form 4-3 (Sheets
Cw = = 0.60 1-3) in th e Appendix at the end of this chapter
1.20
for record keeping. Th e overland flow time to the
Time of concentration first inlet mu st be added to th e pipe flow time.
The pipe flow time is determined by dividing the
Distance—Inlet to Time for length of pipe between two points by the velocity
Most Remote Point, Overland Flow of flow in the pipe. Th e size is controlled by ei-
ft (m) (min)
th er th e existing storm sewer size or by the al-
lowable slope.
Grass 100 (30.5) 15
Pavement 100 (30.5) 3 Th ere are three basic inlets to the storm-
drainage system:
Roof — 5
Total 23 1. Drainage inlets . Structures that admit storm
water into the storm-drainage system, located
Rainfall intensity Using Figure 4-11 and enter- in areas generally free of sediment or debris.
ing the bottom of the graph at a time concentra- Bottom is level with outlet pipe invert.
tion of 23 min, and following the vertical axis of 2. Catch bas ins . Similar to inlets except for
the graph to where the vertical line intersects space below the inlet and outlet pipes for re-
the 20-year frequency curve then horizontally to tention of sediment. Located in paved areas;
the left, a rainfall intensity of approximately 5.1 requ ire good maintenance.
in./ h (129.5 mm/ h) is obtained.
3. Manholes . Provide ease of access to pipe con-
Runoff The ru noff from this tributary area is nections; use a drop manhole if there is a
calculated u sing the Rational Method Formula difference of 2 ft (0.61 m) or more between
(Equ ation 4-4): the inlet and the outlet.
Catch basins shou ld be provided at the inlet
0.60 ⋅ 5.1 ⋅ 43,560
Q = = 3.1 ft3/s to drains, with strainer openings equal to at least
3600 ⋅ 12 twice the area of the drains. Use site contou r
0.60 ⋅ 129.5 ⋅ 4047 lines to locate site low points; these areas mu st
Q = = 0.9 m3/s be provided with drains to prevent ponding. Park-
3600 ⋅ 1000 ing area and street gutter drains should be open-
throat, cu rb type drains and shou ld be provided
Exterior Piping and Inlets with hoods. Grate type inlets can become fouled,
decreasing the capacity of the drain. Street in-
The designer should obtain drawings of the pu blic lets should be located upstream of flow at the
storm sewer available at the project site th at intersection of streets and so that the maximum
depict materials, locations, sizes, and depths. The water depth at the cu rb is approximately Qthe
local au thority shou ld be con tacted to ascertain height of the curb and the width of water in the
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 99

gu tter does not exceed ½ the width of the adja- proper traffic load, and have an impact slab if
cent driving lane. th e storm water cascades 10 ft (3.1 m) or more.
Street gu tters sh ou ld u se a rou gh ness coef- The layou t of th e piping system shou ld at-
ficien t of 0.015. If tren ch es are u tilized, th e tempt to keep excavation to a minimu m by fol-
trenches mu st be wide enou gh for a drain of the lowing the slope of the grou nd above the pipe
proper size to con nect to the trench es. Location and by limitin g man hole depth s to a maximu m
of drain inlets shou ld be done so as to avoid pe- of 15 ft (4.6 m), if possible, by locating th e man-
destrian crossing zones and to prevent water from holes closer togeth er. The layou t sh ou ld also at-
crossing a street or sidewalk to reach the drain. tempt to avoid tree location s becau se of root
Inlets sh ou ld be in grassy areas to prevent wa- problems, and piping below paving sh ou ld be
ter from flowing from the grassy area onto paved kept to a minimu m. The layou t shou ld avoid rail-
areas and especially to prevent water from freez- road tracks. The exfiltration of water from bad
ing on the paved areas in colder climates. Fu r- join ts a n d cracks in th e pipe can erode th e
th er, th ey shou ld be adjacen t to bu ildin gs to su bgrade of roads or railways. When piping mu st
ensu re positive drainage away from the bu ild- cross a road or railway, joints with very little or
ings. Inlet flow capacities sh ou ld be limited to no leakage sh ou ld be selected and the strength
approximately 5 ft 3 / s (0.14 m 3 / s). The maximu m of the pipe mu st be proper for the tren ch loads it
distance between inlets should be 300 ft (91.4 m). will endu re.
Cu lvert pipes are storm sewers th at are u su -
ally open on both en ds . Th ey are common ly Subsurface Drainage
placed in a creek bed or ditch and u sed to trans-
port storm water from one side of a road or em- The importance of su bsu rface water-conveyin g
systems can not be overemph asized. Each sys-
bankment to the oth er side. Cu lvert in lets and
tem is designed to solve a specific problem. Some
ou tlets shou ld be provided with head walls com-
systems are installed to prevent the earth from
posed of straigh t walls for cu lverts less than 24
losing bearing resistance by water erosion of the
in. (0.61 m) in diameter and with win g walls for
cu lverts greater th an 24 in. (0.61 m) in diam- soil, others to prevent u plifting of the bu ildin g
eter. Head walls ten d to improve the hydrau lic slabs by h ydrostatic pressu re. Another reason
for installing su bsu rface drainage systems is to
characteristics of the cu lvert an d sh ou ld be pro-
prevent the slab or walls below grade from be-
vided with vertical sloped bar strainers to redu ce
coming wet by capillary action if the grou nd wa-
clogging.
ter is too close to the slab. In each case, the
The cu lvert shou ld be sized to pass the de- objective of this type of system is to preven t su b-
sign flow rate withou t bu ilding u p an excessive su rface water from rising above a predetermined
water depth on the u pstream end of the cu lvert, elevation.
a min imu m of 15 in . (381 mm). The cu lvert de-
sign sh ou ld provide reasonable freeboard to pre- Source of subsurface water Th e sou rce of all
vent the water from ru nn ing over the road or su bsu rface water is rain, h ail, snow, or sleet.
embankment, yet it can not allow the water to Some precipitation fin ds its way to streams, riv-
bu ild u p high enou gh to cau se damage u pstream ers, lakes, an d oceans by su rface ru n off. Mu ch
of the cu lvert.
Manholes sh ou ld be provided for clean ou t
pu rposes on exterior piping at ch anges in direc-
tion, chan ges in pipe size, and chan ges in slope;
at mu ltiple pipe con nection s; and at in tervals as
requ ired by the local code, bu t th ey sh ou ld not
be more than 250–500 ft (76.2-152.4 m) apart.
Manholes shou ld h ave a min imu m opening of
24 in. (0.61 m) in diameter, have a 48-in . (1.22-
m) minimum base diameter, have a 1–3-in. (25.4–
76.2-mm) drop in in vert across th e base, be
provided with cast-iron steps at 9 in. (228.6 mm)
on center, have a cast-iron frame and cover for
Figure 4 -12 Sources of Subsurface Water
100 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

of it seeps in to the grou nd, percolates th rou gh

th e pores of the soil, an d, eventu ally, spills into
large su rface bodies of water th rou gh u n der-
grou nd passages or by becoming su rface-borne
again . See Figu re 4-12.
Th ere a re two ba s ic types of s u bs u rfa ce
water:
1. Perched w ater is a local accu mu lation that
has seeped into the grou nd from previous
rains and is trapped in small pockets by im-
perviou s su bstances, su ch as clay or rock.
The water accu mu lates becau se these sub-
stances form a basin. Becau se perched wa-
ter does not flow in the absence of rainfall, Figure 4 -13 Borings Revealing the Nature
the upper surface of the water (called the
of the Ground, Water Table Elevations,
water table) is approximately level and the
and Rock Conditions
absence of a constant inflow makes control
of the water straightforward. Pu mping will
completely remove this water and local rain-
fall is necessary to replenish it. While rock can be u sefu l in providing a good
2. Flow ing w ater occu rs when subsurface wa- bearin g for th e stru ctu re, its presence may be
ter passes from deposit to deposit by perco- th e on e factor that preven ts the u se of the site
lation (constant flowing water table). This du e to excessive excavation costs. The soil may
body of water can be a small brook or a large be of a textu re that will not su stain th e weight of
river. The flow is constant in one direction. th e stru ctu re an d piles may have to be driven.
The top of the water table is never level be- Also, grou nd water con tribu tes to fou n dation
cau se of the resistance of the soil to the flow problems. Th e level of th e grou n d water may
of water. The qu antity of water flowing is re- cau se poor soil bearing valu es, and often a high
lated to the rate of water overflowing the de- grou nd-water table will necessitate costly pres-
pos its, wh ich , in tu rn , is rela ted to th e su re fou n dation slabs.
amou nt of percolation entering the deposits.
Det ermining capacit ies of ground wat er Prior
Du ring regional drou ghts, there may be no
to designing drainage systems, it is necessary to
flow at all.
determine the qu antity of su bsurface water that
Site investigation Economics and feasibility mu st be removed to lower the water table to a
are th e bases of all analytical stu dies. The loca- safe elevation . These tests are normally per-
tion of a stru ctu re is accepted only after a su r- formed by a soils engineer or done at the requ est
vey has proven that it is both technically feasible of the civil or stru ctu ral engineer. As is common
and econ omically practical. Th e contou rs of the with the majority of hydrau lic formu lae and the
land have an importan t bearing on the amou nt methods devised to ascertain characteristics of
of excavation an d backfilling requ ired. Un der- flu ids, determination of su bsurface water qu an-
grou nd conditions, su ch as rock and water, can tities involves an edu cated gu ess. With all the
also be deciding factors. n ecessary factors for variou s con ditions that
mu st be u sed in the formu lae, it is improbable
Lan d contou rs and conditions above grou nd that an accu rate answer will be attained. How-
can easily be determined by direct observation; ever, an answer that can be u sed with the as-
u ndergrou nd conditions are more difficu lt to as- su ran ce th at it is th e bes t available can be
certain an d requ ire special equ ipment and expe- obtained by considering the information from the
rience. The most common method of determining great nu mber of tests conducted in the labora-
su bsu rface condition s is to bore a h ole into the tory and in the field.
grou nd and record th e textu re and strata eleva-
tion of the variou s types of soil fou nd. Borings Two factors are u sed to determine qu antities
ca n a ls o r evea l wa t er -t a b le eleva t ion s , t h e of su bsu rface water:
strength of the soils, and rock conditions. See 1. Coefficient of permeability , or K factor, de-
Figu re 4-13.
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 101

fin ed a s ga llon s (liters ) of wa ter per da y Information derived from borings inclu de tex-
th rou gh 1 squ are foot (0.09 m 2 ) of soil, with tu re and strata of soils, water, rock an d samples
an in creasing head of 1 foot (0.3 m) every of specimen s encou ntered. Direction of the flow
linear foot (0.3 m). See Figu re 4-14. can be determined by the elevation of the water
table in th e variou s borings.
2. Coefficient of trans mis s ibility , or Q factor,
defined as gallons (liters) of water per day Knowing the variou s strata an d th e textu re
through the entire area, with the actual in- of the soil, an average K factor can be determined.
creasing head every linear foot (0.3 m). A cross-section sketch of the strata information
Excavation prior to testing is considered the obtained from the borings can be drawn and the
most accurate method for determining subsur- area of each layer determined. Laboratory tests
face water flows, as the excavation largely elimi- or pu blished charts will indicate th e K factor for
nates the resistance of the soil to flow. This method each textu re of soil, an d th e average K factor of
can easily be the most expensive: when contrac- th e cross section can be obtained.
tors are chosen before the design of the subsur- If the table is flowing, it is important to choose
face drainage system, the advantage of competitive th e proper cross section in relation to the direc-
bidding is lost. With Q directly determined, K can tion of flow. If the water is a deposit (not flow-
be estimated by using the following relationship, in g), an average K for two cross sections, at right
which will enable the design of the pipe and trench angles to each other, mu st be determined and
system (see also Figure 4-14). th e larger one u sed.
Equa t ion 4 -6 The following indu stry standards for K fac-
tors are u sed:
velocity
K = ⋅ 7.5 gal/ft3 K Factors of Various Soil Textures,
slope
gal/day/ ft2/ ft of head/l ft (L/day/m2/m of head/l m)
velocity
K = ⋅ 1002.4 L/m3
slope Clean gravel 100,000–1,000,000
(43 852 977–438 529 774)
where
Mixture, sand and gravel 100–10,000
Velocity = Q/ area, ft 2 / day (m 2 / day)
(43 853–4 385 298)
Slope = Head per length, ft/ ft (m/ m)
Mixture, sand, silt, 0.01–10
The term “slope” refers to th e hydrau lic gra- clay, fine sand (4.38–4385)
dient in th e soil. It is difficu lt to determine; for
Clay 0.0001–0.001
most pu rposes, however, the slope is 1. (0.044–0.438)

It can readily be observed from the above

table that the chance of error with this method
is great. To eliminate as much error as possible,
samples of the soils, taken during borings, should
be taken to a laboratory to obtain the proper K
factor. The possibility of error will then be lim-
ited to calculating an average K for the proper
cross section of the site area. It must be realized
that the K factor measures the capacity of the
soil to conduct water not the actual amount flow-
ing. The quantity of water infiltrating the soil
may be less than K but is never more. Thus, the
K factor is a safe criterion for use with the bor-
ing method.
After the average K is determined, Q must
be established.

Equa t ion 4 -7
Figure 4-14 Cross Section Illustrating
the Concept of the K Factor Q = K ⋅ area ⋅ slope
102 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Q s h ou ld n ot be modified to reflect local and allows less soil seepage. This pipe should be
weath er condition s becau se K reflects the peak used where a large quantity of drainage is required
flow possible. and the soil is not too coarse. The allowable infil-
tration rate of this material ranges from 15,000 to
Drainage pipe Drain age pipe is rated accord- 20,000 gal/ day/ ft 2 of pipe surface/ ft of head/ l ft
ing to its allowable in filtration rate, in gal/ min/ (6 577 500 to 8 770 000 L/ day/ m2 / m/ l m), de-
in. of diameter/ ft of length (L/ s/ mm of diam- pending upon the size of the perforations. Wash-
eter/ m of len gth ). The total infiltration rate of out of base soil is also common with this method,
th e pipin g system mu st exceed Q. and carefully chosen graduations of filter materi-
The selection of a pipin g system becomes a als must be used. The pipe can be obtained with
matter of econ omics, with du e con sideration various size perforations and the filter material
given to su bsoil conditions, cost of materials, and must be selected to satisfy the diameters of the
labor. The following piping systems are available perforations. See Figure 4-16.
for u se as su bsu rface drain age systems:
Porous pipe This pipe is the easiest of the three
Open joint pipe This pipe u ses a 4-in. (100 to clog. It is used when it is imperative that wash-
mm) minimu m separation between the pipe sec- ou t be prevented and the length of trenching is
tions. Care in the bedding of the pipe is requ ired not a major consideration. The infiltration rate
to prevent soil seepage into the piping. This pipe is 9000 to 10,000 gal/ day/ ft 2 of pipe su rface/ ft
shou ld be u sed when a large qu antity of drain- of head/ l ft (3 946 500 to 4 385 000 L/ day/ m 2 /
age is desired and the soil consists of relatively m/ l m). A filter material is not necessary to pre-
large particles. The infiltration rate of this mate- vent washou t. The value of this piping material
rial can be as high as 25,000 gal/ day/ ft 2 of pipe is its ability to prevent washou t; however, its K
su rface/ ft of head/ l ft (10 962 500 L/ day/ m 2 / factor may necessitate almost twice the length
m/ l m), depending upon the opening of the joints. of trenching or pipe diameter u sed with others.
The amou nt of soil that can enter the open joint
Trenching The pu rpose of trench ing is to per-
and, u ltimately, render the system u seless by
mit grou n d water to be transmitted to the drain-
clogging the pipe is great. To prevent washou t,
age piping with the least amou n t of resistance
several layers of filter material, carefu lly gradu-
possible and to accommodate the filter material.
ated in size, mu st be installed between the base
Th e location of all drain age systems mu st be
soil and the pipe. See Figure 4-15.
coordin ated with the fou n dation / stru ctu ral en-
Perfora t ed pipe This is the most commonly gin eer and other u ndergrou n d u tilities. It is im-
used method; it provides good drainage capability portant in the system design to give consideration
to tren ch loadin g on the pipe, which requ ires
proper beddin g, backfill, and tampin g. Refer to
th e Concrete Pipe Hand book by the American

Figure 4-1 5 Open Joint Pipe Surrounded

by Filter Material Figure 4-1 6 Perforated Pipe in Trench
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 103

Con crete In stitu te an d Data Book , Volu me 1,

Chapter 2.
To enable the greatest amount of water to
flow into the piping, a filter material is placed
between the pipe and the wall of the trench. If
no filter material were installed between the pipe
and the base soil material, the amou nt of water
entering the pipe wou ld be only as great as the
amou nt of water coming through the soil adja-
cent to the pipe, which depends on the K factor
of the soil. The amount of water filtering throu gh
1 linear foot (0.3 m) of trench should be less than
the amount of water 1 linear foot (0.3 m) of pipe
can receive.
The foundation drainage piping shou ld be
placed at the same elevation as the lowest floor
and should be a minimum of 3 ft (0.9 m) from Figure 4-1 7 Pipe and Footing Locations
the fou ndation wall. The fou ndation drainage
system should be placed on all sides of the build-
ing, or at least on all sides from which grou nd
water is expected. th e footing (see Figu re 4-17). To prevent u n der-
A basic ru le of spacing between trenches for mining the footing, pipin g shou ld not be placed
below-slab drainage is that this distance shou ld with in this zone—u nless th e fou ndation/ stru c-
be no greater than twice the vertical distance of tu ral engineer’s approval to do so is obtained.
the adjacent trenches but should not exceed 10–
Filt er ma t eria ls Th e pipin g mu st be su r-
15 ft (3.0–4.5 m) on center. Th e more porou s the
rounded with gravel or another loose, non- absor-
soil, the farther apart and the deeper the trenches
bent material and should be backfilled with a
shou ld be.
similar material to at least 1 ft (0.3 m) below the
The vertical distan ce is measu red from the pipe. Porous materials should be used above the
bottom of the pipe to the top of the filter mate- pipe to direct ground water to the drain and should
rial, normally a few inches (mm) to 18 in. (0.45 be extended up as close as possible to grade.
m) below the slab. This ru le is design ed to pre-
Filter materials can be obtained in mixtures
vent th e water table from rising above th e eleva-
ranging from coarse gravel to fine sand and in
tion requ ired for safety between the trench es.
any composition. With each mixture, a grain size
Du ring trenching, care mu st be observed not cu rve can be developed to determine the general
to u ndermine the bu ilding footings. A “no-man size of the mixture, at variou s percentages, by
zone” exists from th e lower edge of a footin g in a weight. The filter material mu st be tamped to
45° angle (an gle of repose) down and away from redu ce washou t of the base material.

Table 4-7 Size Ranges for Filter Material

Filter Material Size Range, 15% Size, 85% Size, K factora

in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)

Pea gravel 0.04–0.40 (1.–10.2) 0.09 (2.3) 0.25 (6.4) 29,000 (12.7)
Coarse sand 0.05–0.30 (1.3–7.6) 0.07 (1.8) 0.20 (5.1) 18,000 (7.9)
Fine sand and medium gravel 0.03–0.35 (0.8–8.9) 0.055 (1.4) 0.25 (6.4) 17,000 (7.5)
Coarse sand and medium gravel 0.025–0.35 (0.6–8.9) 0.03 (0.8) 0.24 (6.1) 14,000 (6.1)
Concrete sand 0.03–0.30 (0.8–7.6) 0.05 (1.3) 0.20 (5.1) 10,000 (4.4)
aIn gal/day/ft2 of pipe surface/ft of head/l ft (L/day/m2/m/m x 106).
104 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 4-1 8 Pipe in Trench with Dimensions of Filter Layers

For open-joint an d perforated pipe, th e filter For example, assu me a soil to have a K fac-
material mu st be carefu lly selected to gradu ate tor of 1000 gal/ day/ ft 2 of pipe su rface/ ft of head/
from twice the size of the pipe openin gs to the l ft (438 500 L/ day/ m 2/ m/ l m) and a trench with
fine size of the base material at the site. 8 ft 2 of su rface (sides and bottom)/ l ft (0.74 m 2 /
0.3 l m) of tren ch . Assu ming a h ydrau lic slope
The th ickness of each layer of filter material
of 1, the infiltration rate will be 8000 gal/ day/ ft
arou n d the pipe and in the trench shou ld be at
(99345 L/ day/ m) of trench .
least 4 in . (101.6 mm). It is sometimes u sed as
th e criterion of trench width, if the K factor of Using a trial-and-error method of solu tion,
the soil does not requ ire the width to be broader. assu me a 4-in. (101.6-mm) pipe. The pipe su r-
See Figu re 4-18. face is approximately 1 ft 2 / l ft (0.3 m 2/ l m) for a
4-in. (101.6-mm) porou s pipe. Assu me an infil-
Table 4-7 inclu des some common filterin g
tration capability of 10,000 gal/ day/ ft 2 / l ft of
materials an d their size ranges.
pipe (4 385 000 L/ day/ m 2 / l m), then th e pipe
Selecting pipe diameter Pipe diameter affects infiltration rate will be 10,000 gal/ day/ l ft (4 385
the fu nctioning of the su bsu rface drain in two 000 L/ day/ l m) of pipe. Th is is greater than the
ways. First, there mu st be su fficient su rface to requ ired infiltration rate of 8000 gal/ day/ l ft (99
permit the requ ired infiltration, and second, the 345 L/ day/ m).
pipe must be large enou gh to convey the infiltrated Now it mu st be determined wh ether this 4-
water but not smaller than 4 in. (101.6 mm). in . (101.6-mm) pipe is able to con vey the water.
In order to solve the problem, certain simplify-
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 105

ing assu mptions mu st be made. In most cases, th e floor, an d loose fittin g, or, if u sed as an area
th e drainage pipin g will be installed flat. How- drain, it can be open grating. Th e su mp con-
ever, water will flow in a flat pipe if the en d of stru ction shou ld be tile, plastic, fiberglass, steel,
that pipe is open to atmospheric pressu re. A con- cast iron, concrete, or an other approved mate-
servative assu mption is that the water acts as if rial. Th e pu mp sh ou ld be a du plex u nit and, if
th e pipe had a slope of 0.01 ft/ ft (0.01 m/ m) or considered critical, may require emergency power
1%. This enables the u se of standard charts for or a diesel backu p pu mp. The capacity an d head
th e disch arge of circu lar pipes bas ed on th e for th e pu mp mu st meet th e anticipated requ ire-
Manning formu la. Su ch a pipe chart wou ld show ments. Subsurface water often contains sand and
th at at a 0.01 ft/ ft (0.01) slope, a 4-in. (101.6- silt sediment. Pu mps mu st be designed to ac-
mm) pipe will accommodate 150,000 gal/ day cept some sediment, or damage to the pu mp com-
(567 750 L/ day). With an infiltration rate of 8000 ponen ts will occu r.
gal/ day/ l ft (99 345 L/ day/ m), the 4-in. (101.6-
The pu mp head mu st be su fficient to lift the
mm) pipe will be flowing fu ll in 150,000/ 8000 or
water from the low-water pu mp-off level in the
20 ft (6.1 m). If th e tren ch were 100 ft (30.5 m),
pit (normally 6 in. [127 mm] above the su mp
requ irin g a capacity of 800,000 gal/ day (3 028
bottom) to the necessary elevation to tie in to the
000 L/ day), then th e chart wou ld indicate that
gravity storm main, plu s make u p for the fric-
an 8-in. (203-mm) pipe wou ld be requ ired.
tion losses in the pu mp discharge piping, inclu d-
Disposal of ground water Grou nd water very in g fittin gs an d valves. A fu ll-flow ch eck valve is
often becomes su rface born e and a sou rce of requ ired in the pu mp discharge piping an d an
supply to streams, brooks, and rivers. If the natu- isolation valve shou ld be provided for servicin g
ral flow of grou n d water is disru pted, a water- th e check valve. If the lift is 35–40 ft (10.7–12.2
way, importan t to s ome in dividu als , may be m), the check valve shou ld be the sprin g-loaded
deprived of its su pply. After the contou rs of the type. Th e discharge piping sh ou ld be th e same
land an d th e adjacen t property are stu died, the size as the pu mp conn ection, or larger to redu ce
grou n d water may be directed to dayligh t, a th e friction losses, and shou ld be of galvanized
stream, a ditch , or another natu ral waterway; or steel with cast-iron, screwed fittin gs. An indi-
pu t back into the grou n d with diffu sion wells, vidu al branch electrical circu it shou ld be pro-
which may defeat the pu rpose of the drainage vided for th e pu mp, with proper wa terproof
system. provisions. See Figu re 4-19.

For many installations, it is neith er feasible Some su bsoil drainage water can have offen-
nor desirable to retu rn the water into the grou nd. sive odors or can carry pollu tants. Under these
The effect of additional grou nd water on an ad- condition s, discharge to the sanitary sewer may
jacent stru ctu re may be deleteriou s. be preferable, or requ ired, and the su mp may be
requ ired to be u prigh t. However, directin g the
Discharge of su bsu rface water into mu nici- discharge to the sanitary sewer may overload the
pal storm sewers requ ires permission from the pu blic sewer. The designed system shou ld be
au thorities having ju risdiction. Storm sewers are reviewed by the ju risdictional au thority.
often available an d, if the capacity allows it, dis-
charge into them is u su ally approved. It is a good
Storm-Water Detention
practice to install a sediment pit to prevent wash-
ou t material from entering mu nicipal sewers and With in the drainage basins of streams with a
to provide an acceptable backwater valve in the history of flooding, along ou tfalls with limited
discharge to the pu blic storm sewer. If th e su b- capacities, an d in areas wh ere th e disch arge
soil drain age system is lower than the pu blic cou ld cau s e overloadin g of th e pu blic s torm
storm sewer, pu mpin g may be requ ired. sewer, th e local au th ority may requ ire an on-
If the drainage mu st be pu mped, the su b- site storm water detention system with an es-
su rface drain age pipe shou ld terminate with a tablished slow release rate as part of the drainage
¼ bend down into a su mp (minimu m 18 in. [0.45 plan for a proposed development.
m] diameter an d 24 in. [0.6 m] deep) with the A ch ange in the u se of a site, from a wooded
end su bmerged 3 in . (76.2 mm) or less. Ventin g or grassy area to a paved commercial or indu s-
of th e su mp is n ot requ ired. The su mp cover trial area, cau ses a severe impact to n atu ral
shou ld be of proper traffic loading, flu sh with waterways inclu ding a decrease in infiltration and
106 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 4 -19 Sump-Pump Discharge to the Storm-Drainage System

overland travel time and an in crease in peak dis- u ndistu rbed and developed conditions, and the
charges and rainwater ru n off. The increase in rate of release from th e site is limited to th e ru n-
runoff also causes problems with soil erosion and off rate for the u n distu rbed conditions. Th e ex-
sedimentation. Natu ral waterways are replaced cess ru n off created by the development mu st be
or su pplemen ted by paved gu tters, storm sew- detain ed with a storage system acceptable to the
ers, channels with predetermin ed width s and local au thority, the owner, and th e designer.
depths, or other elemen ts of artificial drainage.
The intent of a detention system is to mini-
This u rbanization cau ses higher peak flow mize the discharge rate and consequ en t floodin g
rates, wh ich n ecessitate that either the mu nici- by controllin g the release rate. Rain water can be
pality install a drainage system with a higher held passively by shallow ponding in grassy strips
capacity or the developer install a detention sys- of land, in parking areas if appropriate, and on
tem. Becau se of th e significant costs involved th e roofs of bu ildings (see th e discu ssion in Part
and ever-increasin g developmen t, improvement One of “Controlled-Flow Drainage System”). Wa-
of th e drain age systems may be impractical. ter can also be held in the piping system by the
Therefore, on-site detention systems are required installation of weirs or orifices at inlet points such
in man y instances. as man holes, etc.
The theory of a detention system is that peak Three variables in th e design requ ire calcu -
ru noff rates for a site are determin ed for both lation:
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 107

1. Ou tflow from the basin (varies as a fu nction Equa t ion 4 -9

of time).
Gravity outflow, Vo = 40 ⋅ Qo ⋅ T
2. In flow to the basin (varies as a fu nction of
time). where
3. Storage (the differen ce between items 1 and Vo = Ou tlet flow per acre imperviou sn ess
2 above). (based on the water level risin g at a
constan t rate), ft 3 / s/ acre (m 3 / s/
There are basically two design approaches acre)
to the design of detention basin s. Th e Rational
Meth od sh ou ld be u tilized for sites th at are less Qo = Maximu m ou tflow per acre impervi-
th an 1 acre (4046.724 m 2 ) (some designers u se ou sness, ft 3 / s/ acre (m 3 / s/ acre)
it for 10 acres [40,467.24 m 2 ] or less), u sing a T = Storage time, from time storage
10-year frequ ency design rainfall rate. For larger begins u ntil the peak storage is
areas, th e Soil Con servation Service (SCS) Tech- attained, min
nical Release Nu mber 55 (TR-55) Method shou ld
be u sed for calcu lating ru noff rates an d storage Equa t ion 4 -1 0
capacity requ irements.
Allowable outflow
Qo =
The deten tion basin is in stalled at or below acreage ⋅ runoff coefficient
grou nd level, with the depth limited by either
th e invert of the pu blic storm sewer that is bein g Not e: For ru noff coefficient, see Table 4-6.
tied to or by th e depth of the stream or ditch. A
pon d may be u sed in an area of the site that is Equa t ion 4 -1 1
less obtru sive. Deten tion basin s may requ ire 6562.5
paved overflow spillways and small-diameter de- T = 25 +
Qo
watering drains. Trash gu ards shou ld be pro-
vided on the ou tlet pipe(s) from the basin. Fences Once the outflow rate has been determined,
are often requ ired arou nd ponds and basins for the volume of storage required can be calculated,
secu rity and th e protection of th e pu blic. as follows:
One problem with calcu lating the requ ired Equa t ion 4 -1 2
storage is that the gravity ou tflow rate is depen-
dent u pon the amou nt and the depth of the water Vs = Vn Vo
in the pond. The outflow changes instantaneou sly therefore
as the head varies, and the peak ou tflow only
occu rs wh en the basin is at peak volu me. A con- 10,500T
Vs = 40 QoT
stant ou tflow, su ch as that provided by a pu mp, T + 25
is mu ch easier to calcu late: th e storage is sim-
where
ply the inflow to th e basin min u s the pu mped
ou tflow. Vs = Maximu m water volu me stored per
acre imperviou sness, ft 3 / s/ acre
(m 3 / s/ acre)
STANDARD EQUATIONS
Equa t ion 4 -1 3
Equat ion 4-8 Vt = Vs ⋅ A ⋅ C
10,500T where
Gravity inflow, Vn =
T + 25
Vt = Maximu m total water volu me
where stored, ft 3 (m 3 )
Vn = Inlet flow per acre imperviou sness, A = Area, acres
ft 3 / s/ acre (m 3 / s/ acre) C = Ru noff coefficient (see Table 4-6)
T = Storage time, from time storage If th e ou tlet is to be an orifice operating u n-
begins u ntil the peak storage is der a h ead, select a depth of retention and a cor-
attain ed, min responding ou tflow pipe that will yield an ou tflow
108 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

in ft 3 / s (m 3 / s) equ al to the maximu m allowable

operatin g con dition u n der the h ead as deter-
mined by th e depth of retention.

Equa t ion 4-1 4

Q
Orifice area, A =
0.62 ⋅ 2GH

where
A = Area of ou tlet orifice or pipe, ft 2 (m 3)
Q = Allowable ou tflow rate, ft 3 / s (m 3 / s)
G = Acceleration du e to gravity = 32.2
ft/ s 2 (9.8 m/ s 2 )
H = Head, distance of water level to
centerline of th e ou tflow pipe, ft (m).
If the ou tlet flow is constan t, select a depth
of retention an d a pu mp th at will yield an ou t-
flow in ft 3 / s (m 3 / s) equ al to the maximu m al-
lowable. The con stant ou tflow rate implies that
th e total ou tflow is th e ou tflow rate mu ltiplied
by th e du ration of the storm.

Equa t ion 4-1 5

Pumped outflow, Vo = 60 QoT
Once the pumped (constant) outflow rate has
been determined, the volume of storage required
can be calculated, as follows:

Equa t ion 4-1 6

Vs = Vn Vo

therefore
10,500T
Vs = 60 QoT
T + 25

Equat ion 4-17

T = 25 + 4375
Qo
All systems should be permitted and should
be submitted to the local authority for approval.
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 109

APPENDIX
Form 4-1 Storm-Drainage Calculations for Roof Drains and Vertical Leaders
110 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Form 4-2 Storm-Drainage System Sizing Sheet

Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 111

Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drainage Worksheet 1

112 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drainage Worksheet 2

Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 113

Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drainage Worksheet 3

114 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

REFERENCES 18. Yrjanainen, Glen, and Alan W. Warren. 1973. A

simple method for retention basin design. Water
1. American Concrete Institu te. Concrete pipe hand- and Sew age Work s December.
book . Washington, DC.
2. American Society of Civil Engineers. n.d. Manual
on the des ign and cons truction of s anitary and
s torm s ew ers .
3. Ballanco, J ulius, and Eugene R. Shumann. 1987.
The illus trated national plum bing cod e d es ign
m anual. Ballanco an d Sh u man n —Illu s t ra t ed
Plu mbin g Codes, In c.
4. Bu ild in g Officia ls a n d Cod e Ad m in is t r a t ion
(BOCA). 1981. BOCA bas ic plumbing code.
5. Cast-Iron Soil Pipe Institu te. 1976. Cas t-iron s oil
pipe and fittin gs engin eerin g m an ual. Vol. 1.
Washington, DC.
6. Church, J ames C. 1979. Practical plumbing de-
s ign guid e. New York: McGraw-Hill.
7. Frankel, Michael. 1981. Storm water retention
methods. Plumbing Engineer March/ April and
May/ J une.
8. Frederick, Ra lph H., Va n ce A. Meyers , a n d
Eu gene P. Auciello. NOAA, National w eather s er-
vice 5-60 minute precipitation frequency for the
eas tern and central United S tates . NWS tech .
memo. HYDRO-35. NTIS Publication PB-272 112.
Silver Spring, MD: National Technical Informa-
tion Service.
9. Hicks, Tyler G., ed. 1986. Plumbing des ign and
ins tallation reference guide. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
10. Manas, Vincent T. 1968. National plumbing cod e,
illus trated. St. Petersburg, FL: Manas Publica-
tions.
11. Sansone, J ohn R. 1978. Storm drainage design
and detention u sing the rational method. Plumb-
ing Engineer J uly/ August.
12. SBCCI. 1988. Standard plumbing code. Birming-
ham, AL.
13. Soil Conservation Service, Engineering Division.
1986. Urban hy d rology for s m all w aters hed s .
Technical release no. 55, J une. NTIS publication
PB87-101580. Silver Spring, MD: National Tech-
nical Information Service.
14. Steele, Alfred. 1982. Engineered plumbing des ign.
Chicago: Delta Communications. (Now available
through ASPE.)
15. Steele, Alfred. High-rise plumbing. Plumbing En-
gineer. Chicago: Delta Commu nications.
16. US War Department. Engineering manual of the
War Department. Misc. pu blication no. 204.
17. US Department of the Army. Plum bing des ign
manual no. 3.01.
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 115

Cold-Water
Systems

INTRODUCTION (The accepted maximu m velocity is 8 fps

[2.4 m/ s].)
Proper design of a bu ilding’s water-distribu tion
system is necessary so that the variou s fixtu res
fu n ction properly, that excessive pressu re and DOMESTIC COLD-WATER METERS
pressu re flu ctu ation s are prevented, and th at
s u p p ly fa ilu r e u n d er n or m a l con d it ion s is Many major mu nicipalities fu rnish an d/ or in-
avoided. The amou nt of cold water u sed in a stall a particu lar type of water meter. In su ch
bu ilding is a fu n ction of stru ctu re type, u sage, locations, the meter characteristics (type, size,
occu pancy, and time of day. It is necessary to flow, pressure drops, remote readouts, costs, etc.)
provide th e most economical pipe sizes to meet can be obtained throu gh the local water depart-
the peak demand withou t wastefu l excess in pip- men t. Depending on the type of project bein g
ing or cost. There are at least five reasons wh y contemplated, a u tility may requ est a particu lar
proper sizing of the pipin g in a water-distribu - meter (e.g., compou nd meter vs. tu rbine meter.)
tion system is essential: Whether a u tility company’s meter or a meter
1. Health. This factor is of great importance. In- from anoth er sou rce is u sed, th e above-men-
adequate sizing can cause negative pressures tioned characteristics mu st be taken in to con-
in a piping system and lead to contamina- sideration. The location of the meter is of prime
tion of the water supply by backflow or back- importance. The meter sh all n ot be su bjected to
siphonage. freezing or su bmerged conditions. To discou r-
age tappin g of the piping ahead of th e meter, it
2. Pres s ure. If adequate residual pressure can- may be requ ired that th e meter be located di-
not be maintained at equipment and fixtures rectly inside the bu ilding wall. Some ju risdictions
becau se of inadequ ate pipe sizing, improper want the meter immediately adjacent to the tap
operation will result. Excessive pressures will to preven t illegal connections between the meter
cause erosion and noise problems in the pip- and the tap. Where job conditions mandate su ch
ing and accelerate deterioration of the seals a location, a meter in an ou tside pit or manhole
in faucets. shou ld be watertight against both su rface and
3. Flow . If flow rates cannot be maintained at grou n d-water con dition s. A redu ced-pressu re
adequate levels because of inadequate pipe backflow preventer is recommended at the bu ild-
sizing, equipment performance will deteriorate. in g meter an d is requ ired by some codes and
mu nicipalities.
4. Water s ervice. Improper sizing can acceler-
ate erosion, corrosion, and scale buildup. Water meters for plu mbin g u se are u su ally
cla s s ified a s th e pos itive-dis pla cemen t type,
5. Nois e. High velocities cau se noise and in-
which in dicate direct flow and record water pas-
crease the danger of su rge pressure shock.
sage in gal (L) or ft 3 (m 3).
116 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Meter Types 3. Water pressu re available.

1. Dis c meter. These meters are normally s , w, 4. Size of bu ildin g service.

1, 1½, and 2 in. (16, 19.1, 25, 40, and 50 5. Piping, valve, meter, and elevation losses.
mm) in size; are man u factu red to meet the
6. Meter costs and tap fees.
requ irements of AWWA Standard C700; have
a 150 psi (1034 kPa) maximum working pres- 7. Mainten ance costs and fees.
su re; and measu re flow in one direction. This Tables 5-1 to 5-3 from AWWA Standard M22
type of meter is common to residential and are reprinted as addition al gu idelin es for water
small commercial installations and is adapt- meters.
able for remote readou t systems.
2. Compound meter. These meters are normally
2, 3, 4, and 6 in. (50, 80, 100, and 150 mm) SIZING THE WATER LINE
in size; are manufactured to meet the require-
ments of AWWA Standard C700; have a 150 In practically all cases, water can be regarded as
psi (1034 kPa) maximu m working pressu re; an incompressible flu id and, for calcu lations at
and measure flow in one direction. This type approximately atmosph eric temperatu re, it is
of meter is used when most of the flow is low cu stomary to assu me that water has a u niform
bu t high flows are anticipated. It is capable density of 62.4 lb/ ft 3 (1 kg/ L), which holds nearly
of recording low flows and has the capacity constant through a temperatu re range of 32–60°F
for high flow rates. (0–15.6°C).
3. Turbine meter. The sizes of this meter are 2, For calcu lations involving water-heating sys-
3, 4, 6, and 10 in. (50, 80, 100, 150, and 250 tems su ch as boiler-feed pu mp discharge heads,
mm). This type of meter has the characteris- it is necessary to take into accou nt th e changes
tics of a compound meter bu t is more su it- in density, vapor pressu re, an d viscosity with
able for encou ntering a variety of flows. (A temperatu re. Application of the common empiri-
strainer shou ld be installed upstream of the cal equ ation s for water flow is limited to water at
meter.) u su al atmospheric temperatu res in the 32–l00°F
(0–37.8°C) range. At higher temperatu res, the
4. Propeller meter. The sizes of this meter are
changes in den sity and viscosity have a consid-
2–72 in. (51–1829 mm). Propeller meters are
erable bearin g on flow relations; where accu rate
u sed where low flows never occu r.
resu lts are desired, u se of th e common empiri-
5. Fire-line meters or detector-check meters. This cal formu lae is n ot recommen ded.
type of meter may be requ ired by local codes
in a water service that feeds a fire-protection Hazen-Williams Formula
sprinkler system or fire-hydrant system. In
such a case, the installation mu st meet the Amon g the many empirical formu lae for friction
requ irements of the local fire official and the losses that have been proposed, the Hazen-Wil-
appropriate insurance company. The design
liams equ ation is the most widely u sed. In a con-
should inclu de a minimum of 8 pipe diam-
venient form, it reads as follows:
eters of straight pipe u pstream of the meter
before any change in direction or connections. Equa t ion 5 -1
Various types of meter can be equ ipped with 100 1.85
q1.85
optional accessories. Remote-readou t systems, f = 0.2082
strip-chart recorders, etc. are available for spe- C d4.8655
cific applications. where
f = Friction head, ft of liquid/ 100 ft
Sizing the Water Meter of pipe (m/ 100 m)
The following design criteria may be u sed as a C = Su rface roughness constant
gu ide for selecting the proper meter: q = Flu id flow, gpm (L/ s)
1. Bu ildin g occu pan cy type. d = Inside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
2. Minimu m an d maximu m demand.
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 117

Table 5-1 Displacement-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Flow-Pressure Loss Averages
Recommended for Brands
Recommended Design Continuous Flow— of
Size, Maximum Capacity— Criteria—80% 50% of Meters
in. AWWA Flow Criteria of Maximum Capacity Maximum Capacity Avgs.
(mm) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa)

s ⋅ w
(16 ⋅ 19.1) 20 (1.26) 10.4 (71.76) 16 (1.00) 6.1 (42.19) 10 (0.63) 1.0 (6.9) 6
w (19.1) 30 (1.89) 10.6 (73.13) 24 (1.51) 6.9 (47.61) 15 (0.95) 1.05 (7.24) 6
1 (25.4) 50 (3.15) 9.3 (64.14) 40 (2.52) 6.3 (43.47) 25 (1.58) 1.0 (6.9) 6
1½ (38.1) 100 (6.30) 11.3 (77.10) 80 (5.05) 8.6 (59.34) 50 (3.15) 0.9 (6.21) 6
2 (50.8) 160 (10.08) 10.4 (71.76) 128 (8.08) 6.5 (44.85) 80 (5.04) 0.5 (3.45) 6
3 (76.2) 300 (18.93) 13.1 (90.39) 240 (15.14) 8.3 (57.27) 150 (9.46) 1.1 (7.59) 3

Source:AWWA Standard M22.

Table 5-2 Compound-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Flow-Pressure Loss Averages
Recommended for Brands
Recommended Design Continuous Flow— of
Size Maximum Capacity— Criteria—80% 50% of Meters
in. AWWA Flow Criteria of Maximum Capacity Maximum Capacity Avgs.
(mm) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa)

2 (30) 160 (10.08) 9.2 (63.48) 128 (8.07) 6.1 (42.09) 80 (5.04) 2.6 (17.94) 3
3 (80) 320 (20.19) 13.4 (92.46) 250 (15.77) 8.9 (61.36) 160 (10.08) 4.2 (28.98) 5
4 (100) 500 (31.54) 9.6 (66.24) 400 (25.23) 6.3 (43.47) 250 (15.77) 3.5 (24.15) 5
6 (150) 1000 (63.09) 9.4 (64.86) 800 (50.46) 5.8 (40.02) 500 (31.54) 2.5 (17.25) 4
8 (203) 1600 (100.94) 12.0 (82.8) 1280 (80.75) 7.8 (53.82) 800 (50.46) 4.0 (27.60) 3

Source:AWWA Standard M22.

Table 5-3 Turbine-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Flow-Pressure Loss Averages
Recommended for Brands
Recommended Design Continuous Flow— of
Size Maximum Capacity— Criteria—80% 50% of Meters
in. AWWA Flow Criteria of Maximum Capacity Maximum Capacity Avgs.
(mm) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa)

2 (50) 160 (10.08) 4.5 (31.05) 128 (7.57) 2.8 (19.32) 80 (5.04) 1.0 (6.9) 5
3 (80) 350 (22.37) 4.6 (31.74) 280 (17.66) 3.0 (20.69) 175 (11.04) 1.2 (8.3) 4
4 (100) 600 (37.85) 3.5 (24.15) 480 (30.28) 2.1 (14.5) 300 (18.93) 0.8 (5.5) 4
6 (150) 1250 (78.86) 3.5 (24.15) 1000 (69.09) 2.0 (13.8) 625 (39.43) 0.7 (4.9) 4

Source:AWWA Standard M22.

118

Figure 5 -1 Friction Loss of Head Chart, Coefficient of Flow (C) = 1 40 (derived from the Hazen and Williams Formula)
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems

Figure 5-1 (M) Friction Loss of Head Chart, Coefficient of flow (C) = 1 40 (derived from the Hazen and Williams Formula)
119
120 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 5-2 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/ s)

Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 121

This formu la is most accu rate for th e flow of qu ently u sed fixtu res shou ld not be reflected in
water in pipes larger than 2 in. (5 cm) an d at th e total deman d.
velocities less than 10 fps (3 m/ s).
After th e designer h as determined wh ich fix-
Equ ation 5-1 yields accu rate resu lts on ly tu res to inclu de in the water deman d calcu la-
when the kinematic viscosity of the liquid is about tion, the maximu m demand can be obtain ed.
1.1 centistokes, which is the case of water at Fixtu re u n it (fu ) valu es for each fixtu re can be
60°F (15.6°C). However, the kinematic viscosity assign ed by u sin g Table 5-5 an d a total fu valu e
of wa t er va r ies wit h t em per a tu re, from 1.8 can be obtain ed by addin g the fu valu es of all
centistokes at 32°F (0°C) to 0.29 cen tistokes at water-u sing fixtu res with a n ormal domestic di-
212°F (100°C); therefore, the tables are su bject versity. The total fu valu e can be converted into
to this error, which may increase the friction loss a gpm (L/ s) flow rate by u sing Table 5-6 or Fig-
by as mu ch as 20% at 32°F (0°C) and decrease it u res 5-2 or 5-3, each of wh ich inclu des a diver-
by as mu ch as 20% at 212°F (100°C). Valu es of sity factor.
C, for variou s types of pipe, are sh own in Table
The demand flow rates of all constant-u se
5-4, together with the correspon ding mu ltipliers
fixtu res mu st be added to this flow rate. A con-
that shou ld apply to the valu es of the head loss, f.
stant-u se fixtu re u ses water continu ou sly and
Figu re 5-1 shows th e friction loss of h ead does not h ave normal diversity. Air-conditionin g
chart, C = 140, derived from the Hazen -Williams cooling towers, booster pu mps, commercial lau n-
formu la (Equ ation 5-1). Figu re 5-2 illu strates the dry or dishwashing equ ipmen t, lawn sprinklers,
conversion of fixtu re u nits to gallon s per minu te and indu strial processes are examples of con-
(liters per second). stant-u se fixtu res. Any su ch equ ipment mu st be
figu red separately an d added to the gpm (L/ s)
Factors Affecting Sizing flow rate obtained from the conversion of all fix-
tu re u nits. This combined figu re is the peak de-
The three factors affecting the sizin g of a water mand flow rate for the project. (Note: Fixtu res
line are the demand flow rate (gpm) (L/ s), the that are timed to operate du ring “off” h ou rs
velocity (fps) (m/ s), and th e pressu re available shou ld not be added.)
for friction loss. The fixtu re-u nit listings in Table 5-5 are for
Demand The first factor, flow rate, is the water th e total water consu mption of th e fixtu re. For
demand of th e system, in gpm (L/ s). There is a th e pu rposes of sizing either the h ot or cold-wa-
vast difference in the water demand flow rates of ter line, the fixtu re-u n it loading for a fixtu re that
flu sh valves in different types of occu pan cy. For u ses both hot and cold water wou ld be 75% of
example, ten water closets with flu sh valves in th e total valu e. Th e 75% figu re applies only to
an apartment bu ilding may have a demand flow fixtu res served by hot and cold water. It does
rate of 60 gpm (3.8 L/ s), while ten water closets not apply to sin gle-service fixtu res, su ch as wa-
with flu sh valves in a pu blic school may have a ter closets, u rinals, and dishwash ers.
demand flow rate of 90 gpm (5.7 L/ s). Th e ju dg-
Velocity The second factor affecting the sizin g
men t and experience of th e designer plays an
of a water line is velocity. A maximu m velocity of
important part in accommodating su ch differ- 15 fps (4.6 m/ s), which is su ggested by some
ences in th e design of water systems. model plumbing codes, is much too high for many
Another problem en cou n tered in establish- in stallations. A velocity above 6 or 7 fps (1.8 or
ing flow rates is th e practice of cou nting fixtu res 2.1 m/ s) normally creates n oise. Also, depend-
th at are n ot normally in u se. For example, a ser- in g on the piping material u sed an d the tem-
vice sin k in an office bu ilding is n ormally u sed p er a t u r e, h a r d n es s , a n d p H of t h e wa t er ,
on ly by the janitors at nigh t; therefore, it sh ou ld velocities above 4 fps (1.2 m/ s) can cau se ero-
not be cou n ted as a fixtu re in the total demand. sion of the piping material.
Hose bibbs are other fixtu res that sh ou ld not be
Anoth er ju stification for lower velocities in a
figu red at 100% of th eir nu mber. For example,
system is water h ammer. Water hammer is the
th e systems of large bu ildings may have man y
pou ndin g force created by the su dden startin g
hose bibbs installed bu t only a few will be oper-
or stopping of water flow, which can be cau sed
ated simu ltan eou sly. In dividu al bran ch lin es by qu ick-open ing or closing valves. The impact
shou ld be sized to han dle all the fixtu res on the of water hammer is directly proportional to the
bran ch ; however, the presen ce of these in fre-
change in velocity and is equ al to approximately
60 times th e velocity ch ange. For instan ce, if
122 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

water traveling at 15 fps (4.6 m/ s) is stopped su re. If the maximu m pressu re is above 80 psi,
su ddenly, the in crease in pressu re within the and a pressu re-regu lating device is installed, the
pipe lin e will be approximately 900 psi (6205.3 pressure regulator will introduce an additional loss
kPa). This increased pressu re can do con sider- in the piping system when the water system is at
able damage to piping systems and connected minimu m pressu re. The water pressu re shou ld
equ ipment. be determined from a fire-hydrant flow test, which
is taken as close to the site as possible and in-
Pressure The third factor affecting the sizing of a cludes static and residual pressures at a flow rate.
water line is the pressu re available for friction
loss. The first step in ascertaining pressu re avail- Many model plu mbin g codes state that, if a
able for friction loss is determining (from the lo- pressu re-regu lating device is installed, the avail-
ca l wa t er d ep a r t m en t ) t h e m a xim u m a n d able pressu re mu st be considered as 80% of the
minimu m water pressu res and flow rate to be redu ced pressu re setting. Spring-operated, pres-
encou ntered at the project site. The maximu m su re-regu lating devices have a fall-off pressu re
and minimu m pressu res may be nearly the same th at is below the system pressu re setting. Man y
or they may vary greatly; care mu st be taken to engineers design a system incorporating the fall-
handle the high pressu re as well as the low pres- off pressu re of th e equ ipment they are u sing;

Table 5-4 Surface Roughness Coefficient (C) Values for Various Types of Pipe

Values of C
Range Average Value Value Commonly
(High = Best, smooth, well-laid for Good, Used for
Type of Pipe Low = Poor or corroded) Clean, New Pipe Design Purposes

Asbestos cement 160–140 150 140

Fiber — 150 140
Bitumastic-enamel-lined iron or steel
centrifugally applied 160–130 148 140
Cement-lined iron or steel centrifugally applied — 150 140
Copper, brass, lead, tin or glass pipe and tubing 150–120 140 130
Wood stave 145–110 120 110
Welded and seamless steel 150–80 140 100
Continuous-interior, riveted steel
(no projecting rivets or joints) — 139 100
Wrought iron 150–80 130 100
Cast iron 150–80 130 100
Tar-coated cast iron 145–80 130 100
Girth-riveted steel (projecting rivets
in girth seams only) — 130 100
Concrete 152–85 120 100
Full-riveted steel (projecting rivets in
girth and horizontal seams) — 115 100
Vitrified clay — 115 100
Spiral-riveted steel (flow with lap) — 110 100
Spiral-riveted steel (flow against lap) — 110 90
Corrugated steel — 60 60

Value of C 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60

Multiplier to Correct Tables 0.47 0.54 0.62 0.71 0.84 1.0 1.22 1.50 1.93 2.57
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 123

Table 5-5 Demand Weight of Fixtures, however, the 80% factor is a ru le of thu mb that
in Fixture Unitsa shou ld n ot apply to an engineered system.
If th e available water pressu re at a project
Weight Minimum
s it e is h igh en ou gh to requ ire t h e u s e of a
(fixture units)c Connections,
in. (mm) pressure-regu lating device, the pressu re-regulat-
in g valve is considered th e starting point of the
Fixture Typeb Cold Hot
system for the pu rposes of calcu lation.
Private Public Water Water
The next step in obtaining the pressu re avail-
Bathtubd 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) able for friction loss is to determine the residu al
pressu re requ ired at th e govern in g fixtu re or
Bedpan washer — 10 1 (25) — applian ce (not necessarily the farthest fixtu re).
Bidet 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) “Residu al pressu re” is the pressu re requ ired at
th e fixtu re for it to operate properly with water
Combination sink flowing. Normally, bu t n ot always, 8 psi (55.2
and tray 3 — 2 (13) 2 (13) kPa) is requ ired for a flu sh-tank system and 15
Dental unit or cuspidor — 1 a (10) — psi (103.4 kPa) is requ ired for a flu sh -valve sys-
tem. Some flu sh-valve fixtu res requ ire 20 or 25
Dental lavatory 1 2 2 (13) 2 (13) psi (137.9 or 172.4 kPa); some water closets re-
Drinking fountain 1 2 a (10) — qu ire 40 psi (275.8 kPa); commercial dishwash-
ers requ ire 20 or 25 psi (137.9 or 172.4 kPa). It
Kitchen sink 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) is eviden t , th en , t h a t t h e res idu a l pres s u re
Lavatory 1 2 a (10) a (10) shou ld be figu red as the actu al pressu re n eeded
at the govern ing fixtu re.
Laundry tray (1 or 2
compartments) 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) The third step is to determine the static pres-
su re loss requ ired to reach the governin g fixtu re
Shower, each headd 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) or appliance. The static loss (or gain) is figu red
Sink, service 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) at 0.433 psi/ ft (9.8 kPa/ m) of elevation differ-
ence, above or below the water main. The differ-
Urinal, pedestal — 10 1 (25) — ence in elevation is u su ally a pressu re loss to
Urinal (wall lip) — 5 2 (13) — th e system, as fixtu res are n ormally at a higher
elevation than the sou rce. If the fixtu re is lower
Urinal stall — 5 w (20) — than the sou rce, there will be an increase in pres-
Urinal with flush tank — 3 — — su re and th e static pressu re is added to th e ini-
tial pressu re.
Wash sink, circular or
multiple (each set of Anoth er pressu re loss is created by th e wa-
faucets) — 2 2 (13) 2 (13) ter meter. This loss of pressu re, for a disc type
meter, can be determined from Figu re 5-4 or from
Water closet: th e manu factu rer’s flow charts. Th e flow is de-
Flush valve 6 10 1 (25) — termined from ch arts indicating th e total flow
rate, in gpm (L/ s), th e size and type of the meter,
Tank 3 5 a (10) — and the pressu re drop for the corresponding flow.
The loss is given in pou n ds per squ are inch (psi)
a For supply outlets likely to impose continuous demands, esti-
and kilopascals (kPa). The selection of meter size
mate the continuous supply separately and add to the total demand
for fixtures. is very important in the final sizin g of the pipin g
b For fixtures not listed, weights may be assumed by comparing system and is one variable the designer can con-
the fixture to a listed one then using water in similar quantities and trol. Man y other factors, su ch as the height of
at similar rates. th e bu ilding, city water pressu re, and requ ire-
c The given weights are for the total demand of fixtures with both ments for backflow protection or water treatment,
hot and cold-water supplies. The weights for maximum separate are dictated by codes or by the particu lar situ a-
demands may be taken as 75% of the listed demand for the sup-
ply. tion. The designer mu st review the system very
d A shower over a bathtub does not add a fixture unit to the group. closely prior to the selection of a meter size. Usu -
ally, th e larger th e meter, the high er th e initial
in stallation price and mon thly charge. On the
124 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 5-6 Conversions—Gallons per Minute (Liters per Second) to Fixture Units

Flow, Fixture Units Flow, Fixture Units Flow, Fixture Units

gpm Flush Flush gpm Flush Flush gpm Flush Flush
(L/s) Tank Valve (L/s) Tank Valve (L/s) Tank Valve

1 (0.06) 0 — 45 (2.84) 107 37 145 (9.14) 611 521

2 (0.13) 1 — 46 (2.90) 111 39 150 (9.45) 638 559
3 (0.19) 3 — 47 (2.96) 115 42 155 (9.77) 665 596
4 (0.25) 4 — 48 (3.02) 119 44 160 (10.08) 692 631
5 (0.32) 6 — 49 (3.09) 123 46 165 (10.40) 719 666
6 (0.38) 7 — 50 (3.15) 127 48 170 (10.71) 748 700
7 (0.44) 8 — 51 (3.21) 130 50 175 (11.03) 778 739
8 (0.50) 10 — 52 (3.28) 135 52 180 (11.34) 809 775
9 (0.57) 12 — 53 (3.34) 141 54 185 (11.66) 840 811
10 (0.63) 13 — 54 (3.40) 146 57 190 (11.97) 874 850
11 (0.69) 15 — 55 (3.47) 151 60 200 (12.60) 945 931
12 (0.76) 16 — 56 (3.53) 155 63 210 (13.23) 1018 1009
13 (0.82) 18 — 57 (3.59) 160 66 220 (13.86) 1091 1091
14 (0.88) 20 — 58 (3.65) 165 69 230 (14.49) 1173 1173
15 (0.95) 21 — 59 (3.72) 170 73 240 (15.12) 1254 1254
16 (1.01) 23 — 60 (3.78) 175 76 250 (15.75) 1335 1335
17 (1.07) 24 — 62 (3.91) 185 82 260 (16.38) 1418 1418
18 (1.13) 26 — 64 (4.03) 195 88 270 (17.01) 1500 1500
19 (1.20) 28 — 66 (4.16) 205 95 280 (17.64) 1583 1583
20 (1.26) 30 — 68 (4.28) 215 102 290 (18.27) 1668 1668
21 (1.32) 32 — 70 (4.41) 225 108 300 (18.90) 1755 1755
22 (1.39) 34 5 72 (4.54) 236 116 310 (19.53) 1845 1845
23 (1.45) 36 6 74 (4.66) 245 124 320 (20.16) 1926 1926
24 (1.51) 39 7 76 (4.79) 254 132 330 (20.79) 2018 2018
25 (1.58) 42 8 78 (4.91) 264 140 340 (21.42) 2110 2110
26 (1.64) 44 9 80 (5.04) 275 148 350 (22.05) 2204 2204
27 (1.70) 46 10 82 (5.17) 284 158 360 (22.68) 2298 2298
28 (1.76) 49 11 84 (5.29) 294 168 370 (23.31) 2388 2388
29 (1.83) 51 12 86 (5.42) 305 176 380 (23.94) 2480 2480
30 (1.89) 54 13 88 (5.54) 315 186 390 (24.57) 2575 2575
31 (1.95) 56 14 90 (5.67) 326 195 400 (25.20) 2670 2670
32 (2.02) 58 15 92 (5.80) 337 205 410 (25.83) 2765 2765
33 (2.08) 60 16 94 (5.92) 348 214 420 (26.46) 2862 2862
34 (2.14) 63 18 96 (6.05) 359 223 430 (27.09) 2960 2960
35 (2.21) 66 20 98 (6.17) 370 234 440 (27.72) 3060 3060
36 (2.27) 69 21 100 (6.30) 380 245 450 (28.35) 3150 3150
37 (2.33) 74 23 105 (6.62) 406 270 500 (31.50) 3620 3620
38 (2.39) 78 25 110 (6.93) 431 295 550 (34.65) 4070 4070
39 (2.46) 83 26 115 (7.25) 455 329 600 (37.80) 4480 4480
40 (2.52) 86 28 120 (7.56) 479 365 700 (44.10) 5380 5380
41 (2.58) 90 30 125 (7.88) 506 396 800 (50.40) 6280 6280
42 (2.65) 95 31 130 (8.19) 533 430 900 (56.70) 7280 7280
43 (2.71) 99 33 135 (8.51) 559 460 1000 (63) 8300 8300
44 (2.77) 103 35 140 (8.82) 585 490
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 125

other h and, a larger meter may mean a smaller- in available water su pply pressu res as an area
sized piping system, which might prove to be in cu rs growth.
more economical in the long ru n. Th ese two fac-
As previou sly determined, the governin g ap-
tors are evalu ated by th e designer and economic
pliance in th e example in Figu re 5-5 is the dish-
considerations gu ide the selection. Fu rthermore,
washer. For the same example, assu me that the
if a system does n ot h ave ample pressu re, a
min imu m in comin g water pressu re is 60 psi
means of preserving the available pressu re is to
(413.7 kPa). To determine the pressu re available
u se a larger meter, thereby decreasing pressu re
for friction, start with 60 psi (413.7 kPa) and
loss. This fact may well enable the designer to
su btract 3 psi (20.7 kPa) for th e meter loss, 10
elimin ate the u se of a water-pressu re booster
psi 69 kPa) for the softener, 5 psi (34.5 kPa) for
s ys t em, t h er eby s u bs t a n t ia lly r edu cin g t h e
th e water-heater coil, an d 25 psi (172.4 kPa) re-
plu mbing system costs.
sidu al for the dishwash er. This leaves a remain-
The last step is to determine the other pres- der of 17 psi (117.2 kPa), wh ich is the pressu re
su re losses encou ntered between the meter and available for friction . The losses for the backflow
th e governing fixtu re. These cou ld be cau sed by preventer an d the static do n ot occu r on the line
a water softener, a backflow preventer, a filter, between the meter and the governing fixtu re or
or an y other device th at creates a pressu re loss appliance; therefore, they are not inclu ded in the
in the system. calcu lations at this time. Only losses th at occu r
on the line between th e meter and the governin g
The “governing fixtu re” or applian ce is the
fixtu re or appliance are to be inclu ded in the ini-
device that has the highest total wh en the re-
tial calcu lations to determin e the pressu re avail-
sidu al pressu re, static pressu re, an d all other
able for friction. The other losses will enter into
pressu re losses are added. Take, for example,
su bsequ ent calcu lations.
th e system sh own in Figu re 5-5. To find the gov-
ern in g fixtu re or applian ce, determin e wh ich After obtaining the pressu re available for fric-
device requ ires the most pressu re. Knowing that tion, the n ext step is to calcu late th e “average
th e meter loss is the same for all parts of the pressu re drop.” This is th e pressu re available for
system, it can be temporarily ignored. Going from friction divided by the equ ivalent length of the
th e meter to the flu sh-valve water closet, there ru n. The qu otien t is mu ltiplied by l00 to obtain
are 15 psi (103.4 kPa) residu al and no static loss an answer in terms of loss in psi/ 100 ft (kPa/
for a total of 15 psi (103.4 kPa). As a total goin g l00 m). In determinin g the equ ivalent length of
th rou gh the backflow preven ter, there are 16 psi ru n, an allowance mu st be made for fittings. This
(110.3 kPa) residu al and 8.66 psi (59.7 kPa) static can be determin ed from Table 5-7 or by adding a
for a total loss of 24.66 psi (170 kPa). Going to percentage to the developed length. Th e average
th e dishwasher, there is a total of 40 psi (275.8 pressu re drop is an average loss over the system
kPa)—25 psi (172.4 kPa) residu al plu s 5 psi (34.5 and shou ld be u sed only as a gu ide in sizin g
kPa) loss throu gh the water heater plu s 10 psi piping.
(69 kPa) loss throu gh the softener. Therefore, the
Part of the system can be designed to exceed
dishwash er is the governing fixtu re, for it has
th e average pressu re drop, while anoth er part is
th e highest total wh en the residu al, static, and
design ed to be less th an th e average. The aver-
other losses are added.
age pressu re drop can be exceeded—as long as
Su mmarizing the steps, all th e system needs the total pressu re available for friction is n ot
or losses are su btracted from the minimu m wa- exceeded. The average pressu re drop calcu lation,
ter pressu re. The remainder is the pressu re avail- which is made initially, pertains on ly to the line
able for friction, defined as th e total energy (or from the meter to th e govern ing fixtu re or appli-
force) available to pu sh the water throu gh the ance. Care shou ld be taken to accou nt for the
pipes to th e governing fixtu re or appliance. How average pressu re drop calcu lations for th e other
th is force is u sed is u p to the design er, wh o may lines. Th e branches off the main line shou ld be
decide to u se it evenly over the entire system, as sized on a differen t pressu re-loss basis, or the
an average pressu re loss, or u nevenly over the bran ch es closest to the meter may take pres-
system. In designing th e system, as lon g as the su re away from the farthest branches. Table 5-8
designer does n ot exceed the pressu re available sh ows typical flow and pressu re requ ired du ring
for frict ion , th e s ys tem will work. A certa in flow for variou s fixtu res.
amou nt of pressu re may be held in reserve, how-
ever, to allow for aging of the piping or decreases
126 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 5 -3 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/ s),

Design Load vs. Fixture Units, Mixed System

Example 5-1 line is equivalent to 10 ft (3.1 m) in length. This

includes an allowance for fittings. The allowable
Figure 5-6 illustrates how to determine the pres-
pressu re drop for friction is 10 psi (69 kPa). The
sure available for friction.
first tabu lation is the friction loss in the system.
In the system shown (with a main line run-
Section A–B has an equ ivalen t length of 10
ning from the meter, point A, to the governing
ft (3.1 m). Th e average pressu re drop is 10 psi/
fixture or appliance, point L), each section of the
100 ft (226.2 kPa/ 100 m). If it is assu med that
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 127

precisely sized pipe is obtained to give a pres- each fixture is used up as friction loss, it tends
su re loss (du e to friction) of exactly 10 psi/ 100 ft to cause more water than necessary to flow
(226.2 kPa/ l00 m), th e pressu re loss in this sec- through the branches to use the excess avail-
tion is 1 psi (6.9 kPa) and the pressu re for fric- able pressure.
tion at poin t B is 9 psi (62.1 kPa). In section
Method Billustrates the ideal system. All the
K–L, at poin t L, there is 0 pressu re left for fric-
available frictional pressure in each of the
tion. Th is is the governing fixtu re.
branches is used. In actual practice, this method
The next tabu lation illu strates the sizing of can not be utilized. The average pressure loss in
branches (u sin g a differen t friction -loss basis each section is veryhigh, far higher than is nor-
th an was u sed for th e main). mally accepted in modern construction. M any
engineers anddesigners would beconcerned with
10 psi (69 kPa) available for friction loss; long-
the high pressure loss as well as with the high
est ru n: A–L, 100 ft (30.5 m); average pressu re
velocity shown by this example.
drop: (10 ⋅ 100)/ 100 =10 psi/ 100 ft (226.2 kPa/
100 m). Method C is a modified header system. The
main was sized on the average pressure drop of
Method Auses the same average pressure
the system and the branches sized on their al-
loss in the branches as was used in the line to
lowable frictional pressure drop. At section M–J ,
the governingfixture. The pressure available for
th e total allowable pressu re drop over the entire
friction at the end of each branch is not 0. At
system (poin t A to point M) is 10 psi (69 kPa).
point M, it is 1 psi (6.9 kPa); at point R, it is 5 psi
Point M has an equ ivalent length of 90 ft (27.4
(34.5 kPa); and at point U, it reaches a maxi-
m) from point A. This gives an average pressu re
mumof 8 psi (55.2 kPa). Unless the pressure to

Flow, liters per second

0.25
0.32
0.38
0.44
0.50
0.57
0.63

1.26

1.89

2.52

3.15
3.78

5.04

6.30

12.6

18.9

25.2

37.8

50.4
63.0
20 137.9
Pressure Loss, pounds per inch squared

16 110.3
2"

3"
"

"

2"

6"
5/8

3/4

4"
/
1-1
1"

Pressure Loss, kiloPascals

10 69.0
9 62.1
8 55.2
7 48.3
6 41.4
5 34.5
4 27.6

3 20.7

2 13.8

1 6.9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 800 1000

Flow, gallons per minute

Figure 5 -4 Typical Friction Losses for Disk-Type Water Meters

128 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 5-7 Allowance for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings

Equivalent Length of Pipe for Various Fittings (ft)

Diameter 90° 45° Coupling
of Fitting Standard Standard Standard or Straight Gate Globe Angle
(in.) Elbow Elbow T 90° Run of T Valve Valve Valve

a 1 0.6 1.5 0.3 0.2 8 4

½ 2 1.2 3 0.6 0.4 15 8
¾ 2.5 1.5 4 0.8 0.5 20 12
1 3 1.8 5 0.9 0.6 25 15
1¼ 4 2.4 6 1.2 0.8 35 18
1½ 5 3 7 1.5 1 45 22
2 7 4 10 2 1.3 55 28
2½ 8 5 12 2.5 1.6 65 34
3 10 6 15 3 2 80 40
4 14 8 21 4 2.7 125 55
5 17 10 25 5 3.3 140 70
6 20 12 30 6 4 165 80

Note: Allowances based on nonrecessed threaded fittings. Use ½ the allowances for recessed threaded fittings or streamline solder fittings.

Table 5-7 (M) Allowance for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings

Equivalent Length of Pipe for Various Fittings (m)

Diameter 90° 45° Coupling
of Fitting Standard Standard Standard or Straight Gate Globe Angle
(mm) Elbow Elbow T 90° Run of T Valve Valve Valve

9.5 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.09 0.06 2.4 1.2

12.7 0.6 0.4 0.9 0.18 0.12 4.6 2.4
19.1 0.8 0.5 1.2 0.24 0.15 6.1 3.7
25.4 0.9 0.6 1.5 0.27 0.18 7.6 4.6
31.8 1.2 0.7 1.8 0.4 0.24 10.7 5.5
38.1 1.5 0.9 2.1 0.5 0.3 13.7 6.7
50.8 2.1 1.2 3.1 0.6 0.4 16.8 8.5
63.5 2.4 1.5 3.7 0.8 0.5 19.8 10.4
76.2 3.1 1.8 4.6 0.9 0.6 24.4 12.2
101.6 4.3 2.4 6.4 1.2 0.8 38.1 16.8
127 5.2 3.1 7.6 1.5 1.0 42.7 21.3
152.4 6.1 3.7 9.1 1.8 1.2 50.3 24.4

Note: Allowances based on nonrecessed threaded fittings. Use ½ the allowances for recessed threaded fittings or streamline solder fittings.
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 129

Table 5-8 Flow and Pressure Required for Various Fixtures during Flow

Fixture Pressure, psi (kPa)a Flow, gpm (L/s)

Basin faucet 8 (55.2) 3 (0.19)

Basin faucet, self-closing 12 (82.7) 2.5 (0.16)
Sink faucet, a in. (9.5 mm) 10 (69) 4.5 (0.28)
Sink faucet, ½ in. (12.7 mm) 5 (34.5) 4.5 (0.28)
b
Dishwasher 15–25 (103.4–172.4)
Bathtub faucet 5 (34.5) 6 (0.38)
Laundry tub cock, ¼ in. (6.4 mm) 5 (34.5) 5 (0.32)
Shower 12 (82.7) 3–10 (0.19–0.6)
Water closet, ball cock 15 (103.4) 3 (0.19)
Water closet, flush valve 10–20 (69–137.9) 15–40 (0.95–2.5)
Urinal flush valve 15 (103.4) 15 (0.95)
Garden hose, 50 ft (15.2 m), and sill cock 30 (206.8) 5 (0.32)
aResidual pressure in the pipe at the entrance of the fixture considered.
bSee manufacturer’s data.

Figure 5-5 Establishing the Governing Fixture or Appliance

130 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

METHOD A
Developed Developed Friction Friction Loss Total Pressure Pressure at End
Length in Section, Length from Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, Loss from Friction, of Section for
Section ft (m) Point A, ft (m) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa) Friction, psi (kPa)

A–B 10 (3.1) 10 (3.l) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 1 (6.9) 9 (62.1)

B–C 10 (3.1) 20 (6.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 2 (13.8) 8 (552)
C–D 10 (3.1) 30 (9.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 3 (20.7) 7 (48.3)
D–E 10 (3.1) 40 (12.2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 4 (27.6) 6 (41.4)
E–F 10 (3.1) 50 (15 2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6 9) 5 (34.5) 5 (34.5)
F–G 10 (3.1) 60 (18.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 6 (41.4) 4 (27.6)
G–H 10 (3.1) 70 (21.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 7 (48.3) 3 (20.7)
H–J 10 (3.1) 80 (24.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 8 (55.2) 2 (13.8)
J–K 10 (3.1) 90 (27.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 9 (62.1) 1 (6.9)
K–L 10 (3.1) 100 (30.5) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 10 (69) 0 (0)

METHOD B
Developed Developed Pressure Friction Friction Pressure
Length in Section, Length from at Start, Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End,
Section ft (m) Point A, ft (m) psi (kPa) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa)

M–J 10 (3.1) 90 (27.4) 2 (13.8) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 1 (6.9)

N–H 10 (3.1) 80 (24.4) 3 (20.7) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 2 (13.8)
P–G 10 (3.1) 70 (21.3) 4 (27.6) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 3 (20.7)
Q–F 10 (3.1) 60 (18.3) 5 (34.5) 10 (226.2) 1 (6 9) 4 (27.6)
R–E 10 (3.1) 50 (15.2) 6 (41.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 5 (34 5)
S–D 10 (3.1) 40 (12.2) 7 (48.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 6 (41.4)
T–C 10 (3.1) 30 (9.1) 8 (55.2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 7 (48.3)
U–B 10 (3.1) 20 (6.1) 9 (62.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 8 (55.2)

METHOD C
Friction Friction Pressure Friction Friction Pressure
Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End, Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End,
Section (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa)

M–J 20 (452.4) 2 (13.8) 0 (0) 11.1 (251.1) 1.1 (7.6) 0.90 (6.2)
N–H 30 (678.6) 3 (20.7) 0 (0) 12.5 (282.8) 1.25 (8.6) 1.75 (12.1)
P–G 40 (904.8) 4 (27.6) 0 (0) 14.3 (323.5) 1.43 (9.9) 2.57 (17.7)
Q–F 50 (1131) 5 (34.5) 0 (0) 16.6 (375.5) 1.66 (11.5) 3.34 (23)
R–E 60 (1357.2) 6 (41.4) 0 (0) 20 (452.4) 2 (13.8) 4 (27.6)
S–D 70 (1583.5) 7 (48.3) 0 (0) 25 (565.5) 2.5 (17.2) 4.5 (31)
T–C 80 (1809.7) 8 (55.2) 0 (0) 33.3 (753.3) 3.33 (23) 4.66 (32.1)
U–B 90 (2035.9) 9 (62.1) 0 (0) 50 (1131) 5 (34.5) 4 (27.6)

Figure 5-6 Determining Pressure Available for Friction

Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 131

drop of 11.1 psi (7.6 kPa) and an u nu sed fric- ernin g fixtu re or appliance.
tion al pressu re of 0.9 psi (6.2 kPa). By goin g
4. Th e static pressu re loss to get to the govern-
th rou gh all th e branch es in the same manner,
in g fixtu re or appliance.
on e can see that the u n u sed frictional pressu re
varies from 0.9 psi (6.2 kPa) to a maximu m of 5. The meter loss.
4.66 psi (32.1 kPa). These pressu res are far less 6. Other losses between the meter and the gov-
th an those resu lting from Method A and the av- ernin g fixtu re or appliance.
erage pressu re drops are far less than th ose re-
su lting from Meth od B. Consequ ently, Meth od C 7. The pressu re available for friction.
is the one most widely u sed by designers. In ac- 8. Th e average pressu re drop from the meter to
tu al practice, it is not necessary to calcu late the th e govern ing fixtu re or applian ce.
average pressu re drop for each branch; u su ally,
th e branches are close together an d the changes 9. Th e average pressu re drop for the other sys-
in the average pressu re drop are very small. tems.
10. The size of the lin e from th e meter to the
The last step is to take advantage of all avail-
governing fixtu re or appliance.
able pressu re. For example, a water heater cou ld
be located on th e roof of a bu ilding. If the water 11. The size of the branch line.
system was designed to have a residu al pres- For th e con ven ience of th e designer in sizin g
su re on the roof of 15 psi (103.4 kPa), then the water systems, the followin g tables and figu res
hot water piping system can be sized with a static are provided:
pressu re gain available, to be u sed for friction
loss in the hot water pipin g. Another example of • Table 5-9. Water pipe sizing, fixture u nits vs.
u tilizing available pressu re is an installation with psi/ 100 ft (kPa/ 100 m), Type L copper tub-
a combination of flu sh valves an d flu sh-tank ing.
water closets sized on th e basis of a flu sh-valve • Table 5-10. Water pipe sizing, fixture units
system h avin g a residu al pressu re of 15 psi vs. psi/ 100 ft (kPa/ l00 m), galvanized, fairly
(103.4 kPa). With in this system, the branches rou gh pipe.
th at have only flu sh-tank fixtu res have an addi-
tional 7 psi (48.3 kPa) of pressu re, which can be • Figure 5-7. Pipe sizing data, copper tu bing,
u sed for friction . Th e 7 psi (48.3 kPa) is th e dif- smooth pipe.
ference between th e 15 psi (103.4 kPa) and 8 psi • Figure 5-8. Pipe sizing data, fairly smooth
(55.2 kPa) residu al pressu res. pipe.
• Figure 5-9. Pipe sizing data, fairly rough pipe.
Velocity Method An oth er meth od designers
u se to size water piping is th e velocity method. • Figure 5-10. Pipe sizing data, rough pipe.
The average pressu re drop available for friction
is calcu lated and, if it is greater than 7 or 8 psi/
100 ft (158.4 or 181 kPa/ 100 m), th e lin es are
WATER HAMMER
sized on the basis of a 5 or 6-fps (1.5 or 1.8 m/ s)
velocity. In this meth od, the main lin e is conser- “Water hammer” is the term u sed to define the
vatively sized and the short branches may slightly destru ctive forces, pou nding noises, and vibra-
exceed the average pressu re drop. However, the tions that develop in a piping system when a
total pressu re drop of the system does not ex- colu mn of noncompressible liqu id (water) flow-
ceed the allowable pressu re loss for friction. in g throu gh a pipelin e at a given pressu re and
velocity is stopped abru ptly. The su rge pressu re
(or pressu re wave) generated at the poin t of im-
Summary pact or stoppage travels back an d forth th rou gh
th e pipin g system u n til the destru ctive energy is
The following items mu st be determined and cal-
dissipated in the piping system. This violent ac-
cu lated when sizing a system:
tion accou nts for the pipin g noise and vibration.
1. The maximu m flow rate of th e system.
The common cau se of shock is the qu ick clos-
2. The maximu m and minimu m water pressu re ing of electrical, pneu matic, spring-loaded valves
in the main. or devices, as well as th e qu ick, h and closu re of
3. The residu al pressu re requ ired at the gov- valves or fixtu re trim. Th e valve closu re time is
132 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

directly related to th e in ten sity of th e s u rge System Protection and Control

pressu re.
Water h ammer arresters prolon g th e life an d
service of piping, valves, fittings, trim, equipment,
Shock Intensity
apparatu s, and other devices that are part of, or
Qu ick valve closu re may be defined as a closu re conn ected to, a water-distribu tion system.
time equ al to or less th an 2L/ a secon ds, where To redu ce shock pressu re an d con fin e its
“L” is the length of pipe (ft) (m) from the point of action to the section of piping in wh ich it oc-
closu re to the point of relief (the point of relief is cu rs, a su itable mean s of control mu st be pro-
u su ally a larger pipe riser or main or a water vided to absorb and dissipate the energy cau sing
tank), and “a” is th e velocity of propagation of th e shock. Water hammer arresters provide a
elastic vibration in the pipe (fps). The expression diaphragm that moves with the pressu re flu c-
“2L/ a” is th e time interval requ ired for the pres- tu ations, absorbin g the sh ock wave. Air or an-
su re wave to travel from the poin t of closu re to other gas is th e most effective mediu m to u se for
th e relief poin t an d back to th e point of closu re. th is pu rpos e sin ce it is h igh ly compres sible,
Maximu m pressu re rise can be calcu lated by th ereby offerin g th e maximu m dis placemen t
th e following, known as J ou kowsky’s formu la: cu shion for absorbing the shock.

Equa t ion 5 -2 Air chambers The air chamber has been u ti-
lized for controllin g shock for many years. The
wav u nit consists of a capped piece of pipe havin g
Pr =
144g the same diameter as the line it serves; its length
where ran ges from 12 in. to 24 ft (304.8–609.6 mm).
The air ch amber is constru cted in several differ-
Pr = Pressu re rise above flow pressu re, psi ent shapes.
(kPa)
Figu re 5-11 s h ows a few examples of air
w = Specific weight of liqu id, lb/ ft 3 (kg/ m 3 )
chambers. Plain air chambers, Figu re 5-11(a) and
a = Velocity of pressu re wave, fps (4000– (b), are generally placed on the su pply lin es to
4500 average for water) (m/ s [1219– fixtu res or equ ipment. A standpipe type of air
1372 average]) chamber, Figu re 5-11(c), is generally placed on
v = Change in flow velocity, fps (m/ s) a pipin g main. A rechargeable type of air cham-
ber, Figu re 5-11(d), is generally placed at the end
g = Acceleration du e to gravity, 32 ft/ s 2
of a bran ch line or on a piping main.
(10 m/ s 2 )
The air ch ambers shown are made of pipe
This action produ ces a pressu re rise of ap- and fittin gs. Unless devices are of the correct
proximately 60 times th e chan ge in velocity. En- size and contain a prescribed volu me of air, how-
gineers generally employ a velocity between 5 and
ever, they can not be regarded as su itable even
10 fps (1.5 an d 3.1 m/ s), which may produ ce a
for the temporary con trol of sh ock.
shock pressu re of 300–600 psi (2068–4137 kPa).
The resu ltant water-hammer shock wave trav- Most valves and fittings u sed in plu mbin g
els back and forth in the piping, between the water-distribution systems are designed and con-
point of qu ick closu re and the point of relief, at a stru cted for normal maximu m working pressu res
rate of 4000–4500 fps (1219–1372 m/ s). of 150 psig (1034 kPa). Th erefore, u n less an air
chamber can redu ce shock pressu res to some
Alth ou gh noise is generally associated with
degree less th an 250 psig (1724 kPa), seriou s
th e occu rrence of water hammer, water hammer
damage to the valves, fittings, and oth er compo-
can occu r withou t au dible sou nd. Qu ick closu re
nents of the piping system may resu lt. The com-
always creates some degree of shock—with or monly u sed air chamber, even when correctly
with ou t noise. Therefore, the absen ce of n oise sized, con trols shocks only temporarily after its
does not in dicate that water h ammer or shock is
in itial in stallation.
nonexistent in a water-distribu tion system.
Althou gh a correctly sized air chamber tem-
porarily con trols shock to within safe limits of
pressu re, its performan ce is effective on ly while
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 133

Table 5-9 Water Pipe Sizing—Fixture Units vs. psi/100 ft (kPa/100 m),
Type L Copper Tubing

Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa (kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa

15 69 11 81 285
1.0 0 2 6 12 21 58 155 3.2 1 6 14 26 50 183 421
(22.6) (72.4)
17 73 12 87 309
1.1 0 2 7 13 22 62 170 3.4 1 6 15 28 52 194 441
(24.9) (76.9)
20 82 13 95 336
1.2 0 3 7 14 23 67 185 3.6 1 6 15 29 55 205 460
(27.2) (81.4)
23 91 14 102 365
1.3 0 3 7 15 24 74 199 3.8 1 6 16 30 57 215 479
(29.4) (86)
26 100 15 106 390
1.4 0 3 8 15 25 81 213 4.0 1 6 16 31 58 225 500
(31.7) (90.5)
28 109 16 116 410
1.5 0 3 8 16 27 86 226 4.2 1 7 16 32 61 236 517
(33.9) (95)
31 120 18 124 430
1.6 0 3 8 17 28 93 241 4.4 1 7 17 34 63 245 533
(36.2) (99.5)
33 130 5 20 131 448
1.7 0 4 9 17 30 98 252 4.6 2 7 18 35 65 253 549
(38.5) (104.1)
36 140 6 21 139 466
1.8 0 4 9 18 31 105 264 4.8 2 7 19 36 68 263 564
(40.7) (108.6)
39 150 6 22 145 484
1.9 0 4 10 19 32 111 277 5.0 2 7 19 37 72 271 580
(43) (113.1)
42 161 7 24 153 504
2.0 0 4 10 20 33 115 287 5.2 2 8 19 38 75 280 597
(45.2) (117.6)
6 48 183 7 25 163 526
2.2 0 4 11 21 36 127 312 5.4 2 8 20 40 79 289 614
(49.8) (122.2)
7 53 205 8 26 171 *549
2.4 1 4 12 22 39 138 337 5.6 2 8 20 42 83 298 630
(54.3) (126.7)
8 59 225 8 27 177 *570
2.6 1 4 12 23 42 150 360 5.8 2 8 21 43 85 306 646
(58.8) (131.2)
9 66 245 9 29 185 *591
2.8 1 5 13 24 45 160 380 6.0 2 8 21 44 88 314 662
(63.3) (135.7)
10 74 265 9 30 199 *610
3.0 1 5 13 25 47 171 401 6.2 2 9 22 45 92 323 676
(67.9) (140.3)

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

a Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.

(Continued)
134 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(Table 5-9 continued)

Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa (kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa

10 31 202 *631 18 *56 *336 *970

6.4 2 9 22 46 95 333 692 9.8 3 12 29 64 145 460 982
(144.8) (221.7)
10 32 210 *652 19 *58 *346 *993
6.6 3 9 23 47 97 343 709 10.0 4 13 30 65 148 467 1003
(149.3) (226.2)
11 34 216 *673 20 *61 *366 *1022
6.8 3 9 23 49 101 351 725 10.4 4 13 31 67 153 480 1030
(153.8) (235.3)
11 35 *223 *693 21 *63 *374 *1039
7.0 3 9 23 50 104 359 742 10.6 4 13 31 68 155 487 1044
(158.4) (239.8)
12 37 *231 *713 22 *66 *390 *1068
7.2 3 10 24 51 106 367 758 11.0 4 13 32 71 160 500 1072
(162.9) (248.8)
12 38 *241 *732 23 *70 *405 *1089
7.4 3 10 24 52 109 375 775 11.4 4 14 33 74 166 513 1099
(167.4) (257.9)
13 40 *250 *754 24 *72 *414 *1124
7.6 3 10 24 53 112 385 791 11.6 4 14 34 76 169 520 1124
(171.9) (262.4)
13 41 *259 *774 5 25 *76 *430 *1124
7.8 3 11 25 54 114 394 808 12.0 4 14 34 79 175 533 1124
(176.4) (271.5)
14 43 *265 *793 5 *26 *80 *444 *1124
8.0 3 11 25 55 117 401 824 12.4 4 14 35 82 181 545 1124
(181) (280.5)
14 44 *273 *811 6 *27 *81 *452 *1124
8.2 3 11 26 56 120 409 840 12.6 4 15 36 84 184 552 1124
(185.5) (285)
14 46 *280 *829 6 *28 *85 *466 *1124
8.4 3 11 26 57 123 416 856 13.0 4 15 37 86 190 564 1124
(190) (294.1)
15 47 *286 *848 6 *29 *88 *480 *1124
8.6 3 11 27 57 126 423 872 13.4 4 15 37 89 195 577 1124
(194.5) (303.1)
15 48 *295 *867 6 *30 *90 *488 *1124
8.8 3 11 27 58 128 431 889 13.6 4 15 38 91 199 583 1124
(199.1) (307.6)
16 50 *305 *887 7 *31 *94 *502 *1124
9.0 3 12 27 59 130 437 906 14.0 5 16 40 94 204 595 1124
(203.6) (316.7)
16 51 *314 *908 7 *32 *98 *517 *1124
9.2 3 12 28 60 133 444 925 14.4 5 16 41 98 208 608 1124
(208.1) (325.7)
17 52 *323 *930 8 *33 *99 *526 *1124
9.4 3 12 29 61 136 450 944 14.6 5 16 41 99 210 614 1124
(212.6) (330.3)
17 54 *329 *950 8 *34 *102 *536 *1124
9.6 3 12 29 62 140 455 963 15.0 5 16 42 101 215 622 1124
(217.2) (339.3)

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

a Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.

(Continued)
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 135

(Table 5-9 continued)

Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa (kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa

8 *35 *106 *536 *1124 * * *23 *71 *160 *536 *1124

15.5 5 16 43 104 221 622 1124 30 8 26 75 168 286 622 1124
(350.6) (678.6)
9 *37 *110 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
16.0 5 17 44 107 227 622 1124 32 8 27 81 168 286 622 1124
(361.9) (723.9)
9 *39 *114 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
16.5 5 17 45 110 233 622 1124 34 8 28 82 168 286 622 1124
(373.2) (769.1)
*10 *41 *119 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
17.0 5 18 46 114 239 622 1124 36 9 29 82 168 286 622 1124
(384.6) (814.4)
*10 *43 *124 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
17.5 5 18 47 117 245 622 1124 38 9 31 82 168 286 622 1124
(395.9) (859.6)
*11 *44 *129 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
18.0 6 19 49 120 250 622 1124 40 9 32 82 168 286 622 1124
(407.2) (904.8)
*11 *46 *134 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
18.5 6 19 50 123 257 622 1124 42 10 33 82 168 286 622 1124
(418.5) (950.1)
*12 *48 *139 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
19.0 6 19 51 126 263 622 1124 44 10 34 82 168 286 622 1124
(429.8) (995.3)
*12 *49 *144 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
19.5 6 20 52 129 270 622 1124 44 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(441.1) (1040.6)
*13 *51 *149 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
20 6 20 53 132 276 622 1124 48 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(452.4) (1085.8)
* *13 *53 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
21 6 21 54 138 286 622 1124 50 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(475) (1131)
* *14 *57 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
22 6 21 56 145 286 622 1124 55 12 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(497.7) (1244.1)
* *15 *61 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
23 7 21 58 152 286 622 1124 60 13 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(520.3) (1357.2)
* *16 *65 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
24 7 22 60 158 286 622 1124 80 14 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(542.9) (1809.7)
* *16 *68 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
25 7 23 62 164 286 622 1124 100 14 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(565.5) (2262.1)
* *19 *71 *160 *536 *1124
26 7 23 65 168 286 622 1124
(588.1)
* *21 *71 *160 *536 *1124
28 7 24 68 168 286 622 1124
(633.4)

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

a Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.
136 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 5-10 Water pipe sizing fixture units versus psi/100 ft. (kPa/100 m),
Galvanized fairly-rough pipe
Pipe Size, Pipe Size,
in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa (kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa

8 37 40 162
1.0 0 1 4 8 16 42 107 3.2 0 3 9 19 35 112 288
(22.6) (72.4)
9 42 6 43 174
1.1 0 1 5 9 17 45 115 3.4 0 3 10 20 36 118 302
(24.9) (76.9)
11 46 7 46 186
1.2 0 1 5 10 19 48 124 3.6 0 4 10 20 38 123 315
(27.2) (81.4)
12 51 7 49 198
1.3 0 1 6 11 20 51 133 3.8 0 4 11 21 40 129 329
(29.4) (86)
13 55 8 52 210
1.4 0 2 6 11 20 54 143 4.0 1 4 11 21 42 135 343
(31.7) (90.5)
14 62 9 54 221
1.5 0 2 6 12 21 56 153 4.2 1 4 12 22 43 141 356
(33.9) (95)
15 67 10 58 238
1.6 0 2 6 12 22 58 162 4.4 1 5 12 23 45 147 369
(36.2) (99.5)
16 74 10 62 345
1.7 0 2 6 12 23 60 171 4.6 1 5 12 23 46 153 380
(38.5) (104.1)
18 80 10 66 256
1.8 0 2 6 13 23 63 180 4.8 1 5 12 24 48 160 391
(40.7) (108.6)
20 85 11 71 265
1.9 0 2 7 13 24 66 189 5.0 1 5 13 24 49 167 403
(43) (113.1)
22 90 12 75 278
2.0 0 3 7 14 25 70 190 5.2 1 6 13 25 51 174 415
(45.2) (117.6)
25 102 13 79 290
2.2 0 3 7 15 26 77 215 5.4 1 6 13 26 52 180 426
(49.8) (122.2)
27 112 13 82 302
2.4 0 3 7 15 28 85 231 5.6 1 6 14 27 54 185 436
(54.3) (126.7)
30 124 14 85 314
2.6 0 3 8 16 30 92 245 5.8 1 6 14 27 55 191 446
(58.8) (131.2)
33 136 14 89 329
2.8 0 3 8 17 32 99 259 6.0 1 6 15 28 56 197 455
(63.3) (135.7)
36 148 15 93 343
3.0 0 3 9 18 33 105 275 6.2 1 6 15 29 57 202 465
(67.9) (140.3)

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

a Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.

(Continued)
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 137

(Table 5-10 continued)

Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa (kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa

15 96 358 8 28 164 557

6.4 1 6 15 29 58 208 474 9.8 1 8 20 41 87 291 636
(144.8) (221.7)
16 100 372 8 29 170 *570
6.6 1 6 15 30 59 213 484 10.0 1 8 20 42 88 297 646
(149.3) (226.2)
17 104 384 8 31 175 *592
6.8 1 7 16 31 61 219 495 10.4 2 8 20 43 93 304 663
(153.8) (235.3)
18 107 395 9 31 177 *603
7.0 1 7 16 32 62 224 505 10.6 2 9 21 44 95 307 669
(158.4) (239.8)
19 112 407 9 33 186 *620
7.2 1 7 16 32 64 230 515 11.0 2 9 21 45 66 315 684
(162.9) (248.8)
20 116 420 10 34 193 *638
7.4 1 7 17 33 66 236 525 11.4 2 9 22 46 101 323 697
(167.4) (257.9)
20 119 432 10 35 197 *647
7.6 1 7 17 33 67 240 535 11.6 2 9 22 47 104 327 704
(171.9) (262.4)
5 20 123 443 11 37 208 *666
7.8 1 7 17 34 68 244 544 12.0 2 9 23 48 107 334 719
(176.4) (271.5)
5 22 127 454 11 39 213 *687
8.0 1 7 18 34 71 249 554 12.4 2 9 23 49 110 348 737
(181) (280.5)
6 23 131 465 11 40 218 *698
8.2 1 7 18 35 73 253 563 12.6 3 10 23 50 112 242 746
(185.5) (285)
6 24 134 475 12 41 *226 *724
8.4 1 7 18 36 75 257 572 13.0 3 10 24 51 114 362 766
(190) (294.1)
6 25 138 487 12 43 *234 *745
8.6 1 7 19 37 77 262 582 13.4 3 10 24 52 118 370 783
(194.5) (303.1)
7 25 142 498 13 44 *239 *754
8.8 1 8 19 38 79 267 591 13.6 3 10 24 53 128 374 791
(199.1) (307.6)
7 26 146 508 13 46 *247 *775
9.0 1 8 19 39 81 272 600 14.0 3 10 24 53 122 382 809
(203.6) (316.7)
7 26 150 519 13 47 *255 *795
9.2 1 8 19 39 83 277 609 14.4 3 11 25 54 125 290 826
(208.1) (325.7)
7 27 154 532 14 48 *258 *805
9.4 1 8 20 40 85 281 618 14.6 3 11 25 55 126 394 834
(212.6) (330.3)
8 28 160 545
9.6 1 8 20 41 86 286 627
(217.2)

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

a Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.

(Continued)
138 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(Table 5-10 continued)

Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa (kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa

14 50 *265 *827 * *33 *100 *515 *1173

15.0 3 11 26 56 129 401 854 28 4 16 41 98 225 606 1173
(339.3) (633.4)
14 52 *275 *851 * *35 *118 *521 *1173
15.5 3 11 26 57 134 411 875 30 5 17 43 104 238 611 1173
(350.6) (678.6)
15 53 *284 *875 * *40 *128 *521 *1173
16.0 3 12 27 58 138 420 896 32 5 17 45 112 250 611 1173
(361.9) (723.9)
16 54 *292 *900 * *43 *138 *521 *1173
16.5 3 12 27 59 142 428 918 34 5 18 47 117 262 611 1173
(373.2) (769.1)
16 57 *302 *924 * * *46 *148 *521 *1173
17.0 3 12 28 61 146 436 939 36 6 19 49 123 275 611 1173
(384.6) (814.4)
17 *60 *315 *947 * * *49 *159 *521 *1173
17.5 3 13 29 62 150 444 960 38 6 20 51 128 285 611 1173
(395.9) (859.6)
18 *62 *325 *969 * * *52 *160 *521 *1173
18.0 3 13 29 64 153 452 981 40 6 20 53 134 286 611 1173
(407.2) (904.8)
19 *64 *336 *992 * * *54 *160 *521 *1173
18.5 3 13 30 65 157 460 1002 42 6 21 55 141 286 611 1173
(418.5) (950.1)
20 *66 *350 *1015 * * *59 *160 *521 *1173
19.0 3 13 30 66 160 469 1023 44 6 21 56 148 286 611 1173
(429.8) (995.3)
21 *69 *362 *1040 * * *63 *160 *521 *1173
19.5 3 13 31 68 166 477 1045 46 6 22 58 154 286 611 1173
(441.1) (1040.6)
21 *72 *371 *1066 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
20 4 13 31 69 169 484 1066 48 7 23 60 156 286 611 1173
(452.4) (1085.8)
23 *76 *390 *1116 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
21 4 13 32 74 175 500 1116 50 7 23 61 156 286 611 1173
(475) (1131)
*25 *81 *410 *1165 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
22 4 14 34 77 183 517 1165 55 7 24 66 156 286 611 1173
(497.7) (1244.1)
*26 *85 *430 *1173 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
23 4 14 34 82 190 533 1173 60 7 25 72 156 286 611 1173
(520.3) (1357.2)
*27 *90 *448 *1173 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
24 4 15 35 85 198 549 1173 80 9 31 72 156 286 611 1173
(542.9) (1809.7)
*28 *95 *466 *1173 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
25 4 15 37 87 205 564 1173 100 10 31 72 156 286 611 1173
(565.5) (2262.1)
*30 *99 *484 *1173
26 4 15 39 91 211 580 1173
(588.1)

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

a Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 139

Figure 5-7 Pipe Sizing Data, Smooth Pipe

140 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 5-8 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Smooth Pipe

Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 141

Figure 5-9 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Rough Pipe

142 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 5-1 0 Pipe Sizing Data, Rough Pipe

Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 143

Table 5-11 Required Air Chambers

Nominal Pipe Flow Velocity, Required Air Chamber

Pipe Diam., Length, Pressure, fps Volume, Phys. Size,
in. (mm) ft (m) psig (kPa) (m/s) in.3 (cm3) in. (cm)

½ (12.71) 25 (7.62) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 8 (1.3) ¾ × 15 (1.9 × 38.1)

½ (12.71) 100 (30.5) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 60 (9.8) 1 × 69½ (2.5 × 176.5)
¾ (19.1) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 13 (2.1) 1 × 5 (2.5 × 12.7)
¾ (19.1) 200 (61.0) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 108 (17.7) 1¼ × 72½ (3.2 × 184.2)
1 (25.4) 100 (30.5) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 19 (3.1) 1¼ × 127/10 (3.2 × 32.3)
1 (25.4) 50 (15.25) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 40 (6.6) 1¼ × 27 (3.2 × 68.6)
1¼ (31.8) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 110 (18.0) 1¼ × 54 (3.2 × 137.2)
1½ (38.1) 200 (61.0) 30 (0.79) 5 (1.52) 90 (14.8) 2 × 27 (5.1 × 68.6)
1½ (38.1) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 170 (27.9) 2 × 50½ (5.1 × 128.3)
2 (50.8) 100 (30.5) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 329 (53.9) 3 × 44½ (7.6 × 113.0)
2 (50.8) 25 (7.62) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 150 (24.6) 2½ × 31 (6.4 × 78.7)
2 (50.8) 200 (61.0) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 300 (49.2) 3 × 40½ (7.6 × 102.9)

it retains its initial charge of air. Air-chamber In most installations where there are several
requ irements are sh own in Table 5-11. fixtures, usually only one fixture valve will be closed
The air charge can be depleted du ring the at a time. Occasionally, however, two or more fix-
flow cycle since water is drawn from all direc- ture valves may be closed at the same instant.
tions du ring flow. Moreover, the en trapped air is Table 5-12, “Sizing and Selection of Water-Hammer
also diminished by tu rbu len ce. Du ring this pro-
cess the water absorbs the air, and as the u nit
becomes waterlogged, it loses its ability to ab-
sorb sh ock.

Water hammer arresters

Symbols There are six manu factu red sizes of

water hammer arrester, each having a different
capacity to control shock in piping systems of
varied sizes and scopes. The following symbols,
recommended by the Plu mbing and Drainage
Institu te (PDI), were devised to denote the range
in size of water hammer arrester:
A– B – C – D – E – F
“A” is the smallest-sized u n it an d “F” represen ts a b c d
th e largest.
Figure 5-1 1 Air Chambers: (a, b) Plain Air
Siz ing a nd pla cement Sizing is based on fix- Chambers, (c) Standpipe Air Chamber,
tu re u nits for single and mu ltiple-fixtu re branch (d) Rechargeable Air Chamber
lines and on pipe size.
144 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Arresters,” takes into consideration all design fac- To p r even t t h e h a r b or in g of Legion ella
tors, inclu ding simu ltaneou s u sage, pipe size, pneu moph ila, bellows con tainin g ru bber shou ld
length, flow, pressu re, and velocity. not be u sed.

Table 5-12 Sizing and Selection of

BACKFLOW PREVENTION
Water-Hammer Arresters
Theoretically, a well-design ed and operated wa-
PDI Units A B C D E F
ter-su pply system shou ld always be u nder a con-
Fixture Units 1–11 12–32 33–60 61–113 114–154 155–330 stant positive pressu re, and con tamination via
backflow or back-siphonage shou ld never be able
In the sizing of cold and hot-water branch to enter th e distribu tion mains. Un fortu nately,
lines, it is usual practice to obtain the total num- acciden ts do occu r when excessive water de-
ber of fixture units on each branch line. This mands for fire protection, operation of booster
information is then applied to sizing charts to pu mps, flu sh ing of water mains, repairs, modi-
determine the required size of the branch line. fications, and main tenan ce to the distribu tion
system cau se the water pressu re to drop.
The properly sized water-hammer arresters
can be selected once the total number of fixture Whenever the pressu re in th e distribu tion
u nits for a cold or hot-water branch line is system becomes low or negative, a condition de-
known. It is only necessary to apply the fixture velops th at allows contamin ation to enter the
units to Table 5-12 and select the appropriate distribu tion system th rou gh connection s with
water-hammer arrester. fixtu res, equ ipmen t, or tan ks that contain toxic,
u nsafe, or u npleasant liqu ids or gases. These
Note the following: physical conn ections by which a water su pply
• When water pressu re in the line exceeds 65 may be contaminated are kn own as “cross con-
psig, select the n ext larger size water-ham- nections.” There are nu merou s, well-documented
mer arrester. cases where cross connections have been respon-
sible for con taminating drinking water an d, as a
• If the fixtu re-u nit total inclu des a fraction, it resu lt, sometimes contribu tin g to the spread of
shou ld be rou nded u p to the next larger whole fatal disease.
nu mber. Thu s, if the total is 11½ fixture u nits,
the u n it sh ou ld be sized for 12 fixtu re u nits. The contamination of a water system throu gh
cross conn ections can be avoided. Th is section
• All sizin g data in this chapter are based on describes the cu rrent recommended practice for
flow velocities of 10 fps (3 m/ s) or less. th e detection an d elimin ation of u n protected
It is su ggested that the engineer employ PDI cross connections.
symbols for the riser diagrams for sizing water-
h a mmer a rres ters . Th is pra ctice will en a ble Types of Cross-Connection Control
manu factu rers to fu rnish the correct u nits. Device
The location of the water-hammer arresters
from the start of th e horizontal branch line to When plu mbing fixtu res an d equ ipmen t in wa-
th e last fixtu re su pply on the branch lin e sh ou ld ter-su pply systems are su bject to backflow con-
n ot exceed 20 ft (6.1 m) in len gth . Wh en th e ditions, approved air gaps, backflow preventers,
bran ch lines exceed th e 20-ft (6.10-m) len gth, or vacu u m breakers sh ou ld be u sed. The follow-
an additional water-hammer arrester sh ou ld be in g methods or devices can be u sed to protect
u sed an d each sh ou ld be sized for half th e fix- again st backflow or back-siphonage:
tu re-u nit load. It h as been established that the • Approved air-gap separation.
preferred location for the water-hammer arrester
• Barometric loop.
is at the en d of the bran ch line between th e last
two fixtu res served. Un its for branches servin g • Mechan ical protection devices.
pieces of equ ipment with qu ick-closin g valves • Redu ced-pressu re-principle backflow devices
shou ld be placed with in a few ft (m) of the equ ip- (RPBD).
men t isolation valve.
• Dou ble-check valve assemblies (DCVA).
• Atmosph eric vacu u m breakers (AVB).
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 145

• Pressu re vacu u m breakers (PVB). vacuu m breaker shou ld be used only to isolate a
• Check valves with vent port (CVB). severe hazard if area isolation is provided. Where
a moderate hazard exists, a double-check valve
The th eory of backflow and back-siphonage assembly, or pressu re or atmospheric vacu um
and the devices for their prevention are described breaker may be used. Where a minor hazard ex-
in Volu me 4, Chapter 9, of th e ASPE Data Book ists, a pressu re or atmospheric vacuum breaker
(forthcoming). Refer to local codes and standards or check valves with vent port (no test cocks)
before making selections. may need to be installed.
Toxicity and probability of occurrence illus-
Assessment of Hazard
trate the relationship between assessment of
The correct application of devices depends on the hazard and application of devices. Becau se of
correct assessment of the degree of hazard, on the su bjective natu re of assessing hazard, su ch
whether back pressu re or back-siphonage will oc- illu strations cannot be u sed as a strict guide,
cu r, and on knowledge of the operation of variou s providing a fixed answer for all circu mstances.
types of approved backflow-prevention device. Instead, past experience and local code require-
ments must also be used as gu ides. Su ch past
In applyin g the recommen dations ou tlined experience was the basis of Tables 5-13 and 5-14.
in th is section , three degrees of hazard mu st be
considered: severe, moderate, and minor. They The requirement of protection increases as a
are defined as follows: function of both an increase in the probability
that backflow or back-siphonage will occu r and
1. Severe. A cross connection or probable cross an increase in the toxicity or possible toxicity of
connection involving any substance in su ffi- a potential sou rce of contamination. Where it is
cient concentration to cause death or spread highly probable that backflow or back-siphon-
disease or illness or containing any substance age will occur, say from a standpipe in a tall
that has a high probability of causing su ch apartment building, the need for a backflow-pre-
an effect. vention device is low if the hazard of the poten-
2. Moderate. A cross connection or probable tial source of contamination (sinks, water closets,
cross connection involving any su bstance etc.) becoming toxic is very low. The converse is
that has a low probability of becoming a se- also true, however, where a known health haz-
vere hazard and would constitute a nuisance ard exists, the tendency is to be conservative
or be aesthetically objectionable if introduced wh en selectin g a backflow-preven tion device
into the domestic water su pply. (RPBD u sed in place of DVC). The risk factor for
a health hazard is usually of greater concern than
3. Minor. An existing connection, or a high prob- the probability of backflow or back-siphonage in
ability of a connection being made, between the selection of a device.
the domestic water pipe and any pipe, equip-
ment, vat, or tank intended for carrying or
holding potable water that has a low prob- Premise Isolation
ability of becoming contaminated with any
In addition to installing backflow-prevention de-
substance.
vices at the sou rce of potential contamination, it
The application of backflow and back-sipho- may be necessary, or requ ired by code, to in stall
nage prevention devices is related to the prob- a backflow-prevention device on the water-ser-
ability of contamination as well as the recognition vice pipe to isolate an entire area or premise.
of an existing health hazard. For the assessment This addition al protection for the pu rveyor’s wa-
of probability, consideration must be given to the ter system is warran ted if the potential h ealth
possibility of changes being made to piping, im- hazard is severe, or if a high probability exists
proper u se of equipment, negligence of the cu s- th at piping within a premise will be changed. If
tomer, etc. in spection on private property is restricted, the
on ly protection for the pu rveyor’s water system
Where a severe hazard exists, an air-gap
is the installation of a backflow-prevention de-
separation or a redu ced-press u re-prin ciple,
vice on the water-service pipe.
backflow-prevention device shou ld be u sed be-
cau se these two devices offer the highest known Whenever possible, in-plant isolation is pre-
degree of protection. An atmospheric or pressure ferred over premise isolation becau se it protects
146 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 5-13 Guide to the Assessment of Hazard and Application of Devices—

Isolation at the Fixture
Recommended Additional
Description of Assessment of Recommended Device for Area of
Cross Connection Hazard Device at Fixture Premise Isolation

Aspirator (medical) Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD

Bed pan washers Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Autoclaves Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Specimen tanks Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Sterilizers Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Cuspidors Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Lab bench equipment Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Autopsy & mortuary equip. Severe AVB or PVB
Sewage pump Severe RPBD
Sewage ejectors Severe RPBD
Firefighting system (toxic-foamite) Severe RPBD
Connection to sewer pipe Severe AG
Connection to plating tanks Severe RPBD RPBD
Irrigation system or
chemical injectors or pumps Severe RPBD
Connection to salt-water cooling system Severe RPBD
Tank vats or other vessels containing
toxic substances Severe RPBD
Connection to industrial fluid systems Severe RPBD
Dye vats or machines Severe RPBD
Cooling towers with chemical additives Severe RPBD
Trap primer Severe AG
Steam generators Moderatea DCV
Heating equipment Moderatea DCV
Irrigation systems Moderatea DCV, AVB or PVB
Swimming pools Moderatea DCV or AG
Vending machines Moderatea DCV or PVB
Ornamental fountains Moderatea DCV or AVB or PVB
Degreasing equipment Moderatea DCV
Lab bench equipment Minora AVB, PVB or CVP
Hose bibbs and yard hydrants Minora AVB
Trap primers Minora AG
Flexible shower heads Minora AVB
Steam tables Minora AVB
Washing equipment Minora AVB
Shampoo basins Minora AVB
Kitchen equipment Minora AVB
Aspirators Minora AVB
Domestic heating boiler Minora CVP

aWhere a higher hazard exists (due to toxicity or health hazard), additional area protection with RPBD is required. See Table 5-14 for
additional information.
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 147

in-plant personn el and, in most cases, the de- 4. Laboratories.

vice can be sized smaller becau se in-plant pip-
5. Piers, docks, and other waterfron t facilities.
in g is s ma ller. However, even with in -pla n t
isolation, the pu rveyor may still requ ire premise 6. Sewage-treatment plan ts.
isolation . 7. Food and beverage-processing plants.
The choice of devices for in-plan t or premise 8. Ch emical plants u sin g a water process.
isolation depends on the degree of hazard. Sev-
eral premises that fall into the severe hazard clas- 9. Metal-platin g plants.
sification and shou ld be considered for isolation 10. Petroleu m-processing or storage plants.
from the pu rveyor’s system are noted in Tables
11. Radioactive-material-processing plan ts and
5-13 and 5-14 and on the following list.
nu clear reactors.
1. Premises with u napproved au xiliary water
12. Car-washing facilities.
su pplies.
13. An im a l-r es ea r ch , ca r e, a n d p r oces s in g
2. Premises where inspection is restricted.
plan ts.
3. Hospitals, mortu aries, clin ics, etc.

Table 5-14 Guide to the Assessment of Facility Hazard and Application of Devices—
Containment of Premise
Recommended Device
Description of Premise Assessment ot Hazard on Water-Service Pipe

Hospital building with operating,

mortuary, or laboratory facilities Severe RPBD

Plants using radioactive material Severe RPBD

Petroleum-processing or stage facilities Severe RPBD

Premise where inspection is restricted Severe RPBD

Sewage-treatment plant Severe RPBD

Commercial laundry Severe RPBD

Plating or chemical plants Severe RPBD

Docks, dockside facilities Severe RPBD

(if no protection at fixture)
DCV
(if protection at fixture)

Food & beverage-processing plants Severe RPBD

Pleasure boat marina Severe RPBD

Tall buildings (protection against

excessive head of water) Moderate DCV

Steam plants Moderate DCV

Fire or sprinkler system to tall building

(protection against excessive head of water) Moderate DCV
148 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Installation Requirements B. The relief-valve ou tlet of th e redu ced-

pressu re device shall not be directly con-
1. All backflow devices shou ld be installed in nected to the drain. An air gap of not less
an accessible area to facilitate in spection , th an 2 diameters of the relief valve ou tlet
semiann u al or an nu al testin g, and mainte- or 1 in . (2.5 cm), whichever is greater,
nance. Some mu n icipalities now requ ire li- mu st separate the drain from the ou tlet.
censed inspectors to test and report on each
C. A funnel type collector or splash screen
device on an an n u al basis. Con sideration
should be u sed to direct the discharge to
shou ld be given to fu tu re changes that may
take place in the plu mbing system. Th e de- the drain to prevent objectionable spillage
vices shou ld be installed so that they will re- or splashing.
main accessible regardless of new or fu tu re 3. Pressu re and atmosph eric vacu u m breakers
piping. Check the manu factu rer’s literatu re may also “split” or spill water. Spillage may
for minimu m clearances requ ired for the re- occur du ring the testing of devices. Care must
moval of parts. be taken in choosing the location of devices
so th at spillage will not cau se damage or be
2. Adequ ate drainage shou ld be provided for the
a n u isan ce.
discharge from the redu ced-pressu re-device,
relief-valve port. Min imu m flow rates an d 4. Do not install a redu ced-pressu re device in a
diameters of relief-valve porting are given in pit below grou nd u n less a drain to th e su r-
Table 5-15 as a gu ide in the sizin g of drain face is provided. If th e atmospheric vent is
pipes. su bmerged in grou n dwater, a cross conn ec-
tion is created that may be more seriou s than
A. In the case of a redu ced-pressu re de-
th e hazard th e device isolates.
vice installed in a hu t, the “bore-sighted”
daylight drain mu st be capable of han- 5. Before the installion of a backflow-preven-
dling th e volu mes discharged from the tion device, pipelines sh ou ld be thorou ghly
relief valve. flu sh ed to remove all foreign material that
cou ld fou l the operation of the device.

Table 5-15 Minimum Flow Rates and Size of Minimum Area of RPBD

Minimum Flow Rate Minimum Diameter of

Size of Device Past Relief Valve Relief Valve Porting (IPS)
in. mm gpm L/s in. mm

½ and s 15 and 17 2.5 0.19 a 10

¾ and 1 20 and 25 4.15 0.31 ½ 15
I¼ and 1½ 32 and 40 8.30 0.63 ¾ 20
2 50 16.70 1.27 1 25
2½ 65 16.70 1.27 1 25
3 80 25.00 1.89 1¼ 32
4 100 33.40 2.53 1½ 32
6 150 33.40 2.53 1½ 32
8 200 50.00 3.79 2 50
10 250 50.00 3.79 2 50
12 300 62.50 4.74 2½ 65
14 350 75.00 5.68 3 80
16 400 83.00 6.29 3 80
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 149

6. Use of an in-lin e strain er may be requ ired if wa t er -s er vice a n d b a ck flow-p r even t ion
th e condition is su ch th at foreign material is device.
continu ally collectin g in th e line and lodgin g
15. Adequ ate su pport shou ld be provided for de-
u nder seatin g su rfaces. No strain er is to be
vices 6 in. (150 mm) an d larger to prevent
u sed in a fire line withou t the approval of
damage to con nected pipe.
th e insu rance u nderwriters or fire marsh al.
16. Backflow-prevention devices shou ld be pro-
7. Isolatin g valves are n ecessary on redu ced-
tected again st damage. Un its placed in work
pres s u re ba ckflow devices , dou ble-ch eck
areas, areas with pu blic access, or areas with
va lve a s s emblies , a n d pres s u re va cu u m
veh icu la r t ra ffic s h ou ld be protect ed by
breakers to permit replacement, testing, and
fenced enclosu res, stanchions, or some other
maintenance. means.
8. Internally weighted dou ble-check valve as-
17. The possibility of vandalism and theft shou ld
semblies mu st be in stalled in the horizon tal
be considered when choosing a location for a
pos ition . Some bra n ds of s prin g-loa ded,
backflow-preven tion device.
dou ble-check valve devices also mu st be in-
stalled in the horizon tal position. Ch eck the 18. For redu ced-pressu re-prin ciple an d dou ble-
list of approved devices issu ed in each ju ris- check-valve devices located ou tside of bu ild-
diction an d the man u factu rer’s recommen- in gs, consideration shou ld be given to the
dations. u se of lan dscapin g, etc., to obtain an aes-
th etically pleasing installation.
9. All redu ced-pressu re-principle devices mu st
be installed in the h orizontal position, u n- 19. In a device installed in a deep chamber, the
less it is specifically noted otherwise in the ch amber sh ou ld be self ven tin g. Workers
manu factu rer’s data. Compensation Board regu lations require that
the air within a chamber be checked for com-
10. Ch eck with th e au th ority having ju risdiction bu stible gas and adequ ate oxygen content
and the manu factu rer before installing an y
before a workman en ters the ch amber.
backflow device in hot-water lines.
20. A cou pling shou ld be installed in th e line to
11. Backflow preventers are not to be installed allow flexibility for alignment du rin g instal-
in corrosive or pollu ted atmosph eres. The lation.
su rrou nding atmosph ere can enter the pipe-
lin e th rou gh th e open ven t port of atmo- 21. When installing a double-check-valve, check-
s ph eric a n d pres s u re va cu u m brea kers , valve-with-ven t-port, or redu ced-pressu re-
check valves with vent ports and redu ced- principle device on the feed waterline to a
pressu re-principle devices. pressu re vessel, always install the pressu re-
relief valve between the backflow device and
12. Redu ced-pressu re-principle devices, dou ble-
th e pressu re vessel.
check valves, and vacu u m breakers installed
in region s su bject to freezin g mu st be pro- 22. If possible, a redu ced-pressu re-principle or
tected by the insu lation of the u nits in above- dou ble-check-assembly device shou ld be in-
grou nd, heated stru ctu res. Care sh ou ld be stalled no more than 3 ft (1 m) above the
taken to enu re th at the testin g and mainte- floor to facilitate access.
nance of the u nit is not hindered by the ap-
plication of th e insu lating material.
INADEQUATE WATER PRESSURE
13. For in stallation s wh ere 24-h ou r, u n in ter-
ru pted service is a n ecessity, a parallel de- When pressu re in pu blic water mains is not great
vice sh ou ld be provided to permit ann u al enou gh to satisfy bu ilding requ irements, there
testing and maintenance. The bypass or par- are three ways to boost pressu re to an accept-
allel device mu st provide the same degree of able level: with a hydropn eu matic tank, a grav-
protection as the main-line device. ity tank, or a booster pu mp. These systems can
14. For 8 -in . (2 00 -mm ) a n d la r ger u n it s , a be u sed sin gly or in combination.
method of lifting and installation is requ ired.
Existing crane facilities shou ld be taken ad-
van tage of when determining a location for a
150 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Hydropneumatic-Tank System Typica l in s t a lla t ion det a ils for h ydr o-

pneumatic-tank systems are shown in Figure
A hydropn eu matic tan k is not a storage tank. 5-13.
Its sole pu rpose is to boost inadequ ate pressu re,
th ou gh it operates between predetermin ed pres- Three factors are considered in the selection
s u re limits an d always con tain s a min imu m of a hydropneumatic tank: water–air ratio, pu mp
amou nt of water. capacity, and desired water withdrawal. Assu me
the system demand is 100 gpm (6.3 L/ s) con-
It was the storage con cept that led to the stant, the maximu m nu mber of pu mping cycles
establishmen t of man y wholly incorrect water- is 6/ h (5 min on, 5 min off), and withdrawal of
air ratios, wh ich are still in u se today. Formerly, 25% of the total tank capacity is desired. Tank
a 50% tank volu me was split into 25% water and size can be determined by equating ½ of the pu mp
25% air. Th is resu lted in a total of 75% water capacity (limited to n o more th an 6 pu mpin g
and 25% air in th e tank. Later, th is was “re- cycles/ h) to the 25% withdrawal capacity. For
fined” to 66Q% water and 333 % air. example, 100 gpm/ 2 = 50 gpm, and 5 min ⋅ 50
Figure 5-12 illustrates that water remaining gpm=250 gal. Thus, 250 gal should equal 25%
in a tank after a given pressure drop cannot be withdrawal. Tank capacity, then, is 100%or 250
used as a reserve. Assume that a sufficient sup- ⋅ 4 =1000 gal.
ply of water is available and that it must be de- Selecting capacity on this basis results in a
livered to all water-service outlets at a minimum minimumsize tank and maintenance ofefficient
pressure of 15 psi (103.4 kPa). A 1000-gal (3785- cycling operation of the pumps.
L) capacity tank is selected and filled using the
rule-of -thumb ratio: q water, 3 air. A minimum
Gravity-Tank System
tank pressure of 40 psi (275.8 kPa) is required
to overcome static head and friction losses if a Basically, a gravity-tank system con sists of an
pressure of 15 psi (103.4 kPa) is required at the elevated tan k and a pu mp or pu mps for raisin g
highest and farthest outlet. The maximum pres- water to fill th e tank. Con trols in the tank start
sure differential in the tank is limited by how and stop th e pu mps to maintain flu id level and
much pressure variation the piping system can
tolerate. Usually, a variation of 20 psi (137.9 kPa)
is acceptable. On this basis, the tank high pres-
sure is set at 60 psi (413.7 kPa), and the system
is ready for operation.

Figure 5 -1 2 Hydropneumatic Pressure

System Layout that Determines Figure 5 -13 Typical
the Minimum Tank Pressure Hydropneumatic Supply System
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 151

capacity. Water th en flows from the tan k to the taining the water level in this way ensures a rela-
waterlines by gravity action. tively con stan t water pressu re regardless of
whether demand is at a low or peak condition.
Three approach es may be u sed to determine
The following piping connections are required at
tank capacity for a bu ildin g:
the tank:
1. Rule of thumb. An arbitrary tank capacity
• Water su pply to the tank.
equ al to 30 times pu mp capacity (gpm) (L/ s)
is recommended by some authorities. This • Water su pply to th e system.
criterion theoretically provides a bu ilding • Overflow line.
with a 30-min emergency reserve supply of
• Tank drain.
water in case of power failure or disru ption
of the sou rce of water su pply. Th e locations of these connection s on the
tank are illu strated in Figu re 5-14. The system
2. Empirical. With this method, the qu antity of shown is also equ ipped with fire-stan dpipe and
water required for emergency conditions is
sprinkler connections to meet local code requ ire-
arbitrarily fixed. Based on this determina-
men ts. The tan k connections sh own in Figu re
tion, the length of time needed for pu mping
5-14 provide the requ ired water su pply for each
the water before safe shutdown can be esti-
system, with th e sprin kler reserve at th e bot-
mated. tom, th e fire-standpipe reserve at the next level,
3. Cy cling of pumps . The capacity of the tank and the water storage at the top. Piping conn ec-
is sized so that cycling of pumps will not oc- tion s to th e stan dpipe an d sprin kler systems
cur more than 6 times per hour. This trans- shou ld be fitted with bron ze strainers with in the
lates to 5 min off, 5 min on. The fewer the tank to prevent an y debris from entering those
cycles per hour, the less the wear and tear systems.
on motors and the less maintenance required.
Level controls are installed in the tank to start
Reducing the number of cycles, however, will
and stop pu mps at low an d high levels. The level
produ ce greater flu ctuations in tank-water
control can be a float switch, pressu re switch,
reserve.
electric prober, or an y oth er acceptable device.
Selecting a tank that provides a large water
surface relative to its capacity makes it possible Tanks shou ld be equ ipped with both high and
to withdraw a considerable volume of water with- low-level alarms. The low-level alarm indicates
ou t appreciably lowering the liqu id level. Main- that the pu mps are not keeping u p with demand.

Figure 5-1 4 Piping Connections for a

Gravity Water-Storage Tank with Reserve Capacity for Firefighting
152 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Th e h igh -level a la rm wa rn s t h a t wa t er h a s Dead -end service The type of service in which

reached the overflow level and is spilling to waste. the PRV is requ ired to close bottle-tight when
When storage tanks are u sed for gravity feed, there is no demand on the system.
consideration mu st be given to the weight of the
Fall-off The amount that pressure is decreased
t a n k a n d wa t er s o p r op er s u p p or t ca n b e
from set pressu re to meet demand. The amou nt
provided.
of fall-off depends on the qu antity of flow—the
greater the flow, the greater the fall-off. A fall-off
Booster-Pump System of 20 psi (137.9 kPa) is considered to be the maxi-
mu m allowable fall-off.
There are two ways to make a continu ou sly ru n
system deliver a relatively constant system pres- No-flow pressure The pressu re maintained in
su re u nder varying load condition s. One way is the system when the PRV is shu t tight so that
to u se a constant-speed pu mp with a pressu re- high pressu re at the inlet of the valve is not per-
regu latin g valve in th e disch arge pipin g. Th e mitted to enter the system.
other way is to vary the speed of the pu mp shaft
Red uced -flow pressure The pressu re main-
either at the motor or in the cou pling.
tained at the PRV ou tlet when water is flowing.
A variety of booster-pu mp systems are cu r- The no-flow (closed), set-point pressu re of a PRV
rently in u se, with more being introdu ced all the is always higher than the redu ced-flow (open)
time. Detailed information on th e design criteria pressu re. A PRV that is set to open at 45 psi
and operational characteristics of water-pressure (310.3 kPa) pressu re (no-flow) would deliver a
boosting systems is given in th e ASPE Pumps redu ced-flow pressu re of 30 psi (206.8 kPa) at
and Pump Sy s tems Handbook . peak demand if a 15 psi (103.4 kPa) fall-off had
been selected. Then the reduced-flow pressu re
at peak flow would be 30 psi (206.8 kPa).
EXCESS WATER PRESSURE
Response The capability of a PRV to respond
One of the main sou rces of trou ble in a water- to change in ou tlet pressu re.
distribu tion system is excessive pressu re. Un- Sens it ivit y The ability of a PRV to sen se a
less a piece of equ ipmen t, fixtu re, or operation change in pressu re. If the valve is too sensitive
requ ires a specified high pressu re, a water sys- and qu ick to respond, the resu lts are over-con-
tem shou ld n ot exceed a maximu m of 80 psi trol and a hu nting effect. Not enou gh sensitivity
(551.6 kPa) (check local code). To ensu re th is, a resu lts in operation that is slu ggish and great
pressu re-regu lating valve (PRV) shou ld be in- variations in the ou tlet pressu re.
stalled.
Set pressure That pressu re, at the ou tlet of
The pu rpose of a pressu re-regu lating valve the PRV, at which the valve will start to open.
is to redu ce water pressu re from higher, su pply-
main pressu res to desirable an d adequ ate flow Types of pressure-regulating valve All pres-
pressu res when water is requ ired at fixtu res, su re-regu lating valves fall into the following gen-
appliances, or equ ipment. eral categories:
• Sin gle-seated—direct-operated or pilot-oper-
Pressure-Regulating Valves ated.
• Dou ble-seated—direct-operated or pilot-oper-
Definitions Th e followin g are defin ition s of ated.
terms u sed in discu ssing, sizing, and orderin g
pressu re-regu lating valves: Sin gle-seated pressu re-regu latin g valves are
u sed for dead-en d service and wh en the flow to
Accuracy The degree of fall-off in the ou tlet be regu lated is intermittent. For dead-end ser-
pressu re from the set pressu re at fu ll-flow ca- vice, the valve mu st be able to shu t tight and
pacity. Also, the capability of producing the same not permit the passage of any water wh en there
resu lts for repetitive operations with identical is no deman d. Dou ble-seated PRVs are u sed for
conditions of flow. continu ou s-flow condition s. They are not su ited
for dead-en d service and shou ld never be u sed
for this pu rpose.
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 153

Direct-operated PRVs ten d to h ave a redu c- mance. Also, this type of installation redu ces the
tion of the ou tlet pressu re in direct proportion velocity of flow (th ere’s less pressu re drop across
with the in crease of the flow rate. Pilot-operated two regu lators than across one), providing longer
PRVs will main tain a close flu ctu ation of the valve life.
ou tlet pressu re in dependent of the flow rate as-
Selection of PRVs and pressu re settings is
su min g that th e valve was sized properly.
fairly simple. The first PRV cou ld redu ce from
Sizing, selection, and installation Initial cost, 250 to 150 lb (1723.7 to 1034.2 kPa) and the
main tenance cost, and specific project requ ire- second from 150 to approximately 50 lb (1034.2
men ts regardin g flow rates and pressu re sh ou ld to 344.7 kPa) or there cou ld be some similar di-
determine which PRV is recommended for a par- vision. PRV size can be selected according to the
ticu lar application . manu factu rer’s capacity tables if it is remem-
bered that each PRV shou ld exceed the total ca-
Sizing and selection of a pressu re-regu latin g pacity of the system.
valve can be performed after the following crite-
ria are estimated: inlet pressu re, ou tlet pressu re, Where there is a wide variation of demand
and capacity (flow rate). “In let pressu re” is the requ irements and where it is vital to maintain a
maximu m pressu re expected u pstream of the con tin u ou s wat er s u pply a s well a s provide
regu lating valve. “Ou tlet pressu re” is th e pres- greater capacity, “parallel installation” is recom-
su re requ ired downstream of the regu lating valve. men ded. Parallel installation is the u se of two or
For large-capacity systems, which may also ex- more smaller s ize pres s u re-regu latin g valves
perience periods of low flow, or wh en extreme serving a larger size su pply-pipe main . This type
pressu re redu ctions are expected, it is n ot ad- of installation should be employed wherever there
visable to have only one regu lating valve. is a wide variation of redu ced-pressu re requ ire-
men ts and where it is vital to maintain a con-
A PRV sized to accommodate both small and tinu ou s water su pply. It also has the advantage
large flows h as, in general, a high noise level of providing in creased capacity beyon d that pro-
du ring operation. In addition, small flows will vided by a single valve where needed. Mu ltiple
produ ce wire-drawing of the seat and possible in s t a lla tion improves va lve per forma n ce for
chatter. widely variable demands and permits the ser-
In addition to h avin g economic advantages, vicin g of an individu al valve withou t th e com-
th e proper application of pressu re-regu latin g plete shu tdown of the line, thu s preventing costly
valves can greatly influ ence the overall perfor- shu tdowns.
mance of the system. Under most circu mstances, For a two-valve parallel in stallation, the to-
a good application can increase system perfor- tal capacity of th e valves shou ld equ al or exceed
man ce, redu ce operatin g costs, an d en su re a th e capacity requ ired by the system. One valve
longer life expectan cy for regu lators. sh ou ld be set at 10 psi (69.0 kPa) h igher delivery
For example, where initial pressu res exceed pressu re than the other. For example, assu me
200 psi (1379.0 kPa) or wh ere th ere is a wide that the system requ ires 400 gpm (25.2 L/ s) and
variation between the in itial pressu re and the th e redu ced-flow pressu re requ ired is 50 psi
redu ced pressu re, or where th e initial pressu re (344.7 kPa). Select two valves, each rated at 200
varies considerably, “two-stage redu ction” is ben- gpm (12.6 L/ s), with one valve set at 50 psi (344.7
eficial. Two-stage reduction is the use of two PRVs kPa) and the other valve set 10 psi (69.0 kPa)
to redu ce high service pressu re proportionately higher at 60 psi (413.7 kPa). Thu s, when low
and to eliminate an extremely wide variance be- volu me is requ ired, th e h igher-set valve oper-
tween the in itial and redu ced pressu re. It is rec- ates alon e. Wh en a larger volu me is deman ded,
ommended where the initial pressu re is 200 lb both valves open , delivering fu ll-line capacity.
(1379.0 kPa) or more and wh ere the ratio of ini- Anoth er possible choice is to install two PRV
tial to redu ced pressu re is more th an 4 to 1 (e.g., combination s of different sizes. This is practical
200 to 50 lb [1379.0 to 344.7 kPa]), or where the on larger installations where su pply lines are 2
initial pressu re flu ctu ates greatly. The advan- in . (50 mm) and larger and where there are fre-
tage of th is in stallation is that neither valve is qu ent periods of small demand. The smaller PRV
su bjected to an excessive ran ge of pressu re re- wou ld have the 10-psi (69.0-kPa) h igher delivery
du ctions. This seems to stabilize the final reduced pressu re an d th u s operate alone to satisfy small
pressu re, ensu ring close an d accu rate perfor- demands, su ch as u rinals and drinking fou n-
154 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

tains. Wh en a larger volu me is demanded, the as follows (or as requ ired by the administrative
main PRV wou ld open to satisfy the system de- au th ority):
mand. For example, take an apartment bu ildin g
1. Cleanin g and disinfection applies to both hot
requ irin g 300 gpm (18.9 L/ s) at 60 psi (413.7
and cold, domestic (potable) water systems
kPa). The selection migh t be a 4-in. (100-mm)
a n d s h ou ld be performed after a ll pipes ,
PRV rated for 240 gpm (15.1 L/ s) (80% of total
valves, fixtu res, and other components of the
maximu m flow rate) and set at 60 psi (413.7 kPa)
systems are installed, tested, and ready for
and a 1½-in. (40-mm) PRV rated for 60 gpm (3.8
operation.
L/ s) an d set at 70 psi (472.7 kPa).
2. All domestic yard, hot an d cold-water piping
Manu factu rers have tables indicating recom-
shou ld be thorou ghly flu shed with clean , po-
mended capacities and valve sizes for u se in par-
table water prior to disin fection to remove
allel installations.
dirt and other contaminants. Screens of fau -
cets and strainers shou ld be removed before
TESTING, CLEANING, AND flu sh ing and reinstalled after completion of
disinfection.
DISINFECTION OF DOMESTIC,
WATER-SUPPLY SYSTEMS 3. Disin fection shou ld be done u sing chlorine,
eith er gas or liqu id. Calciu m or sodiu m hy-
Testing pochlorite or an other approved disinfectant
may be u sed.
Prior to disinfection , con nection to fau cets and
4. A service cock sh ou ld be provided and lo-
equ ipmen t, an d in stallation of pipe insu lation,
cated at the water-service en trance. The dis-
the domestic water system shou ld be hydrostati-
in fectin g agent sh ou ld be in jected in to and
cally tested for leakage. A typical test for interior
th rou gh the system from th is cock only.
piping is accomplished by capping all system
openings, filling the system with water, and then 5. Th e disin fectin g agent shou ld be injected by
pu mping a static head into the system at a mini- a proportion ing pu mp or device throu gh the
mu m of 1½ times the workin g pressu re (100 psi service cock slowly and con tinu ou sly at an
[689.5 kPa] minimu m) for a period of n ot less even rate. Du ring disinfection, flow of the dis-
th an 2 h ou rs. The aforementioned test requ ire- in fectin g agent in to the main connected to
ments are acceptable to most inspectors, bu t note th e pu blic water su pply is n ot permitted.
th at 80 psi (551.6 kPa) is th e maximu m pres- 6. All section al valves sh ou ld be opened du ring
su re allowed by most designs and codes. disinfection. All outlets should be fu lly opened
Under conditions where systems are su bject at least twice du ring injection and the re-
to freezing, and with the approval of th e au thor- sidu al checked with orthotolidin solu tion.
ity having ju risdiction , an air test may be su b- 7. If chlorine is used, when the chlorine residual
s t it u t ed for t h e wa t er t es t . Th is ca n b e concentration, calcu lated on the volu me of
accomplished by con necting an air compressor water th e piping will contain, in dicates not
to th e system, bringin g the system u p to 40 psi less th an 50 parts per million (ppm) or milli-
(275.8 kPa), checking for leaks with liqu id soap, grams per liter (mg/ L) at all ou tlets, then all
repairing any leaks, and then su bjecting the sys- valves shou ld be closed and secu red.
tem to a minimu m of 1½ times the working pres-
s u r e (1 00 p s i [6 89 .5 k Pa ] m in im u m ) for a 8. Th e residu al chlorine shou ld be retained in
minimu m of 2 hou rs. th e piping systems for a period of n ot less
th an 24 hou rs.
An y equ ipmen t th at may be damaged by
th ese tests sh ou ld be discon n ected from th e 9. After the retention , the residu al shou ld be
system. not less than 5 ppm. If less, then the pro-
cess shou ld be repeated as described above.
Cleaning and Disinfecting 10. If satisfactory, th en all fixtu res sh ou ld be
flu sh ed with clean, potable water u ntil re-
New or repaired potable water systems shall be sidu al ch lorin e by orth otolidin test is n ot
cleaned and disinfected prior to u se whenever greater th an that of the incoming water su p-
requ ired by the admin istrative au thority. The ply (this may be zero).
method to be followed shou ld be per AWWA or
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 155

11. All work an d certification of performan ce NOTE: It s hould be und ers tood that local code
shou ld be performed by approved applica- requirements , if more s tringent than above s ug-
tors or qu alified personnel with chemical and ges ted procedures , s hall be included in the s peci-
laboratory experience. Certification of perfor- fications .
mance shou ld indicate:
• Name an d location of the job an d date REFERENCES
when disin fection was performed.
• Material u sed for disinfection . 1. America n Wa ter Works As s ocia tion (AWWA).
AWWA cros s connection control manual. New York.
• Retention period of disinfectant in pip-
ing system. 2. AWWA. AWWA s tandard for d is infecting w ater
mains , AWWA C601.
• Ppm (mg/ L) chlorine du ring retention.
3. AWWA. AWWA s tandard for dis infection of w ater
• Ppm (mg/ L) ch lorine after flu sh ing. s torage facilities , AWWAD105.
• Sta t emen t th a t dis in fection wa s per- 4. AWWA. Standard for hy pochlorites , AWWA B300,
formed as specified. AWWA M22.
• Signatu re an d address of company/ per- 5. AWWA. Standard for liquid chlorine, AWWAB301.
son performin g disin fection.
6. Manas, V.T. National plumbing cod e illus trated
12. Upon completion of final flu shing (after re- handbook . New York: McGraw-Hill.
tention period) the con tractor shou ld obtain 7. n.a. 1978. Piping systems fundamentals and ap-
a minimu m of on e water sample from each plication. Plant Engineer Magaz ine.
hot and cold-water lin e and su bmit samples
to a state/ provin ce an d/ or local, approved 8. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards. BMS 65, Method s of es tim ating
laboratory. Samples shou ld be taken from loa d s in plum bin g s y s tem s , by R.B. Hu n ter .
fau cets located at the highest floor and fu r- Washington, DC.
th est from the meter or main water su pply.
The laboratory report shou ld sh ow the fol- 9. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards. BMS 66, Plumbing manual. Wash-
lowin g: ington, DC.
• Name an d address of approved labora- 10. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
tory testing the sample. of Standards. BMS 79, Water d is tributing s y s -
• Name an d location of job and date the tems for buildings , by R.B. Hu nter. Washington,
DC.
samples were obtain ed.
• The coliform organism cou nt. An accept- 11. White, George Clifford. 1972. Hand book of chlo-
rination. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
a b le te s t s h a ll s h ow th e a b s e n ce of
coliform organis ms . (Some codes requ ire
an acceptable test for 2 consecutive days.)
• Any other tests requ ired by local code
au thorities.
13. If analysis does not satisfy the above mini-
mu m requ iremen ts, the disin fection proce-
du re mu st be repeated.
14. Before acceptance of th e systems, th e con-
tractor shou ld su bmit to the arch itect (engi-
neer) for h is review 3 copies of th e laboratory
report and 3 copies of the certification of per-
formance as specified above.
15. Under no circu mstances shou ld the contrac-
tor permit th e u se of any portion of domestic
water systems u n til they are properly disin-
fected, flu shed, and certified.
Chapter 6 — Domestic Water Heating Systems 157

Domestic
Water-
Heating
Systems

INTRODUCTION scalding water at fixtu res mu st be prevented in

th e design stage.
Proper design of the domestic hot-water su pply An economic heat sou rce is of prime impor-
system for an y bu ilding is extremely important. tan ce in con s ervin g en ergy. Variou s s ou rces
Carefu l planning on the basis of all available data
in clu de coal, gas, oil, steam, condensate, waste
will en su re an adequ ate su pply of water at the
hot water, and solar en ergy. Th e availability and
desired temperatu re to each fixtu re at all times.
cost of an y of these sou rces or combinations of
A properly designed system mu st, of cou rse, con-
th ese sou rces will dictate selection. If an espe-
form with all th e regu lation s of the au thorities cially economical source is not adequate to satisfy
having ju risdiction . th e total deman d, then it can be u sed to preheat
Th e design objectives for an efficient h ot- th e cold-water su pply to the heater.
water distribu tion system inclu de:
An econ omical and du rable installation can
1. Providing adequ ate amou nts of water at the be achieved by ju diciou s selection of the proper
prescribed temperatu re to all fixtu res and materials and equ ipment. The piping layou t also
equ ipment at all times. has a marked effect on this objective and will
later determin e th e ease of replacemen t an d
2. A system that will perform its fu nction safely.
repair.
3. The u tilization of an economical heat sou rce.
Cost-effective operation an d main ten an ce
4. A cost-effective and du rable installation. also depen d u pon th e proper pre-selection of
5. An economical operating system with reason- m a t er ia ls a n d e qu ip m e n t . Th e ch oice of
able main ten ance. in stantaneou s or storage type heaters, the se-
lection of insu lation on heaters and pipin g, the
A brief discu ssion of each of th ese objectives location of piping (avoiding cold, u nheated ar-
is warranted. An y well-design ed system sh ou ld eas), the ease of circu lation (the avoidan ce of
deliver th e prescribed temperatu re at the ou tlet drops an d rises in pipin g), bypas s es arou n d
almost in stan tan eou sly to avoid th e wastefu l pu mps and tan ks, and adequ ate valving acces-
ru nning of water u n til th e desired temperatu re sibility are all items th at affect the operation and
is achieved. The hot water shou ld be available at main tenance of a system.
any time of the day or n ight and du rin g low-
demand periods as well as peak flows. The design of a domestic water-heating sys-
tem begin s with estimatin g th e facility’s load
Safety mu st be bu ilt into any hot-water sys- profile an d identifying the peak demand times.
t em, a n d t h e s a fet y fea t u res mu s t opera t e To accomplish these steps, the designer mu st
au tomatically. The two paramou nt dangers to be condu ct discu ssions with the u sers of the space,
gu arded against are excessive pressu res and tem- determin e the bu ildin g type, and learn of an y
pera tu res . Explodin g h ot-wa ter h ea ters a n d owner requ irements. The information thu s gath-
158 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

ered will establish the requ ired capacity of the 2.27 m3 4188.32 kJ
water heating equ ipment and the general type of q = ___________ ______________
(333.15 283.15 K)
h m3/K
system to be u sed.
= 475 374 kJ/h

BASIC FORMULAE AND UNITS Note: The designer should be aware that water
heaters installed in high elevations must be de-
The equ ations in this chapter are based on the rated based on the elevation. The water heaters’
principle of energy conservation. The fundamen- manu factu rers’ data shou ld be consu lted for in-
tal formula for this expresses a steady-state heat formation on requ ired modifications.
balance for the heat inpu t and ou tpu t of the
system:
HEAT RECOVERY—ELECTRIC
Equa t ion 6 -1 WATER HEATERS
q = rwc T
It takes 1 Btu of energy to raise 1 lb of water
where 1°F. Since 1 kW is equ al to 3413 Btu an d 1 gal of
water weighs 8.33 lb, then it wou ld take 1 kW of
q = Time rate of heat transfer,
Btu / h (kJ / h) electrical power to raise 410 gal (1552.02 L) of
water 1°F. This can be expressed in a series of
r = Flow rate, gph (L/ h) formu lae, as follows:
w = Weight of heated water, lb (kg)
Equa t ion 6 -3
c = Specific heat of water,
Btu/ lb/ °F (kJ / kg/ K) 410 gal
= gal of water per kW at T
T = Change in heated water temperature T
(temperature of leaving water minus
1552.02 L
temperature of incoming water, = L of water per kW at T
represented as Th – Tc, °F [K]) T

For the pu rposes of this discu ssion, the spe- Equat ion 6-4
cific heat of water is constan t, c = 1 Btu / lb/ °F
(c = 4.19 kJ / kg/ K), and the weigh t of water is gph ⋅ T
= kW required
constant at 8.33 lb/ gal (999.6 kg/ m 3 ). 410 gal

Equa t ion 6 -2 L/h · T

= kW required
1552.02 L
1 Btu 8.33 lb
q = gph ( T)
lb/°F gal Equat ion 6-5

m3 4.188 kJ ___________
999.6 kg gph
q = ____ ____________
( T) = kW required
h kg/K m3 gal of water per kW at T
L/h
Example 6-1 Calcu late the heat ou tpu t rate = kW required
L of water per kW at T
requ ired to heat 600 gph from 50 to 140°F (2.27
m 3 / h from 283.15 to 333.15K). where
Solut ion From Equ ation 6-2, T = Temperature rise (temperature
differential), °F (°C)
8.33 Btu
q = 600 gph (140 50°F) = 449,820 Btu/h gph = Gallons per hou r of h ot water
gal /°F requ ired
Chapter 6 — Domestic Water Heating Systems 159

L/ h = Liters per h ou r of h ot water Table 6-1 Typical Hot-Water Temperatures

requ ired for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Equ ation 6-3 can be u sed to es tablis h a
Use Temperature
simple table based on the requ ired temperatu re
°F (°C)
rise.
Temperature Rise, T, Gal (L) of Water Lavatory
°F (°C) per kW
Hand washing 105 (40)
110 (43) 3.73 (14.12) Shaving 115 (45)
Showers and tubs 110 (43)
100 (38) 4.10 (15.52)
Therapeutic baths 95 (35)
90 (32) 4.55 (17.22) Surgical scrubbing 110 (43)

80 (27) 5.13 (19.42) Commercial and institutional

laundry 140–180 (60–82)
70 (21) 5.86 (22.18) Residential dishwashing
and laundry 140 (60)
60 (16) 6.83 (25.85)
Commercial, spray-type dishwashing
(as required by the NSF):
50 (10) 8.20 (31.04)
Single or multiple-tank hood
40 (4) 10.25 (38.8) or rack type:

This table can be used with Equation 6-5 to solve Wash 150 min. (66 min.)
for the kW electric element needed to heat the Final rinse 180–195 (82–91)
required recovery volume of water.
Single-tank conveyor type:
Exa mple 6 -2 An electric water heater mu st be Wash 160 min. (71 min.)
sized based on the following information: (a) 40
gph (151.42 L/ h) of hot water at a temperatu re Final rinse 180–195 (82–91)
of 140°F (43°C) is requ ired. (b) Th e incomin g Single-tank rack or door type:
water su pply du ring winter is 40°F (4°C).
Single-temperature
Solut ion Using Equ ation 6-5 and the above wash and rinse 165 min. (74 min.)
table, we find the following: Chemical sanitizing glassware:
40 gph Wash 140 (60)
= 9.8 kW required
4.1 gal (100°F) Rinse 75 min. (24 min.)
151.42 L/h
= 9.8 kW required Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners,
15.52 L (38°C) equipment manufacturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasion-
ally differ from those shown.

HOT-WATER TEMPERATURE MIXED-WATER TEMPERATURE

The generally accepted minimu m hot-water tem-
Mixing water at different temperatu res to make
peratu res for variou s plu mbin g fixtu res an d
a desired mixed-water temperatu re is the main
equ ipment are given in Table 6-1. Both tempera-
pu rpose of domestic hot-water systems.
tu re and pressu re shou ld be verified with the
clien t and checked against local codes and the “P” is a hot-water mu ltiplier and can be u sed
manu als of equ ipmen t u sed. to determine the percen tage of su pply h ot water
th at will blend th e hot and cold water to pro-
du ce a desired mixed-water temperatu re.
160 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Equat ion 6-6 consideration . Becau se of these h igh flow rates

and th e typical on -off operation, the efficiencies
Tm – Tc of in stantaneou s heaters are lower than those of
P =
Th – Tc storage type heaters.

where “Booster heaters” are u sed to raise the tem-

peratu re of the regu lar hot-water su pply to some
Th = Su pply hot-water temperatu re higher-th an-normal temperatu re needed to per-
Tc = In let cold-water temperatu re form s pecia l fu n ction s . Boos t er h ea ters a re
Tm = Desired mixed-water temperatu re u tilized in applications su ch as commercial dish-
washers wh ere there is a limited u se of very hot
Valu es of P for a ran ge of h ot and cold water water. They can be located near their poin t of
temperatu res are given in Table 6-2. in tended u se and have simple controls, minimal
Exa mple 6 -3 A grou p of showers requ ires 25 waste, an d smooth operation.
gpm (1.58 L/ s) of 105°F (41°C) mixed-water tem- “Semi-in stan tan eou s h eaters” con tain be-
peratu re. Determine how mu ch 140°F (60°C) hot tween 10 and 20 s of domestic water storage,
water mu st be su pplied to the showers when the accordin g to th eir rated heating capacity. Th is
cold-water temperatu re is 50°F (10°C). small qu antity of water is adequ ate to allow the
temperatu re-con trol system to react to su dden
Solut ion flu ctu ation s in water flow and to main tain the
105 – 50°F ou tlet water temperatu re within ±5°F (2.7°C). The
P = = 0.61 temperatu re-con trol system is almost always
140 – 50°F
in clu ded with this type of heater as a package.
41 – 10°C
P = = 0.61
60 – 10°C Controls
Therefore, The pu rpose for havin g controls on a hot-water
0.61 (25 gpm) = 15.25 gpm of 140°F water required generator is to ensu re th at a su fficient volu me
of h ot water at the proper temperatu re for u se is
[0.61 (1.58 L/s) = 0.96 L/s of 60°C water required]. provided to a facility. The con trol compon en ts
for water heaters differ depen ding on the type of
Table 6-2 may also be used to determine P.
heater and the manu factu rer. Generally, water
heater controls should be checked with the equ ip-
WATER HEATERS ment manu factu rer. Also, the variou s regu latory
a n d t es t in g a gen cies h a ve requ iremen t s for
con trols th at depen d on th e size an d type of
The most commonly u sed type of water h eater
for office bu ildings, mu ltiple-u nit dwellings, and equ ipmen t u sed.
oth er s imila r es ta blis h men ts is th e “directly
heated, au tomatic storage heater.” Su ch heat- Stratification
ers are simple, inexpensive to in stall, an d very
low maintenance. They are generally low-demand Becau se of its lighter density, warm water rises
heaters, with low Btu inpu t so th at the h eatin g to the top of a storage tank. The resu lt of th is
of the water is spread over several hou rs. Th is risin g action, known as “stratification,” occu rs
redu ces the amou nt of heating mediu m requ ired. in all u nrecircu lated tanks. It has been fou nd
Commonly u sed heating mediu ms are electric- th at the amou nt of u sable temperatu re water in
ity, fu el gas, and steam. stratified h orizontal an d vertical tanks is abou t
65% and 75%, respectively.
“In stantaneou s” types of water heater mu st
have su fficient capacity to provide the maximu m Stratification du rin g recovery periods can be
flow rate of hot water at an adequ ate tempera- redu ced sign ificantly by mechanical circu lation
tu re. Th e instan tan eou s h eater fin ds its best of the water in the tank. Du rin g periods of de-
application where water-heating demands are m a n d , h owever , it is u s efu l t o h a ve good
constant, su ch as for swimming pools, certain stratification since this increases the availabil-
dishwasher booster requ irements, and indu strial ity of wa ter at a u s a ble tempera tu re. If, for
processes, or where space conditions are a prime example, a tan k were equ ally stratified between
Chapter 6 — Domestic Water Heating Systems 161

Table 6-2 Hot-Water Multiplier, P

Th = 110°F Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77
50 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75
55 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73
60 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
65 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.67

Th = 120°F Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67
50 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64
55 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62
60 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58
65 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55

Th = 130°F Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59
50 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56
55 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53
60 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50
65 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.54 0.46

Th = 140°F Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
50 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
55 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40

(Continued)
162 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(Table 6-2 continued)

Th = 150°F Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100
45 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
50 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
55 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41

Th = 160°F Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110
45 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
50 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
55 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
60 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
65 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47

Th = 180°F Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 180 175 170 165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130
45 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
50 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
55 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
60 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
65 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
110 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
120 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
130 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 ——
140 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13 —— —— ——
150 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17 —— —— —— —— ——
160 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 —— —— —— —— —— —— ——
Chapter 6 — Domestic Water Heating Systems 163

Table 6-2 (M) Hot-Water Multiplier, P

Th = 43°C Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77
10 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75
13 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73
16 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
18 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.67

Th = 49°C Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 49 46 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67
10 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64
13 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62
16 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58
18 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55

Th = 54°C Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59
10 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56
13 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53
16 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50
18 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.54 0.46

Th = 60°C Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 60 58 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
10 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
13 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40

(Continued)
164 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(Table 6-2 continued)

Th = 66°C Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 66 63 60 58 54 52 49 46 43 41 38
7 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
10 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
13 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41

Th = 71°C Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 71 68 66 63 60 58 54 52 49 46 43
7 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
10 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
13 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
16 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
18 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47

Th = 82°C Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 82 79 77 74 71 68 66 63 60 58 54
7 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
10 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
13 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
16 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
18 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
43 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
49 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
54 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 —
60 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13 — — —
66 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17 — — — — —
71 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 — — — — — — —
Chapter 6 — Domestic Water Heating Systems 165

140°F (60°C) at th e top and 40°F (4°C) at the 5. Calcu late the rates of flow for variou s pipe
bottom, this tank, in th eory, cou ld still deliver sizes that will give the u niform pressu re drop
half its volu me at 140°F (60°C). Bu t, if the two established in Step 4, and tabu late the re-
layers were completely mixed, the tank tempera- su lts.
tu re wou ld drop to 90°F (32°C), which, in most
6. Size the system based u pon the tabu lation
cases, is an u nu sable temperatu re.
set u p in Step 5.
7. With the sizes as establish ed in Step 6, re-
HOT-WATER TEMPERATURE peat Steps 2 th rou gh 6 as a check on the
MAINTENANCE assu mptions made.
As a gu ide to sizing circu lation piping and
Hot water of a desired temperatu re shou ld be circu lation pu mps, the following empirical meth-
readily available at any fixtu re. Either a hot-wa- ods are given bu t are not recommended in lieu
ter circu lation system or an electronically heated of th e more accu rate procedu res ou tlined above:
system shall be u sed to achieve th is pu rpose.
1. An allowance of ½ gpm (0.23 L/ min ) is as-
signed for each small hot-water riser (¾–1
Hot-Water Circulation Systems
in. [1.9–2.54 cm]), 1 gpm (2.2 L/ min) for each
Hot-water su pply piping, wh ether insu lated or mediu m-sized h ot-water riser (1¼-1½ in .
not, tran smits h eat to the su rrou n din g lower- [3.2–3.8 cm]), and 2 gpm (4.4 L/ min) for each
temperatu re air by condu ction, convection, and large-sized hot-water riser (2 in.[5 cm] and
radiation. Th e u ser wastes water while waitin g larger).
for the desired temperatu re water to warm u p 2. An allowance of 1 gpm (2.2 L/ min) is assigned
th e piping system. for each grou p of 20 hot-water-su pplied fix-
The sizing of the circu lation system in clu des tu res.
selection of the pu mp, sizing the su pply and re-
circu lation piping, and selecting the insu lation Self-Regulating Heat-Trace Systems
type and thickness. Recircu lation systems may
not be practical for small systems bu t may be A heat-trace system is an economical, en ergy-
mandated for systems design ed for su ch places efficient system for domestic h ot-water tempera-
as food establishmen ts. Proper sizing of th e hot- tu re maintenance. It is a self-regu lating h eatin g
wa ter circu latin g system is essen tial for th e cable installed on the hot-water su pply pipes u n-
efficient and economical operation of the hot-wa- derneath the standard pipe insu lation. The cable
ter system. Oversizing will cau se the system to adju sts its power ou tpu t to compensate for varia-
lose additional h eat and resu lt in u nnecessary tion s in water an d ambien t temperatu res . It
expen ditu res on equ ipmen t an d in stallation . produ ces more heat if the temperatu re drops and
Undersizing will seriously hamper circulation and less heat if the temperatu re rises. Th e h eatin g
thu s starve the fixtu res of the desired water tem- cable replaces su pply-pipe h eat losses at th e
peratu re. point where heat loss occu rs, thereby providin g
continu ou s, energy-efficient hot-water tempera-
The procedu re for sizing the hot-water cir- tu re mainten ance and eliminating the need for a
cu lating piping is as follows: recircu latin g system.
1. Calcu late the heat-loss rates of the hot-wa- A on e-pipe, heat-trace system design elimi-
ter su pply piping. n a t es t h e n eed for d es ign in g com p lex r e-
2. Calcu late the heat-loss rates of the hot-wa- circu lation systems with their pumps, piping net-
ter circu latin g pipin g. works , an d complica ted flow ba lan cin g, an d
special cases, su ch as retrofits and mu ltiple-pres-
3. Calcu late th e circu lation rates for all parts su re zones, are simple to design.
of the circu lating piping and th e total circu -
lation rate requ ired. Th e in stallation of a h eat-trace system is
simple. The heating cable can be cu t to len gth,
4. Determine the allowable uniform friction-head spliced, tee-branched, and terminated at the job
loss and the total head requ ired to overcome site, which redu ces installation costs. Also, fewer
friction losses in the piping when the water is plu mbing components are needed; recircu latin g
flowing at the requ ired circu lation rate.
166 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

piping, pu mps, and balancing valves are all elimi- 4. Long-term thermal s tability (as determined by
nated. accelerated testing). The power retention of
the heating cable shall be at least 90%, after
The heat-trace system contin u ou sly main-
300 cycles, between 50 and 212°F (10 and
tains hot-water temperatu re at every point along
100°C).
th e su pply pipe. Unlike conventional recircu la-
tion systems, the h eat-trace system does not 5. High-temperature w iths tand. The heater shall
requ ire the overheatin g of su pply water to allow not decrease in resistance, overheat, or burn
for cooling; there is redu ced heat loss from energy when powered at 208VAC and exposed to
su pply piping, n o heat loss from recircu lation 499°F (205°C) in an oven for 30 min.
piping, and no pu mp to ru n. The h eat-trace sys-
tem redu ces the energy requ irements of typical Selection Variables affecting the performance
domestic hot-water systems. of th e h eat-trace s ys tem in clu de th e s ys tem
ran ge, time to tap, water wastages, an d energy
Compone nt s All h ea tin g-ca ble compon en ts efficiency. The design en gineer shou ld consider
shall be UL listed for u se as a part of th e system these factors along with installation and life-cycle
to maintain hot-water temperatu re. Component cos t s wh en s elect in g t h e pr oper h ot -wa t er ,
enclosu res shall be rated NEMA 4X to prevent self-regu lating, heat-trace system for a particu -
water in gress and corrosion . Installation sh all lar bu ildin g. Th e h eat-trace system is a good
not requ ire the installin g con tractor to cu t into system, bu t it cannot be u sed in all applications.
h ea tin g cable core to expos e th e bu s wires . For more complete design in formation, refer to
Connection systems requ iring the installing con- the ASPE Domestic Water Heating Design Manual.
tractor to strip the bu s wires, or that u se crimps
or terminal blocks shall not be acceptable. All
components, except for the power connection, RELIEF VALVES
shall be re-enterable for servicing. No component
shall u se silicone to seal the electrical connectors. Water-heating systems shall be protected from
excessive temperatu res and pressu res by relief
Performance valves. Temperatu re and pressu re (T&P) relief
valves are available eith er separately or com-
1. Operating temperatures . The system shall
bined. A combination T&P relief valve is preferred
maintain a nominal temperatu re of 105°F
becau se it offers a more economical and yet ef-
(40°C), 115°F (45°C), 125°F (50°C), or 140°F
fective protective procedu re.
(60°C), at 208VAC.
A relief valve on a water-su pply system is
2. Maintenance tem perature. Each hot-water
exposed to man y elements that can affect its
system temperature shall be maintained by
performance, su ch as corrosive water that at-
specifying only one produ ct. Temperatu re
tacks materials, and deposits of lime, which close
shall be maintained with heating cable on
u p waterways and flow passages. For th ese rea-
the pipe.
sons, the min imu m size of the valve shou ld be
Insu lation thickness shall be as follows: ¾ in. (19 mm) for inlet and ou tlet conn ections,
Pipe Size, Fiberglass Insulation with the waterways within the valve of an area
in. (mm) Thickness, in. (cm) not less th an th e area of the inlet connection.
Relief valves sh ou ld be tested on a regu lar basis
½–1 (13–25) 1 (2.54) to ensu re safe an d proper operation.
1¼–2 (32–50) 1½ (3.81)
2½–6 (65–150) 2 (5.08) All valves shou ld have a disch arge pipe con-
nected to its outlet and terminate at a point where
Note: For pipe sizes 1¼ in. an d smaller, u se th e discharge will cau se no damage to property
¼-in. larger diameter insu lation to allow for or inju ry to persons. The discharge pipe size shall
installation over cable. be at least the size of the valve disch arge ou tlet,
3. Pow er control s elf-regulating index. The slope shall be as short as possible, and shall ru n down
of the power–temperatu re cu rve or graph to its terminal withou t sags or traps.
shall be su ch that the power of the h eatin g Typically, T&P relief valves are tested to com-
cable sh all increase as the temperatu re de- ply with the stan dards of the American Society
creases, at a rate of at least 0.028W/ ft-°F of Mechanical En gineers (ASME), the American
(0.16 W/ m-°C) from 50–100°F (10–39°C). Gas Association (AGA), or th e Nation al Board of
Chapter 6 — Domestic Water Heating Systems 167

Boiler an d Pressu re Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) THERMAL EXPANSION

and are so labeled. The designer sh ou ld verify
which agency’s standards are applicable to the Water expands as it is h eated. This expansion
water-heating system being designed and follow shall be provided for in a domestic hot-water sys-
th ose standards for th e sizes, types, and loca- tem to avoid damage to th e pipin g. Use of a
tions of requ ired relief valves. th ermal expansion tank in the cold-water piping
to the water heater will accomplish this. It is
Sizing Pressure and recommen ded th a t t h e des ign er con tact th e
Temperat ure-Relief Valves manu factu rer of the thermal expan sion tank for
in formation on installation and sizing. Plu mb-
The following information applies to heaters with ing codes requ ire some type of thermal expansion
more than 200,000 Btu (211 000 kJ ) inpu t: compensation—expecially when th ere is either a
backflow-preven tion device on th e cold-water
Temperature relief valves These shall have the service to the bu ilding or a check valve in the
capacity to preven t water temperatu re from ex- system.
ceedin g 210°F (99°C). They shall be water rated
on th e basis of 1250 Btu (1319 kJ ) for each gph Relying only on th e T&P relief valve to relieve
of water discharged at 30 lb (13.6 kg) workin g th e pressu re is not good practice. Many local
pressu re and a maximu m temperatu re of 210°F codes now requ ire expansion tanks for systems
(99°C). over 4-gal (8.8-L) capacity.

The temperatu re rating is the maximu m rate The relevant properties of water are shown
of heat inpu t to a h eater on which a tempera- in Table 6-3.
t u r e- r e lief va lve ca n b e in s t a lled a n d is Exa mple 6 -4 Using Table 6-3, determine the
determined as follows: thermal expansion of a typical residence. Assume
the initial heating cycle has incoming water at
Equa t ion 6 -7
40°F (4°C) and a temperature rise of 100°F (38°C).
gph water heated ⋅ 8.33 ⋅ T(°F) Btu valve The water heater is 50-gal (189-L) capacity and
= capacity req’d th e piping system volu me is 10 gal (38 L).
0.8
L/h water heated ⋅ 1 kg/L ⋅ T(°C) Solut ion
kJ valve
= capacity req’d
0.8 Specific volume of water @ 40°F = 0.01602 ft3/lb
Specific volume of water @ 140°F = 0.01629 ft3/lb
Pressure relief valves These shall have the ca- Sv 40°F 0.01602
pacity to prevent a pressu re rise in excess of 10% = = 1.66% increase in volume
of the set opening pressu re. They shall be set at Sv 140°F 0.01629
a pressu re n ot exceeding the working pressu re Total volume = 50-gal tank + 10-gal system = 60 gal
of the tank or heater.
60 gal ⋅ 1.66% volume increase = 1-gal expansion
The pressu re rating is the maximu m ou tpu t
of a boiler or heater on which a pressu re-relief 1 gal ⋅ 8.33 lb/gal ⋅ 0.01628 ft3/lb = 0.1356 ft3 =
valve can be u sed an d is determin ed as follows: 19.5 in.3
Equa t ion 6 -8 (Specific volume of water @ 4°C = 0.00100 m3/kg
gph water heated ⋅ 8.33 ⋅ T (°F) = Btu valve Specific volume of water @ 60°C = 0.00102 m3/kg
capacity req’d
Sv 4°C 0.00100
[L/h water heated ⋅ 1.0 kg/L ⋅ T (°C) = kJ valve = = 1.66% increase in volume
capacity req’d] Sv 60°C 0.00102

Determine the Btu capacity required, then refer Total volume = 189-L tank + 38-L system = 227 L
t o a ma n u fa ct u rer’s ca t a log for va lve s ize 227 L ⋅ 1.66% volume increase = 3.79-L expansion
selection.
3.79 L ⋅ 1 kg/L ⋅ 0.0010 m3/kg = 0.0038 m3 = 380
cm3 expansion)
168 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 6-3 Thermal Properties of Water

Saturation Specific
Temperature Pressure Volume Density Weight Specific Heat
°F °C psig kPa ft3/lb m3/kg lb/ft3 kg/m3 lb/gal kg/m3 Btu/lb-°F-h J/kg-°C-h

32 0.0 29.8 3 019.6 0.01602 0.00100 62.42 999.87 8.345 1001.40 1.0093 4225.74

40 4.4 29.7 3 009.5 0.01602 0.00100 62.42 999.87 8.345 1001.40 1.0048 4206.90

50 10.0 29.6 2 999.4 0.01603 0.00100 62.38 999.23 8.340 1000.80 1.0015 4193.08

60 15.5 29.5 2 989.2 0.01604 0.00100 62.34 998.59 8.334 1000.08 0.9995 4184.71

70 21.1 29.3 2 969.0 0.01606 0.00100 62.27 997.47 8.325 999.00 0.9982 4179.26

80 26.7 28.9 2 928.4 0.01608 0.00100 62.19 996.19 8.314 997.68 0.9975 4176.33

90 32.2 28.6 2 898.0 0.01610 0.00100 62.11 994.91 8.303 996.36 0.9971 4174.66

100 37.8 28.1 2 847.4 0.01613 0.00101 62.00 993.14 8.289 994.68 0.9970 4174.24

110 43.3 27.4 2 776.4 0.01617 0.00101 61.84 990.58 8.267 992.04 0.9971 4174.66

120 48.9 26.6 2 695.4 0.01620 0.00101 61.73 988.82 8.253 990.36 0.9974 4175.91

130 54.4 25.5 2 583.9 0.01625 0.00101 61.54 985.78 8.227 987.24 0.9978 4177.59

140 60.0 24.1 2 442.1 0.01629 0.00102 61.39 983.37 8.207 984.84 0.9984 4180.10

150 65.6 22.4 2 269.8 0.01634 0.00102 61.20 980.33 8.182 981.84 0.9990 4182.61

160 71.1 20.3 2 057.0 0.01639 0.00102 61.01 977.29 8.156 978.72 0.9998 4185.96

170 76.7 17.8 1 803.7 0.01645 0.00103 60.79 973.76 8.127 975.24 1.0007 4189.73

180 82.2 14.7 1 489.6 0.01651 0.00103 60.57 970.24 8.098 971.76 1.0017 4193.92

190 87.8 10.9 1 104.5 0.01657 0.00103 60.35 966.71 8.068 968.16 1.0028 4198.52

200 93.3 6.5 658.6 0.01663 0.00104 60.13 963.19 8.039 964.68 1.0039 4203.13

210 98.9 1.2 121.6 0.01670 0.00104 59.88 959.19 8.005 960.60 1.0052 4208.57

212 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.01672 0.00104 59.81 958.06 7.996 959.52 1.0055 4209.83

220 104.4 2.5 253.3 0.01677 0.00105 59.63 955.18 7.972 956.64 1.0068 4215.27

240 115.6 10.3 1 043.7 0.01692 0.00106 59.10 946.69 7.901 948.12 1.0104 4230.34

260 126.7 20.7 2 097.5 0.01709 0.00107 58.51 937.24 7.822 938.64 1.0148 4248.76

280 137.8 34.5 3 495.9 0.01726 0.00108 57.94 928.11 7.746 929.52 1.0200 4270.54

300 148.9 52.3 5 299.6 0.01745 0.00109 57.31 918.02 7.662 919.44 1.0260 4295.66

350 176.7 119.9 12 149.5 0.01799 0.00112 55.59 890.47 7.432 891.84 1.0440 4371.02

400 204.4 232.6 23 569.4 0.01864 0.00116 55.63 891.11 7.172 860.64 1.0670 4467.32

450 232.2 407.9 41 332.5 0.01940 0.00121 51.55 825.75 6.892 827.04 1.0950 4584.55

500 260.0 666.1 67 495.9 0.02040 0.00127 49.02 785.22 6.553 786.36 1.1300 4731.08

550 287.8 1030.5 104 420.6 0.02180 0.00136 45.87 734.77 6.132 735.84 1.2000 5024.16

600 315.6 1528.2 154 852.5 0.02360 0.00147 42.37 678.70 5.664 679.68 1.3620 5702.42
Chapter 6 — Domestic Water Heating Systems 169

THERMAL EFFICIENCY a nu mber of American Legionnaires contracted

it du ring a convention . That ou tbreak was at-
Wh en in efficiencies of the water-h eating process tribu ted to the water vapor from the bu ilding’s
are considered, the actu al inpu t energy is h igher cooling tower(s). The bacteria that cau se Legion-
th an the u sable, or ou tpu t, energy. Direct-fired naires’ disease are widespread in natu ral sou rces
water heaters (i.e., those that u se gas, oil, etc.) of water, inclu ding rivers, lakes, streams, and
lose part of their total en ergy capability to su ch ponds. In warm water, the bacteria can grow and
things as heated flu e gases, inefficiencies of com- mu ltiply to high concentrations. Drinking water
bu stion, and radiation at h eated su rfaces. Th eir containing the Legionella bacteria h as no known
“thermal efficiency,” Et , is defined as the heat effects. However, in halation of th e bacteria into
actually transferred to the domestic water divided th e lu ngs, e.g., while showering, can cau se Le-
by the total heat in pu t to th e water h eater. Ex- gionnaires’ disease. Mu ch has been pu blished
pressed as a percentage, this is abou t th is problem, an d yet th ere is still contro-
versy over the exact temperatu res that foster the
Equa t ion 6 -9 growth of th e bacteria. Fu rther research is re-
qu ired, for there is still mu ch to be learned. It is
q B
Et = ⋅ 100% in cu mbent u pon designers to familiarize them-
q selves with the latest information on th e su bject
and to take it into accou n t wh en design ing th eir
where
systems. Designers also mu st be familiar with
B = Internal heat loss of the water heater, and abide by th e ru les of all regu lating agencies
Btu / h (kJ / h) with ju risdiction.
q = Time rate of heat transfer, Btu/ h
(kJ / h) Scalding1
Refer to Equations 6-1 and 6-2 to determine q. A research project by Moritz and Henriqu es at
Many water heaters and boilers provide inpu t Harvard Medical College2 looked at th e relation-
and output energy information. s h ip b et ween t im e a n d wa t er t em p er a t u r e
Exa mple 6 -5 Calcu late the heat inpu t rate re- necessary to produ ce a first-degree bu rn. A first-
qu ired for the water heater in Example 6-1 if degree bu rn, the least seriou s type, resu lts in no
this is a direct gas-fired water heater with a ther- irreversible damage. Th e resu lts of the research
mal efficiency of 80%. show that it takes a 3-s exposu re to 140°F (60°C)
water to produ ce a first-degree bu rn. At 130°F
Solut ion (54°C), it takes approximately 20 s, and at 120°F
(49°C), it takes 8 min to produ ce a first-degree
From Example 6-1, q = 449,820 Btu/h (475 374 kJ/h). bu rn.
Heat input =
q 449,820 Btu/h Th e n ormal th resh old of pain is approxi-
= = 562,275 Btu/h mately 118°F (48°C). A person exposed to 120°F
Et 0.80 (49°C) water wou ld immediately experience dis-
q 475 374 kJ/h comfort; it is u nlikely then that the person wou ld
= = 594 217.5 kJ/h be exposed for the 8 min requ ired to produ ce a
Et 0.80 first-degree bu rn. People in some occu pancies
(e. g., h ospitals), as well as those over the age of
65 and u nder the age of 1, may not sense pain
SAFETY AND HEALTH CONCERNS or move qu ickly enou gh to avoid a bu rn once
pain is sensed. If su ch a possibility exists, scald-
Legionella Pneumophila in g protection shou ld be con sidered. It is often
(Legionnaires’ Disease) requ ired by code. (For more in formation on skin
damage cau sed by exposu re to hot water, see
Legionnaires’ disease is a potentially fatal respi-
Table 6-4.)
ratory illness. The disease gained notoriety when

1 For more information regarding “Scalding,” refer to ASPE

Research Fou ndation, 1989.
2 Moritz and Henriqu es, 1947.
170 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 6-4 Time/Water Temperature s pecific requ iremen ts th at mu st be observed

Combinations Producing Skin Damage when designing projects and selecting equ ipment
for them.
Water Temperature
°F °C Time (s)
REFERENCES
Over 140 Over 60 Less than 1 1. ASPE Research Fou ndation. 1989. Temperatu re
140 60 2.6 limits in service h ot water systems. Journal of
Environmental Health (J une): 38-48.
135 58 5.5
130 54 15 2. Moritz, A. R., and F. C. Henriques, J r. 1947. The
relative importance of time and surface tempera-
125 52 50 ture in the causation of cutaneous burns. American
120 49 290 Journal of Pathology 23: 695-720.

Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Con-

tractor Magazine (September). First published in American Journal
of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evi-
dence of skin damage in adult males.

CODES AND STANDARDS

The need to conform to variou s codes an d stan-
dards determines many aspects of the design of
a domestic hot-water system as well as the se-
lection of compon en ts and equ ipmen t.
Some of the most often u sed codes and stan-
dards are:
1. Regional, state, and local plu mbing codes.
2. American Society of Heatin g, Refrigeratin g,
an d Air-Conditionin g Engin eers ASHRAE/
IES 90.1.
3. American Society of Mechan ical Engineers
(ASME) code for fired and u nfired pressu re
vessels.
4. ASME an d American Gas Association (AGA)
codes for relief valves.
5. Underwriters’ Laboratory (UL) listing for elec-
trical components.
6. National Sanitation Fou ndation (NSF) listing.
7. AGA approval for gas-bu rning components.
8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
standards.
9. National Electrical Code (NEC).
10. Department of Health and En viron men tal
Control (DHEC).
In addition, the federal government, the agen-
cies with ju risdiction over pu blic schools and
pu blic h ou sing, and many other agencies h ave
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 173

Fuel-Gas
Piping
Systems

LOW AND MEDIUM-PRESSURE This chapter covers fu el-gas systems on con-

NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS s u m er s ’ p r em is es —t h a t is , u p s t r ea m a n d
downstream from the gas su pplier’s meter set
The composition, specific gravity, and h eatin g assembly—and inclu des system design and ap-
valu e of n atu ral gas vary depending u pon the pliance gas u sage, gas train ven ting, ventilation,
well (or field) from which the gas is gathered. and combu stion air requ iremen ts. Sin ce natu -
Natu ral gas is a mixtu re of gases, most of which ra l ga s is a depleta ble en ergy res ou rce, th e
are hydrocarbon s, and the predominant hydro- engineer shou ld design for its efficien t u se. The
carbon is methan e. Some natu ral gases contain direct u tilization of n atu ral gas is preferable to
sign ificant qu an tities of nitrogen, carbon diox- th e u se of electrical energy wh en electricity is
ide, or su lfu r (u su ally as H2 S). Natu ral gases obtained from the combu stion of gas or oil. How-
containing su lfu r or carbon dioxide are apt to be ever, in many areas, th e gas su pplier an d/ or
corrosive. These corrosive su bstances are u su - governmen tal agen cies may impose regu lations
ally eliminated by treatmen t of the natu ral gas th at restrict the u se of natu ral gas. Refer to the
before it is transmitted to the cu stomers. Readily chapter “Energy Conservation in Plu mbing Sys-
condensable petroleu m gases are also u su ally tems,” in Data Book Volume 1, for information
extracted before the natu ral gas is pu t into the on appliance efficiencies and energy conserva-
pipeline to prevent condensation du ring trans- tion recommendations.
mission.
The specific gravity of natu ral gas varies from Design Considerations
0.55 to 1.0 an d th e heatin g valu e varies from
900 to 1100 Btu / ft 3 (33.9 to 41.5 mJ / m 3 ). Natu - The energy available in 1 cu bic foot (cu bic meter)
ral gas is nominally rated at 1000 Btu / ft 3 (37.7 of natu ral gas, at atmospheric pressu re, is called
J / m 3 ), manu factu red gas is n ominally rated at th e “heating (or caloric) valu e.” The flow of gas,
520 Btu / ft 3 (20 mJ / m 3 ), an d mixed gas is nomi- expressed in cu bic feet per hou r (cfh) or cu bic
nally rated at 800 Btu / ft 3 (30.1 mJ / m 3). Liquefied meters per hou r (m 3 / h), in the distribu tion pip-
petroleu m gases (LPG) are n ominally rated at in g d ep en d s on t h e a m ou n t of ga s b ein g
2500 Btu / ft 3 (94.1 mJ / m 3 ). Natu ral gas is trans- consu med by th e applian ces. This qu antity of
mitted from the fields to the local marketing and gas depends on the requ iremen ts of the appli-
distribution systems at very high pressures, u su - ances. For example, 33,200 Btu / h (35 mJ / h) are
ally in the range of 500 to 1000 psi (3447.4 to requ ired to raise the temperatu re of 40 gal (151.4
6894.8 kPa). Local distribu tion systems are at L) of water from 40 to 140°F (4.4 to 60°C) in 1
mu ch lower pressu res. The plu mbing en gineer hou r. This valu e is obtained as follows:
shou ld determine the specific gravity, pressu re, Equa t ion 7 -1
and heating valu e of the gas from the u tility com-
pany or LPG provider serving th e project area. Q = m ⋅ Cp ⋅ T
174 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

w here Btu / ft 3 (J / m 3 )
Q = Energy required, Btu/ h (J / h) When the exact data on the appliance’s gas
m = Mass flow, gal/ h (L/ h) u sage is u n available from the equ ipment man u -
factu rer, Table 7-1 can be u sed to obtain the
Cp = Specific heat of water, 1 Btu / °F (J / °C)
approximate requ irements for common appli-
T=Temperature rise, °F (°C) ances.
Q = (40 gal/h)(8.33 lb/gal)(1 Btu/lb-°F)(100°F) = The gas pressu re in the piping system down-
33,320 Btu/h stream of the meter is u su ally 5 to 14 in. (127 to
[Q = (151 L/h)(1 kg/L)(6.1 kJ/kg-°C)(38°C) = 355.6 mm) of water colu mn (wc). Design prac-
35 MJ/h] tice limits the pressu re losses in the piping to
0.5 in . (12.7 mm) wc, or less th an 10%, wh en 5
If the water heater in this case is 80% effi- to 14 in. (127 to 355.6 mm) wc is available at the
cient, then 41,650 Btu/ h (43.8 mJ / h) of gas will meter ou tlet. However, local codes may dictate a
be needed at the appliance’s bu rner (33,320 Btu / more strin gent pressu re drop maximu m; these
h/ .80). If natu ral gas with a heating valu e of 1000 shou ld be consu lted before the system is sized.
Btu / ft 3 (37.7 mJ / m 3 ) serves th e applian ce, the Mos t applian ces requ ire approximately 5 in .
piping system mu st su pply 41.7 cfh (1.2 m 3 / h) (127mm) wc; h owever, th e design er mu s t be
of gas to the appliance with adequ ate pressu re aware that large appliances, su ch as boilers, may
to allow proper bu rner operation. The formu la requ ire higher gas pressu res to operate properly.
for the flow rate of gas is sh own below: Where appliances requ ire higher pressu res or
where long distribu tion lines are involved, it may
Equa t ion 7 -2
be necessary to u se higher pressures at the meter
Output ou tlet to satisfy th e appliance requ iremen ts or
Q =
(Eff ⋅ HV) provide for greater pressu re losses in the pipin g
where system. If greater pressu re at the meter ou tlet
can be attain ed, a greater pressu re drop can be
Q = Gas flow rate, cfh (m 3 / h) allowed in the pipin g system. If th e greater pres-
Ou tpu t = Applian ce’s ou tpu t, Btu / h (J / h ) su re drop design can be u sed, a more economical
piping system is possible. Systems are often de-
Eff = Appliance’s efficiency, %
signed with meter ou tlet pressu res of 3 to 5 psi
HV = Heating valu e of the fu el gas, (20.7 to 34.5 kPa) and with pressu re regu lators
Btu / ft 3 (J / m 3 ) to redu ce the pressu re for appliances as requ ired.
The difference between the input and the out- The design er has to allow for the venting of su ch
pu t is th e h eat los t in th e bu rn er, th e h ea t regu lators, often to the atmosphere, wh en they
exchanger, and the flu e gases. Water heating and are installed within bu ildin gs.
space h eating equ ipment is u su ally 75 to 85% When bottled gas is u sed, the tank can h ave
efficient, and ratings are given for both inpu t and as mu ch as 150 psi (1044.6 kPa) pressu re, to be
ou tpu t. Cookin g and lau ndry equ ipmen t is u su - redu ced to the bu rner design pressu re of 11 in.
ally 75 to 85% efficient, an d ratin gs are given for (279.4 mm) wc. The regu lator is normally located
both inpu t and ou tpu t. However, cooking and at the tank for this pressu re redu ction.
lau ndry equ ipment is u su ally rated only by its
inpu t requ irements. When the inpu t requ ired for To size the gas piping for a distribu tion sys-
th e applian ce is kn own , Equ ation 7-2 is ex- tem, the designer mu st determin e the followin g
pressed as follows: items:
1. Th e appliance requ iremen ts, inclu ding the
Equa t ion 7 -3
gas consu mption, pressu re, and pipe size re-
Input qu ired at th e applian ce con n ection (total
Q =
HV conn ected load). Is the appliance provided
where with a pressu re regu lator?

Q = Gas flow rate, cfh (m 3 / h) 2. The piping layout, showing the length of (hori-
zontal and vertical) piping, nu mber of fittings
Inpu t = Appliance’s inpu t, Btu / h (J / h ) and valves, and nu mber of appliances.
HV = Heating valu e of the fu el gas,
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 175

Table 7-1 Approximate Gas Demand for Common Appliancesa

Appliance Input, Btu/h (mJ/h)

Commercial kitchen equipment

Small broiler 30,000 (31.7)
Large broiler 60,000 (63.3)
Combination broiler and roaster 66,000 (69.6)
Coffee maker, 3-burner 18,000 (19)
Coffee maker, 4-burner 24,000 (25.3)
Deep fat fryer, 45 lb (20.4 kg) of fat 50,000 (52.8)
Deep fat fryer, 75 lb (34.1 kg) of fat 75,000 (79.1)
Doughnut fryer, 200 lb (90.8 kg) of fat 72,000 (76)
2-deck baking and roasting oven 100,000 (105.5)
3-deck baking oven 96,000 (101.3)
Revolving oven, 4 or 5 trays 210,000 (221.6)
Range with hot top and oven 90,000 (95)
Range with hot top 45,000 (47.5)
Range with fry top and oven 100,000 (105.5)
Range with fry top 50,000 (52.8)
Coffee urn, single, 5-gal (18.9 L) 28,000 (29.5)
Coffee urn, twin, 10-gal. (37.9 L) 56,000 (59.1)
Coffee urn, twin, 15-gal (56.8 L) 84,000 (88.6)
Stackable convection oven, per section of oven 60,000 (63.3)
Residential equipment
Clothes dryer (Type I) 35,000 (36.9)
Range 65,000 (68.6)
Stove-top burners (each) 40,000 (42.2)
Oven 25,000 (26.4)
30-gal (113.6-L) water heater 30,000 (31.7)
40 to 50-gal (151.4 to 189.3-L) water heater 50,000 (52.8)
Log lighter 25,000 (26.4)
Barbecue 50,000 (52.8)
Miscellaneous equipment
Commercial log lighter 50,000 (52.8)
Bunsen burner 5,000 (5.3)
Gas engine, per horsepower (745.7 W) 10,000 (10.6)
Steam boiler, per horsepower (745.7 W) 50,000 (52.8)
Commercial clothes dryer (Type 2) See manufacturer’s data.

aThe values given in this table should be used only when the manufacturer’s data are not available.
176 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

3. The fu el gas to be su pplied, where an d by care sh ou ld be taken so that, in the event of gas
whom; also the specific gravity and h eatin g leakage, gas will not accu mu late in the concealed
valu e of the fu el gas and the pressu re to be s pa ce. Th e in s t a lla t ion of ga s pip in g in a n
provided at the meter ou tlet. u nventilated space u nder a bu ildin g sh ou ld be
avoided. Su ch conditions have resu lted in disas-
4. The allowable pressu re loss from the meter
trou s explosion s. A gas leak anywhere along the
to the appliances.
length of a bu ried pipe can flow in the an nu lar
5. The diversity factor—the n u mber of appli- space arou nd the pipe and accumulate in a cavity
ances operating at on e time compared to the u nder th e bu ilding. Ignition of this accu mu lated
total nu mber of connected appliances. Th is gas can resu lt in an explosion. For th is reason,
shou ld be provided by the owner and/ or u ser. it is best to try to locate the gas main above grade
Standard engin eerin g meth ods may be u sed at the point of entrance into the bu ildin g. If th is
to determine pipe sizes for a system, or the ac- is not feasible, the main can be in stalled in a
ceptable capacity/ pipe size tables may be u sed ventilated sleeve (containment pipe). The designer
when su ch tables are available for the specific shou ld carefu lly detail th is installation so that
operating conditions of th e system u nder con- leaked gas will be harmlessly vented to th e at-
sideration. The diversity factor is an important mosph ere and not accu mu lated in th e bu ilding.
item when determinin g the most practical pipe Gas pipin g shou ld be located where it will not be
sizes to be u sed in occu pancies su ch as mu l- su bject to damage by su ch things as vehicles,
tiple-family dwellings. It is dependent on the type forklifts, cranes, machin ery, or occu pants. Su p-
and nu mber of gas applian ces being in stalled. port of piping shou ld be in accordance with codes
Refer to the “pipe sizin g” section later in th is and as described in the chapter “Hangers and
chapter. Su pports,” in Data Book Volume 4 (forthcoming).

The most common material u sed for gas pip- Valves, controls, pressu re regu lators, and
ing is black steel; however, many other materials safety devices used in gas systems shou ld be
are utilized, including copper, wrought iron, plas- designed and approved for su ch u se. Shu t-off
tic, bra s s , a n d a lu min u m a lloy. Th e proper valves should be installed in accessible locations
material to be u s ed depen ds on th e s pecific and near each appliance, with a union between
installation conditions and local code limitations. the valve and the applian ce. Sh u t-off valves
Any condition that cou ld be detrimental to the should be of the plu g or cock type with a lever
integrity of the pipin g system mu st be avoided. handle. Larger sizes should be of the lu bricated
Corrosion and physical damage are the most ob- plug type. The quarter-turn lever handle provides
viou s cau ses of pipe failu re. The pipin g material visu al indication of whether the valve is opened
itself and/ or the provisions taken for the protec- or closed. An approved assembly of semirigid or
tion of th e pipin g material mu st preven t th e flexible tubing and fittings, referred to as an “ap-
possibility of pipe failu re. Corrosion can occu r pliance connector,” is sometimes u sed to connect
becau se of electrolysis or becau se a corrosive ma- the piping ou tlet to the appliance. Appliance con-
terial is in contact with either the exterior or the nectors are rated by capacity, based on a specified
interior su rface of th e piping. pressu re, flow, an d pressu re drop.

Coatings are commonly applied to bu ried me-

Laboratory Gas
tallic pipe to prevent corrosion of th e exterior
su rface. Th e gas su pplier shou ld be contacted to Natu ral gas or propan e gas is u sed in laborato-
determine if th e gas contains an y corrosive ma- ries at lab benches for Bu nsen bu rners and other
terial, su ch as moistu re, hydrogen su lfide (H2S), minor u sers. Typical Bu nsen bu rners consu me
or carbon dioxide (CO2 ). Du e to the grave con se- eith er 5000 cfh (141.6 m 3/ h) (small bu rn ers) or
qu ences of leakage in the gas piping system, the 10,000 cfh (283.2 m 3 / h ) (large bu rners). The
designer mu st carefu lly consider th e pipin g ma- maximu m pressu re at the bu rn er sh ou ld not
terial to be u sed and th e means to protect the exceed 14 in. wc (355.6 mm wc).
piping and protect against leaks.
The gas distribu tion piping sh ou ld be sized
Gas pipin g shou ld be installed only in safe in the mann er discu ssed later in this chapter;
locations. Bu ried piping shou ld be installed deep however, the following diversities may be applied:
enou gh to protect the pipe from ph ysical dam-
age. When piping is installed in concealed spaces,
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 177

Minimum in su ran ce u nderwriter. Th e plu mbing designer

Flow, mu st be aware of the existence of these stan-
Number of Outlets Use Factor cfh (m3/h) da rds —es pecially wh en des ign in g pipin g for
boilers with inpu t capacities of 2,500,000 Btu / h
1–8 100 9 (0.26)
(732 kW) or more that are not listed by a nation-
9–16 90 15 (0.43)
ally recognized testing laboratory agency, e.g.,
17–29 80 24 (0.68) equ ipment that does not bear a UL label or have
30–79 60 48 (1.36) Factory Mu tual Research Corporation (FMRC)
80–162 50 82 (2.32) approval listing.
163–325 45 107 (3.03) In du strial-boiler gas train s often requ ire
326–742 40 131 (3.71) mu ltiple, piped, gas-train vents to the atmo-
743–1570 30 260 (7.36) sphere. These are usually ¾ in., and the material
1571–2900 25 472 (13.37) u sed shou ld follow th e classification as specified
2901 and up 20 726 (20.56) in NFPA 54 under the heading “Gas Piping Sys-
tem Design, Materials, and Components.” Where
Branch piping that serves one or two labora- mu ltiple gas-train vents are indicated, each shall
tories should be sized for 100% usage regardless ru n independently to the atmosphere. Care mu st
of the number of outlets. Use factors should be be exercised in the location of the termination
modified to suit special conditions and must be points of these pipes. Ven t pipes sh ou ld termi-
used with judgment after consultation with the nate with 90° ells tu rned down vertically and be
owner and/ or user. protected with an in sect screen over th e ou tlet.
Some local codes require that laboratory gas It shou ld be noted that when the pressu re
systems, especially those in schools or universi- r egu la t or s a ct iva t e t h ey ca n r elea s e la r ge
ties, be supplied with emergency gas shut-off amou nts of fu el gas. It is not u ncommon for a
valves on the supply to each laboratory. The valve local fire department to be su moned to investi-
should be normally closed and opened only when gate an odor of gas cau sed by a gas-train vent
the gas is being used. It should be located inside discharge. Every attempt shou ld be made to lo-
the laboratory and used in conjunction with shut- cate the terminal point of the vents above the
off valves at the benches or equipment, which line of the roof and away from doors, win dows,
may be required by other codes. The designer and fresh-air intakes. It sh ou ld also be located
should ensure that locations meet local code re- on a side of th e bu ilding that is n ot protected
quirements. from th e wind. Refer to NFPA 54 and local codes
Where compressed air is also supplied to the for ven t locations.
laboratory, aluminum check valves should be
provided on the supply to the laboratory to pre- Appliances
vent air from being injected back into the gas
system. An alternative to aluminum check valves Most manu factu rers of gas appliances rate th eir
is gas turrets with integral check valves. equ ipmen t by the gas consu mption valu es that
are u sed to determine th e maximu m gas flow
Gas Train Vents rate in the piping. Table 7-1 shows the approxi-
m a t e ga s con s u m p t ion for s om e com m on
Gu idelin es for the u se of vents from pressu re appliances.
regu lators, also referred to as “gas-train ven ts,” The produ cts of combu stion from an appli-
can be fou nd in th e latest editions of NFPA 54 ance must be safely exhausted to the outside. This
and Factory Mutual (FM) Los s Prevention Data is accomplished with a gas vent system in most
Sheet 6-4, as well as in other pu blications of in- cases. Where an appliance has a very low rate of
du stry stan dards, s u ch as th ose iss u ed by gas consumption (e.g., Bunsen burner or counter-
Indu strial Risk Insurers (IRI) and the American top coffee maker) or where an appliance has an
Gas Association (AGA). As a practical matter, exhau st system associated with the applian ce
many boiler manufacturers can provide resource (e.g., gas clothes dryer or range), and the room
materials, such as gas-train venting schemes, size and ventilation are adequ ate, a gas vent sys-
that reference standards organizations. Factors tem may not be required. Cu rrent practice usually
that determine which standard to reference are dictates the u se of factory-fabricated and listed
based upon the input (Btu/ h) and the owner’s
178 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

vents for small to medium-sized appliances. Large approach is u sed, a great deal of care mu st be
appliances and equ ipment may requ ire specially taken when designing vents that are horizontal.
designed venting or exhau st systems. It is recommen ded that every system be engi-
neered and ch ecked for compliance with codes.
For proper operation , the gas vent system
A conservative design is warranted in light of
mu st satisfy th e appliance draft and bu ildin g
th e hazards involved.
safety requ irements. To meet th ese conditions,
consideration of combu stion and ventilation air Combu stion air is requ ired for the proper
su pplies, draft hood dilu tion, startu p conditions, operation of gas appliances. In addition to the
flu e gas temperatu res, oxygen depletion, exter- th eoretical amou n t of air requ ired for combu s-
nal wind conditions, and pollu tion dispersion is tion, excess air is necessary to assu re complete
requ ired. For example, appliances equ ipped with combu stion. Approximately 1 ft 3 (0.03 m 3 ) of air
draft hoods need excess vent capacity to draw in at stan dard condition s is needed for each 100
the draft hood dilu tion air and prevent draft hood Btu (1055 J ) of fu el bu rned. Air is also requ ired
spillage. Inadequ ate combu stion air su pply can for the dilu tion of flu e gases when draft h oods
cau se oxygen depletion and inadequ ate firing. are provided. Some addition al amou nt of air is
This condition can create a safety hazard because also n eeded for ven tilation of th e equ ipmen t
of a combination of draft hood spillage an d inad- room. This air for combu stion, dilu tion, and ven-
equ a t e flu e ga s r em ova l. Th e m ot ive for ce t ila t ion is u s u a lly s u p p lied b y p er m a n en t
exhau sting flu e gases from an appliance can be openings or du cts connected to the outdoors. Two
gravity (a n atu ral draft du e to the differen ce in openings shou ld be supplied. One opening shou ld
densities between h ot flu e gases and ambient be high (above the draft hood inlet) and the other
air) or mechan ical (indu ced-draft fan or forced- opening sh ou ld be low (below the combu stion
draft fan). The motive force involved affects the air inlet to the appliance). The size of these open-
size and con figu ration s that may safely be ap- in gs can be determined by standard engin eerin g
plied to a vent system. The designer is referred methods, based on th e air balance in the equ ip-
to the chapter on gas vent systems of the local men t room and taking in to accou n t the energy
mechanical or plu mbing code and to the data (n atu ral draft or mech anical) available to draw
developed by the manu factu rers of gas vents for air into the room; however, these mu st comply
sizing information . Du e to the fact that man y with codes, which u su ally give more con serva-
codes requ ire that appliances conform to an ap- tive open in g s izes, bas ed on th e area of th e
proved s tan dard, su ch as th e American Gas opening requ ired per Btu (J ) of gas consu med.
Association (AGA), a simple approach to the de-
sign of vent systems can be as follows: Gas Boosters
1. Th e ven t s ys tem con forms to th e man u - Definition A “gas booster” is a mechanical piece
factu rer’s instru ction s and the terms of the of equ ipmen t that increases th e pressu re of gas
listing. for the pu rpose of meeting equ ipmen t or fu nc-
2. The gravity vents cannot exceed certain hori- t ion a l d em a n d s . It is u s ed wh en t h er e is
zontal lengths, must exceed certain minimum insufficient pressu re available from the gas u tility
slopes u pward to their vertical chimneys, and or LPG storage device to supply the necessary pres-
cann ot terminate less th an 5 ft (1.5 m) above su re to the equ ipment at hand. It is important to
th e appliance ou tlet. note that the gas service mu st be capable of the
volumetric flow rate required at the boosted level.
3. The vent size cannot be smaller than the vent
A booster cannot overcome an inadequate volu-
connector collar size of th e appliance.
metric su pply. (See “Sizing a Gas Booster” below.)
4. The size of a single vent th at services more
th an on e appliance mu st not be less than Gas boosters for natural or liquefied petroleum
th e area of the largest vent conn ector served gas Boosters for n atu ral or u tility-su pplied gas
plu s 50% of th e areas of th e addition al vent are hermetically sealed and are equ ipped to de-
connectors. liver a volumetric flow rate (user defined but within
the booster’s rated capacity) to an elevated pres-
Since vent chimney heights and flu e gas tem-
su re beyon d th e su pply pressu re. Th e ou tlet
peratu res determin e the theoretical draft, there
pressure u sually remains at a constant differen-
are man y situ ation s wh ere the above approach
tial above the supply pressure within a reasonable
will produ ce oversized vent systems. Whatever
range. The discharge pressure is the su m of the
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 179

incoming gas pressure and the booster-added pres- equ ipped with an optional hi/ low gas-pressu re
su re at the chosen flow rate. The incoming gas switch. This feature equ ips the booster to ru n
pressure usually has an upper safety limit as stipu- only when adequate supply pressure is available.
lated by the hermetic gas booster manufacturer. The switch shu ts the booster down at the maxi-
Therefore, in the engineering literature from the mu m discharge set-point pressure at the outpu t
manufacturer, the engineer may find cautions or line pressu re.
warnings about the upper limits of incoming pres-
sure, usually about 5 psi (34.5 kPa). Minimum ga s flow Gas boosters normally re-
qu ire a minimu m gas flow that serves as an
Materials of construction internal cooling mediu m. For example, a booster
sized at a flow rate of 10,000 cfh (283.2 m 3 / h)
Housing and rot or Boosters u sed for fu el gas will have an inheren t minimu m tu rndown based
mu st be UL listed for the specific du ty intended on the min imu m flow requ ired to cool the u n it.
and shall be hermetically sealed. Casings on This rate, in the example, may be, say 2000 cfh
standard boosters are u su ally constru cted of (566.3 m 3 / h ) (see Figu re 7-2). Shou ld the u nit
carbon steel, depending on the equ ipment su p- be requ ired to ru n below th is tu rndown rate, ad-
plier. Boos t er ca s in gs a r e a ls o a va ila ble in ditional su pplemental coolin g systems mu st be
stainless steel and alu minu m. Inlet and ou tlet in corporated into the booster design . The heat
connections are threaded or flanged, depending exchangers n ormally rated for this u se are wa-
on the pipe size connection and the manu fac- ter cooled.
tu rer selected, and the casings are constru cted
leak tight. Drive impellers are contained within Int rins ic s a fet y Electrical con n ection s are
the casing and always manufactu red of a spark- made throu gh a sealed, explosion-proof condu it
resistant material su ch as alu minu m. to the XP ju nction box on the booster u nit. Con-
Discharge type check valves are fu rnished on trol panels are rated NEMA 4 for ou tdoor u se
the booster inlet and on the booster bypass. It is and NEMA 12 for indoor use u nless the booster
important that these checks are listed and ap- system is to be located in a hazardous area, which
proved for u se on the gas stream at hand. The may have additional requ irements. The panel,
fan, control panel, valves, piping, and interelec- as an assembly, mu st display a UL label specific
t r ica l con n ect ion s ca n b e s p ecified a s a for its intended u se.
skid-mou nted package at the discretion of the
Gas laws
designer. This allows for UL listing of the entire
package rather than of individu al components. Pressure-volume relat ionships The gas laws
apply to the relationship of the incoming gas sup-
Elect rica l component s Motor hou sings for
ply and the boosted service. The standard law for
gas-booster systems are designed for explosion- compressed gas relationships is as follows:
proof (XP) constru ction and are rated per NEMA
Class 1, Division 1, Grou p D classification with Equa t ion 7 -4
thermal overload protection. A factory UL listed
ju nction box with a protected, sealed inlet is nec- PV = RT
essary for wiring connections. where
P = Pressu re, psi or in. wc
Ot her elect rica l a ncilla ry equipment Boost-
(kPa or mm wc)
ers are equipped with low-pressure switches that
monitor the incoming gas pressu re. The switch V = Volume, cfh (m 3 / h )
is designed to shu t down the booster shou ld the R = Constant for the gas-air mixtu re
utility-supplied pressure fall below a preset limit. u sed
The set point is u su ally abou t 3 in. (80 mm) wa-
ter colu mn (wc), bu t the designer shou ld verify T = Temperatu re, °F (°C)
the limit with the local gas provider. The switch Usu ally th e temperatu re of the gas remains
mu st be UL listed for u se with the gas service at relatively constant and can therefore be ignored
hand. When the switch opens, it de-energizes in the relationship. Therefore, the pressu re times
the motor control circu it and simu ltaneou sly th e volu me is proportional to a constan t R. Fu r-
ou tpu ts both au dible and visu al signals, which ther, the pressu re/ volu me ratios before and after
requ ire manu al resetting. The booster can be th e booster are proportional, th at is:
180 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Equat ion 7-5 level and a boiler in the penthou se of a 50-story

bu ilding, it may be necessary to boost the su p-
P1V1 = P2V2
ply to the kitchen bu t not to the boiler. The gas
where rises to the penthouse throu gh the piping sys-
P1 = Pressu re at a point prior to the tem becau se of the density differential, its rising
booster is dependent on this stack effect, which is di-
rectly related to the piping system layou t.
P2 = Pressu re at a poin t after th e booster
For almost every case, the volu metric ratin g Design considerations Althou gh a gas booster
of gas-fired equ ipment is in Btu / h, which can is a basic mech anical piece of equ ipment, there
readily be converted to cfh . In th e booster appli- are significant design considerations that shou ld
cation, sizing criteria shou ld be approached from be taken into accou nt when applyin g it:
a “standard” cfh (scfh ) n ot an “actu al” cfh (acfh)
1. In d oor vs . ou td oor loca tion . Th is may be
rating.
driven by local code or the end user. An in-
Gas t emperat ures a nd d ensit y As stated, the door location involves a lower initial cost and
temperature of the gas is usually constant. How- lower costs for long-term maintenance. Out-
ever, in the event that the gas is to be heated or door locations are inherently safer.
cooled, the above gas laws are affected by tem- 2. Access. The location should be accessible for
perature. Gas-density changes affect the constant installation, inspection, and maintenance. The
but usually do not affect the relationship since unit should not be so accessible as to create a
the same mixture is boosted across the fan. secu rity issue. Keep the equipment ou t of
traffic patterns and protect it from heavy equip-
High-rise build ing issues It shou ld be noted ment.
that consideration mu st be given to the rise ef-
fect in available gas pressu re as gas rises in the 3. Minimum and maximum flow rates . Boosters
piping throu gh a high-rise bu ilding. Therefore, usually have a minumum flow rate that must
if the gas system su pplies a kitchen on the first be maintained so that the booster’s motor is

(A)
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 181

(B)

(C)
Figure 7-1 Variations of a Basic Simplex Booster System: (A) Standby Generator
Application with Accumulator Tank Having a Limitation on Maximum Pressure,
(B) Dual Booster System for Critical Systems Like Those in Hospitals,
(C) Heat Exchanger Loop Example—Required for High Flow Range with Low Minimum Flow.
182 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

kept cool. When specifying a booster, always Minimum d esign flow (Qmin) The minimu m
indicate th e minimu m flow requ ired in addi- volumetric flow that could exist while the booster
tion to oth er des ign pa rameters . Coolin g is operating. This flow is not alw ays associated
devices and bypass loops may be requ ired if with the smallest Btu/ h rated piece of equipment.
th e application requ ires a tu rn down in flow For example, when evaluating a 75,000,000 Btu/
(lowest flow expected) that is h igher than the h (7.5 mmBtu/ h) boiler with a 10:1 turndown ratio
booster’s minimu m flow. in comparison to 1.0 mmBtu/ h (0.3 mmW) hot-
4. Controls and interlocking. Determine how the water heater that is on/ off in operation, the larger
Btu/ h (W) rated boiler has the smaller flow of 0.75
application shou ld be controlled and what
mmBtu/ h (0.2 mmW) at its minimum firing rate.
demands the application will put on the sys-
tem. Th e con trol ph ilos oph y, meth od of Turnd own (TD) ra t io The ratio of the MCR in-
electrically interlocking the system to the gas- pu t to the equ ipment’s min imu m or “low-fire”
fired equipment, and physical hardware will input. For example, a 100 mmBtu/ h (29.3 mmW)
vary based on the application. bu rn er th at can fire at a minimu m rate of 20
For some specific examples, see the schemat- mmBtu / h (5.9 mmW) has a TD ratio of 5:1.
ics in Figure 7-1, which shows variations of a
basic simplex booster system for an emergency Pres s ure “d roop ” a nd p ea k cons ump t ion
generator. In Figure 7-1(A), the regulator con- “Pressu re droop” is the inability of a su pply sys-
trols maximu m delivered pressu re, and a tem to main tain a steady or con sisten t in let
combination high/ low pressure switch on the pressu re as an in crease in volu metric flow is de-
tank cycles the booster to ensure emergency man ded. Often , in area s wh ere boos ters are
startup pressure within a design deadband for applied, the su pply pressu re in off-peak months
the generator. Oversized piping, in this case, when gas is n ot in su ch demand can be su ffi-
can be substituted for the tank itself. Provide cient to ru n a system. As th e local demand for
adequate volume so that the generator can fire gas increases, the su pply system can no longer
and deliver standby power back to the booster provide the gas efficiently and the pressu re falls
system to continue operation during main off or droops. It is the booster’s fu nction to over-
power interru pt. In Figu re 7-1(B), a du al come the droop (or excessive pressu re drop) of
booster system, the booster is controlled in a th e su pply system du ring su ch times.
lead/ lag control scenario. Should one booster
Flow ra t e rela t ions hips Do you r flows for
fail, the second is started automatically. Unit
separate pieces of equipment relate to each other?
operation is rotated automatically via the con-
In other words, do the three boilers always oper-
trol panel to share the duty and to keep both
ate in u nison while another process machine
units in operating order. The booster with a
always operates off peak and alone? Relation-
heat-exchanger loop shown in Figure 7-1(C)
ships among the equ ipment can significantly
has a potential of up to 15 psi (103.4 kPa),
affect both maximu m and minimu m flow rates.
and down to 28 in. wc (711.2 mm wc) supply
pressure. The system automatically diverts gas Test block A factor of safety added to design
around the booster if there is sufficient sup- criteria. Typically, a minimum of 5% added vol-
ply pr es s u r e. Wh ile t h es e illu s t r a t ion s u me and 10% added static pressu re shou ld be
obviously do not cover all the potential appli- applied to the design criteria. When specifying
cations, they are provided to give the system the equ ipment, ensure that you note both the
designer some guidance. design and test block conditions. This makes
other people working on the system aware and
Sizing a gas booster A gas booster’s main pu r-
pose is to elevate the pressu re of a volu me of gas ensu res that safety factors are not applied to
to overcome a su pply-pressu re deficiency. Wh en criteria that already inclu de safety factors.
sizing a booster, an engin eer needs to u n der- Minimum inlet pressure (PI-min) What is the
stand th e following terms and issu es: minimu m su pply pressu re in in. (mm) wc gage?
This mu st be evalu ated du ring peak flow de-
Ma ximum design flow (Qmax) The sum of all gas
mands both for the equ ipment and for the local
loads at the maximum capacity rating (MCR) for
all equipment downstream of the booster that could area! Always evaluate during flow, not static, con-
possibly be requ ired to operate simu ltaneously. ditions! It is also important to know how high
the inlet pressu re is expected to rise du ring off-
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 183

peak periods. A booster is typically rated to about 7. Test block flow (QTB) = (1.05 ⋅ Qmin ) to (1.05 ⋅
5 psi (34.5 kPa). It may be possible to exceed Qmax)
this rating du ring off-peak demand periods,
8. Test block pressu re boost: 1.10 ⋅ P=PI-eq +
therefore, a bypass system or other means of pro-
PPL – PI-min
tection is required. Often this pressure can be
specified by the local gas company as the mini- w here
mum guaranteed gas pressure from their supply PPL = Pressu re losses, psi (kPa)
system. Also, the maximum inlet pressure (PI-
max
) mu st be determined. Pipe Sizing
Maximum out let pressure (PO-max) List all maxi- A n u mber of formu lae can be u sed to calcu late
mu m an d requ ired su pply pressu res for th e the capacity of n atu ral gas pipin g based on su ch
variou s pieces of equ ipment being su pplied gas variables as delivery pressu re, pressu re drop
from the booster. Determine the differential be- th rou gh th e pipin g system, pipe size, pipe mate-
tween the highest expected gas pressu re su pply rial, and length of piping. Most of th ese formu lae
to the booster (e.g., 8 in. wc [203.2 mm wc]) and are referenced in nu merou s current model codes,
the lowest maximu m su pply pressu re rating to as well as in the NFPA standards. The most com-
a piece of equ ipment (e.g., 18 in. wc [457.2 mm mon ly referen ced formu la for ga s pres s u res
wc]). The booster’s pressu re gain shou ld not ex- u nder 1½ psi (10.3 kPa), the NFPA formu la listed
ceed this differential (for the above example, 18 in the National Fuel Gas Code, NFPA 54, was used
– 8 = 10 in. wc [457.2 – 203.2 = 254 mm wc]) as the basis for Tables 7-3 and 7-4. The other
u nless other means of protecting the downstream commonly referenced equ ation, the Weymouth
equ ipmen t are provided. formu la, was used as the basis for Table 7-5 and
Ap p en dix Ta b les 7-A1 t h r ou gh 7-A6. Th e
Out let pressure prot ect ion There are several Weymou th formu la, referen ced with in th ese
ways to protect equ ipmen t down stream of a tables, is applicable only for initial gas pressures
booster shou ld it be necessary du e to potential greater than 1 psi (6.9 kPa). A third formula, the
over-pressurization during off-peak periods. If all Spitzglass formula, which is shown in Table 7-
the equ ipment being serviced operates at nomi- A7, is limited to gas pressu res u nder 1 psi (6.9
nally the same pressu re, install a regu lator on kPa).
the inlet or ou tlet of the booster to maintain a
controlled maximum outlet pressure. If the equip- The design of piping systems for gas flow is a
ment being serviced operates at variou s inlet basic flu id flow problem and its solu tion is simi-
pressu res, it may be best to su pply a regu lator lar to that for any other pipe sizing problem. The
for each piece of equ ipment. Most often, pack- requ ired flow rate can easily be determined, the
a ged equ ip m en t is s u p p lied wit h it s own pressure losses due to friction can be calculated,
regu lator. If this is the case, review the equ ip- and the requ ired residu al pressure at each ap-
ment regu lator’s maximu m inlet pressu re. pliance is usually known. Using basic engineering
formu lae, the engineer can tabulate the various
To perform an evalu ation of system requ ire- quantities, establish the pipe sizes for each sec-
ments: tion of piping, and demonstrate the pressure and
1. Establish design Qmin and Qmax per the above flow rate at any point in the system. The flow of
definitions while evalu ating TD requirements. gas in a pipe with pressu res not exceeding 1 psi
(6.9 kPa) is often compu ted using the Spitzglass
2. Establish PI-min an d PI-max per the above defi- formu la, as shown below:
nitions.
3. Define maximum inlet pressu re requ irements Equa t ion 7 -6
to equ ipmen t (PI-eq).
h
4. Define piping pressu re losses (PPL) from gas Q = 3550 K
SL
booster location to each piece of equ ipment.
h ½
Q = 3550 K
5. Design flow rate (QD) = Qmin to Qmax, SL
cfh (m 3 / h) d5h ½
Q = 3550 3.6
6. Design pressu re boost ( P) =PI-eq + PPL – SL 1 + + 0.03d
PI-min d
184 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

w here in g the capacities for the variou s pipe sizes and

Q = The gas at standard conditions, cfh (m /h) 3 lengths give solu tions that are qu ickly and eas-
ily obtained and generally adequate for most situ -
K = Constant for a given pipe size ation s. These tables are in many model codes
h = The pressure drop, in. (mm) wc a n d in Na tion a l Fir e Protection As s ocia t ion
(NFPA) Standard 54. The lengths shown are de-
S = Specific gravity of the gas veloped lengths (lengths measured along the cen-
L = Length of pipe, ft (m) ter line of the piping plu s a fitting allowance).
The pressure drops include an allowance for a
The constant for a given pipe size (K) may be
nominal amount of valves and fittings.
calculated by using the following relation:
To determine the size of each section of pipe
Equa t ion 7 -7 in a gas-su pply system u sing the gas pipe-sizing
D5 ½ tables, the following method shou ld be u sed:
K =
1 + 3.6 + 0.03 ⋅ D 1. Measu re th e length of the pipe from the gas
D meter location to th e most remote ou tlet on
where th e system. Add a fitting allowance.

K = Constant for a given pipe size 2. Select th e colu mn showin g th at distance (or
the next longer distance, if the table does not
D = Inside diameter of the pipe, in. (mm) give the exact length).
The length used in the above formula should 3. Use the vertical colu mn to locate all gas de-
be corrected to allow for the added resistance to mand figu res for this particu lar system.
flow caused by valves and fittings in the piping.
4. Starting at the most remote ou tlet, find in
This corrected length is called the “equ iva- th e vertical colu mn the selected gas demand
len t len gt h .” Ta ble 7-2 gives th e equ iva len t for th at ou tlet. If th e exa ct figu re is n ot
len gths for variou s valve and fitting sizes. The shown, choose th e n ext larger figu re below
designer is cau tioned to con form to applicable in the colu mn.
codes for the project location .
5. Opposite this demand figu re, in the first col-
Th e a bove meth od is a ccu ra te a n d gives a u mn at the left, the correct size of pipe will
solu tion that has a definite technical basis. How- be fou nd.
ever, in actu al practice, pu blished tables show-

Table 7-2 Equivalent Lengths for Various Valve and Fitting Sizes
Pipe Size, in. (mm)
Fitting ¾ (19.1) 1 (25.4) 1½ (38.1) 2 (50.8) 2½ (63.5) 3 (76.2) 4 (101.6) 5 (127) 6 (152.4) 8 (203.2)

Equivalent Lengths, ft (m)

90° elbow 1.00 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.50 6.50 9.00 12.0 15.0
(0.3) (0.61) (0.76) (0.91) (1.22) (1.68) (1.98) (2.74) (3.66) (4.57)
Tee (run) 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 3.50 4.50 6.00 7.00
(0.15) (0.23) (0.3) (0.46) (0.61) (0.91) (1.07) (1.37) (1.83) (2.13)
Tee (branch) 2.50 3.50 4.50 5.00 6.00 11.0 13.0 18.0 24.0 30.0
(0.76) (1.07) (1.37) (1.52) (1.83) (3.35) (3.96) (5.49) (7.32) (9.14)
Gas cock 4.00 5.00 7.50 9.00 12.0 17.0 20.0 28.0 37.0 46.0
(approx.) (1.22) (1.52) (2.29) (2.74) (3.66) (5.18) (6.1) (8.53) (11.28) (14.02)

Note: The pressure drop through valves should be taken from manufacturers’ published data rather than using the equivalent lengths, since
the various patterns of gas cocks can vary greatly.
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 185

6. Proceed in a similar manner for each ou tlet 1. The distance from the gas meter to ou tlet “A”
and each section of pipe. For each section of is 600 ft (182.9 m).
pipe, determine th e total gas demand su p-
2. For sizing the pipe from ou tlet A to the meter,
plied by that section .
u se Table 7-3:
7. To size all branches, oth er than the branch • Section 1: 400-ft (123-m) length, carry-
to the most remote outlet, measu re the length in g 150 cfh (1.2 L/ s)—u sing the 400-ft
of pipe from th e ou tlet to the meter and fol-
(123 m) colu mn, th e size wou ld be 1¼
low steps 1 throu gh 6 above u tilizing the new
in . (31.8 mm).
len gth .
• Section 2: 550-ft (168-m) length, carry-
For con dition s ot h er th a n th os e covered in g 6 0 0 c fh (4 . 7 L/ s )—u s in g a n
above, th e size of each gas piping system may be in terpolation between the 500-ft (153.8-
determined by standard engineering methods ac- m) colu mn a n d t h e 750-ft (230.7-m)
ceptable to the au thority having ju risdiction. The colu mn , the size wou ld be 2½ in. (63.5
maximu m allowable pressu re drop th rou gh a mm).
system should not exceed 10% of the supply pres-
su re, wh ich mu st be verified with th e locally • Section 3: 600-ft (183-m) length, carry-
referenced code and the au thority having ju ris- in g 2 4 0 0 cfh (1 8 . 9 L/ s )—u s in g a n
diction. in terpolation between the 500-ft (153.8-
m) colu mn a n d t h e 750-ft (230.7-m)
Where a gas of a different specific gravity is colu mn , the size wou ld be 4 in. (101.6
delivered or where the pressu re differs from what mm).
th e referenced gas tables in the local code show,
3. For sizing Section 4: from Table 7-3 on the
th e size of the piping requ ired mu st be calcu -
300-ft (91.4-m) colu mn, carrying 450 cfh (3.5
lated by means of standard engineering methods
L/ s), size wou ld be 2 in. (50.8 mm)
acceptable to the au thority having ju risdiction.
As an exa mple, ca lcu la te th e followin g pro- 4. For sizing Section 5: from Table 7-3 on the
pos ed system’s pipe size (see Figu re 7-2): 100-ft (30.5-m) colu mn, carrying 1800 cfh
(14.2 L/ s), size wou ld be 2½ in. (63.5 mm)

Figure 7 -2
NFPA Formula:

186
h 0.541
Q = 2313 ⋅ D2.623 ⋅
Cr ⋅ L
Where: Q = Flow (ft3/h)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.)
h = Pressure drop (in. wc)
Cr = Correction factor of 0.61
L = Total equivalent length of system piping (ft)
Given: h = 0.5 The pressure drop through the system
Cr = 0.61 Correction Factor ( = 0.61 if initial pressure < 1.5 psi)
S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas

Table 7-3 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 1.5 psi
Total Equivalent Length of Longest Run of Piping in System (ft)
Pipe Actual
Size I.D.a 10 25 50 75 100 150 175 200 250 300 400 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 3000
(in.) (in.) Capacities (cfh)

½ 0.622 172 105 72 58 49 40 37 34 30 27 23 21 17 14 13 11 11 10 8

¾ 0.824 360 219 151 121 103 83 76 71 63 57 49 43 35 30 26 24 22 20 16
1 1.049 678 413 284 228 195 157 144 134 119 108 92 82 66 56 50 45 41 39 31
1¼ 1.38 1,391 847 582 468 400 321 296 275 244 221 189 168 135 115 102 92 85 79 64
1½ 1.61 2,084 1,270 873 701 600 482 443 412 365 331 283 251 202 173 153 139 127 119 95
2 2.067 4,014 2,445 1,681 1,350 1,155 928 853 794 704 637 546 484 388 332 295 267 246 228 183
2½ 2.469 6,398 3,897 2,679 2,151 1,841 1,478 1,360 1,265 1,121 1,016 870 771 619 530 469 425 391 364 292
3 3.068 11,310 6,890 4,735 3,802 3,254 2,613 2,404 2,237 1,982 1,796 1,537 1,362 1,094 936 830 752 692 644 517
4 4.026 23,070 14,052 9,658 7,756 6,638 5,331 4,904 4,562 4,043 3,664 3,136 2,779 2,232 1,910 1,693 1,534 1,411 1,313 1,054
5 5.047 41,736 25,423 17,473 14,031 12,009 9,644 8,872 8,254 7,315 6,628 5,673 5,028 4,037 3,456 3,063 2,775 2,553 2,375 1,907
6 6.065 67,580 41,166 28,293 22,720 19,446 15,615 14,366 13,365 11,845 10,732 9,186 8,141 6,538 5,595 4,959 4,493 4,134 3,846 3,088
8 7.981 138,852 84,580 58,131 46,681 39,953 32,084 29,517 27,460 24,337 22,051 18,873 16,727 13,432 11,496 10,189 9,232 8,493 7,901 6,345
10 10.02 252,192 153,619 105,582 84,786 72,566 58,273 53,610 49,874 44,202 40,051 34,278 30,380 24,396 20,880 18,506 16,767 15,426 14,351 1,524
12 11.938 399,251 243,199 167,149 134,227 114,881 92,253 84,872 78,957 69,978 63,405 54,267 48,095 38,622 33,056 29,297 26,545 24,421 22,719 18,244

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
NFPA Formula:
0.541
h
Q = 0.00787 2313 ⋅ D2.623 ⋅
Cr ⋅ L
Where: Q = Flow (L/s)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm)
h = Pressure drop (kPa or mm wc)
Cr = Correction factor of 0.61
L = Total equivalent length of system piping (m)
Given: h = 12.7 The pressure drop through the system (mm wc)
Cr = 0.61 Correction factor ( = 0.61 if initial pressure < 10.3 kPa)
S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas

Table 7-3(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 10.3 kPa
Total Equivalent Length of Longest Run of Piping in System (m)
Pipe Actual
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems

Size I.D.a 3.1 7.6 15.2 22.9 30.5 45.7 53.4 61.0 76.2 91.4 121.9 152.4 228.6 304.8 381 457.2 533.4 609.6 914.4
(mm) (mm) Capacities (L/s)

15 15.8 1.35 0.82 0.57 0.46 0.39 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.06
20 20.9 2.83 1.72 1.19 0.95 0.81 0.65 0.60 0.56 0.50 0.45 0.38 0.34 0.27 0.23 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.13
25 26.6 5.33 3.25 2.23 1.79 1.53 1.23 1.13 1.05 0.93 0.85 0.72 0.64 0.52 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.24
35 35.1 10.95 6.67 4.58 3.68 3.15 2.53 2.33 2.17 1.92 1.74 1.49 1.32 1.06 0.91 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.62 0.50
40 40.9 16.40 9.99 6.87 5.51 4.72 3.79 3.49 3.24 2.88 2.61 2.23 1.98 1.59 1.36 1.20 1.09 1.00 0.93 0.75
50 52.5 31.59 19.24 13.23 10.62 9.09 7.30 6.72 6.25 5.54 5.02 4.29 3.81 3.06 2.62 2.32 2.10 1.93 1.80 1.44
65 62.7 50.35 30.67 21.08 16.93 14.49 11.63 10.70 9.96 8.83 8.00 6.84 6.07 4.87 4.17 3.69 3.35 3.08 2.87 2.30
75 77.9 89.01 54.22 37.27 29.93 25.61 20.57 18.92 17.60 15.60 14.14 12.10 10.72 8.61 7.37 6.53 5.92 5.44 5.07 4.07
100 102.2 181.56 110.59 76.01 61.04 52.24 41.95 38.59 35.91 31.82 28.83 24.68 21.87 17.56 15.03 13.32 12.07 11.11 10.33 8.30
125 128.2 328.46 200.08 137.51 110.43 94.51 75.90 69.82 64.96 57.57 52.16 44.64 39.57 31.77 27.19 24.10 21.84 20.09 18.69 15.01
150 154.1 531.86 323.97 222.67 178.81 153.04 122.89 113.06 105.18 93.22 84.46 72.29 64.07 51.45 44.03 39.03 35.36 32.53 30.26 24.30
200 202.7 1092.76 665.64 457.49 367.38 314.43 252.50 232.30 216.11 191.53 173.54 148.53 131.64 105.71 90.47 80.19 72.65 66.84 62.18 49.93
250 254.5 1984.75 1208.98 830.93 667.26 571.09 458.61 421.91 392.51 347.87 315.20 269.77 239.09 192.00 164.33 145.64 131.96 121.40 112.94 90.69
300 303.2 3142.11 1913.97 1315.46 1056.36 904.11 726.03 667.94 621.39 550.73 499.00 427.08 378.51 303.96 260.15 230.56 208.91 192.19 178.80 143.58

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
187
NFPA Formula:

188
0.541
h
Q = 2313 ⋅ D2.623 ⋅
Cr ⋅ L
Where: Q = Flow (ft3/h)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.)
h = Pressure drop (in. wc)
Cr = Correction factor of 0.61
L = Total equivalent length of system piping (ft)
Given: h = 0.3 The pressure drop through the system
Cr = 0.61 Correction factor ( = 0.61 if initial pressure < 1.5 psi)
S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas

Table 7-4 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 1.5 psi
Total Equivalent Length of Longest Run of Piping in System (ft)
Pipe Actual
Size I.D.a 10 25 50 75 100 150 175 200 250 300 400 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 3000
(in.) (in.) Capacities (cfh)

½ 0.622 130 79 55 44 38 30 28 26 23 21 18 16 13 11 10 9 8 7 6
¾ 0.824 273 166 114 92 79 63 58 54 48 43 37 33 26 23 20 18 17 16 12
1 1.049 514 313 215 173 148 119 109 102 90 82 70 62 50 43 38 34 31 29 23
1¼ 1.38 1,055 643 442 355 304 244 224 209 185 168 143 127 102 87 77 70 65 60 48
1½ 1.61 1,581 963 662 532 455 365 336 313 277 251 215 190 153 131 116 105 97 90 72
2 2.067 3,045 1,855 1,275 1,024 876 704 647 602 534 484 414 367 295 252 223 202 186 173 139
2½ 2.469 4,853 2,956 2,032 1,632 1,396 1,121 1,032 960 851 771 660 585 469 402 356 323 297 276 222
3 3.068 8,579 5,226 3,592 2,884 2,469 1,982 1,824 1,697 1,504 1,362 1,166 1,034 830 710 630 570 525 488 392
4 4.026 17,499 10,659 7,326 5,883 5,035 4,043 3,720 3,461 3,067 2,779 2,379 2,108 1,693 1,449 1,284 1,163 1,070 996 800
5 5.047 31,659 19,284 13,254 10,643 9,109 7,315 6,730 6,261 5,549 5,028 4,303 3,814 3,063 2,621 2,323 2,105 1,936 1,801 1,447
6 6.065 51,263 31,226 21,461 17,234 14,750 11,845 10,897 10,138 8,985 8,141 6,968 6,175 4,959 4,244 3,762 3,408 3,136 2,917 2,342
8 7.981 105,325 64,157 44,095 35,410 30,306 24,337 22,390 20,829 18,461 16,727 14,316 12,688 10,189 8,720 7,729 7,003 6,442 5,993 4,813
10 10.02 191,298 116,527 80,088 64,314 55,044 44,202 40,666 37,832 33,529 30,380 26,001 23,045 18,506 15,838 14,037 12,719 11,701 10,886 8,742
12 11.938 302,849 184,476 126,790 101,817 87,142 69,978 64,379 59,892 53,081 48,095 41,163 36,482 29,297 25,074 22,223 20,135 18,524 17,233 13,839

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
NFPA Formula:
0.541
h
Q = 0.00787 2313 ⋅ D2.623 ⋅
Cr ⋅ L
Where: Q = Flow (L/s)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm)
h = Pressure drop (kPa or mm wc)
Cr = Correction factor of 0.61
L = Total equivalent length of system piping (m)
Given: h = 12.7 The pressure drop through the system (mm wc)
Cr = 0.61 Correction factor ( = 0.61 if initial pressure < 10.3 kPa)
S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas

Table 7-4(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 10.3 kPa
Total Equivalent Length of Longest Run of Piping in System (m)
Pipe Actual
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems

Size I.D.a 3.1 7.6 15.2 22.9 30.5 45.7 53.4 61.0 76.2 91.4 121.9 152.4 228.6 304.8 381 457.2 533.4 609.6 914.4
(mm) (mm) Capacities (L/s)

15 15.8 1.03 0.63 0.43 0.35 0.30 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05
20 20.9 2.15 1.31 0.90 0.72 0.62 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.38 0.34 0.29 0.26 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.10
25 26.6 4.04 2.46 1.69 1.36 1.16 0.93 0.86 0.80 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.49 0.39 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.18
35 35.1 8.30 5.06 3.48 2.79 2.39 1.92 1.77 1.64 1.46 1.32 1.13 1.00 0.80 0.69 0.61 0.55 0.51 0.47 0.38
40 40.9 12.44 7.58 5.21 4.18 3.58 2.88 2.65 2.46 2.18 1.98 1.69 1.50 1.20 1.03 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.71 0.57
50 52.5 23.96 14.60 10.03 8.06 6.90 5.54 5.09 4.74 4.20 3.81 3.26 2.89 2.32 1.98 1.76 1.59 1.47 1.36 1.10
65 62.7 38.19 23.27 15.99 12.84 10.99 8.83 8.12 7.55 6.69 6.07 5.19 4.60 3.69 3.16 2.80 2.54 2.34 2.17 1.75
75 77.9 67.52 41.13 28.27 22.70 19.43 15.60 14.35 13.35 11.83 10.72 9.18 8.13 6.53 5.59 4.95 4.49 4.13 3.84 3.09
100 102.2 137.72 83.89 57.66 46.30 39.63 31.82 29.28 27.24 24.14 21.87 18.72 16.59 13.32 11.40 10.11 9.16 8.42 7.84 6.29
125 128.2 249.15 151.77 104.31 83.76 71.69 57.57 52.96 49.27 43.67 39.57 33.87 30.01 24.10 20.63 18.28 16.57 15.24 14.18 11.39
150 154.1 403.44 245.75 168.90 135.63 116.08 93.22 85.76 79.78 70.71 64.07 54.84 48.60 39.03 33.40 29.60 26.82 24.68 22.96 18.44
200 202.7 828.91 504.92 347.03 278.67 238.51 191.53 176.21 163.93 145.28 131.64 112.67 99.85 80.19 68.63 60.82 55.11 50.70 47.17 37.88
250 254.5 1505.52 917.06 630.29 506.15 433.20 347.87 320.04 297.73 263.88 239.09 204.63 181.36 145.64 124.65 110.47 100.10 92.09 85.67 68.80
300 303.2 2383.42 1451.83 997.83 801.30 685.81 550.73 506.66 471.35 417.75 378.51 323.96 287.12 230.56 197.33 174.89 158.47 145.79 135.63 108.91

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
189
Weymouth Formula:

190
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 2038.1
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (cfh) Given: P1 = 2 Initial pressure in system (psi)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 1 Final pressure in system (psi)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of pipe (ft) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in the system (psi)
P2 = Final pressure of the system (psi)

Table 7-5 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (in.)a
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
Equivalent Actual 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.065 7.981 10.02 11.94
Length (ft) Capacities (cfh)

10 406 860 1,637 3,402 5,132 9,991 16,048 28,641 59,116 108,010 176,303 366,604 672,498 1,072,823
25 257 544 1,035 2,152 3,245 6,319 10,150 18,114 37,388 68,312 111,504 231,860 425,325 678,513
50 182 385 732 1,521 2,295 4,468 7,177 12,809 26,438 48,304 78,845 163,950 300,750 479,781
75 148 314 598 1,242 1,874 3,648 5,860 10,458 21,586 39,440 64,377 133,865 245,562 391,740
100 128 272 518 1,076 1,623 3,160 5,075 9,057 18,694 34,156 55,752 115,930 212,663 339,256
150 105 222 423 878 1,325 2,580 4,144 7,395 15,264 27,888 45,521 94,657 173,638 277,002
175 97 206 391 813 1,227 2,388 3,836 6,847 14,131 25,819 42,144 87,635 160,758 256,454
200 91 192 366 761 1,147 2,234 3,589 6,404 13,219 24,152 39,423 81,975 150,375 239,890
250 81 172 327 680 1,026 1,998 3,210 5,728 11,823 21,602 35,261 73,321 134,500 214,565
300 74 157 299 621 937 1,824 2,930 5,229 10,793 19,720 32,188 66,932 122,781 195,870
400 64 136 259 538 811 1,580 2,537 4,529 9,347 17,078 27,876 57,965 106,331 169,628
500 57 122 232 481 726 1,413 2,270 4,050 8,360 15,275 24,933 51,846 95,106 151,720
600 52 111 211 439 662 1,290 2,072 3,698 7,632 13,944 22,761 47,328 86,819 138,501
750 47 99 189 393 593 1,154 1,853 3,307 6,826 12,472 20,358 42,332 77,653 123,879
1000 41 86 164 340 513 999 1,605 2,864 5,912 10,801 17,630 36,660 67,250 107,282
1250 36 77 146 304 459 894 1,435 2,562 5,288 9,661 15,769 32,790 60,150 95,956
1500 33 70 134 278 419 816 1,310 2,339 4,827 8,819 14,395 29,933 54,909 87,596
1750 31 65 124 257 388 755 1,213 2,165 4,469 8,165 13,327 27,713 50,836 81,098
2000 29 61 116 241 363 706 1,135 2,025 4,180 7,637 12,466 25,923 47,553 75,860
2500 26 54 104 215 325 632 1,015 1,811 3,739 6,831 11,150 23,186 42,533 67,851
3000 23 50 95 196 296 577 927 1,654 3,413 6,236 10,179 21,166 38,827 61,939
4000 20 43 82 170 257 500 802 1,432 2,956 5,401 8,815 18,330 33,625 53,641
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (L3/s) Given: P1 = 13.8 Initial pressure of the system (kPa)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm) P2 = 6.89 Final pressure of the system (kPa)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of piping (m) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in system (kPa)
P2 = Final pressure in system (kPa)

Table 7-5(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (mm)a
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
Equivalent Actual 15.8 20.9 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 62.7 77.9 102.2 128.2 154.1 202.7 254.5 303.2
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems

Length (m) Capacities (L/s)

3.1 3.20 6.77 12.9 26.8 40.4 78.6 126.3 225.4 465.2 850.0 1387.5 2885.2 5292.6 8443.1
7.6 2.02 4.28 8.15 16.9 25.5 49.7 79.9 142.6 294.2 537.6 877.5 1824.7 3347.3 5339.9
15.2 1.43 3.03 5.76 12.0 18.1 35.2 56.5 100.8 208.1 380.2 620.5 1290.3 2366.9 3775.9
22.9 1.17 2.47 4.70 9.78 14.7 28.7 46.1 82.3 169.9 310.4 506.6 1053.5 1932.6 3083.0
30.5 1.01 2.14 4.07 8.47 12.8 24.9 39.9 71.3 147.1 268.8 438.8 912.4 1673.7 2669.9
45.7 0.83 1.75 3.33 6.91 10.4 20.3 32.6 58.2 120.1 219.5 358.3 744.9 1366.5 2180.0
53.4 0.76 1.62 3.08 6.40 9.65 18.8 30.2 53.9 111.2 203.2 331.7 689.7 1265.2 2018.3
61.0 0.71 1.51 2.88 5.99 9.03 17.6 28.2 50.4 104.0 190.1 310.3 645.1 1183.5 1887.9
76.2 0.64 1.35 2.58 5.35 8.08 15.7 25.3 45.1 93.0 170.0 277.5 577.0 1058.5 1688.6
91.4 0.58 1.24 2.35 4.89 7.37 14.4 23.1 41.2 84.9 155.2 253.3 526.8 966.3 1541.5
121.9 0.51 1.07 2.04 4.23 6.39 12.4 20.0 35.6 73.6 134.4 219.4 456.2 836.8 1335.0
152.4 0.45 0.96 1.82 3.79 5.71 11.1 17.9 31.9 65.8 120.2 196.2 408.0 748.5 1194.0
182.9 0.41 0.87 1.66 3.46 5.21 10.2 16.3 29.1 60.1 109.7 179.1 372.5 683.3 1090.0
228.6 0.37 0.78 1.49 3.09 4.66 9.08 14.6 26.0 53.7 98.2 160.2 333.2 611.1 974.9
304.8 0.32 0.68 1.29 2.68 4.04 7.86 12.6 22.5 46.5 85.0 138.8 288.5 529.3 844.3
381.0 0.29 0.61 1.15 2.39 3.61 7.03 11.3 20.2 41.6 76.0 124.1 258.1 473.4 755.2
457.2 0.26 0.55 1.05 2.19 3.30 6.42 10.3 18.4 38.0 69.4 113.3 235.6 432.1 689.4
533.4 0.24 0.51 0.97 2.02 3.05 5.94 9.55 17.0 35.2 64.3 104.9 218.1 400.1 638.2
609.6 0.23 0.48 0.91 1.89 2.86 5.56 8.93 15.9 32.9 60.1 98.1 204.0 374.2 597.0
762.0 0.20 0.43 0.81 1.69 2.55 4.97 7.99 14.3 29.4 53.8 87.8 182.5 334.7 534.0
914.4 0.18 0.39 0.74 1.55 2.33 4.54 7.29 13.0 26.9 49.1 80.1 166.6 305.6 487.5
1219.2 0.16 0.34 0.64 1.34 2.02 3.93 6.32 11.3 23.3 42.5 69.4 144.3 264.6 422.2

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
191
192 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Enter chart at left, with cubic feet per hour (liters per second), move horizontally to pipe diameter line, drop perpendicularly to length line and move
horizontally to read pressure drop at right.

Figure 7-3 Pipe Sizing, Low Pressure System with an Initial Pressure Up to 1 psi (6.9 kPa)
Source: Reprinted from data developed by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company.
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 193

Enter chart at left, with cubic feet per hour (liters per second), move horizontally to pipe diameter line, drop perpendicu-
larly to length line and move horizontally to read pressure drop at right.

Figure 7-4 Pipe Sizing, Any System with an Initial Pressure

Between 1 and 20 psi (6.9 and 137.8 kPa)
Source: Reprinted from data developed by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company.
194 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Man y codes, inclu din g American Nation al LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS

Standards In stitu te (ANSI) Z223.1 and NFPA 54,
recommend the same procedu res detailed above, Liqu efied petroleu m gas (LPG) is a refined natu -
except for Step 7. Th ese codes recommen d u ti- ral gas developed main ly for u se beyon d th e
lizing the same maximu m distance colu mn for u tilities’ gas mains, bu t it has proven to be com-
all branch lines regardless of the exact distance petitive within the areas n ot covered by mains
from the meter. Steps 3 and 4 of the example in ru ral areas. It is chiefly a blend of propane
wou ld be, from Table 7-3 on the 750-ft (230.7- and bu tane with traces of other hydrocarbons
m) colu mn carrying 450 cfh (3.5 L/ s) for Section remaining from the variou s produ ction methods.
4 and 1800 cfh (14.2 L/ s) for section 5, pipe sizes The exact blend is controlled by th e LPG dis-
of 2½ in. (63.5 mm) and 4 in. (91.2 mm), respec- tribu tor to match the climatic condition s of the
tively. The designer sh ou ld investigate the local area served. For this reason , the engin eer mu st
code and apply the appropriate sizing procedu re. confirm th e h eat valu e of the su pplied gas. Un-
like natu ral gas, LPG has a specific gravity of
Therefore, for gas pressu res less th an 1 psi
(6.895 kPa), u se Appen dix Table 7-A7 and for 1.53 and a rating of 2500 Btu / cf (93 MJ / cm 3 ).
gas pressu res less th an 1.5 psi (10.3 kPa), u se The compact storage for relatively large qu an-
Tables 7-3 or 7-4. For sizing systems with more tities of energy has led to widespread acceptance
th an 1 psi (6.9 kPa) su pply pressu re, Tables 7-4 and u sage of LPG in all areas previou sly served
and 7-5 an d Appen dix Tables 7-A1–A6 may be by u tilities providing other gas to u sers, in clu d-
u sed. For sizing systems with less than 1 psi in g au tomotive u sers.
(6.9 kPa) pressu re, Table 7-A7 may be u sed. The
u se of th ese tables is similar to that described Storage
for Table 7-3.
Occasion ally, it is necessary to size a natu - The LPG storage tanks can be provided by the
ral gas distribu tion system for pressu res other vendor or the cu stomer and are su bject to the
than the conventional low and medium pressures regu lation s of th e US Department of Transpor-
already discu ssed. Figu res 7-3 and 7-4 are in- tation (DOT) an d the local au thority, as well as
clu ded for su ch applications. (Proprietary pipe NFPA standards, so th e plu mbing design er has
sizing calcu lators are available which also solve little opportu nity to design storage tan ks and
th e applicable equ ations.) piping, per se. Normally, the designer starts at
th e storage su pply ou tlet, and the pipin g system
Figu re 7-3 is for any low-pressu re system is generally in the low-pressu re, 11 in. (279 mm)
with an initial pressu re u p to 1 psi (6.9 kPa) or wc, range. Pipin g mu st be designed so that there
28 in. (711.2 mm) wc, an d Figu re 7-4 is for an y is no more than 2 in. (50 mm) wc pressu re drop
system with an in itial pressu re between 1 and at an y ou tlet in the system. Gas pipes may be
20 psi (6.9 and 137.8 kPa). These graphs can be s ized in accordance w ith NFPA 54, which is ac-
u sed in two ways: one, to determine the pres- cepted by most jurisdictions.
su re drop, and th e oth er, to determine th e pipe
size. Small tanks (for example, those for residen-
tial cooking and heating) are allowed to be located
Essen tially, diversity can on ly be u sed to in close proximity to buildings. Large tanks (e.g.,
determine th e gas flow rate for a system wh en for industrial or multiple building use), however,
su ch a system serves laboratories, as previou sly have strict requirements governing their loca-
discu ssed, or cookin g appliances. Diversity can- tion in relation to bu ildings, pu blic use areas,
not be applied to water heating or space h eatin g an d property lin es. If large leaks occu r, the
applian ces becau se th es e applian ces will, at heavier-than-air gas will hu g the grou nd and
times, simu ltaneou sly demand fu ll capacity gas form a fog. The potential for a hazardou s condi-
flows. For more th an 25 years, h owever, man y tion could exist. Proper safety precau tions and
codes have recognized that, in mu ltifamily bu ild- equ ipment, as well as good judgment, must be
ings, th e deman d is always less than th e total u tilized when locating large LPG storage tanks.
connected load wh en gas is u sed for cooking.
Figu res 7-5 and 7-6 indicate th e percentage of Note: The following is only a very brief out-
th e maximu m possible demand (diversity) th at line and is not intended to be u sed in lieu of
can be expected, based on th e nu mber of u nits NFPA 54. The designer must u se the cu rrent ac-
in the system. cepted edition.
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 195

Figure 7-5 Typical Diversity Curves for Gas Supply to High-Rise Apartments

Figure 7-6 Diversity Percentage for Multifamily Buildings (Average)

196 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Material Tubing joints For pressu res normally encou n-

tered in th e u tilization of LPG, th e followin g
Pipe Wrou ght iron, modu lar iron, steel (galva- requ irement is applicable to th e methods of join-
n ized, plastic-wrapped, or black), brass, an d in g tu bing:
copper. Alu minu m alloy pipe may be used if pres- Metallic tu bing joints mu st either be made
su re is not in excess of ½ psi (34 kPa). To qu alify, with approved gas tu bing fittings or be soldered
alu min u m piping mu st be factory coated for ex- or brazed with a material having a melting point
ternal, ou tdoor u se. Cast-iron pipe shall n ot be in exces s of 1000ºF (537.8ºC). Metallic, ball
u sed. sleeve, compression type tu bing fittings mu st not
be u sed for this pu rpose. NFPA 54, Par. 2.6.8(b).
Tubing Copper (K&L), steel, and alu minu m al-
loy with same restrictions as in pipe. NFPA 54, Flared fittings are commonly u sed in connec-
Par. 2.6.3. tion with tu be workin g and are generally less
expensive to u se than th ose involvin g h igh-tem-
Plastic pipe and tubing Plastic pipe and tu b- peratu re solderin g. While sleeve type fittings are
ing may be used ou tside undergrou nd only. NFPA u sed in some appliances, their u se in piping sys-
54, Par. 2.6.4. tems is not approved. Flare nuts u sed ou t of doors
in areas where freezing temperatures are encou n-
Fittings Whenever pipe lines are ru n, joints and tered shou ld be of a heavier weight than those
fittings are involved. Since these are th e weak u sed indoors. Th ese are sometimes referred to
points in th e system wh ere leaks are most likely as “frost proof” and are preferable to the lighter
to occu r, their selection and installation sh ou ld fittings, which are apt to crack and cau se a gas
be made with care and NFPA recommendations leak.
shou ld be followed. The following listing inclu des
some of the more important poin ts to be consid-
ered regarding th ese connections. Flexible Gas Hose

Pipe joints For low-pressu re piping (½ psi [3.45 The practice of connecting hot plates and por-
kPa] or less) with LPG, the followin g standards table space heaters with flexible hose is no longer
apply: considered a safe practice. The cu rrent requ ire-
ment regardin g their u se covers both in door and
Metallic pipe joints may be threaded, flanged, ou tdoor applications:
or welded, and nonferrous metallic pipe may also
be soldered or brazed with material having a melt- Indoor Indoor gas hose connectors may be used
ing point in excess of 1000ºF (537.8ºC). Corrosion with laboratory sh op or iron ing equ ipment that
of the piping must be prevented and the pipe must requ ires mobility du ring operation, if listed for
not be in contact with plaster, cement, or damp this application. A sh u t-off valve mu st be in-
insu lators and may not be u sed u ndergrou nd. stalled where the connector is attached to the
Brazing alloy must not contain phosphorous . bu ildin g pipin g. The con nector mu st be of mini-
Metallic fittings (except valves, strainers, or fil- mu m length bu t shall not exceed 6 ft (1.8 m).
ters) must be steel, brass, or malleable or ductile The conn ector mu st not be concealed and mu st
iron when used with steel or wrought-iron pipe, not extend from on e room to an other n or pass
and must be copper or brass when used with cop- th rou gh wall partitions, ceilings, or floors.
per or brass pipe. NFPA 54, Par. 2-6-8(a)-(e).
Outdoor Ou tdoor gas hose conn ectors may be
Cast-iron fittings, in pipe sizes normally used u s ed t o con n ect por t a ble ou tdoor ga s -fired
in LPG installations serving domestic and com- applian ces, if listed for th is application. A shu t-
m er cia l u s er s , m a y b e a u t h or ized b y t h e off valve or a listed qu ick-disconnect device mu st
au thority having ju risdiction for either low or be installed where the con nector is attached to
high-pressu re piping. (NFPA 54, Par. 2.6.2.) De- th e su pply piping an d in su ch a manner as to
fective fittings for either pipe or tu bing shou ld preven t th e accu mu lation of water or foreign
be replaced and not repaired. It is not good prac- matter. This connection mu st be made on ly in
tice to u se second-hand or u sed fittings u nless th e ou tdoor area wh ere th e appliance is to be
they are cleaned, carefu lly inspected, and de- u sed. NFPA 54, Par. 5.5.2
termined to be the equivalent of new before being
reu sed.
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 197

Warning APPENDIX A
The fact that LPG vapors are h eavier than air The following gas pipe sizing tables (Tables 7-A1
has a practical bearing on several items. For one th rou gh 7-A7) are for varying gas pressu res in
th ing, LPG systems are located in su ch a man- both inch-pou nd (IP) and international standard
ner that the hazard of escaping gas is kept at a (SI) u nits.
minimu m.
Th ese ta bles a re ba sed on th e u s e of sch ed-
Since the heavier-than-air gas tends to settle u le 40 black steel pipe with threaded joints.
in low places, the vent termination of relief valves
mu st be located at a safe distance from open-
ings into bu ildings that are below th e level of
su ch valves. With man y gas systems, for ex-
ample, both the gas pressu re regu lator and th e
fu el contain ers are installed adjacently to the
bu ilding they serve. This distance mu st be a least
3 ft (0.91 m) measu red horizontally. However,
th e requ ired clearan ces vary according to the
tank size and the adjacent activities. The designer
shou ld refer to th e local code and NFPA 54 for
th ese clearan ces.
The slope of flash tu bes u sed in con nection
with lighting devices is determined by the spe-
cific gravity of the gas. With propane, for example,
the tu bes are slanted downward from the bu rner
to the ignition sou rce as the heavier-than-air gas
tends to flow downward when released. Au to-
matic applian ces are n ormally equ ipped with
safety pilots, which shu t off the flow of gas in
th e even t of pilot failu re. With lighter-than -air
gases, the au tomatic sh u t-off valve u su ally cu ts
off the gas to the main bu rner only, leaving the
pilot bu rner u nprotected. The small amou nt of
gas that is released is discharged throu gh the
vent or otherwise dissipated. With LPG, however,
gas escapin g from the pilot wou ld ten d to collect
in a low place an d be a hazard. For this reason,
LPG appliances are normally equipped with 100%
safety pilots, wh ich sh u t off the gas to both the
main bu rner and the pilot in th e even t of pilot
failu re.
Wh en LPG piping is installed in crawl spaces
or in pipe tu n nels, th e en gineer may consider a
“sniffer” system, which au tomatically shuts down
th e gas su pply, sou n ds an alarm, and activates
an exhaust system to purge the escaping gas from
th e area.

Leak Test
Pr ior to ch a r gin g t h e n ew pipin g wit h LPG, a
s a tis factory leak test mu st be con du cted. The
designer shou ld refer to the applicable local code
and NFPA 54 for test requ irements.
Weymouth Formula:

198
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 2038.1
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (cfh) Given: P1 = 3 Initial pressure of the system (psi)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 1 Final pressure of the system (psi)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of pipe (ft) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in the system (psi)
P2 = Final pressure of the system (psi)

Table 7-A1 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (in.)a
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
Equivalent Actual 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.065 7.981 10.02 11.94
Length (ft) Capacities (cfh)

10 663 1,404 2,674 5,555 8,380 16,316 26,207 46,771 96,537 176,380 287,901 598,661 1,098,185 1,751,912
25 420 888 1,691 3,513 5,300 10,319 16,575 29,581 61,055 111,553 182,085 378,627 694,553 1,108,007
50 297 628 1,196 2,484 3,748 7,297 11,720 20,917 43,172 78,880 128,753 267,729 491,123 783,479
75 242 513 976 2,029 3,060 5,958 9,569 17,078 35,250 64,405 105,127 218,600 401,000 639,708
100 210 444 845 1,757 2,650 5,159 8,287 14,790 30,528 55,776 91,042 189,313 347,277 554,003
150 171 363 690 1,434 2,164 4,213 6,767 12,076 24,926 45,541 74,336 154,574 283,550 452,342
175 159 336 639 1,328 2,003 3,900 6,265 11,180 23,077 42,163 68,822 143,107 262,516 418,787
200 148 314 598 1,242 1,874 3,648 5,860 10,458 21,586 39,440 64,377 133,865 245,562 391,740
250 133 281 535 1,111 1,676 3,263 5,241 9,354 19,307 35,276 57,580 119,732 219,637 350,382
300 121 256 488 1,014 1,530 2,979 4,785 8,539 17,625 32,203 52,563 109,300 200,500 319,854
400 105 222 423 878 1,325 2,580 4,144 7,395 15,264 27,888 45,521 94,657 173,638 277,002
500 94 199 378 786 1,185 2,307 3,706 6,614 13,652 24,944 40,715 84,663 155,307 247,758
600 86 181 345 717 1,082 2,106 3,383 6,038 12,463 22,771 37,168 77,287 141,775 226,171
750 77 162 309 641 968 1,884 3,026 5,401 11,147 20,367 33,244 69,127 126,807 202,293
1000 66 140 267 556 838 1,632 2,621 4,677 9,654 17,638 28,790 59,866 109,818 175,191
1250 59 126 239 497 750 1,459 2,344 4,183 8,634 15,776 25,751 53,546 98,225 156,696
1500 54 115 218 454 684 1,332 2,140 3,819 7,882 14,401 23,507 48,880 89,666 143,043
1750 50 106 202 420 633 1,233 1,981 3,536 7,297 13,333 21,763 45,255 83,015 132,432
2000 47 99 189 393 593 1,154 1,853 3,307 6,826 12,472 20,358 42,332 77,653 123,879
2500 42 89 169 351 530 1,032 1,657 2,958 6,106 11,155 18,208 37,863 69,455 110,801
3000 38 81 154 321 484 942 1,513 2,700 5,574 10,183 16,622 34,564 63,404 101,147
4000 33 70 134 278 419 816 1,310 2,339 4,827 8,819 14,395 29,933 54,909 87,596

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (L3/s) Given: P1 = 20.69 Initial pressure of the system (kPa)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm) P2 = 6.89 Final pressure of the system (kPa)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of piping (m) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in system (kPa)
P2 = Final pressure in system (kPa)

Table 7-A1(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (mm)a
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
Equivalent Actual 15.8 20.9 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 62.7 77.9 102.2 128.2 154.1 202.7 254.5 303.2
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems

Length (m) Capacities (L/s)

3.1 5.22 11.05 21.0 43.7 65.9 128.4 206.2 368.1 759.7 1388.1 2265.8 4711.5 8642.7 13 787.6
7.6 3.30 6.99 13.31 27.7 41.7 81.2 130.4 232.8 480.5 877.9 1433.0 2979.8 5466.1 8 720.0
15.2 2.34 4.94 9.41 19.6 29.5 57.4 92.2 164.6 339.8 620.8 1013.3 2107.0 3865.1 6 166.0
22.9 1.91 4.04 7.68 15.96 24.1 46.9 75.3 134.4 277.4 506.9 827.3 1720.4 3155.9 5 034.5
30.5 1.65 3.50 6.65 13.83 20.9 40.6 65.2 116.4 240.3 439.0 716.5 1489.9 2733.1 4 360.0
45.7 1.35 2.85 5.43 11.29 17.0 33.2 53.3 95.0 196.2 358.4 585.0 1216.5 2231.5 3 559.9
53.4 1.25 2.64 5.03 10.45 15.76 30.7 49.3 88.0 181.6 331.8 541.6 1126.3 2066.0 3 295.9
61.0 1.17 2.47 4.70 9.78 14.75 28.7 46.1 82.3 169.9 310.4 506.6 1053.5 1932.6 3 083.0
76.2 1.04 2.21 4.21 8.74 13.19 25.7 41.2 73.6 151.9 277.6 453.2 942.3 1728.5 2 757.5
91.4 0.95 2.02 3.84 7.98 12.04 23.4 37.7 67.2 138.7 253.4 413.7 860.2 1577.9 2 517.3
121.9 0.83 1.75 3.33 6.91 10.43 20.3 32.6 58.2 120.1 219.5 358.3 744.9 1366.5 2 180.0
152.4 0.74 1.56 2.98 6.18 9.33 18.2 29.2 52.1 107.4 196.3 320.4 666.3 1222.3 1 949.9
182.9 0.67 1.43 2.72 5.64 8.51 16.6 26.6 47.5 98.1 179.2 292.5 608.2 1115.8 1 780.0
228.6 0.6 1.28 2.43 5.05 7.62 14.83 23.8 42.5 87.7 160.3 261.6 544.0 998.0 1 592.0
304.8 0.52 1.11 2.10 4.37 6.59 12.84 20.6 36.8 76.0 138.8 226.6 471.1 864.3 1 378.8
381.0 0.47 0.99 1.88 3.91 5.90 11.48 18.4 32.9 68.0 124.2 202.7 421.4 773.0 1 233.2
457.2 0.43 0.90 1.72 3.57 5.38 10.48 16.8 30.1 62.0 113.3 185.0 384.7 705.7 1 125.7
533.4 0.39 0.84 1.59 3.30 4.99 9.71 15.59 27.8 57.4 104.9 171.3 356.2 653.3 1 042.2
609.6 0.37 0.78 1.49 3.09 4.66 9.08 14.58 26.0 53.7 98.2 160.2 333.2 611.1 974.9
762.0 0.33 0.70 1.33 2.77 4.17 8.12 13.04 23.3 48.1 87.8 143.3 298.0 546.6 872.0
914.4 0.30 0.64 1.21 2.52 3.81 7.41 11.91 21.3 43.9 80.1 130.8 272.0 499.0 796.0
1219.2 0.26 0.55 1.05 2.19 3.30 6.42 10.31 18.4 38.0 69.4 113.3 235.6 432.1 689.4

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
199
Weymouth Formula:

200
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 2038.1
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (cfh) Given: P1 = 3 Initial pressure of the system (psi)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 2.7 Final pressure of the system (psi)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of pipe (ft) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in the system (psi)
P2 = Final pressure of the system (psi)

Table 7-A2 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (in.)a
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
Equivalent Actual 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.065 7.981 10.02 11.94
Length (ft) Capacities (cfh)

10 307 649 1,236 2,568 3,874 7,543 12,116 21,624 44,632 81,546 133,106 276,780 507,725 809,964
25 194 411 782 1,624 2,450 4,771 7,663 13,676 28,228 51,574 84,183 175,051 321,113 512,266
50 137 290 553 1,149 1,733 3,373 5,419 9,670 19,960 36,469 59,527 123,780 227,062 362,227
75 112 237 451 938 1,415 2,754 4,424 7,896 16,297 29,776 48,603 101,066 185,395 295,757
100 97 205 391 812 1,225 2,385 3,832 6,838 14,114 25,787 42,092 87,525 160,557 256,133
150 79 168 319 663 1,000 1,948 3,128 5,583 11,524 21,055 34,368 71,464 131,094 209,132
175 73 155 295 614 926 1,803 2,896 5,169 10,669 19,493 31,818 66,163 121,369 193,618
200 69 145 276 574 866 1,687 2,709 4,835 9,980 18,234 29,763 61,890 113,531 181,113
250 61 130 247 514 775 1,509 2,423 4,325 8,926 16,309 26,621 55,356 101,545 161,993
300 56 119 226 469 707 1,377 2,212 3,948 8,149 14,888 24,302 50,533 92,697 147,878
400 48 103 195 406 613 1,193 1,916 3,419 7,057 12,894 21,046 43,763 80,278 128,066
500 43 92 175 363 548 1,067 1,714 3,058 6,312 11,532 18,824 39,143 71,803 114,546
600 40 84 160 332 500 974 1,564 2,792 5,762 10,528 17,184 35,732 65,547 104,566
750 35 75 143 297 447 871 1,399 2,497 5,154 9,416 15,370 31,960 58,627 93,527
1000 31 65 124 257 387 754 1,212 2,162 4,463 8,155 13,311 27,678 50,772 80,996
1250 27 58 111 230 347 675 1,084 1,934 3,992 7,294 11,905 24,756 45,412 72,445
1500 25 53 101 210 316 616 989 1,766 3,644 6,658 10,868 22,599 41,456 66,133
1750 23 49 93 194 293 570 916 1,635 3,374 6,164 10,062 20,923 38,380 61,227
2000 22 46 87 182 274 533 857 1,529 3,156 5,766 9,412 19,571 35,902 57,273
2500 19 41 78 162 245 477 766 1,368 2,823 5,157 8,418 17,505 32,111 51,227
3000 18 37 71 148 224 436 700 1,248 2,577 4,708 7,685 15,980 29,314 46,763
4000 15 32 62 128 194 377 606 1,081 2,232 4,077 6,655 13,839 25,386 40,498

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
3
Where: Q = Gas flow (L /s) Given: P1 = 20.69 Initial pressure of the system (kPa)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm) P2 = 18.62 Final pressure of the system (kPa)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of piping (m) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in system (kPa)
P2 = Final pressure in system (kPa)

Table 7-A2(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (mm)a
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
Equivalent Actual 15.8 20.9 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 62.7 77.9 102.2 128.2 154.1 202.7 254.5 303.2
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems

Length (m) Capacities (L/s)

3.1 2.41 5.11 9.7 20.2 30.5 59.4 95.4 170.2 351.3 641.8 1047.5 2178.3 3995.8 6374.4
7.6 1.53 3.23 6.15 12.8 19.3 37.5 60.3 107.6 222.2 405.9 662.5 1377.6 2527.2 4031.5
15.2 1.08 2.29 4.35 9.0 13.6 26.5 42.6 76.1 157.1 287.0 468.5 974.1 1787.0 2850.7
22.9 0.88 1.87 3.55 7.38 11.1 21.7 34.8 62.1 128.3 234.3 382.5 795.4 1459.1 2327.6
30.5 0.76 1.62 3.08 6.39 9.6 18.8 30.2 53.8 111.1 202.9 331.3 688.8 1263.6 2015.8
45.7 0.62 1.32 2.51 5.22 7.9 15.3 24.6 43.9 90.7 165.7 270.5 562.4 1031.7 1645.9
53.4 0.58 1.22 2.33 4.83 7.29 14.2 22.8 40.7 84.0 153.4 250.4 520.7 955.2 1523.8
61.0 0.54 1.14 2.18 4.52 6.82 13.3 21.3 38.1 78.5 143.5 234.2 487.1 893.5 1425.4
76.2 0.48 1.02 1.95 4.04 6.10 11.9 19.1 34.0 70.3 128.4 209.5 435.7 799.2 1274.9
91.4 0.44 0.93 1.78 3.69 5.57 10.8 17.4 31.1 64.1 117.2 191.3 397.7 729.5 1163.8
121.9 0.38 0.81 1.54 3.2 4.82 9.4 15.1 26.9 55.5 101.5 165.6 344.4 631.8 1007.9
152.4 0.34 0.72 1.38 2.86 4.31 8.4 13.5 24.1 49.7 90.8 148.1 308.1 565.1 901.5
182.9 0.31 0.66 1.26 2.61 3.94 7.7 12.3 22.0 45.3 82.9 135.2 281.2 515.9 822.9
228.6 0.28 0.59 1.12 2.33 3.52 6.85 11.0 19.7 40.6 74.1 121.0 251.5 461.4 736.1
304.8 0.24 0.51 0.97 2.02 3.05 5.94 9.5 17.0 35.1 64.2 104.8 217.8 399.6 637.4
381.0 0.22 0.46 0.87 1.81 2.73 5.31 8.5 15.2 31.4 57.4 93.7 194.8 357.4 570.1
457.2 0.20 0.42 0.79 1.65 2.49 4.85 7.8 13.9 28.7 52.4 85.5 177.9 326.3 520.5
533.4 0.18 0.39 0.74 1.53 2.30 4.49 7.21 12.9 26.6 48.5 79.2 164.7 302.1 481.9
609.6 0.17 0.36 0.69 1.43 2.16 4.2 6.74 12.0 24.8 45.4 74.1 154.0 282.5 450.7
762.0 0.15 0.32 0.62 1.28 1.93 3.75 6.03 10.8 22.2 40.6 66.3 137.8 252.7 403.2
914.4 0.14 0.30 0.56 1.17 1.76 3.43 5.51 9.8 20.3 37.1 60.5 125.8 230.7 368.0
1219.2 0.12 0.26 0.49 1.01 1.52 2.97 4.77 8.5 17.6 32.1 52.4 108.9 199.8 318.7

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
201
Weymouth Formula:

202
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 2038.1
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (cfh) Given: P1 = 5 Initial pressure of the system (psi)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 1 Final pressure of the system (psi)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of pipe (ft) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in the system (psi)
P2 = Final pressure of the system (psi)

Table 7-A3 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (in.)a
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
Equivalent Actual 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.065 7.981 10.02 11.94
Length (ft) Capacities (cfh)

10 1,149 2,433 4,631 9,622 14,514 28,259 45,392 81,010 167,206 305,500 498,660 1,036,911 1,902,112 3,034,401
25 727 1,538 2,929 6,086 9,180 17,873 28,708 51,235 105,750 193,215 315,380 655,800 1,203,001 1,919,124
50 514 1,088 2,071 4,303 6,491 12,638 20,300 36,229 74,777 136,624 223,007 463,721 850,650 1,357,026
75 420 888 1,691 3,513 5,300 10,319 16,575 29,581 61,055 111,553 182,085 378,627 694,553 1,108,007
100 363 769 1,464 3,043 4,590 8,936 14,354 25,617 52,875 96,608 157,690 327,900 601,501 959,562
150 297 628 1,196 2,484 3,748 7,297 11,720 20,917 43,172 78,880 128,753 267,729 491,123 783,479
175 275 581 1,107 2,300 3,470 6,755 10,851 19,365 39,970 73,028 119,202 247,869 454,692 725,361
200 257 544 1,035 2,152 3,245 6,319 10,150 18,114 37,388 68,312 111,504 231,860 425,325 678,513
250 230 487 926 1,924 2,903 5,652 9,078 16,202 33,441 61,100 99,732 207,382 380,422 606,880
300 210 444 845 1,757 2,650 5,159 8,287 14,790 30,528 55,776 91,042 189,313 347,277 554,003
400 182 385 732 1,521 2,295 4,468 7,177 12,809 26,438 48,304 78,845 163,950 300,750 479,781
500 163 344 655 1,361 2,053 3,996 6,419 11,456 23,647 43,204 70,521 146,641 268,999 429,129
600 148 314 598 1,242 1,874 3,648 5,860 10,458 21,586 39,440 64,377 133,865 245,562 391,740
750 133 281 535 1,111 1,676 3,263 5,241 9,354 19,307 35,276 57,580 119,732 219,637 350,382
1000 115 243 463 962 1,451 2,826 4,539 8,101 16,721 30,550 49,866 103,691 190,211 303,440
1250 103 218 414 861 1,298 2,528 4,060 7,246 14,955 27,325 44,601 92,744 170,130 271,405
1500 94 199 378 786 1,185 2,307 3,706 6,614 13,652 24,944 40,715 84,663 155,307 247,758
1750 87 184 350 727 1,097 2,136 3,431 6,124 12,640 23,094 37,695 78,383 143,786 229,379
2000 81 172 327 680 1,026 1,998 3,210 5,728 11,823 21,602 35,261 73,321 134,500 214,565
2500 73 154 293 609 918 1,787 2,871 5,123 10,575 19,322 31,538 65,580 120,300 191,912
3000 66 140 267 556 838 1,632 2,621 4,677 9,654 17,638 28,790 59,866 109,818 175,191
4000 57 122 232 481 726 1,413 2,270 4,050 8,360 15,275 24,933 51,846 95,106 151,720

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
3
Where: Q = Gas flow (L /s) Given: P1 = 34.48 Initial pressure of the system (kPa)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm) P2 = 6.89 Final pressure of the system (kPa)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of piping (m) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in system (kPa)
P2 = Final pressure in system (kPa)

Table 7-A3(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (mm)a
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
Equivalent Actual 15.8 20.9 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 62.7 77.9 102.2 128.2 154.1 202.7 254.5 303.2
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems

Length (m) Capacities (L/s)

3.1 9.04 19.14 36.4 75.7 114.2 222.4 357.2 637.5 1315.90 2404.30 3924.50 8160.50 14 969.60 23 880.7
7.6 5.72 12.11 23.05 47.9 72.2 140.7 225.9 403.2 832.3 1520.60 2482.00 5161.10 9 467.60 15 103.5
15.2 4.04 8.56 16.30 33.9 51.1 99.5 159.8 285.1 588.5 1075.20 1755.10 3649.50 6 694.60 10 679.8
22.9 3.30 6.99 13.31 27.65 41.7 81.2 130.4 232.8 480.5 877.9 1433.00 2979.80 5 466.10 8 720.0
30.5 2.86 6.05 11.52 23.95 36.1 70.3 113.0 201.6 416.1 760.3 1241.00 2580.60 4 733.80 7 551.8
45.7 2.34 4.94 9.41 19.55 29.5 57.4 92.2 164.6 339.8 620.8 1013.30 2107.00 3 865.10 6 166.0
53.4 2.16 4.58 8.71 18.10 27.31 53.2 85.4 152.4 314.6 574.7 938.1 1950.70 3 578.40 5 708.6
61.0 2.02 4.28 8.15 16.93 25.54 49.7 79.9 142.6 294.2 537.6 877.5 1824.70 3 347.30 5 339.9
76.2 1.81 3.83 7.29 15.15 22.85 44.5 71.4 127.5 263.2 480.9 784.9 1632.10 2 993.90 4 776.1
91.4 1.65 3.50 6.65 13.83 20.85 40.6 65.2 116.4 240.3 439.0 716.5 1489.90 2 733.10 4 360.0
121.9 1.43 3.03 5.76 11.97 18.06 35.2 56.5 100.8 208.1 380.2 620.5 1290.30 2 366.90 3 775.9
152.4 1.28 2.71 5.15 10.71 16.15 31.5 50.5 90.2 186.1 340.0 555.0 1154.10 2 117.00 3 377.2
182.9 1.17 2.47 4.70 9.78 14.75 28.7 46.1 82.3 169.9 310.4 506.6 1053.50 1 932.60 3 083.0
228.6 1.04 2.21 4.21 8.74 13.19 25.68 41.2 73.6 151.9 277.6 453.2 942.3 1 728.50 2 757.5
304.8 0.90 1.91 3.64 7.57 11.42 22.24 35.7 63.8 131.6 240.4 392.4 816.0 1 497.00 2 388.1
381.0 0.81 1.71 3.26 6.77 10.22 19.89 32.0 57.0 117.7 215.0 351.0 729.9 1 338.90 2 136.0
457.2 0.74 1.56 2.98 6.18 9.33 18.16 29.2 52.1 107.4 196.3 320.4 666.3 1 222.30 1 949.9
533.4 0.68 1.45 2.75 5.72 8.63 16.81 27.0 48.2 99.5 181.7 296.7 616.9 1 131.60 1 805.2
609.6 0.64 1.35 2.58 5.35 8.08 15.73 25.26 45.1 93.0 170.0 277.5 577.0 1 058.50 1 688.6
762.0 0.57 1.21 2.30 4.79 7.22 14.07 22.59 40.3 83.2 152.1 248.2 516.1 946.8 1 510.4
914.4 0.52 1.11 2.10 4.37 6.59 12.84 20.62 36.8 76.0 138.8 226.6 471.1 864.3 1 378.8
1219.2 0.45 0.96 1.82 3.79 5.71 11.12 17.86 31.9 65.8 120.2 196.2 408.0 748.5 1 194.0

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
203
Weymouth Formula:

204
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 2038.1
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (cfh) Given: P1 = 5 Initial pressure of the system (psi)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 4.5 Final pressure of the system (psi)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of pipe (ft) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in the system (psi)
P2 = Final pressure of the system (psi)

Table 7-A4 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (in.)a
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
Equivalent Actual 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.065 7.981 10.02 11.94
Length (ft) Capacities (cfh)

10 511 1,082 2,060 4,281 6,457 12,572 20,194 36,039 74,386 135,910 221,843 461,299 846,208 1,349,939
25 323 684 1,303 2,707 4,084 7,951 12,772 22,793 47,046 85,957 140,306 291,751 535,189 853,776
50 229 484 921 1,914 2,888 5,622 9,031 16,117 33,267 60,781 99,211 206,299 378,436 603,711
75 187 395 752 1,563 2,358 4,591 7,374 13,160 27,162 49,627 81,006 168,443 308,992 492,928
100 162 342 651 1,354 2,042 3,976 6,386 11,397 23,523 42,979 70,153 145,876 267,595 426,888
150 132 279 532 1,105 1,667 3,246 5,214 9,305 19,206 35,092 57,280 119,107 218,490 348,553
175 122 259 492 1,023 1,544 3,005 4,827 8,615 17,782 32,489 53,031 110,272 202,282 322,697
200 114 242 461 957 1,444 2,811 4,515 8,059 16,633 30,390 49,606 103,150 189,218 301,856
250 102 216 412 856 1,291 2,514 4,039 7,208 14,877 27,182 44,369 92,260 169,242 269,988
300 93 198 376 782 1,179 2,295 3,687 6,580 13,581 24,814 40,503 84,221 154,496 246,464
400 81 171 326 677 1,021 1,988 3,193 5,698 11,762 21,489 35,076 72,938 133,797 213,444
500 72 153 291 605 913 1,778 2,856 5,097 10,520 19,221 31,373 65,238 119,672 190,910
600 66 140 266 553 834 1,623 2,607 4,653 9,603 17,546 28,640 59,553 109,245 174,276
750 59 125 238 494 746 1,452 2,332 4,161 8,589 15,694 25,616 53,266 97,712 155,878
1000 51 108 206 428 646 1,257 2,019 3,604 7,439 13,591 22,184 46,130 84,621 134,994
1250 46 97 184 383 578 1,124 1,806 3,223 6,653 12,156 19,842 41,260 75,687 120,742
1500 42 88 168 350 527 1,027 1,649 2,943 6,074 11,097 18,113 37,665 69,093 110,222
1750 39 82 156 324 488 950 1,527 2,724 5,623 10,274 16,770 34,871 63,967 102,046
2000 36 77 146 303 457 889 1,428 2,548 5,260 9,610 15,687 32,619 59,836 95,455
2500 32 68 130 271 408 795 1,277 2,279 4,705 8,596 14,031 29,175 53,519 85,378
3000 30 62 119 247 373 726 1,166 2,081 4,295 7,847 12,808 26,633 48,856 77,939
4000 26 54 103 214 323 629 1,010 1,802 3,719 6,796 11,092 23,065 42,310 67,497

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
3
Where: Q = Gas flow (L /s) Given: P1 = 34.48 Initial pressure of the system (kPa)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm) P2 = 31.03 Final pressure of the system (kPa)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of piping (m) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in system (kPa)
P2 = Final pressure in system (kPa)

Table 7-A4(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (mm)a
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
Equivalent Actual 15.8 20.9 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 62.7 77.9 102.2 128.2 154.1 202.7 254.5 303.2
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems

Length (m) Capacities (L/s)

3.1 4.02 8.52 16.2 33.7 50.8 98.9 158.9 283.6 585.4 1069.60 1745.9 3630.4 6659.7 10 624.0
7.6 2.54 5.39 10.25 21.3 32.1 62.6 100.5 179.4 370.3 676.5 1104.2 2296.1 4211.9 6 719.2
15.2 1.80 3.81 7.25 15.1 22.7 44.2 71.1 126.8 261.8 478.3 780.8 1623.6 2978.3 4 751.2
22.9 1.47 3.11 5.92 12.3 18.6 36.1 58 103.6 213.8 390.6 637.5 1325.6 2431.8 3 879.3
30.5 1.27 2.69 5.13 10.65 16.1 31.3 50.3 89.7 185.1 338.2 552.1 1148.0 2106.0 3 359.6
45.7 1.04 2.2 4.19 8.70 13.1 25.5 41 73.2 151.2 276.2 450.8 937.4 1719.5 2 743.1
53.4 0.96 2.04 3.88 8.05 12.15 23.7 38 67.8 139.9 255.7 417.4 867.8 1592.0 2 539.6
61.0 0.90 1.9 3.63 7.53 11.36 22.1 35.5 63.4 130.9 239.2 390.4 811.8 1489.1 2 375.6
76.2 0.80 1.7 3.24 6.74 10.16 19.8 31.8 56.7 117.1 213.9 349.2 726.1 1331.9 2 124.8
91.4 0.73 1.55 2.96 6.15 9.28 18.1 29 51.8 106.9 195.3 318.8 662.8 1215.9 1 939.7
121.9 0.64 1.35 2.56 5.33 8.03 15.6 25.1 44.8 92.6 169.1 276.1 574.0 1053.0 1 679.8
152.4 0.57 1.2 2.29 4.76 7.19 14.0 22.5 40.1 82.8 151.3 246.9 513.4 941.8 1 502.5
182.9 0.52 1.1 2.09 4.35 6.56 12.8 20.5 36.6 75.6 138.1 225.4 468.7 859.8 1 371.6
228.6 0.46 0.98 1.87 3.89 5.87 11.42 18.4 32.8 67.6 123.5 201.6 419.2 769.0 1 226.8
304.8 0.40 0.85 1.62 3.37 5.08 9.89 15.9 28.4 58.5 107.0 174.6 363.0 666.0 1 062.4
381.0 0.36 0.76 1.45 3.01 4.55 8.85 14.2 25.4 52.4 95.7 156.2 324.7 595.7 950.2
457.2 0.33 0.7 1.32 2.75 4.15 8.08 13.0 23.2 47.8 87.3 142.6 296.4 543.8 867.4
533.4 0.30 0.64 1.23 2.55 3.84 7.48 12.01 21.4 44.3 80.9 132 274.4 503.4 803.1
609.6 0.28 0.60 1.15 2.38 3.59 7.00 11.24 20.1 41.4 75.6 123.5 256.7 470.9 751.2
762.0 0.25 0.54 1.03 2.13 3.21 6.26 10.05 17.9 37.0 67.6 110.4 229.6 421.2 671.9
914.4 0.23 0.49 0.94 1.95 2.93 5.71 9.18 16.4 33.8 61.8 100.8 209.6 384.5 613.4
1219.2 0.20 0.43 0.81 1.68 2.54 4.95 7.95 14.2 29.3 53.5 87.3 181.5 333.0 531.2

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
205
Weymouth Formula

206
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 2038.1
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (cfh) Given: P1 = 10 Initial pressure of the system (psi)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 1 Final pressure of the system (psi)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of pipe (ft) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in the system (psi)
P2 = Final pressure of the system (psi)

Table 7-A5 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (in.)a
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
Equivalent Actual 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.065 7.981 10.02 11.94
Length (ft) Capacities (cfh)

10 2,334 4,941 9,405 19,542 29,478 57,395 92,191 164,531 339,597 620,473 1,012,783 2,105,977 3,863,208 6,162,898
25 1,476 3,125 5,948 12,360 18,644 36,300 58,307 104,059 214,780 392,422 640,540 1,331,937 2,443,307 3,897,759
50 1,044 2,209 4,206 8,740 13,183 25,668 41,229 73,581 151,873 277,484 452,930 941,822 1,727,679 2,756,132
75 852 1,804 3,434 7,136 10,764 20,958 33,664 60,078 124,003 226,565 369,816 768,994 1,410,644 2,250,372
100 738 1,562 2,974 6,180 9,322 18,150 29,153 52,029 107,390 196,211 320,270 665,968 1,221,654 1,948,880
150 603 1,276 2,428 5,046 7,611 14,819 23,804 42,482 87,684 160,205 261,499 543,761 997,476 1,591,253
175 558 1,181 2,248 4,672 7,047 13,720 22,038 39,330 81,179 148,321 242,101 503,425 923,483 1,473,214
200 522 1,105 2,103 4,370 6,592 12,834 20,615 36,790 75,936 138,742 226,465 470,911 863,839 1,378,066
250 467 988 1,881 3,908 5,896 11,479 18,438 32,906 67,919 124,095 202,557 421,195 772,642 1,232,580
300 426 902 1,717 3,568 5,382 10,479 16,832 30,039 62,002 113,282 184,908 384,497 705,322 1,125,186
400 369 781 1,487 3,090 4,661 9,075 14,577 26,015 53,695 98,105 160,135 332,984 610,827 974,440
500 330 699 1,330 2,764 4,169 8,117 13,038 23,268 48,026 87,748 143,229 297,830 546,340 871,565
600 301 638 1,214 2,523 3,806 7,410 11,902 21,241 43,842 80,103 130,750 271,880 498,738 795,627
750 269 570 1,086 2,257 3,404 6,627 10,645 18,998 39,213 71,646 116,946 243,177 446,085 711,630
1000 233 494 941 1,954 2,948 5,740 9,219 16,453 33,960 62,047 101,278 210,598 386,321 616,290
1250 209 442 841 1,748 2,637 5,134 8,246 14,716 30,375 55,497 90,586 188,364 345,536 551,226
1500 191 403 768 1,596 2,407 4,686 7,527 13,434 27,728 50,661 82,693 171,952 315,430 503,199
1750 176 373 711 1,477 2,228 4,339 6,969 12,437 25,671 46,903 76,559 159,197 292,031 465,871
2000 165 349 665 1,382 2,084 4,058 6,519 11,634 24,013 43,874 71,615 148,915 273,170 435,783
2500 148 312 595 1,236 1,864 3,630 5,831 10,406 21,478 39,242 64,054 133,194 244,331 389,776
3000 135 285 543 1,128 1,702 3,314 5,323 9,499 19,607 35,823 58,473 121,589 223,042 355,815
4000 117 247 470 977 1,474 2,870 4,610 8,227 16,980 31,024 50,639 105,299 193,160 308,145

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Weymouth Formula
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
3
Where: Q = Gas flow (L /s) Given: P1 = 68.95 Initial pressure of the system (kPa)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm) P2 = 6.89 Final pressure of the system (kPa)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of piping (m) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in system (kPa)
P2 = Final pressure in system (kPa)

Table 7-A5(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (mm)a
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
Equivalent Actual 15.8 20.9 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 62.7 77.9 102.2 128.2 154.1 202.7 254.5 303.2
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems

Length (m) Capacities (L/s)

3.1 18.37 38.88 74.0 153.8 232 451.7 725.5 1294.90 2672.6 4883.1 7970.6 16 574.0 30 403.4 48 502.0
7.6 11.62 24.59 46.81 97.3 146.7 285.7 458.9 818.9 1690.3 3088.4 5041.0 10 482.3 19 228.8 30 675.4
15.2 8.21 17.39 33.10 68.8 103.8 202.0 324.5 579.1 1195.2 2183.8 3564.6 7 412.1 13 596.8 21 690.8
22.9 6.71 14.20 27.03 56.16 84.7 164.9 264.9 472.8 975.9 1783.1 2910.5 6 052.0 11 101.8 17 710.4
30.5 5.81 12.30 23.41 48.64 73.40 142.8 229.4 409.5 845.2 1544.2 2520.5 5 241.2 9 614.4 15 337.7
45.7 4.74 10.04 19.11 39.71 59.90 116.6 187.3 334.3 690.1 1260.8 2058.0 4 279.4 7 850.1 12 523.2
53.4 4.39 9.29 17.69 36.76 55.46 108.0 173.4 309.5 638.9 1167.3 1905.3 3 962.0 7 267.8 11 594.2
61.0 4.11 8.69 16.55 34.39 51.88 101.0 162.2 289.5 597.6 1091.9 1782.3 3 706.1 6 798.4 10 845.4
76.2 3.67 7.78 14.80 30.76 46.40 90.3 145.1 259 534.5 976.6 1594.1 3 314.8 6 080.7 9 700.4
91.4 3.35 7.10 13.51 28.08 42.36 82.5 132.5 236.4 488.0 891.5 1455.2 3 026.0 5 550.9 8 855.2
121.9 2.90 6.15 11.70 24.32 36.68 71.4 114.7 204.7 422.6 772.1 1260.3 2 620.6 4 807.2 7 668.8
152.4 2.60 5.50 10.47 21.75 32.81 63.9 102.6 183.1 378 690.6 1127.2 2 343.9 4 299.7 6 859.2
182.9 2.37 5.02 9.56 19.86 29.95 58.3 93.7 167.2 345 630.4 1029.0 2 139.7 3 925.1 6 261.6
228.6 2.12 4.49 8.55 17.76 26.79 52.16 83.8 149.5 308.6 563.9 920.4 1 913.8 3 510.7 5 600.5
304.8 1.84 3.89 7.40 15.38 23.20 45.17 72.6 129.5 267.3 488.3 797.1 1 657.4 3 040.3 4 850.2
381.0 1.64 3.48 6.62 13.76 20.75 40.4 64.9 115.8 239.0 436.8 712.9 1 482.4 2 719.4 4 338.2
457.2 1.50 3.17 6.04 12.56 18.94 36.88 59.2 105.7 218.2 398.7 650.8 1 353.3 2 482.4 3 960.2
533.4 1.39 2.94 5.60 11.63 17.54 34.15 54.85 97.9 202.0 369.1 602.5 1 252.9 2 298.3 3 666.4
609.6 1.30 2.75 5.23 10.88 16.40 31.94 51.3 91.6 189.0 345.3 563.6 1 172.0 2 149.8 3 429.6
762.0 1.16 2.46 4.68 9.73 14.67 28.57 45.89 81.9 169.0 308.8 504.1 1 048.2 1 922.9 3 067.5
914.4 1.06 2.24 4.27 8.88 13.39 26.08 41.89 74.8 154.3 281.9 460.2 956.9 1 755.3 2 800.3
1219.2 0.92 1.94 3.70 7.69 11.60 22.59 36.28 64.7 133.6 244.2 398.5 828.7 1 520.2 2 425.1

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
207
Weymouth Formula:

208
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 2038.1
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (cfh) Given: P1 = 10 Initial pressure of the system (psi)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 9 Final pressure of the system (psi)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of pipe (ft) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in the system (psi)
P2 = Final pressure of the system (psi)

Table 7-A6 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (in.)a
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
Equivalent Actual 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.065 7.981 10.02 11.94
Length (ft) Capacities (cfh)

10 1,022 2,164 4,120 8,561 12,914 25,144 40,388 72,079 148,773 271,820 443,686 922,599 1,692,417 2,699,878
25 647 1,369 2,606 5,415 8,168 15,902 25,543 45,587 94,092 171,914 280,612 583,503 1,070,378 1,707,553
50 457 968 1,843 3,829 5,775 11,245 18,062 32,235 66,533 121,562 198,422 412,599 756,872 1,207,422
75 373 790 1,505 3,126 4,716 9,181 14,748 26,319 54,324 99,255 162,011 336,885 617,983 985,856
100 323 684 1,303 2,707 4,084 7,951 12,772 22,793 47,046 85,957 140,306 291,751 535,189 853,776
150 264 559 1,064 2,211 3,334 6,492 10,428 18,611 38,413 70,184 114,559 238,214 436,980 697,106
175 244 517 985 2,047 3,087 6,011 9,655 17,230 35,563 64,978 106,061 220,543 404,565 645,394
200 229 484 921 1,914 2,888 5,622 9,031 16,117 33,267 60,781 99,211 206,299 378,436 603,711
250 204 433 824 1,712 2,583 5,029 8,078 14,416 29,755 54,364 88,737 184,520 338,483 539,976
300 187 395 752 1,563 2,358 4,591 7,374 13,160 27,162 49,627 81,006 168,443 308,992 492,928
400 162 342 651 1,354 2,042 3,976 6,386 11,397 23,523 42,979 70,153 145,876 267,595 426,888
500 145 306 583 1,211 1,826 3,556 5,712 10,193 21,040 38,441 62,747 130,475 239,344 381,820
600 132 279 532 1,105 1,667 3,246 5,214 9,305 19,206 35,092 57,280 119,107 218,490 348,553
750 118 250 476 989 1,491 2,903 4,664 8,323 17,179 31,387 51,232 106,533 195,423 311,755
1000 102 216 412 856 1,291 2,514 4,039 7,208 14,877 27,182 44,369 92,260 169,242 269,988
1250 91 194 369 766 1,155 2,249 3,612 6,447 13,307 24,312 39,684 82,520 151,374 241,484
1500 83 177 336 699 1,054 2,053 3,298 5,885 12,147 22,194 36,227 75,330 138,185 220,444
1750 77 164 311 647 976 1,901 3,053 5,449 11,246 20,548 33,539 69,742 127,935 204,092
2000 72 153 291 605 913 1,778 2,856 5,097 10,520 19,221 31,373 65,238 119,672 190,910
2500 65 137 261 541 817 1,590 2,554 4,559 9,409 17,191 28,061 58,350 107,038 170,755
3000 59 125 238 494 746 1,452 2,332 4,161 8,589 15,694 25,616 53,266 97,712 155,878
4000 51 108 206 428 646 1,257 2,019 3,604 7,439 13,591 22,184 46,130 84,621 134,994

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) ⋅ D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
3
Where: Q = Gas flow (L /s) Given: P1 = 68.95 Initial pressure of the system (kPa)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm) P2 = 62.06 Final pressure of the system (kPa)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of piping (m) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in system (kPa)
P2 = Final pressure in system (kPa)

Table 7-A6(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (mm)a
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
Equivalent Actual 15.8 20.9 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 62.7 77.9 102.2 128.2 154.1 202.7 254.5 303.2
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems

Length (m) Capacities (L/s)

3.1 8.05 17.03 32.4 67.4 101.6 197.9 317.9 567.3 1170.80 2139.20 3491.8 7260.9 13 319.3 21 248.0
7.6 5.09 10.77 20.51 42.6 64.3 125.2 201 358.8 740.5 1353.00 2208.4 4592.2 8 423.9 13 438.4
15.2 3.6 7.62 14.5 30.1 45.5 88.5 142.1 253.7 523.6 956.7 1561.6 3247.2 5 956.6 9 502.4
22.9 2.94 6.22 11.84 24.6 37.1 72.3 116.1 207.1 427.5 781.1 1275.0 2651.3 4 863.5 7 758.7
30.5 2.54 5.39 10.25 21.31 32.1 62.6 100.5 179.4 370.3 676.5 1104.2 2296.1 4 211.9 6 719.2
45.7 2.08 4.4 8.37 17.4 26.2 51.1 82.1 146.5 302.3 552.3 901.6 1874.7 3 439.0 5 486.2
53.4 1.92 4.07 7.75 16.11 24.3 47.3 76.0 135.6 279.9 511.4 834.7 1735.7 3 183.9 5 079.3
61.0 1.8 3.81 7.25 15.07 22.73 44.2 71.1 126.8 261.8 478.3 780.8 1623.6 2 978.3 4 751.2
76.2 1.61 3.41 6.49 13.48 20.33 39.6 63.6 113.5 234.2 427.8 698.4 1452.2 2 663.9 4 249.6
91.4 1.47 3.11 5.92 12.3 18.56 36.1 58.0 103.6 213.8 390.6 637.5 1325.6 2 431.8 3 879.3
121.9 1.27 2.69 5.13 10.65 16.07 31.3 50.3 89.7 185.1 338.2 552.1 1148.0 2 106.0 3 359.6
152.4 1.14 2.41 4.59 9.53 14.37 28 45.0 80.2 165.6 302.5 493.8 1026.8 1 883.6 3 004.9
182.9 1.04 2.2 4.19 8.7 13.12 25.5 41.0 73.2 151.2 276.2 450.8 937.4 1 719.5 2 743.1
228.6 0.93 1.97 3.74 7.78 11.74 22.85 36.7 65.5 135.2 247.0 403.2 838.4 1 538.0 2 453.5
304.8 0.8 1.7 3.24 6.74 10.16 19.79 31.8 56.7 117.1 213.9 349.2 726.1 1 331.9 2 124.8
381.0 0.72 1.52 2.9 6.03 9.09 17.7 28.4 50.7 104.7 191.3 312.3 649.4 1 191.3 1 900.5
457.2 0.66 1.39 2.65 5.5 8.3 16.16 26.0 46.3 95.6 174.7 285.1 592.8 1 087.5 1 734.9
533.4 0.61 1.29 2.45 5.09 7.68 14.96 24.03 42.9 88.5 161.7 264.0 548.9 1 006.8 1 606.2
609.6 0.57 1.2 2.29 4.76 7.19 13.99 22.48 40.1 82.8 151.3 246.9 513.4 941.8 1 502.5
762.0 0.51 1.08 2.05 4.26 6.43 12.52 20.1 35.9 74.1 135.3 220.8 459.2 842.4 1 343.8
914.4 0.46 0.98 1.87 3.89 5.87 11.42 18.35 32.8 67.6 123.5 201.6 419.2 769.0 1 226.8
1219.2 0.4 0.85 1.62 3.37 5.08 9.89 15.89 28.4 58.5 107.0 174.6 363.0 666.0 1 062.4

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
209
Spitzglass Formula:

210
d5h ½
Q = 3550
SL (1 + 3.6/d + 0.03d)
Where: Q = Flow (ft3/h) Given: h = 3 The pressure drop through the system (in. wc)
d = Internal pipe diameter (in.) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
h = Pressure drop (in. wc)
S = Specific gravity of the natural gas
L = Total equivalent length of system piping (ft)

Table 7-A7 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 1 psi
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (in.)a
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
Equivalent Actual 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.065 7.981 10.02 11.94
Length (ft) Capacities (ft3/h)

10 294 666 1,339 2,939 4,556 9,209 15,110 27,496 57,513 105,194 170,658 347,415 619,219 959,462
20 208 471 947 2,078 3,221 6,512 10,685 19,443 40,668 74,383 120,674 245,660 437,854 678,442
25 186 421 847 1,859 2,881 5,824 9,557 17,390 36,374 66,531 107,934 219,725 391,628 606,817
30 169 385 773 1,697 2,630 5,317 8,724 15,875 33,205 60,734 98,530 200,580 357,506 553,946
35 157 356 716 1,571 2,435 4,922 8,077 14,697 30,742 56,229 91,221 185,701 330,986 512,854
40 147 333 670 1,470 2,278 4,604 7,555 13,748 28,756 52,597 85,329 173,708 309,609 479,731
45 138 314 631 1,386 2,148 4,341 7,123 12,962 27,112 49,589 80,449 163,773 291,903 452,295
50 131 298 599 1,315 2,037 4,118 6,758 12,297 25,720 47,044 76,321 155,369 276,923 429,084
60 120 272 547 1,200 1,860 3,759 6,169 11,225 23,479 42,945 69,671 141,832 252,795 391,699
70 111 252 506 1,111 1,722 3,481 5,711 10,393 21,738 39,760 64,503 131,311 234,043 362,643
80 104 236 473 1,039 1,611 3,256 5,342 9,721 20,334 37,192 60,337 122,830 218,927 339,221
90 98 222 446 980 1,519 3,070 5,037 9,165 19,171 35,065 56,886 115,805 206,406 319,821
100 93 211 423 930 1,441 2,912 4,778 8,695 18,187 33,265 53,967 109,862 195,814 303,409
125 83 188 379 831 1,289 2,605 4,274 7,777 16,267 29,753 48,269 98,264 175,142 271,377
150 76 172 346 759 1,176 2,378 3,901 7,100 14,850 27,161 44,064 89,702 159,882 247,732
225 62 140 282 620 960 1,941 3,186 5,797 12,125 22,177 35,978 73,242 130,543 202,272
300 54 122 244 537 832 1,681 2,759 5,020 10,500 19,206 31,158 63,429 113,053 175,173
400 46 105 212 465 720 1,456 2,389 4,348 9,094 16,633 26,983 54,931 97,907 151,704
500 42 94 189 416 644 1,302 2,137 3,889 8,134 14,877 24,135 49,132 87,571 135,688
1000 29 67 134 294 456 921 1,511 2,750 5,751 10,519 17,066 34,742 61,922 95,946
1500 24 54 109 240 372 752 1,234 2,245 4,696 8,589 13,934 28,366 50,559 78,340
2000 21 47 95 208 322 651 1,068 1,944 4,067 7,438 12,067 24,566 43,785 67,844

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Spitzglass Formula:
d5h ½
Q = 100.536
SL (1 + 3.6/d + 0.03d)
Where: Q = Flow (m3/h) Given: h = 76.2 The pressure drop through the system (mm wc)
d = Internal pipe diameter (mm) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
h = Pressure drop (mm wc)
S = Specific gravity of the natural gas
L = Total equivalent length of system piping (m)

Table 7-A7(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 6.9 kPa
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (mm)a
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
Equivalent Actual 15.80 20.93 26.64 35.05 40.89 52.50 62.71 77.93 102.26 128.19 154.05 202.72 254.51 303.23
Length (m) Capacities (m3/h)
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems

3 8 19 38 83 129 261 428 779 1629 2979 4833 9839 17 536 27 172
6 6 13 27 59 91 184 303 551 1152 2107 3417 6957 12 400 19 213
8 5 12 24 53 82 165 271 492 1030 1884 3057 6223 11 091 17 185
9 5 11 22 48 74 151 247 450 940 1720 2790 5680 10 125 15 688
11 4 10 20 44 69 139 229 416 871 1592 2583 5259 9 374 14 524
12 4 9 19 42 65 130 214 389 814 1490 2417 4919 8 768 13 586
14 4 9 18 39 61 123 202 367 768 1404 2278 4638 8 267 12 809
15 4 8 17 37 58 117 191 348 728 1332 2161 4400 7 842 12 152
18 3 8 15 34 53 106 175 318 665 1216 1973 4017 7 159 11 093
21 3 7 14 31 49 99 162 294 616 1126 1827 3719 6 628 10 270
24 3 7 13 29 46 92 151 275 576 1053 1709 3479 6 200 9 607
27 3 6 13 28 43 87 143 260 543 993 1611 3280 5 845 9 057
30 3 6 12 26 41 82 135 246 515 942 1528 3111 5 545 8 593
38 2 5 11 24 36 74 121 220 461 843 1367 2783 4 960 7 685
46 2 5 10 21 33 67 110 201 421 769 1248 2540 4 528 7 016
69 2 4 8 18 27 55 90 164 343 628 1019 2074 3 697 5 728
91 2 3 7 15 24 48 78 142 297 544 882 1796 3 202 4 961
122 1 3 6 13 20 41 68 123 258 471 764 1556 2 773 4 296
152 1 3 5 12 18 37 61 110 230 421 683 1391 2 480 3 843
305 1 2 4 8 13 26 43 78 163 298 483 984 1 754 2 717
457 1 2 3 7 11 21 35 64 133 243 395 803 1 432 2 219
610 1 1 3 6 9 18 30 55 115 211 342 696 1 240 1 921

Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
211
212 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

APPENDIX B—VALUES OF FUEL GAS Table 7-B1 Typical Heating Values

1000 Btu/h/ft3 (11 357 000 J/m3) Natural gas
Given: Specific gravity, minimum 1.00 Natural gas
520 Btu/h/ft3 (5 905 640 J/m3) Manufactured gas
Specific gravity, normal 0.60 Natural gas
800 Btu/h/ft3 (9 085 600 J/m3) Mixed gas
Specific gravity, max. 0.55 Natural gas
2500 Btu/h/ft3 (28 392 500 J/m3) LPG (Propane)
Specific gravity, standard 1.53 LPG
3175 Btu/h/ft3 (36 058 475 J/m3) LPG (Butane)

Table 7-B2 Typical Working Pressures

Low NG pressure Minimum 0 in. wc
Max. 14.0 in. wc (3.5 kPa)
Medium NG pressure Minimum 14.1 in. wc (3.6 kPa)
Max. 5.00 psig (34.5 kPa)
High NG pressure Minimum 5.01 psig (96.6 kPa)

Table 7-B3 Conversion Factors

Units Multiply by To obtain

Btu per cubic foot (Btu/ft3) 37,260 Joules per cubic centimeter (J/cm3)
Cubic feet (ft3) 0.028317 Cubic meters (m3)
3
Cubic feet (ft ) 28.316 Liters (L)
°F 9/5 (+32) °C
Gallons (gal) 3.785 Liters (L)
Inches (in.) 25.40 Millimeters (mm)
Inches of mercury (in. Hg) @ 60°F 3.3769 kPa
Inches of water (in. wc) @ 62°F 0.03613 Pounds per sq. in. (psi)
Inches of water (in. wc) @ 62°F 0.57808 Ounces per sq. in.
Inches of water (in. wc) @ 62°F 0.073692 Inches of mercury (in. Hg) @ 60 °F
Inches of water (in. wc) @ 60°F 0.2488 kPa
Pounds per sq. in. (psi) 6.964 kPa

Table 7-B4 Specific Gravity Multipliers

Specific Capacity Specific Capacity Specific Capacity
Gravity Multiplier Gravity Multiplier Gravity Multiplier

0.35 1.310 0.75 0.895 1.40 0.655

0.40 1.230 0.80 0.867 1.50 0.633
0.45 1.160 0.85 0.841 1.60 0.612
0.50 1.100 0.90 0.817 1.70 0.594
0.55 1.040 1.00 0.775 1.80 0.577
0.60 1.000 1.10 0.740 1.90 0.565
0.65 0.962 1.20 0.707 2.00 0.547
0.70 0.926 1.30 0.680 2.10 0.535
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 213

GLOSSARY 1. Provide for the ready escape of the flu e gases

from the appliance in the event of no draft,
Appliance A device that utilizes fuel gas to pro- back draft, or stoppage beyond the draft hood.
du ce ligh t, h eat, power, refrigeration , or air 2. Pr even t a ba ck dra ft fr om en t er in g t h e
conditioning. appliance.
Bt u Abbreviation for “British thermal u nit,” the 3. Neu tralize the effect of stack action of the
qu antity of heat requ ired to raise the tempera- chimney or gas vent u pon the operation of
t u r e of on e p ou n d of wa t er b y on e d egr ee the appliance.
Fahrenheit. Excess a ir Air that passes throu gh the com-
Boiling point The temperature of a liquid at bu stion ch amber an d th e applian ce flu es in
which the internal vapor pressu re is equ al to the excess of that which is theoretically requ ired for
external pressu re exerted on the su rface of the complete combu stion.
liqu id.
Flue ga ses The produ cts of combustion plu s
Burner A device for the final conveyance of the the excess air in appliance flues or heat exchang-
gas, or a mixtu re of gas and air, to the combu s- ers (before the draft hood or draft regu lator).
tion zone. Fuel ga s A gaseou s compou nd used as fu el to
But a ne (C4 H10 ) A satu rated aliphatic hydro- generate heat. It may be known variously as “util-
carbon existing in two isomeric forms and used ity gas,” “natural gas,” “liqu efied peteroleum gas,”
as a fu el and a chemical intermediate. “propane,” “bu tan e,” “methane,” or a combina-
tion of th e above. It h as a caloric valu e th at
Ca loric va lue See “heating valu e.” corresponds to the specific compou nd or combi-
nation of compou n ds. Care mu st be exercised in
Chimney A vertical shaft enclosing one or more determining the caloric valu e for design purposes.
flu es for conveying flu e gases to the outside at- (See Appen dix B.)
mosphere.
Ga s log An unvented, open-flame type room
Cond ensa t e The liquid that separates from a heater consisting of a metal frame or base su p-
gas (including flue gas) due to a reduction in tem- porting simu lated logs designed for installation
peratu re. in a fireplace.
Cubic foot (met er) of ga s The amou nt of gas Ga s t rain A series of devices pertaining to a
that wou ld occu py 1 cu bic foot (cu bic meter) fu el-gas appliance located on the u pstream side
when at a temperatu re of 60°F (15.6°C), satu- of the u nit. Typically, it consists of a combina-
rated with water vapor and u nder a pressu re tion of devices and may inclu de pipe, fittings,
equ ivalent to th at of 30.0 in ches of mercu ry fu el, air-su pervisory switch es (e.g., pressu re
(101.3 kPa). regulators), and safety shu t-off valves (SSOVs).
Demand The maximu m amount of gas per unit Ga s -t ra in vent A piped vent to atmosphere
time, u su ally expressed in cu bic feet per hou r from a device on a gas train.
(liters per minu te) or Btu (watts) per hou r, re-
qu ired for th e opera tion of th e a pplia n ce(s) Ga s vent s Factory-bu ilt vent piping and vent
supplied. fittings listed by a nationally recognized testing
agency, assembled and u sed in accordance with
Dilution air Air that enters a draft hood or draft the terms of their listings, u sed for conveying
regu lator and mixes with the flue gases. flu e gases to the ou tside atmosphere.
Diversit y fa ct or The ratio of the maximu m 1. Ty pe B gas vent. A gas vent for venting gas
probable demand to the maximu m possible de- applian ces with draft h oods and other gas
mand. applian ces listed for u se with type B gas
vents.
Dra ft hood A device bu ilt into an appliance,
2. Ty pe B-W gas vent. A gas vent for venting
or made a part of the vent connector from an
listed gas-fired vented wall furnaces.
appliance, that is designed to:
214 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

3. Ty pe L vent. A gas vent for venting gas appli- Vent ga ses The produ cts of combu stion from
ances listed for use with type L vents. a gas appliance plu s the excess air, plus the di-
lu tion air in the venting system above the draft
Hea t ing value (t ot a l) The nu mber of British hood or draft regu lator.
thermal u nits produ ced by the combu stion, at
constant pressure, of one cubic foot (cubic meter)
of gas when the produ cts of combu stion are REFERENCES
cooled to the initial temperatu re of the gas and
air, the water vapor formed du ring combu stion 1. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
is condensed, and all the necessary corrections Air Con dition in g En gin eers . Hand book s . Fu nda-
have been applied. mentals and Equ ipment Vols. Latest ed. New York.

LPG Liqu efied petroleu m gas, a mixtu re of pro- 2. Am er ica n Societ y of Mech a n ica l En gin eer s
pane and bu tane. (ASME). Fuel gas piping. ASME B31.2.
3. In gersoll-Ran d Compan y. 1969. Compres s ed air
Loa d s, connect ed The su m of the rated Btu
and gas data. New York.
inpu t to individu al gas u tilization equ ipment
connected to a piping system, may be expressed 4 . In t er n a t ion a l As s ocia t ion of Plu m b in g a n d
in cu bic feet (cu bic meters) per hou r. Mechan ical Officials (IAPMO). Uniform plumbing
code.
Met er set a ssembly The piping and fittings
installed by the serving gas su pplier to connect 5. n .a. 1994. Mech a n ica l en gin eerin g refere n ce
the inlet side of the meter to the gas service and manual. 9th ed. Professional Publications.
the ou tlet side of the meter to the cu stomer’s 6. n.a. 1967. Piping handbook . New York: McGraw-
bu ilding or yard piping. Hill.

Pip e, equiva lent lengt h Th e resistan ce of 7. National Fire Protection Association. Cutting and
valves, controls, and fittings to gas flow, ex- w elding proces s es . NFPA 51B. Boston.
pressed as equivalent length of straight pipe.
8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). LP-
Pressure drop The loss in static pressu re du e gas es at utility gas plants . NFPA 59. Boston.
to friction or obstru ction du ring flow throu gh 9. National Fire Protection Association. National fuel
pipe, valves, fittings, regu lators, and bu rners. gas code. NFPA 54. Boston.
Propa ne (C3 H8 ) A gaseou s hydrocarbon of the 10. National Fire Protection Association. Oxy gen-fuel
methane series, fou nd in petroleu m. gas s y s tems for w eldings and cuttings . NFPA 51.
Boston.
Regula t or, ga s pressure A device for control-
ling and maintaining a u niform gas pressu re. 11. Na tion al Fire Protection As s ocia tion . Pow ered
This pressu re is always lower than the su pply industrial trucks. NFPA 505. Boston.
pressu re at the inlet of the regu lator. 12. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual. EM-1110-
34-166.
Sa fet y shut -off d evice A device that is de-
signed to shut off the gas supply to the controlled
bu rner(s) or appliance(s) in the event that the
sou rce of ignition fails. This device may inter-
ru pt the flow of gas to the main bu rner(s) only or
to the pilot(s) and main bu rner(s) u nder its su-
pervision.

Specific gra vit y The ratio of the weight of a

given volu me of gas to that of the same volu me
of air, both measured under the same conditions.

Vent connect or That portion of the venting

system that connects the gas appliance to the
gas vent, chimney, or single-wall metal pipe.
NOTES

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This page was previously an advertisement. It has been intentionally converted to a notes page for your convenience
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 217

Private
Sewage-
Disposal
Systems

INTRODUCTION system receives th e liqu id discharge from the

septic tank and, by means of gravity-su pply pip-
This chapter discu sses private sewage-disposal ing, distribu tes the liqu id into excavated trenches
systems, which are requ ired if a pu blic sewer is designed and sized to adequ ately disperse that
n ot available. Th e primary emph asis is on resi- liqu id to th e earth, where it is absorbed.
dential, gravity-su pply, soil-absorption systems;
soil evalu ation; septic-tank selection; and the de-
sign of the soil-absorption distribu tion system. SOIL-ABSORPTION SYSTEMS
Most areas of the cou n try have local regu la- The su ccessfu l operation of a su bsu rface waste-
tion s regardin g the design of sewage-disposal disposal system requ ires a comprehensive site
systems, which mu st be followed. Most areas evalu ation, good design criteria, an d carefu l in-
have extension offices that may provide valu able stallation.
information, inclu ding soil su rveys and soil maps
of th e region. The examples given in this chapter Wh en evalu atin g a site, th e en gin eer mu st
are only general gu idelines and illu strations of cri- consider th e followin g: lot size, soil composition,
teria and meth ods and are n ot to be u sed for slope, topography, su rface water, and the sea-
actu al project-design pu rposes. sonal high-water table. Residen tial lots mu st be
large enou gh to accommodate the projected area
The waste-water discharge to septic tanks of seepage beds wh ile main tain in g min imu m
and absorption fields mu st be con trolled. Th ese clearan ces for su rface waters an d wells, as man -
systems are n ot adaptable to h an dle solids, su ch dated by local codes. In th e absen ce of code
as disposable diapers, feminine produ cts, food- specifications, Table 8-1 may be u sed as a gu ide
disposal wastes, oils, fats, and greases. for residen tial properties. It is common for pri-
vate s ewage-dis pos al codes to h ave separate
formu las and absorption areas for mu ltifamily
PRIMARY COLLECTION AND dwellings and institu tion al, indu strial, and oth er
TREATMENT SYSTEMS types of facilities to allow for varyin g minimu m
daily flows. However, the system mu st be de-
The collection and disposal of sanitary efflu ent signed for the life of the property.
where there are no sewers is done by means of a
private disposal system. Th e most common ly
u sed meth od u ses a septic tank and a gravity- Guide for Estimating Soil
flow, soil-absorption system. The pu rpose of a Absorption Potential
septic tank is to collect sewage efflu ent, decom-
Tests of the hydrau lic soil conditions are the only
pose fecal matter, and separate oth er solids from
kn own mean s of obtain in g a qu antitative ap-
th e efflu ent stream. The discharge from the sep-
praisal of the soil-absorption capacity. However,
tic tan k is mostly liqu id. Th e soil-absorption
person al observation, evalu ation , an d assess-
218 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

ment of soil characteristics can also provide very color, depth (thickness) of the permeable strata,
u sefu l clu es to the relative capacity of a soil to and swelling characteristics.
absorb and treat a liqu id. It sh ou ld be noted that
th e percolation rate of dry soil is greater than Text ure Soil textu re is generally defined as the
th at of wet soil, so it is advisable to make tests relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the
at the worst conditions. Most soils can be iden- soil. It is th e most common clu e to th e water-
tified as suitable or unsu itable without additional absorption capacity. Th e size and distribu tion of
testing. When determined by a soils engin eer, th e particles govern th e size and th e distribu -
th e soil characteristics may permit fu rther cat- tion of th e pores , wh ich , in tu rn , govern th e
egorizing of su itable soils. This procedu re has absorption capacity of the soil. The larger the
been followed in some areas an d described in soil particles, the larger the pores an d the faster
the soils reports mentioned below. the rate of absorption.
Soil textu re can best be ju dged by feelin g.
Lighter or san dier soils h ave a gritty feel wh en
Table 8-1 Minimum Absorption Area ru bbed between th e thu mb and forefinger. Silty
for Private Dwellings soils have a flou ry feel and, when wet, have no
Seepage
cohesion. Heavier, clay type soils are dense and
Percolation Rate,a Trenches Seepage Beds, hard when dry and have a slick, greasy feel when
min/in. (s/mm) or Pits, ft2/bedroom wet.
ft2/bedroom (m2/bedroom) The use of soil textu re in determining water-
(m2/bedroom) absorption capacity has its limitations. It is usually
reliable in the lighter soils. However, in the heavier
0–5 (0–12) 125 (11.6) 205 (19.0) soils (including sandy soils containing appreciable
10–15 (24–35) 190 (17.7) 315 (29.3) amou nts of silt or clay), one must look for addi-
tional clu es, su ch as stru cture and soil color, as
30–44 (71–104) 300 (27.9) 375 (34.8) indicators of the absorption capacity of the soil.
45–60 (106–142) 330 (30.7) 415 (38.6)
St ruct ure Soil structure is characterized by the
aMinutes required for water to fall 1 in. (seconds to fall 1 mm). aggregation (or grouping together) of the textual
particles to form secondary particles of a larger
size. The structure can easily be recognized by
Soil maps Th e capacity of a soil to absorb and the manner in which a clod, or lump, breaks apart.
transmit water is an important consideration in If a soil has structure, a clod will break with very
agricu ltu re, particu larly in relation to irrigation, little force, along well-defined cleavage planes, into
drainage, and other land-management practices. uniformly sized units. If a soil has no structure, a
Throu gh carefu l stu dies in th ese fields, a variety clod will require more force to break apart and
of aids h ave been developed for determining the will do so along irregu lar su rfaces, with no u nifor-
absorption and water-transmission properties of mity in the size or shape of the particles.
soil that cou ld be helpfu l in the sewage field. Con-
siderable information on the relative absorption In general, there are fou r fu n damental stru c-
capacities of specific soils in many areas has been tu ral types, named according to th e shape of the
accu mu lated. Mu ch of this in formation is in- aggregate particles: platy, prism-like, block-like,
clu ded in soil su rvey reports and maps pu blished an d sph erical. A soil withou t stru ctu re is gen er-
by th e US Department of Agricu ltu re. The gen- ally referred to as "massive." Spherical stru ctu re
era l s u it a bilit y of s pecific s oils for efflu en t tends to provide the most favorable absorption
disposal may often be in terpreted from these re- properties, an d platy stru ctu re th e least. Al-
ports and maps. though other factors, su ch as the size and stability
of the aggregates in water, also influ en ce th e ab-
Clue s t o abs orpt ion c apac it y In forma tion sorption capacity of th e soil, recogn ition of th e
abou t relative absorption capacities of soils may type of stru ctu re is probably su fficient for a gen-
also be obtained by a close visu al inspection of eral appraisal.
the soil. The valu e of su ch an inspection depends
on the in spector’s kn owledge of th e pertin en t soil Color One of the most important practical clues
properties. The main properties in dicative of ab- to the water-absorption capacity of the soil is
s orption capacity are s oil textu re, stru ctu re, color. Most soils contain some iron compou nds.
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 219

This iron (like iron in a tool or piece of mach in- Several types (procedures) of percolation test may
ery), if altern ately exposed to air an d water, be acceptable to the local ju risdiction al au thor-
oxidizes an d takes on a reddish-brown or yellow ity or there may be n o standards. In the absence
color. Thu s, if th e soil h as a u n iform reddish - of standards, the followin g method of condu ct-
brown to yellow oxidized color, it indicates that in g percolation tests may be u sed.
th ere has been a free alternating movement of
air and water in and th rou gh the soil. Su ch a soil Number and locat ion of tests Six or more tests
has some desirable absorption characteristics. At shou ld be made in separate test holes, spaced
th e other extreme, if th e soils are du ll-gray or uniformly over the proposed absorption field site.
have mottled coloring, this indicates a lack of oxi-
dizing conditions or a very restricted movement Type of t est hole Dig or bore a hole, with hori-
of air an d water throu gh th e soil. These soils zontal dimensions varying from 4 to 12 in. (101.6
have poor absorption ch aracteristics. to 304.8 mm) and vertical sides to the depth of
the proposed absorption tren ch . To save time,
Dept h (or t hick ness) of permeable st rat a The labor, an d water per test, the h oles can be bored
qu antity of water that may be absorbed by the with a 4-in. (101.6-mm) au ger.
soil is directly proportional to the thickness (or
volu me) of the absorben t stratu m. In a soil having Preparat ion of t he t est hole Carefully scratch
1 ft (0.3 m) or more of permeable material above the bottom and sides of the hole with a knife
tight clay, the absorption capacity is far greater blade or sharp-pointed instrument to remove any
th an it is in a soil h avin g th e same kin d of mate- smeared soil su rfaces and provide a natu ral soil
rial lyin g with in 2 in . (50.8 mm) of tigh t clay. In interface into which water may percolate. Re-
examining soils or stu dying soil descriptions, the move all loose material from th e h ole. Add 2 in .
depth an d th ickn ess are importan t criteria for (50.8 mm) of coarse san d or fine gravel to pro-
determinin g th e absorption capacity and mu st tect the bottom from scou ring and sediment.
be kept in mind.
Sat ura t ion and swelling of t he soil It is im-
Sw elling cha ra ct eris t ics Most clays swell portant to distingu ish between "satu ration" and
upon the addition of moisture. There are many "swelling." Satu ration means that the void spaces
clays, however, particularly in the tropics, that do between soil particles are fu ll of water. Th is can
not swell appreciably. Also, some soils do not swell be accomplish ed in a sh ort period of time. Swell-
noticeably, while others have a very high percent- in g is cau s ed by th e in tru s ion of water in to
age of swelling, as indicated by the relative number in dividu al soil particles. Th is is a slow process,
of cracks that form. Soils with a high degree of especially in clay type soils, and is the reason
swelling shrink appreciably when dry and may give th at a prolon ged soakin g period is requ ired.
trouble in a tile field when they are wet. To condu ct the test, carefu lly fill the hole with
Information obtained throu gh visu al inspection clear water to a min imu m depth of 12 in. (304.8
or from soil maps and reports can be of particu - mm) over the gravel.
lar va lu e to th e en gin eer in th e prelimin ary In most soils, it is n ecessary to refill the hole
appraisal of soils for sewage disposal. For instance, by su pplyin g a su rplu s reservoir of water, possi-
in many cases, u nsu itable soils can be immedi- bly by mean s of an au tomatic siphon , to keep
ately ru led ou t on the basis of su ch information. water in the hole for at least 4 hou rs and prefer-
In other cases, selection of the best of several sites ably overnight. This procedu re ensu res th at the
may be done on the basis of this information. For soil is given ample opportu nity to swell and to
qu antitative information u pon which to base a approach the condition it will have du ring the wet-
specific design, the engineer still mu st depend on test season of th e year. Th u s, tests of th e same
a direct measurement, su ch as the water-absorp- soil give comparable resu lts, wh ether they are
tion rate as measu red by a percolation test. made in a dry or wet season.
In sandy soils con tainin g little or no clay, the
Procedure for percolation tests 1 The engineer
swellin g procedu re is not essential. Therefore,
sh ou ld determin e th e percolation -test requ ire-
in th ese soils there is no need to refill the hole
m en t s of t h e loca l ju r is dict ion a l a u t h or it y.
with water.

1 The procedu re for percolation tests described in this ch ap- Percolat ion rat e measurement With the ex-
ter was developed at th e Robert A. Taft Co. ception of s a n dy s oils, th e percola tion ra te
220 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

measu rement shou ld be made on the day follow- plan t, or the constru ction of a private waste-
ing the procedu re described above, 24 hou rs after treatment plant.
water is first added to the hole. For sandy soils,
Selection of th e appropriate absorption sys-
th e percolation rate measu rement may be taken
tem is depen den t to some extent on the location
after the water from on e filling of the hole has
of the system in th e area u nder consideration . A
completely seeped away.
safe distance shou ld be maintained between the
1. If the water remains in th e test hole after the system site and any water su pply sou rce. Since
overnight swellin g period, adju st the depth th e dis tan ce th a t pollu tion may tra vel u n der-
to approximately 6 in. (304.8 mm) over the gr ou n d d ep en d s u p on n u m er ou s fa ct or s ,
gravel. From a fixed referen ce point, mea- in clu ding the ch aracteristics of su bsoil forma-
su re the drop in the water level over a 30-min tion s an d th e qu ality of the sewage discharged,
period. Th is drop is u sed to calcu late th e no specified distance is absolu tely safe in all lo-
percolation rate. calities. Ordinarily, th e greater th e distan ce th e
2. If n o water remains in the hole after the over- greater th e safety provided. The location of the
components of sewage-disposal systems shall be
night swelling period, add clear water in order
as required by local codes. In their absence, Table
to bring the depth of the water in th e hole to
8-2 may be u sed as a gu ide.
approxima tely 6 in . (304.8 mm) over th e
gravel. From a fixed referen ce point, mea- Seepage pits shou ld n ot be u sed in areas
s u r e t h e d r op in t h e wa t er le vel a t where the domestic water su pply is obtained from
approximately 30-min intervals for 4 h ou rs, shallow wells or where th ere are limestone for-
refilling to 6 in. (304.8 mm) over the gravel ma tion s a n d s in kh oles wit h con n ect ion s to
as necessary. The drop that occu rs du rin g u ndergrou nd chan nels th rou gh which pollu tion
th e final 30-min period is u sed to calcu late may travel to th e water sou rces.
the percolation rate of the soil. Any drop du r-
ing th e prior period provides th e in formation
for a possible modification of the procedu re Table 8-2 Recommended Distances
in order to su it an y local circu mstances. Between Soil-Absorption System
and Site Features
3. In sandy soils—and in types of soil in which
th e first 6 in. (152.4 mm) of water seep away Distance,
Feature
in fewer than 30 minu tes after the overnight ft (m)
swellin g period—th e time interval between
the measu rements shou ld be 10 min and the Cistern 50 (15.2)
test sh ou ld be ru n for 1 h ou r. The drop th at Habitable building,
occu rs du rin g the final 10 min is u sed to cal- below-grade foundation 25 (7.6)
cu late the percolation rate.
Habitable building, slab on grade 15 (4.56)
Lake, high-water mark 50 (15.2)
Soil-Absorption System Selection Lot line 5 (1.52)
For areas wh ere the percolation rates and soil Reservoir 50 (15.2)
characteristics are good, the next step after mak- Roadway ditch 10 (3.04)
in g t h e percola tion tes ts is to det ermin e th e Spring 100 (30.4)
requ ired absorption system th at will be satisfac- Streams or watercourse 50 (15.2)
tory for th e area.
Swimming pool 15 (4.56)
For areas where the percolation rates and Uninhabited building 10 (3.04)
soil characteristics are not good, and a typical Water main 50 (15.2)
soil-absorption system is determin ed to be u n-
Water service 10 (3.04)
u sable, the engineer shou ld con sider altern ative
types of absorption system, su ch as: absorption Water well 50 (15.2)
trenches, seepage beds, seepage pits, and mou nd
systems. If n on e of th ese altern atives is accept- Details pertaining to the local water wells—
able, th e en gin eer may h ave to con sider th e u se su ch as depth, type of constru ction, and vertical
of a sewage lift station to pu mp the waste water zone of in flu en ce—togeth er with data on geo-
to a pu blic sewer system or waste-treatmen t logical formations and the porosity of the su bsoil
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 221

strata, shou ld be considered when determinin g Leaching Trenches

th e safe allowable distance between wells and
su bsu rface disposal systems. A leaching field con sists of assembled lengths,
called "laterals," of nomin al 4-in. (100-mm) agri-
cu ltu re dra in tile in 2 to 3-ft (0.6 to 0.9-m)
sections of vitrified clay sewer pipe or perforated
PVC pipe. In areas havin g u nu su al soil or water
characteristics, local experience shou ld be taken
into con sideration before selecting th e pipin g ma-
terials. Individu al laterals shou ld not be over 100
ft (30.5 m) lon g, an d th e tren ch bottom an d tile
distributing lines should be level. The u se of more
and shorter laterals is preferred becau se th en , if
something happens to distu rb one line, most of
th e field is still serviceable. From a theoretical
moistu re-flow viewpoint, a spacing between lat-
erals of twice th e depth of th e gravel sh ou ld
preven t taxin g th e absorption capacity of th e
adjacen t soil.
Many different engineering designs may be
u sed when laying ou t the su bsu rface disposal
fields. Typical layou ts of absorption trenches are
Figure 8 -1 Three Legs of Disposal Field shown in Figures 8-1, 8-2, and 8-3. The designer’s
Fed from Cross Fitting Laid on Its Side choice may depend on the size and the shape of
the available disposal area, the capacity required,
or the topography of the disposal area.

Figure 8 -2 Disposal Lines Connected by Headers to Circumvent Stoppages

Figure 8 -3 Transverse and Lineal Sections of Drain Field

Showing Rock and Earth Backfill around Drain Tile
222 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

In order to provide the minimu m requ ired sealing. Trenches sh ou ld be excavated wh en the
gravel depth and earth cover, absorption trenches soil is wet enou gh to smear or compact easily.
shou ld be at least 24 in. (0.6 m) deep. Additional Open trenches shou ld be protected from su rface
depth may be n eeded for con tou r adju stmen t, ru noff to prevent the en trance of silt and debris.
extra aggregate u n der th e tile, or oth er design If it is n ecessary to walk in th e tren ch , a tempo-
pu rposes. The possibility of the tile lin es freez- rary board, laid on th e bottom, will redu ce th e
ing du ring a prolonged cold period shou ld be damage. Some smearin g shou ld be raked to a
considered wh en determin ing the depth of ab- depth of at least 1 in . (25.4 mm) and an y loose
s orption field tren ch es. Th e des ign er s h ou ld material removed before the gravel is placed in
determine the local frost depth . Freezing rarely th e trench.
occu rs in a carefu lly constru cted system kept in
Pipe laid in a trench of su fficient width and
continu ou s operation. Du ring construction of the
depth shou ld be su rrou nded by clean, graded
system, it is importan t to en su re th at th e tile
gravel. The material may range in size from ¾ to
lin es are su rrou nded by gravel.
1 ½ in. (19.1 to 38.1 mm). Cinders, broken shell,
The requ ired absorption area is predicated an d similar materials are n ot recommen ded be-
on th e resu lts of the soil percolation tests and cau se they are u su ally too fine and may lead to
may be obtained from colu mn 2 or 3 of Table 8- prematu re clogging. Th e material shou ld extend
1. The area requ irements are per bedroom. The from at least 2 in. (50.8 mm) above th e top of the
area of the lot on wh ich the hou se is to be bu ilt pipe to at least 6 in. (152.4 mm) below the bot-
shou ld be large enou gh to allow room for an ad- tom of th e pipe. If tile is u sed, the u pper h alf of
dition al system if the first one fails. For example, th e joint openings shou ld be covered. The top of
for a 3-bedroom hou se on a lot where the mini- th e stone shou ld be covered with treated bu ild-
mu m percolation rate is 1 in./ 15 min (25.4 mm/ ing paper, a 2-in. (50.8-mm) layer of hay or straw,
15 min), the n ecessary absorption area is 3 bed- or a similar perviou s material to preven t th e
rooms x 190 ft 2 (17.7 m 2 ) per bedroom or 570 ft 2 stone from becomin g clogged by the earth back-
(53 m 2 ). For tren ch es 2 ft (0.6 m) wide with 6 in . fill. An imperviou s coverin g sh ou ld not be u sed
(152.4 mm) of gravel below the drain pipe, the becau se it will in terfere with th e evapotran spi-
requ ired total length of the trench wou ld be 570 ration at th e su rface. Althou gh generally not
÷ 2, or 285 ft (86.9 m). If this len gth were divided figu red in th e en gineerin g calcu lation s, evapo-
into portions (e.g., 5 laterals), the len gth of each transpiration is often an importan t factor in the
lin e wou ld be 285 ÷ 5, or 57 ft (17.1 m). operation of horizontal absorption systems.
The spacin g of th e trenches is generally gov- Drain tile connectors, collars, clips, or other
erned by practical constru ction con siderations spaces with covers for the u pper half of the joints
su ch as th e type of equ ipment and safety. For are valu able in obtaining u niform spacing, proper
s eria l dis tribu tion on a s lopin g grou n d, th e alignment, an d protection of the tile joints; how-
tren ch es sh ou ld be separated by at least 6 ft ever, their u se is optional. They may be made of
(1.8 m) to prevent short-circuiting. Table 8-2 gives galvanized iron , copper, or plastic.
th e recommended distan ces to be kept between It has been fou n d th at root problems may be
th e disposal system an d variou s site featu res, prevented by th e liberal u se of gravel or stone
su ch as wells an d dwellings. arou nd th e tile. Cloggin g du e to roots u su ally
Tren ch es s h a ll be 2 ft (0.6 m) wide x 5 occu rs in lines with insu fficien t gravel u nder the
trenches = 10 ft (3.1 m). Add to that 6 ft (1.8 m) tile. Fu rthermore, roots seek the location where
between tren ches x 4 spaces = 24 ft (7.3 m). The mois t u re con dit ion s a re mos t fa vora ble for
total width of 34 ft x the len gth of 57 ft (10.4 mm growth. In th e small percen tage of cases wh ere
x 17.4 m) = 1938 ft 2 (181.0 m 2), plu s additional they become trou blesome in well-designed instal-
land requ ired to keep the field separated from lations, th ere u su ally is an explan ation in volvin g
wells, property lin es, etc. moistu re condition s. Wh en a residence is u nin -
habited, roots penetrate on ly wh en the moistu re
Construction considerations Carefu l con sid- immediately below or arou nd the gravel becomes
eration mu st be given to obtain ing a satisfactory less plentifu l than it is wh en th e system is in
soil-absorption system. Attention also shou ld be u se. In general, trenches con stru cted within 10
given to the protection of the n atu ral absorption ft (3.1 m) of large trees or dense shrubbery should
properties of the soil. The bottom and side su r- h ave at least 12 in. (0.3 m) of gravel or cru shed
faces of th e trenches sh ou ld be prevented from ston e beneath the tile.
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 223

If trees are located n ear th e sewage-disposal paction of the soil with the consequ ent redu c-
s ys tem, difficu lty with roots en terin g poorly tion in soil aeration .
join ted sewer lin es can be an ticipated. Lead-
ca u lk ed , ca s t -ir on p ip e; a s u lfu r b a s e or Se ri al dis t ribut i o n Ser ia l d is t r ib u t ion is
bitu minou s pipe joint compou nd; mechanical, ach ieved by arran gin g th e in dividu al tren ch es of
clay pipe joints; copper rings over join ts; and th e absorption system so th at each tren ch is
lu mp copper su lfate in pipe trenches h ave been forced to pond to the fu ll depth of th e gravel fill
fou nd to be very effective in resisting the entrance before the liqu id flows into the su cceeding trench.
of roots in to pipe joints. Roots pen etrate into the Serial distribu tion h as th e followin g advan -
gravel in the tile field trench es rath er th an in to tages:
th e pipe. Abou t 2 or 3 lb (0.9 or 1.4 kg) of copper
su lfate crystals flu shed down the toilet bowl once 1. It min imizes th e importan ce of variable ab-
a year will destroy an y roots th at the solu tion s orpt ion ra tes by forcin g ea ch tren ch to
comes in contact with, bu t it will n ot prevent absorb the efflu ent u ntil its complete capac-
new roots from enterin g the system. Application ity is reached. Th e variability of soils, even
of th e chemical shou ld be don e at a time (su ch in the small area of an individu al absorption
as late evening) when the maximu m contact time field, raises a dou bt abou t th e desirability of
can be obtained before its dilu tion . Copper su l- u niform distribu tion. Any one factor or a com-
fate will corrode ch rome, iron , and brass; hen ce, bination of factors may resu lt in the trenches
it shou ld not be allowed to come in to contact of an absorption system h aving a nonu niform
with th ese metals. Cast iron is not affected to abs orptive capacity. Varyin g ph ysical an d
any appreciable exten t. Some time mu st elapse chemical characteristics of the soil, constru c-
before the roots are killed and broken off. Cop- tion damage (su ch as soil interface smearing
per su lfate in the recommended dosage will not or excessive compaction), poor su rface drain-
interfere with the operation of the septic tank; a ge, a n d va r ia t ion in t h e dep t h s of t h e
h owever, its u se mu st be allowed by th e local trenches are some possible factors.
ju risdictional au th orities. 2. With serial distribu tion, su ccessive trenches
The top of a n ew absorption trench sh ou ld in th e absorption system may be u sed to fu ll
be hand tamped with 4 to 6 in. (100.6 to 152.4 capacity. Serial distribu tion has a distin ct
mm) of earth . Un less this is done, the top of the advantage over a sloping or standard trench.
tren ch may s ettle to a poin t lower th an th e In a parallel system, th e impact of dividin g
grou nd. This condition will cau se th e collection th e flow cou ld cau se on e trench to become
of storm water in the trench, which can lead to overloaded, resu lting in a su rcharged trench
th e prematu re satu ration of th e absorption field th at receives more efflu ent th an it can ab-
an d, pos sibly, to a complete was h ou t of th e sorb. A local failu re cou ld occu r before th e
trench. Machine tamping or hydrau lic backfill- fu ll capacity of the absorption system is u ti-
ing of the tren ch shou ld not be u sed. lized.

Where sloping grou nd is u sed for th e dis- 3. Th e cost of distribu tion boxes is eliminated
posal area, it is u su ally necessary to constru ct a in serial distribution. Also, long runs of closed
s mall temporary dike (or a su rface diversion pipe con n ectin g distribu tion boxes to th e
ditch) above the field to prevent the disposal area trenches are u n necessary.
from bein g washed ou t by storm water. The dike
Field s in flat a rea s Where the slope of the
shou ld be maintain ed (or th e ditch kept free of
grou nd surface does not exceed 6 in.(152.4 mm)
obstru ction s) u ntil the absorption field becomes
in any direction within the area u tilized for the
covered with vegetation. absorption field, and where the system is a con-
A vehicle cou ld possibly cru sh the tile in a tin u ou s on e of in tercon n ected tile lin es an d
shallow absorption field. For this reason , h eavy trenches, the following specific criteria shou ld
machinery sh ou ld n ot be u sed on the disposal be followed:
area u nless special provision s are made to su p-
1. A minimu m of 12 in. (0.3 m) of earth cover
port its weight. All machine grading sh ou ld be
shou ld be provided over the gravel fill in all
completed before the absorption field is laid. trenches of the system.
The u se of the field area shou ld be restricted 2. The bottom of the trench and the distribu -
to activities th at will n ot con tribu te to the com- tion lines shou ld be level.
224 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

3. Constru ction considerations are the same as lin es in th e adjacen t tren ch es or to a drop
th ose for standard trench es, an d local code arran gement.
requ irements shou ld be met.
7. Extreme care sh ou ld be exercised du rin g the
Fields on sloping ground Serial distribution constru ction of the relief line to ensu re that
may be used in any situation where a soil-absorp- th ere is an u n distu rbed block of earth be-
tion system is permitted and should be used where tween the tren ches. The trench for the relief
the fall of the ground su rface exceeds 6 in. (152.4 pipe, wh ere it con n ects to th e preceedin g ab-
mm) in any direction within the area u tilized for sorption trench, sh ou ld be du g n o deeper
the absorption field. The maximu m grou nd slope th an th e top of th e gravel. Th e relief lin e
su itable for a serial distribu tion system shou ld shou ld rest on the u ndistu rbed earth and the
be determined by local factors affecting the ero- backfill sh ou ld be carefu lly tamped.
sion of the grou nd u sed for the absorption field. 8. Th e relief lin es con n ectin g th e in dividu al
Sloping grou nds typically are not protected from trenches sh ou ld be as far from each oth er as
su rface water ru noff or do not have an adequ ate is practical in order to preven t sh ort circu -
vegetation cover to prevent erosion. Also, the hori- latin g.
zontal distance from the side of the trench to the
grou nd su rface shou ld be adequ ate to prevent a 9. The invert of the overflow pipe in the first
lateral flow of the efflu ent and a breakou t on the relief line shou ld be at least 4 in . (101.6 m)
su rface. In no case shou ld this distance be less lower t h a n th e in vert of t h e s eptic ta n k
than 2 ft (0.6 m). ou tlet.

In serial distribu tion, each adjacent trench is

Seepage Beds
connected to th e next by a closed pipe lin e laid
on an u ndistu rbed section of grou nd. The arrange- Absorption systems h avin g trenches wider than
men t is su ch th at all efflu en t is discharged to 3 ft (0.9 m) are called "seepage beds." Variations
the first trench u ntil it is filled. Any liqu id is then of design practices u tilizing an in creased width
carried by mean s of a closed line to th e su cceed- are bein g u sed in some areas with the approval
ing or next lower trench. In that manner, each of the local ju risdictional au thorities. The design
portion of the su bsu rface system is u sed in su c- of the tren ch es is based on an empirical rela-
cession . When serial distribu tion is u sed, the tionship between the percolation test and the
followin g design and con stru ction procedu res bottom area of th e trench es. Th e u se of seepage
shou ld be followed: beds may be limited by th e absen ce of design
1. Th e bottom of each trench an d its distribu - criteria comparable to those for trench es.
tion lin e sh ou ld be level. Studies have demonstrated that seepage beds
2. There shou ld be a minimu m of 12 in . (0.3 m) are a satisfactory means of disposing of efflu ent
of grou n d cover over th e gravel fill in th e in soils that are su itable for soil-absorption sys-
trenches. tems. These studies have further demonstrated that
3. The absorption tren ches shou ld follow the t h e e m p ir ic a l r ela t ion s h ip b et we en t h e
grou n d su rface con tou rs to min imize any percolation test and the bottom area requ ired for
the trenches is also applicable for seepage beds.
variations in the trench depths.
4. There shou ld be a minimu m of 6 ft (1.8 m) of A seepage bed has three main elements: the
u n dis t u rbed ea r t h between a ll a dja cen t absorption su rface, th e rock fill (or packin g
trenches and between the septic tank and ma teria l), a n d th e dis tribu tion s ys tem. Th e
th e nearest trench . design of a seepage bed shou ld be su ch that the
total in ten ded absorption area is preserved,
5. Any adjacent trenches may be connected with su fficient packin g material is provided in the
th e relief lin e or a drop-box arran gement in proper place to allow for fu rther treatment and
such a manner that each trench is completely storage of excess liqu id, and the means for distrib-
filled with the septic tank efflu ent to the depth u ting th e efflu ent is protected against siltation
of th e gravel before the efflu ent flows to an y of earth backfill an d from mech an ical damage.
su cceedin g tren ch es. Constru ction details for a conventional seepage
6. All trench-connectin g lines shou ld be 4-in . bed are ou tlin ed below. Th e listin g of th ese
(100-mm) diameter, tight-joint sewers with constru ction details is not intended to preclu de
direct connections either to the distribu tion other acceptable design s which may provide the
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 225

essen tial featu res in an econ omical or otherwise 8. Th e applicable constru ction con siderations
desirable manner. There are methods for distrib- for standard tren ch es given earlier sh ou ld
u tin g the liqu id other th an by tile or perforated be heeded and local ju risdictional requ ire-
pipe covered with gravel th at are equ ally good men ts met.
and u su ally acceptable to the local ju risdictional
au thorities. Seepage Pits
The u se of a seepage bed resu lts in the fol-
Seepage pits are not recommended and are of-
lowing advan tages:
ten prohibited by local h ealth officials. Wh en
1. A wide seepage bed makes more efficien t u se a llowed , t h ey a re common ly u s ed eit h er t o
of th e lan d available for th e absorption sys- su pplement th e su bsu rface disposal system or
tem than a series of long, narrow trenches in lieu of a system wh ere conditions favor the
(with wasted land between the trench es). operation of seepage pits. A seepage pit may be
2. Efficient u se may be made of variou s types deemed necessary by the design er. The seepage
of ea rt h -movin g equ ipmen t employed a t pit sh ou ld be sized in accordan ce with the rec-
projects for other pu rposes, su ch as base- ommendations provided in Table 8-1.
men t excavation and landscapin g, resu ltin g Construc t ion c onside rat ions Extreme care
in savings on th e cost of the system. shou ld be taken in order to avoid exten din g the
seepage pit into the grou nd-water table. Where
Construction considerations When a seepage
th e seepage pit is u sed to receive the septic tank
bed is u sed, th e followin g design an d con stru c-
efflu ent, care shou ld be exercised in locatin g the
tion procedu res sh ou ld be observed in order to
pit. See th e recommen dation s listed in Table 8-2.
provide for rock fill (or packin g material), an
adequ ate distribu tion system, an d th e protec- Soil is su sceptible to damage du rin g excava-
tion of th e absorption area: tion. Digging in wet soils sh ou ld be avoided as
mu ch as possible. Cu ttin g teeth on mech an ical
1. The requ ired bottom absorption area shou ld equ ipment shou ld be kept sharp. Bucket-augu red
be the same as th at recommended in Table pits shou ld be reamed to a diameter larger than
8-1. the bu cket. All loose material shou ld be removed
2. Th e percolation tests shou ld be condu cted in from the excavation.
accordance with acceptable practices. The pits shou ld be backfilled with clean gravel
3. The seepage bed sh ou ld h ave a min imu m to a depth of 1 ft (0.3 m) above the pit bottom or
depth of 24 to 48 in. (0.6 to 1.2 m) below the 1 ft (0.3 m) above the reamed ledge in order to
natu ral grou nd level to provide for a mini- provide a sou nd fou ndation for the lining. Preferred
mu m earth backfill cover of 12 in . (0.3 m). linin g materials are clay, concrete, brick, block,
an d rin gs . Rin gs s h ou ld h ave weep h oles or
4. The seepage bed sh ou ld h ave a min imu m notches to provide for seepage. Brick an d block
depth of 12 in. (0.3 m) of rock fill (or packin g shou ld be laid with staggered joints. Stan dard
material extendin g at least 2 in. [50.8 mm]) bricks shou ld be laid flat to form a 4-in. (101.6-
above and 6 in . (152.4 mm) below the distri- mm) wall. Th e ou tside diameter of th e lin in g
bu tion pipe. shou ld be at least 6 in . (152.4 mm) less th an
5. Th e bottom of th e seepage bed an d distribu - the least excavation diameter. The annu lar space
tion tile (or perforated pipe) shou ld be level. formed shou ld be filled with clean , coarse gravel
to th e top of th e linin g. When the seepage pit is
6. The lines for distribu ting the efflu ent shou ld
located in close proximity to trees, it may be filled
be spaced less th an 6 ft (1.8 m) apart and
with loose rock and the linin g can be eliminated.
less th an 3 ft (0.9 m) from the seepage bed
sidewall. Either brick dome or flat con crete covers,
preferably to within 8 in. (203.2 mm) of fin ished
7. Wh en more than one seepage bed is u sed, grade, are satisfactory. Th ey shou ld be laid on
th ere shou ld be a minimu m of 6 ft (1.8 m) of
u ndistu rbed earth and extend at least 12 in. (0.3
u n dis tu rbed ea rt h between th e adjacen t
m) beyond the excavation and shou ld not bear
seepage beds, and th e seepage beds sh ou ld
on th e lin in g for s t ru ctu ra l s u pport. Bricks
be con nected in series in accordan ce with
shou ld be either laid in cemen t mortar or have a
th e recommendations given in this chapter. 2-in. (50.8-mm) coverin g of concrete mortar or
226 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

have a 2-in. (50.8-mm) covering of concrete. If flat 4. Where the mou nd system is to be located over
covers are u sed, a prefabricated type is preferred; previou sly compacted soil.
th ey sh ou ld be rein forced to be equ ivalen t in
5. Where th e percolation rate is greater than
stren gth to an approved septic tank cover. A 9-in.
120 min / in. (4.7 min/ mm).
(228.6-mm) capped open ing in the pit cover is
convenient for pit inspection. If th e cover is over Local codes mu st be u sed for all design and
30 in. (0.02 m), an access man hole or sectional in stallation requ irements. Local code approval
cover shou ld be provided. All concrete su rfaces is requ ired.
shou ld be coated with a protective compou n d to
minimize corrosion.
COLLECTION AND TREATMENT
Con necting lines shou ld be made of a sou nd,
ALTERNATIVES
du rable material, th e same u sed for th e hou se
or septic tank connections. All connectin g lines
Alternatives to Gravity Collection and
shou ld be laid on a firm bed of u ndistu rbed soil
Distribution
th rou gh ou t th eir len gth . Th e grade of a con n ect-
ing line shou ld be at least 2%. The pit inlet pipe If gravity collection and/ or distribution are not
shou ld be extended h orizontally at least 1 ft (0.3 possible, pu mped systems are u sed. Alternatives
m) into th e pit with a tee or ell to divert the flow to the typical gravity collection and distribution
downward to prevent washing and eroding of the system that shou ld be evalu ated inclu de: small-
sidewalls. If mu ltiple pits are u sed, or in the event diameter gravity sewers, pressu re sewers, and
th at seepage pits are added to an existing sys- vacuu m sewers. If the septic tank receives efflu-
tem, they shou ld be connected in series. ent other than raw wastes, small-diameter pipe
Abandoned seepage pits shou ld be filled with (4-in. [100-mm] nominal) may be u sed to reduce
earth or rock. the cost of conventional gravity sewers. The indi-
vidual septic tanks should partially treat the waste
Mound Systems water by decomposition of the larger particles and
permit sand and grit to settle. The 4-in. (100-mm)
When the area su rrou nding a facility is not su it- mains shou ld be installed at a minimu m gradient
able for excavated soil-absorption meth ods, a of 0.67% based on a minimu m velocity of 1.5 ft/ s
mou n d system mu st be u sed. This type of sys- (0.5 m/ s) at half-pipe flow capacity. Under these
tem is u sed wh en there is not en ou gh depth of conditions, using the Manning formula, a 4-in. (100-
natu rally occu rring soil over an impermeable for- mm) pipe can carry over 2000 gph (2.1 L/ s),
mation or wh ere high grou nd water exists. Th is sufficient to serve 670 persons (assuming a peak
u su ally requ ires th e efflu en t to be pu mped from flow of 3 gph [3.2 mL/ s] per person).
th e septic tank discharge to the soil-absorption Pressu re sewer systems generally con sist of
bed at a high er elevation . septic tan ks at each facility, a small su bmers-
A mou nd type soil-absorption system is a last ible pu mp, and small-diameter plastic mains.
resort and shou ld be u sed only when there is not Grinder pu mps may be placed in th e septic tan k.
enou gh natu rally occu rring soil to provide the Constru ction costs are reduced becau se the sewer
required soil-absorption bed area on a site. In such main can follow th e contou r of the land ju st be-
a case, if a mou nd system cannot be installed, low the frost line.
the site is often considered u nbu ildable. In gen- Va cu u m t r a n s por t s ys t ems con s is t of a
era l, th e followin g s ite con dition s s h ou ld be vacu u m pu mp, a receiving tank (held at approxi-
considered u nsu itable for a mou nd system: mately 7.5 psia [51.7 kPa]), and a vacu u m valve.
1. Where the mou nd system is to be located over When there is su fficient sewage in the lateral
an existin g, failing soil-absorption system. and the vacu u m is at the proper level, the valve
will open and the sewage will en ter as a slu g.
2. Wh ere less than 2 ft (610 mm) of u nsatu r- The slu g of waste water will move toward the
ated soil is available over creviced or porou s receiving tank u ntil the spreading ou t of the slu g
bedrock. resu lts in a break in the seal, thu s ending the
3. Wh ere less than 2 ft (610 mm) of u nsatu r- vacu u m effect. Traps shou ld be placed at regu -
ated soil is available over high grou n d water. lar intervals in the main s to reshape the slu gs.
When the trap fills, the vacu u m effect is rees-
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 227

tablished, cau sin g the slu g to continu e toward ral, bacterial processes. The bacteria present in
th e receiving tan k with the n ext operation of the the liqu id are "anaerobic" (i.e., th ey thrive in the
valve. Vacu u m sewers flow fu ll and provide many absence of free oxygen). This decomposition , or
of th e advantages of pressu re sewers. treatment, of the sewage u nder anaerobic con-
ditions is termed "septic," h ence, the n ame of
Alternatives to Conventional Primary- th e tank.
and-Secondary Treatment
Solids removal "Slu dge" is defined as an accu -
The alternatives to convention al primary-an d- mu lation of solids at the bottom of th e septic
secondary treatment inclu de sand filtration and tank. "Scu m" is a partially su bmerged mat of
evapotranspiration . San d filters have been u sed floating solids that forms at the su rface of the
in sewage treatment for man y years. More re- flu id in the septic tan k. Some slu dge an d scu m
cently, standard systems have been modified to are decomposed. The residual material, composed
recircu lating sand filter systems, which have dem- of inert solid material, remain. After a period of
onstrated that, if properly designed, installed, and time, these solids, inclu ding all types of grease,
operated, th ey can produ ce efflu en ts that meet have to be pu mped ou t. Space mu st be provided
stringent efflu ent and stream-qu ality standards. in th e septic tan k to store this residu e between
Evapotranspiration as a mean s of disposing of cleanings; otherwise, slu dge and scu m will even-
domestic wastes has been researched at several tu ally be scou red from the septic tank and may
locations, and its u se has been accepted by vari- clog the disposal field.
ou s local ju risdictions. Th is type of system is
If adequ ately designed, constru cted, main-
rarely u sed, h owever.
tained, and operated, septic tan ks accomplish
The u se of self-contained sewage treatment th eir pu rpose very efficiently.
plants, particu larly the tertiary treatment type,
The heavier sewage solids settle to the bottom
has fou nd wide acceptance for facilities. Th ou gh
of the septic tank, forming a blanket of slu dge.
th is method is ou tside th e scope of this chapter,
The lighter solids, including fat and grease, rise to
it is discu ssed briefly in the section "Individu al
the su rface and form a layer of scu m. A consider-
Aerobic Waste-Water Treatment Plants."
able amount of the slu dge and scum is liquefied
through decomposition or digestion. During this
process, gas is liberated from the slu dge and car-
SEPTIC TANKS
ries some of the solids to the surface, where they
accu mulate with the scum. Ordinarily, they u n-
If th e lot is large enou gh to accommodate on e of
dergo fu rther digestion in the scum layer and a
the previou sly discu ssed types of absorption sys- portion settles again to the sludge blanket at the
tem, and constru ction of the system is permitted bottom. This action is retarded if there is a consid-
by the local jurisdictional au thority, the next step
erable amount of grease in the scum layer. The
is the selection of a su itable septic tank. The
settling is also retarded in smaller septic tanks
criteria for selection are as follows:
because of the gasification du e to fluctuations of
flow, which are relatively wider in smaller septic
Functions of the Septic Tank tanks than in larger ones. This effect is reflected in
Table 8-3, which shows the recommended mini-
Untreated liqu id h ou sehold efflu ent consists of mu m liquid capacities of household septic tanks.
both solids and liqu ids. If both were disch arged
directly into the seepage beds or trenches, the Table 8-3 Liquid Capacity of Tanka
beds or trenches eventu ally wou ld clog. Th e sep-
tic tank is a device that protects the beds by Recommended Equivalent
separating solids from liqu ids. The solids are re- Number of Minimum Tank Capacity per
Bedroomsb Capacity, gal (L) Bedroom, gal (L)
tained in the septic tan k so th at only liqu id is
discharged to be percolated into the grou n d.
2 or fewer 1000 (3785.0) 300 (1135.6)
To provide this protection, two fu nctions take 3 1000 (3785.0) 375 (1419.5)
place within the septic tan k: 4 1500 (5678.1) 350 (1324.9)
aProvides for use of garbage grinders, automatic clothes wash-
Biological treatment Sewage efflu ent (fecal ers, and other household appliances.
matter) is su bjected to decomposition by natu - bFor each additional bedroom beyond 4, add 350 gal (1324.9 L).
228 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

As waste water en ters the septic tank, efflu - Invert The inlet in vert shou ld enter the septic
ent is forced ou t of th e tan k in to th e drain field. tank at least 3 in. (760.2 mm) above its liqu id
Alth ou gh the efflu ent is liqu id, some solids re- level in order to allow for an y momentary rises
main in su spension . Th ese solids are fu rth er in the liqu id level du ring the discharges to the
digested by the soil as the liqu id efflu ent trickles u n it. Th is free drop preven ts backwater an d
ou t of the drain piping into trenches and the su r- stran ding of solid material in the hou se sewer
rou ndin g absorption field. leadin g to the septic tank.
A vented inlet tee or baffle shou ld be provided
Septic Tank Specifications to divert th e incomin g sewage downward. Th is
device shou ld penetrate at least 6 in. (152.4 mm)
Materials Septic tan ks shou ld be watertight below the liqu id level of the septic tan k, bu t in
and constru cted of materials n ot su bject to ex- no case shou ld the penetration be greater than
cessive corrosion or decay. Con crete, fiberglass, th at allowed for the ou tlet device.
and coated metal are commonly u sed. Properly
cured, precast and cast-in-place, reinforced-con- Outlet It is very important that the ou tlet de-
cr et e s ep t ic t a n k s a r e a ccep t a b le b y m os t vice penetrate ju st far enou gh below the liqu id
ju risdictions. Special atten tion sh ou ld be given level of the septic tan k to provide balan ce be-
to job-bu ilt septic tanks to ensu re their water- tween th e slu dge an d s cu m s torage volu me;
tightness. Heavyweight concrete block shou ld be otherwise, part of the advantage of the capacity
laid on a solid concrete fou ndation. Mortar joints is lost. A vertical section of a properly operatin g
should be su rfaced with two ¼-in. (6.4-mm) coats septic tan k wou ld show it divided in to three dis-
of portlan d cement/ sand plaster. tinct layers: scu m at the top, a middle zon e free
of solids (called clear space) and a bottom layer
Precast septic tan ks shou ld have a minimu m of slu dge. Th e ou tlet device retains scu m in the
wall thickn ess of 3 in. (76.2 mm) and shou ld be septic tank, bu t at th e same time it limits the
adequ ately reinforced to facilitate their handling.
amou nt of slu dge th at can be accommodated
Wh en precast slabs are u sed as covers, th ey
with ou t scou ring (wh ich resu lts in th e slu dge
shou ld be watertight, have a thickness of at least
discharging in the efflu ent from the septic tan k).
4 in . (107.6 mm), and be adequ ately reinforced.
Observations of slu dge accu mu lations in the field
All con crete su rfaces shou ld be coated with an indicate that the ou tlet device should be extended
acceptable compou nd to minimize corrosion, as to a distance below th e su rface equ al to 40% of
approved by the local ju risdiction al au thority.
the liqu id depth . For h orizon tal, cylindrical sep-
General Backfill arou nd septic tanks shou ld be tic tan ks, this distance shou ld be redu ced to
made in thin layers thorou ghly tamped in a man- 35%. For example, in a h orizon tal, cylin drical
ner that will not produ ce u ndu e strain on the septic tan k h avin g a liqu id depth of 42 in. (1.1
septic tank. Settlement of th e backfill may be m), the ou tlet device shou ld penetrate 42 x 0.35
don e with the u se of water, provided th e mate- = 14.7 in. (0.4 m) below the liqu id level.
r ia l is t h or ou gh ly wet t ed fr om t h e b ot t om The ou tlet device shou ld be extended above
u pwards an d the septic tank is first filled with th e liqu id line to approximately 1 in . (25.4 mm)
water to preven t floating. from the top of the septic tank. The space be-
Adequate access to each compartment of the tween the top of th e septic tank and the baffle
septic tank should be provided for inspection and will allow any gas to pass throu gh the septic tank
cleaning. Both the inlet and the ou tlet devices in to the hou se vent.
should be accessible. Access to each tank compart- Tank proportions The available data indicate
ment should be provided by means of a removable th at, for septic tanks of a given capacity, shal-
cover or a 20-in. (0.5-m) manhole. Where the top low u n its fu n ction as well as deep on es. Also, for
of the septic tank is located more than 18 in. (457.2 septic tanks of a given capacity an d depth, the
mm) below the finished grade, manholes and in- shape of the u n it is not important. However, it is
spection holes should extend to the finished grade. recommen ded that the smallest plan dimension
In most instances, the extension can be made u s- be a min imu m of 2 ft (0.6 m). Liqu id depth s may
ing a clay or concrete pipe, but proper attention ran ge between 30 and 60 in. (0.8 and 1.5 m).
must be given to the potential hazard involved (yard
maintenance equipment) when manholes are ex- Storage above liquid level Capacity is requ ired
tended close to the ground su rface. above th e septic tank liqu id line to provide for
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 229

th at portion of the scu m th at floats above the An access manhole to each tank compartment
liqu id. Althou gh some variation is to be expected, shall be provided. Venting between the tank com-
on th e average, abou t 30% of th e total scu m ac- partments sh ou ld be provided to allow for the
cu mu lates above th e liqu id line. In addition to free passage of gas. In let and ou tlet fittin gs in
th e provision for scu m storage, 1 in . (25.4 mm) th e septic tank sh ou ld be proportioned (as they
is u su ally provided at the top of th e septic tank are for a single tank). The same allowance shou ld
to permit free passage of gas back to the inlet be made for storage above the liqu id line (as is
and hou se vent pipe. made for a single tank).
For septic tanks having straight, vertical sides, An allowance shou ld be made for slu dge and
the distance between the top of the septic tank scu m accu mu lation as indicated in Table 8-4.
and the liqu id line shou ld be equ al to approxi-
mately 20% of the liqu id depth. In horizontal, General Information on
cylindrical tanks, approximately 15% of the total Septic Tanks
circle shou ld be provided above the liqu id level.
This condition is met if the liqu id depth (distance Cleaning Septic tan ks shou ld be cleaned be-
from ou tlet invert to bottom of tank) is equ al to fore too mu ch slu dge or scu m accu mu lates. If
79% of the diameter of the septic tank. th e slu dge or scu m approaches the bottom too
Use of compartments Alth ou gh a nu mber of closely, solids will be discharged throu gh the ou t-
let device into the sewage-disposal field and will
arrangements is possible, "compartments" refers
clog the system. Wh en th is con dition occu rs,
to the nu mber of u nits in series. These compart-
even tu ally th e liqu id may break throu gh to the
men ts can be separate u nits linked together or
grou n d su rface and th e sewage may back u p the
section s enclosed in one con tinu ou s shell, with
watertigh t portions separatin g th e individu al plu mbin g fixt u res . Wh en a dis pos a l field is
compartments. clogged in this manner, not only is it necessary to
clean th e septic tank, bu t also it may be neces-
A sin gle-compartment septic tank provides sary to constru ct a new disposal field.
acceptable performan ce. The available data in-
With th e tan k capacities recommen ded in
dicate, however, th at a two-compartmen t septic
Table 8-3, th ere is a reasonable time period of
tank (with the first compartment equ al to one-
good operation before cleaning becomes neces-
half to two-th irds of th e total volu me) provides
sary. From one septic tank to the next, th ere are
better su spen ded-solids removal, wh ich may be
especially valu able for the protection of the soil- wide differences in the rates at which slu dge and
absorption system. Septic tanks with three or scu m accu mu late. In gen eral, th e tan k sh ou ld
be inspected at least once per year and cleaned
more equal compartments give performances that
ou t as necessary.
are at least as good as those of single-compart-
ment septic tan ks of th e same total capacity. Alt h ou gh it is a d ifficu lt t a s k for m os t
Each tank compartment should have a minimum homeowners, actu al inspection of the slu dge and
len gth of 2 ft (0.6 m) with a liqu id depth rangin g scu m accu mu lations is the only way to deter-
from 30 to 60 in. (0.8 to 1.5 m). mine definitely when a given septic tank needs

Table 8-4 Allowable Sludge Accumulation

Liquid Depth, ft (m)

Liquid Capacity 2½ 3 4 5
of Tank,a (0.8) (0.9) (1.2) (1.5)
gal (L) Distance from bottom of outlet device to top of sludge, in. (mm)

750 (2838.8) 5 (127) 6 (152.4) 10 (254) 13 (330.2)

900 (3406.5) 4 (101.6) 4 (101.6) 7 (177.8) 10 (254)
1000 (3785.0) 4 (101.6) 4 (101.6) 6 (152.4) 8 (203.2)
aTanks smaller than the capacities listed require more frequent cleaning.
230 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

to be pu mped. When a septic tank is inspected, person in case of an accident or th e person bein g
the depth of the slu dge and scu m shou ld be mea- overcome by gas remain in g in the septic tan k.
sured in the vicinity of the outlet baffle. The septic
tank shou ld be clean ed if: (a) the bottom of the Grease interceptors Grease interceptors (grease
scu m mat is within 3 in. (76.2 mm) of the bot- traps) are not, ordinarily, considered necessary
tom of the ou tlet device or (b) th e slu dge comes on hou sehold sewage-disposal systems. The dis-
with in th e limits specified in Table 8-4. ch arge from a garbage grinder shou ld n ot be
passed throu gh th ese u nits. With the capacities
Scu m can be measu red with a stick to which recommen ded in this chapter, septic tan ks can
a weighted flap has been h inged or with a device receive th e grease n ormally disch arged from a
u sed to feel the bottom of the scu m mat. The residence.
stick is forced throu gh the scu m mat, and the
hinged flap falls into a horizontal position . The Chemicals Th e operation of a septic tank is not
stick is th en raised u ntil resistan ce from the improved by the addition of disinfectants or other
bottom of the scu m is felt. With the same tool, chemicals. In general, the addition of chemicals
th e distance to th e bottom of th e ou tlet device to a septic tan k is n ot recommended an d may
can be determin ed. actu ally have an adverse effect on the bacterial
A lon g stick wrapped with rou gh, white towel- processes necessary for digestion. Use of com-
ing and lowered to the bottom of th e septic tank mercial produ cts contain ing sodiu m hydroxide
will show the depth of slu dge and the liqu id level or potassiu m h ydroxide as th e active agen t may
of the septic tank. The stick shou ld be lowered resu lt in the slu dge bu lkin g. A large increase in
behind th e ou tlet device in order to avoid scu m the alkalin ity may interfere with digestion. The
particles. After several minu tes, if the stick is resu lting efflu ent may severely damage th e soil
carefu lly removed, the slu dge line can be distin- stru ctu re and cau se accelerated clogging, thou gh
gu ished by the slu dge particles clin ging to the temporary relief may be experienced immediately
towelin g. after application of the produ ct.
In most commu nities where septic tan ks are Frequ ently, however, the harmfu l effects of
u sed, there are firms en gaged in clean ing septic ordinary household chemicals are overemphasized.
tan ks. The local h ealth departmen t can make Small amou nts of chlorine bleaches, added ahead
su ggestions on how to obtain this service. (In of the septic tank, may be u sed for odor control
some commu nities, the service is offered on a and will have no adverse effects on the system.
limited basis and paid for by property taxes.) Small quantities of lye or cau stics commonly used
Cleaning is u su ally accomplished by pu mpin g in the home, added to the plu mbing fixtu res, is
th e contents of the septic tank into a tru ck. Sep- not objectionable as far as the operation of the
tic tanks shou ld not be wash ed or disin fected septic tank is concerned. If the septic tanks are
after pu mpin g. A small residu e of slu dge sh ou ld as large as is recommended, the dilu tion of the
be left in th e septic tank for seeding pu rposes. lye or cau stics in the u nit will offset any of the
The material removed from th e septic tan k is a harmfu l effects that might otherwise occu r.
regu lated waste requ irin g proper h an dling ac- Man y commercial produ cts containin g en-
cordin g to laws an d ru les imposed by federal or zymes have been placed on the market for u se
state agencies. The tank shou ld never be emp- in septic tan ks. As far as is known , none has
tied into storm drains or disch arged directly in to been proved, in properly con trolled tests, to have
any stream or watercou rse. All meth ods of sew- an advantage.
age disposal shou ld first be approved by the local Soaps, detergents, bleach es, drain clean ers,
health au thorities. or oth er materials, as commonly u sed in hou se-
Wh en a large septic tan k is clean ed, care holds, will h ave n o appreciable adverse effects
shou ld be taken not to enter the septic tank u ntil on the sewage system. However, both th e soil
it has been th orou ghly ventilated and all gases and essential organisms might be su sceptible to
have been removed to preven t the creation of large doses of chemicals, resu ltin g from a h obby
explosion hazards and the asphyxiation of work- or a n in du s try, dis ch a rged in t o th e s ewa ge
ers. An yone en terin g th e septic tan k sh ou ld wear system.
a self-con tain ed breathin g apparatu s and h ave Bu lk qu an tities of ch emicals (pain ts, var-
on e end of a stou t rope tied arou nd th e waist nishes, pesticides, herbicides, etc.) sh ou ld not be
with the other end held above grou nd by another in trodu ced to the system as these may cau se sig-
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 231

nificant problems in eith er overloading the sys- the grou nd su rface will simplify maintenance and
t em, in t er ru pt in g t h e d iges t ion proces s , or clean ing. Records mu st be retained, inclu din g
placing harmfu l or toxic chemicals into the soil all performed maintenance.
or waterways. Abandoned tanks sh ou ld be filled with earth
or rock.
Miscellaneous It is advisable to have all sani-
tary wastes from a hou sehold discharge into a
s in gle s eptic ta n k a n d dis pos a l s ys tem. For DISTRIBUTION BOXES
hou sehold in stallation s, it is u su ally more eco-
nomical to provide a single disposal system rather It is recommended that distribu tion boxes not
th an two (or more) with the same total capacity. be u sed for in dividu al sewage-disposal systems
Normal h ou sehold waste, inclu din g th at from th e for the following reasons:
lau ndry, bath , an d kitch en, sh ou ld pass in to a
sin gle system. 1. Th e distribu tion boxes may be elimin ated
from septic tank–soil-absorption systems for
Roof drains, fou ndation drains, and drainage
other methods of distribu tion withou t indu c-
from other sou rces produ cin g large intermittent
in g an increased possibility of failu re of the
or constan t volu mes of clear water shou ld not
disposal field. Evidence indicates that distri-
be piped in to the septic tan k or absorption area.
bu tion boxes may be harmfu l to a system.
Such large volu mes of water will exceed the tank
capacity, stir u p the conten ts of the septic tank, 2. Data indicate th at, on level grou nd, equ al
and carry some of th e solids in to th e ou tlet line. distribu tion is u nnecessary if th e system is
The disposal system following the septic tank will designed so that an overloaded trench drains
likewise become flooded or clogged, or both, and back to other trenches before a failu re occu rs.
may fail. Drainage from garage floors or other 3. On sloping grou nd, a method of distribu tion
sou rces of oily waste sh ou ld also be exclu ded is needed to preven t an excessive bu ildu p of
from the septic tan k. head and the failu re of any one tren ch be-
Toilet paper su bstitu tes shou ld not be flu shed fore t h e ca pa city of th e en tire s ys t em is
in to a septic tan k. Paper towels, n ewspaper, reach ed. It is dou btfu l that distribu tion boxes
wrappin g paper, rags, and sticks may not de- can provide an equ al distribu tion.
compose in th e septic tan k an d are likely to lead
to clogging of the plu mbing and disposal systems.
SEPTIC TANK/ SOIL-ABSORPTION
Waste brines from hou sehold water softener
SYSTEMS FOR INSTITUTIONS AND
u nits may h ave adverse effects on the action of
RECREATIONAL AND OTHER
th e septic tan k, cau sing a sligh t sh orten ing of ESTABLISHMENTS
th e life of a sewage-disposal field in stalled in a
stru ctu red clay type soil.
Septic tank systems are u tilized for providing
Adequ ate ven tin g is obtain ed throu gh th e sewage treatment and disposal in many types of
bu ilding plu mbing system if th e septic tank and smaller establishments—su ch as sch ools, small
th e plu mbin g system are designed and installed in stitu tions, motels, small h otels, small restau -
properly. A separate ven t on a septic tank is not rants, trailer parks, hou sing projects, large private
necessary. estates, an d camps—wh ere the qu an tities of sew-
A chart showing the location of the septic tank age involved are larger than those discharged from
an d disposal system sh ou ld be placed in a su it- an in dividu al home. In general, the u sefu lness
able location in th e bu ildin g(s) served by th e of a septic tank system decreases as th e size of
system. Whether fu rnish ed by the bu ilder, sep- th e facility served increases. The lack of sani-
tic tank installer, or local health department, the tary engineering advice du ring the design of su ch
chart sh ou ld contain instru ctions as to th e in- a system generally leads to failu res, excessive
spection and maintenance requ ired for the septic costs, and a mu ltitu de of other problems. Any-
tank. This chart will help acqu aint h omeowners on e con templatin g th e u se of su ch a system
with the necessary maintenance procedu res sep- shou ld employ an engineer qu alified to design
tic tanks requ ire, thu s forestalling failu res of the it. Th e firs t item t o be deter m in ed from t h e
u nit by ensu rin g a satisfactory operation. Ex- au th orities h aving ju risdiction is whether or not
t en s ion of t h e s ep t ic t a n k ’s m a n h oles or th is meth od of sewage disposal is su itable for
inspection holes to within 8 in. (203.2 mm) of th e type of establishmen t u nder consideration.
232 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Any institu tion al septic tank system sh ou ld Some service station s an d similar occu pan -
incorporate appu rtenances and su pplemental cies u tilize s pecia lly des ign ed u n its th a t s o
design featu res to meet th e requ irements of the effectively recycle waste water th at some h ealth
establishmen t and the varying site conditions. officials permit its reu se for toilet flu shing.
Su ch systems can be su ccessfu l wh en appropri-
ate experience, study, and planning are employed Alternative Systems
in th eir ch oice and developmen t. Th is section de-
scribes the most generally su ccessfu l procedu res Institu tional waste-water man agement for sites
and practices as a gu ide for en gineers designin g with ou t sewers presen ts u n u su al ch allen ges.
institu tional systems. For occu pancies covered J u risdictional au thorities shou ld develop policies
by this section, u n der the federal Clean Water whereby inn ovative, alternative systems can be
act and related state water-qu ality regu lation s, evalu ated to determin e th e con dition s u n der
it is common that application s mu st be made wh ich su ch systems may be accepted, based
for discharge requ irements in addition to obtain- u pon the variou s factors in volved.
in g t h e n or m a l a p pr ova ls . For in s t a n ce, for
restau rants, su permarkets, and other establish- Special Design
ments produ cing appreciable amou nts of grease,
grease interceptors are commonly requ ired, ei- Special design featu res are desirable for larger
th er as a central grease trap located ou tside the institu tional type systems. Consideration shou ld
bu ilding or, preferably, as separate grease inter- be given to providing larger-than-requ ired tanks.
ceptors located at each grease-produ cing fixtu re. Often two or more properly designed baffles are
Becau se regu lations at all levels are changin g desirable rather th an a du al-tank system.
rapidly, requ iring greater clarity of efflu ent, en-
gineers shou ld be su re they h ave contacted all Openin gs shou ld be con veniently accessible
agen cies that may be involved. for tank clean ing and maintenan ce.
Seepage systems also mu st be properly de-
Water Conservation sign ed. For gravity flow, each seepage tren ch
n ormally shou ld n ot exceed 100 ft (30.5 m) in
In most institu tional systems, an important fac- length. For systems designed for more than 2000
t or in p r even t in g over loa d of wa s t e-wa t er gal (7570 L) per day, au tomatic dosin g by siphon
disposal systems is water conservation. Means of or pu mp is desirable to ensu re that th e whole
conserving water in clu de au tomatically closin g system is effectively u sed. Special dosing nor-
faucets on all public wash basins; flow restrictors, mally shou ld be designed to fill the entire seepage
where applicable; water closet and u rinal fixtu res trench piping to abou t ¾ capacity.
designed to minimize water consu mption; pre-
ven t ive m a in t en a n ce; a n d u s er -ed u ca t ion Allowing for 100% expansion or h aving two
programs aimed at waste-water redu ction. The separate absorption areas for alternating between
u se of 1.6 gal (7.2 L) per flu sh water closets is seepage systems is a con sideration for institu -
certainly a major factor in waste-water redu ction. tion s.

Nu merou s states and localities are imple-

men tin g, or s tu dyin g th e implemen tation of, INDIVIDUAL AEROBIC
water (gray and/ or black) recycling programs. WASTE-WATER
TREATMENT PLANTS
Special Fixtures
Where su rface discharge is au thorized by the
A nu mber of failing septic tan k systems at h igh- au thorities having ju risdiction, individu al treat-
way safety rest stops, parks, and service stations m en t p la n t s ca n be u s ed . App r ova l u n d er
have been corrected by in stalling water closets Nation al Sanitation Fou ndation (NSF) Standard
th at u se 2 qt (1.9 L) per flu sh or less. Th is option no. 40 may be requ ired. Th is stan dard requ ires
shou ld be evalu ated in system design, especially compliance with class 1 efflu ent standards to meet
for occu pancies where water closets and u rinals EPA secon da ry-trea tmen t gu idelin es . Septic
produce the majority of waste water at sites where tanks may requ ire the installation of intermit-
soil porosity is limited. tent, conventional, or recircu lating sand filters.
Stabilization ponds or lagoons, either conven-
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 233

tional or aerated, may be accepted by some ju - Table 8-5 Average Waste-Water Flows
ris diction s wh en soil-absorption s ystems are from Residential Sources
contemplated. It is essential to determine the
ch aracteristics an d su itability of th e area re- Flow,
s erved for t h e s u bs u r fa ce dis pos a l s ys t em, gal (L) / unit / day
inclu ding, as requ ired, room for fu tu re expan- Source Unit Range Typical
s ion . Th is in clu des ch eck in g t h e r equ ir ed
separation from wells an d su rface waters, the to-
Apartment Person 53–90 (200–340) 69 (260)
pogra ph y, da ta on grou n d-wa ter levels a n d
impermeable layers, an d the soil evalu ation and Hotel, residential Resident 40–58 (150–220) 50 (190)
percolation tests, as requ ired. Th e design en gi- Individual dwelling
n eer shou ld fu lly explore all technical and legal Average home Person 50–92 (190–350) 74 (280)
aspects of secu rin g approval of an acceptable
Better home Person 66–106 (250–400) 82 (310)
method of sewage disposal before the site is de-
veloped. To do s o, it is n ecess a ry to make a Luxury home Person 79–145 (300–550) 100 (380)
somewhat detailed plan of the total contemplated Semi-modern home Person 26–66 (100–250) 53 (200)
site occu pancy to determine the size and capaci- Trailer park Person 32–53 (120–200) 40 (150)
ties of the disposal u nits.
Wh en soil-absorption systems are con tem-
p la t e d , it is es s en t ia l t o d et e r m in e t h e systems for apartments, mobile-home parks, and
characteristics and su itability of the soil as a first similar residential facilities. Refer to Tables 8-6
step toward design . The bu ilder of the establish- th rou gh 8-8 for typical waste-water flows from
men t shou ld explore th is featu re of a proposed com m er cia l, in s t it u t ion a l, a n d r ecr ea t ion a l
site before the site is pu rch ased. After th e perco- sou rces.
lation tests are completed, th e qu antity of the
sewage to be discharged sh ou ld be estimated to Where measu rements of water consu mption
determine the size and capacity of the disposal are n ot possible, it is n ecessary to u se oth er
u nits. methods of estimating the amou nt of sewage to
be disch arged. On e method is to base th e esti-
mated flow on the nu mber of bedrooms. A second
ESTIMATING SEWAGE QUANTITIES method is to calcu late the flow on the basis of
the nu mber and kinds of plu mbing fixtu re. If the
Normally, disposal systems are designed prior to bu ildin g is u sed as a restau rant, the n u mber of
the actu al constru ction of a facility. In estimating meals served may be the best criterion. Th e de-
the qu antity of sewage, the first consideration sign engineer mu st u se ju dgmen t and base an
mu st be given to local code requ irements. These estimate u pon a combination of the variou s in-
requ irements u su ally resu lt in design flows that flu en cing factors. Refer to Table 8-9 for general
are considerably above average. If there are no establishments to estimate sewage qu antities.
code requ irements, the most reliable criteria are The qu antities given in th e table are merely th e
readings from water meters at similar existing best averages available at this time; they sh ou ld
bu ildings. This can u su ally be obtained from the be modified in localities or establishments where
water u tility company. It is recommended that a experience indicates a need to do so.
safety factor of 10% be added to the qu antity of
It is sometimes economically wise to con-
water obtained to accou nt for an y addition al
stru ct separate disposal systems for different
unknown requirements. However, water flows that
types of waste at a given establishment. The de-
do not pass throu gh the sewage system, e.g.,
cision regarding the nu mber of disposal systems
irrigation, shou ld be exclu ded.
may be influ en ced by topography, con ditions of
Where codes an d actu al u sage data are not terrain, an d the locations of the bu ildin gs con-
available, it is necessary to u se other methods of tribu ting to th e wastes. For example, at large
es tima tin g th e a mou n t of s ewa ge to be dis - camps and some resorts, the kitch en and cen-
charged. For residential facilities refer to Table tral dining facilities may be located at appreciable
8-5 for average daily waste-water flows, inclu ding distan ces from the livin g qu arters, cottages, and
minimu m and maximu m flow and frequ ency dis- cabins. Un der su ch circu mstances, the kitch-
tribu tion. These data are u sefu l for the design of en s may be provided with s epa rate dis pos al
234 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 8-6 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Commercial Sources

Waste-Water Flow,
gpd/unit (L/d/unit)
Source Unit Range Typical

Airport Passenger 2.1–4.0 (8–15) 2.6 (10)

Automobile service station Vehicle serviced 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Employee 9.2–15.8 (35–60) 13.2 (50)
Bar Customer 1.3–5.3 (5–20) 2.1 (8)
Employee 10.6–15.8 (40–60) 13.2 (50)
Hotel Guest 39.6–58.0 (150–220) 50.1 (190)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Industrial building Employee 7.9–17.2 (3–65) 14.5 (55)
(excluding industry and cafeteria)
Laundry (self-service) Machine 475.0–686.0 (1800–2595) 580.0 (2195)
Wash 47.5–52.8 (180–200) 50.1 (190)
Motel Person 23.8–39.6 (90–150) 31.7 (120)
Motel with kitchen Person 50.2–58.1 (190–220) 52.8 (200)
Office Employee 7.9–17.2 (30–65) 14.5 (55)
Restaurant Meal 2.1–4.0 (8–15) 2.6 (10)
Rooming house Resident 23.8-50.1 (90–190) 39.6 (150)
Store, department Toilet room 423.0–634.0 (1600–2400) 528.0 (2000)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Shopping center Parking space 0.5–2.1 (2–8) 1.1 (4)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)

Table 8-7 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Institutional Sources

Waste-Water Flow,
gpd/unit (L/d/unit)

Source Unit Range Typical

Hospital, medical Bed 132.0–251.0 (500–950) 172.0 (650)

Employee 5.3–15.9 (20–60) 10.6 (40)
Hospital, mental Bed 79.3–172.0 (300–650) 106.0 (400)
Employee 5.3–15.9 (20–60) 10.6 (40)
Prison Inmate 79.3–159.0 (300–600) 119.0 (450)
Employee 5.3–15.9 (20–60) 10.6 (40)
Rest home Resident 52.8–119.0 (200–450) 92.5 (350)
Employee 5.3–15.9 (20–60) 10.6 (40)
School, day
With cafeteria, gym, showers Student 15.9–30.4 (60–115) 21.1 (80)
With cafeteria only Student 10.6–21.1 (40–80) 15.9 (60)
Without cafeteria, gym, showers Student 5.3–17.2 (20–65) 10.6 (40)
School, boarding Student 52.8–106.0 (200–400) 74.0 (280)
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 235

systems design ed especially for kitchen waste. A plu mbing fixtu re malfunctioning (constantly ru n-
major factor is grease interception. Also, while ning water closets, for instance).
many au thorities discou rage u se of garbage dis-
posal u n its or disposals for occu pan cies served Separate systems may also be u sed for com-
by on-site disposal sytems, su ch disposers are still mu nity bathhou ses. When this is don e, the total
u sed. For su ch occu pancies wh ere disposers are per capita flow mu st be broken down in to its
u sed, an d for food processin g an d pou ltry or ani- component parts, and some allowance sh ou ld
mal slau ghtering establishments and other u nits be made for the amou nt of sewage tribu tary from
produ cing special types of liqu id waste, separate th e different disposal systems. Table 8-10 illu s-
in terceptors an d pretreatmen t sh ou ld be de- trates h ow this may be done where there are no
signed to meet the particu lar requ irements of the definite data regarding exact distribu tion flow.
establish ment. For a certain nu mber of new establishments,
Some au th orities favor placing limits on the the design engineer may be u nable to obtain from
size an d capacity of septic tank type disposal th e client accu rate estimates of the nu mber of
systems. Un der su ch circu mstances, it may be patrons to be served by the disposal system. This
desirable to provide separate systems for grou ps is particu larly tru e in the case of restau ran ts
of a limited nu mber of dwellin gs, apartments, and recreational facilities, su ch as picnic areas,
mobile h omes or other occu pan cies. Some favor cou ntry clu bs, and the like. In su ch cases, the
limits approaching (not to exceed) 10 apartments followin g data shou ld be considered: For restau -
per system. This has the advan tage of limitin g rants, seating capacity, type of men u , hou rs to
th e n u mber of u n its affected by temporary sys- be open per day and all available data can be
tem ma lfu n ction in g as by overloadin g du e to considered in calcu lating waste-water qu antities

Table 8-8 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Recreational Sources

Waste-Water Flow,
gpd/unit (L/d/unit)

Source Unit Range Typical

Apartment, resort Person 52.8–74.0 (200–280) 58.1 (220)

Cabin, resort Person 34.3–50.2 (130–190) 42.3 (160)
Cafeteria Customer 1.1–2.6 (4–10) 1.6 (6)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Campground (developed) Person 21.1–39.6 (80–150) 31.7 (120)
Cocktail lounge Seat 13.2–26.4 (50–100) 19.8 (75)
Coffee shop Customer 4.0–7.9 (15–30) 5.3 (20)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Country club Member present 66.0–132.0 (250–500) 106.0 (400)
Employee 10.6–15.9 (40–60) 13.2 (50)
Day camp (no meals) Person 10.6–15.9 (40–60) 13.2 (50)
Dining hall Meal served 4.0–13.2 (15–50) 7.9 (30)
Dormitory, bunkhouse Person 19.8–46.2 (75–175) 39.6 (150)
Hotel, resort Person 39.6–63.4 (150–240) 52.8 (200)
Laundromat Machine 476.0–687.0 (1800–2600) 581.0 (2200)
Store resort Customer 1.3–5.3 (5–20) 2.6 (10)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Swimming pool Customer 5.3–13.2 (20–50) 10.6 (40)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Theater Seat 2.6–4.0 (10–15) 2.6 (10)
Visitor center Visitor 4.0–7.9 (15–30) 5.3 (20)
236 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 8-9 Quantities of Sewage Flows

GPD/Person
Type of Establishment (L/D/Person)a

Airports (per passenger) 5 (20)

Apartments—multifamily (per resident) 60 (225)
Bathhouses and swimming pools 10 (40)
Camps
Campground with central comfort stations 35 (130)
With flush toilets, no showers 25 (95)
Construction camps (semipermanent) 50 (190)
Day camps (no meals served) 15 (60)
Resort camps (night and day) with limited plumbing 50 (190)
Luxury camps 100 (380)
Cottages and small dwellings with seasonal occupancy 50 (190)
Country clubs (per resident member) 100 (380)
Country clubs (per nonresident member present) 25 (95)
Dwellings
Boarding houses 50 (190)
additional for nonresident boarders 10 (40)
Luxury residences and estates 150 (570)
Multifamily dwellings (apartments) 60 (225)
Rooming houses 40 (150)
Single-family dwellings 75 (285)
Factories (gal [L] per person, per shift, exclusive of industrial wastes) 35 (130)
Hospitals (per bed space) 250 (945)b
Hotels with private baths (2 persons per room) 60 (225)
Hotels without private baths 50 (190)
Institutions other than hospitals (per bed space) 125 (475)
Laundries, self-service (gal [L] per wash, i.e., per customer) 50 (190)
Mobile home parks (per space) 250 (945)
Motels with bath, toilet, and kitchen wastes (per bed space) 50 (190)
Motels (per bed space) 40 (150)
Picnic parks (toilet wastes only) (per picnicker) 5 (20)
Picnic parks with bathhouses, showers, and flush toilets 10 (40)
Restaurants (toilet and kitchen wastes per patron) 10 (40)
Restaurants (kitchen wastes per meal served) 3 (10)
Restaurants, additional for bars and cocktail lounges 2 (8)
Schools
Boarding 100 (380)
Day, without gyms, cafeterias, or showers 15 (60)
Day, with gyms, cafeteria, and showers 25 (95)
Day, with cafeteria, but without gyms or showers 20 (80)
Service stations (per vehicle served) 10 (40)
Swimming pools and bathhouses 10 (40)
Theaters
Movie (per auditorium seat) 5 (20)
Drive-in (per car space) 5 (20)
Travel trailer parks without individual water and sewer hookups (per space) 50 (190)
Travel trailer parks with individual water and sewer hookups (per space) 100 (380)
Workers
Construction (at semipermanent camps) 50 (190)
Day, at schools and offices (per shift) 15 (60)
aUnless otherwise noted.
bIncludes cafeteria.
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 237

and characteristics. For recreational facilities like Figure 8-4 from the Manual of Septic Tank
picnic areas, cou ntry clu bs, and similar occu pan- Practice has long been u sed. However, modified
cies , a r eview of a ll p r op os ed b u ild in gs , wording is su ggested:
campsites, and methods of operation can pro-
“Where all pertinen t factors are su itable for
vide valu able data. Compu tation s and estimates
con ven tion al soil-absorption systems, Figu re 8-4
can be made from the nu mber and types of fix-
and Table 8-10 may be u sed for sizin g systems
tu re installed, together with data from experience
where th e percolation test is selected. However,
with similar facilities elsewhere.
where local experien ce, soil an alysis resu lts and
Es tima tes of s ewage qu a n tities from golf other data are available, su ch data shou ld be
clu bs shou ld be ch ecked and calcu lations based taken into consideration in the final design.”
on the weekend popu lation. Allowances of 10 gal
(37.9 L) per person for showers and 7 gal (26.5 L) Table 8-11 and Figu re 8-4 do n ot allow for
per person for toilet an d kitch en wastes, both for wa s te from ga rba ge grin ders a n d a u toma tic
the average weekend population, have been found wa s h in g m a ch in es . Dis ch a r ges fr om t h es e
reasonable. appliances to an institu tional waste-disposal sys-
tem call for special design con siderations.
Generally, garbage disposal u nits are not rec-
ommended for institutional occupancies that have
Table 8-10 Estimated Distribution
central kitchens. It is usu ally more efficient and
of Sewage Flows
economical to handle garbage throu gh conven-
Type of Volume, t ion a l ga r ba ge ca n s a n d dis pos a l met h ods .
Waste gpd/person (L/d/person) However, where it is decided to u se garbage dis-
posal units in central kitchens or food-processing
Total flow 30 40 50 75 100 plants, the system designer should especially de-
(115) (150) (190) (285) (380) sign the grease interceptor or a separate garbage
Kitchen wastes 0a 7 (26) 10 (40) 10 (40) 15 (60) separation tank on the basis of anticipated qu an-
tities of garbage to be produ ced between normal
Toilet wastes 15 (60) 15 (60) 20 (80) 25 (95) 30 (115) tank cleanings. Then, special provisions should
Showers, be made for removal and disposal of garbage and
washbasins, etc. 15 (60) 18 (70) 20 (80) 25 (95) 35 (135) grease at sufficiently frequent intervals based upon
Laundry wastes 0a 0a 0a 15 (60) 20 (80) actual periodic inspection of su ch receptacles.
aNo waste from these uses.

Table 8-11 Allowable Rate of Sewage Application to a Soil-Absorption System

Percolation Rate Maximum Rate of Sewage Application Percolation Rate Maximum Rate of Sewage Application
(time in min for water for Absorption Trenches,a (time in min for water for Absorption Trenches,a
to fall 1 in. [25.4 mm]) Seepage Beds, and Seepage Pitsb, to fall 1 in. [25.4 mm]) Seepage Beds, and Seepage Pitsb,
g/ft2/d (L/m2/d)c g/ft2/d (L/m2/d)c

1 or less 5.0 (244.3) 10 1.6 (78.2)

2 3.5 (171.0) 15 1.3 (63.5)
3 2.9 (141.7) 30d 0.9 (44.0)
4 2.5 (122.2) 45d 0.8 (39.1)
5 2.2 (107.5) 60d,e 0.6 (29.3)
aAbsorption area is figured as trench bottom area and includes a statistical allowance for vertical sidewall area.
bAbsorption area for seepage pits is effective sidewall area.
cNot including effluents from septic tanks that receive wastes from garbage grinders and automatic washing machines.
dMore than 30 is unsuitable for seepage pits.
eMore than 60 is unsuitable for absorption systems.
238 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

REFERENCES
1. MacHatton, J .G. 1972. Vacuum s ew age collection.
Mishawaka, IN: J oseph MacHatton Assoc.
2. Otis, Richard J . 1976. On site waste-water facili-
ties for s m a ll commu n ities a n d s u bdivis ion s .
Proceedings of the Third National Conferece on In-
dividual On Site Waste-Water Systems. Ann Arbor:
Ann Arbor Scien ce.
3. US Environmental Protection Agency. Pressure sewer
demonstration at the borough of Phoenixville, Pennsyl-
vania. Report EPA 2-73-270. Washington, DC.
4. US Public Health Service. Manual of s eptic tank
practice. Washington, DC.
5. Wh at fu tu re role for pressu re sewers? Civil En-
gineering 44: 52-3, 1974.
Figure 8 -4 Graph Showing Relation
Between Percolation Rate and Allowable
Rate at Sewage Application BIBLIOGRAPHY
Source: Manual of Septic Tank Practice.
1. Bennett, E.R., and K.C. Linstedt. Individual home
w as te-w ater characterization and treatment. Fort
The amou nt of additional flow of waste water
Collins, CO: Environmental Resou rces Center,
from garbage grinding can be estimated by deter-
Colorado State University.
mining the nature of the operation. Interpolating
from data in the Manual, an average design flow 2. Boegly, W. J ., et al. MIUS technology evaluation:
of about 1 gal (4.54 L) per meal per day is estimated collection, treatment and dis pos al of liquid w as tes .
when garbage grinders are u sed. ORNL-MIUS-16. Springfield, VA: National Tech-
nical Information Service.
For res iden t ia l a u toma tic la u n dries , th e
Manual gives about 40 gal (180 L) per wash. An 3. McClelland, Nina I., Ed. 1976. Proceedings of the
estimate of the average number of wash loads per third national conference on individual on site waste-
day multiplied by 40 (180) would, therefore, give water systems. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science.
the waste-water flow to attribute to an institutional 4. Metcalf and Eddy, In c. 1979. Was te-w ater engi-
laundry. neering: Treatment/ dis pos al/ reus e. 2nd ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
5. US Environmental Protection Agency. Alternatives
INSPECTION
for s mall w as te-w ater treatment s y s tems : Cos t-ef-
fectiv en e s s a n a ly s is . EPA Pu blica t ion 625/
After a soil-absorption system has been com-
4-77-011 (US Government Printing Office: 1977-
pletely in stalled, an d before it is u sed, the entire
757-140/ 6602). Washington, DC: US Government
system shou ld be tested and inspected. The sep-
Printing Office.
tic tan k shou ld be filled with water and allowed
to stand overnight to check for leaks. If any leaks 6. US Environmental Protection Agency. Alternatives
occu r, they shou ld be repaired immediately. The for s mall w as te-w ater treatment s y s tems : On-s ite
soil-absorption system shou ld be inspected be- dis pos al/ s eepage treatment and dis pos al. EPA
fore it is covered to be su re that the disposal publication 625/ 4-77-011. (US Government Print-
system is installed properly. Prompt inspection ing Office: 1977-757-140/ 6604). Washington, DC:
before backfillin g is u su ally requ ired by local US Government Printing Office.
regu lations, even where approval of plan s for th e 7. US Environmental Protection Agency. Alternatives
su bsu rface sewage-disposal system is requ ired for s mall w as te-w ater treatment s y s tems : Pres s ure
before issu ance of a permit. Backfill material s ew ers / vacuum s ew ers . EPA Pu blication 625/ 4-
shou ld be free of large stones and other deleteri- 7 7 -0 1 1 (US Gover n m en t Pr in t in g Office:
ou s material an d sh ou ld be over-filled a few 1977-757-140/ 6603). Washington, DC: US Govern-
inches (millimeters) to allow for settling. men t Printin g Office.
Chapter 9 — Private Water Systems 239

Private Water
Systems

INTRODUCTION ity is qu estionable, independent sou rces of wa-

t er m a y h a ve t o b e d evelop ed . In cr it ica l
Normally, a “private water system” is either a applications (su ch as hospitals) wh ere an inter-
piped water su pply that is generated an d con- ru ption of service is likely to occu r, reserves or
tained on the u ser’s site to serve the bu ildings(s) an alternate source of supply shou ld be provided.
on the site or that pipin g from the pu blic water- Providin g meters and backflow prevention de-
su pply meter to the bu ilding(s) on the u ser’s site. vices at th e point of con nection to the pu blic
This term covers any collection, treatment, stor- su pply is essential design practice; su ch devices
age, or distribu tion facilities u sed primarily in are gen erally requ ired by the u tility company or
connection with su ch a system. The private wa- the local administrative au thority. Backflow pre-
ter su pply may be generated from a water-storage vention devices are u su ally requ ired only wh en
tank, a private reservoir, or private wells. The the possibility of a cross connection exists. Where
private water system is installed, controlled, op- backflow prevention devices are installed, peri-
erated, and maintained by the u ser. Safe drinking odic (an n u al) in spection mu st be provided to
water is th e u ltimate goal, an d the methods de- ensu re proper operation . Not e: Local codes may
scribed in th is ch apter are a means to that goal. requ ire that backflow prevention devices be in-
spected by an individu al certified by the state.
Engineering considerations in th e design of Parallel backflow preventers may be needed to
priva te wa ter s ys tems in clu de th e followin g: avoid the necessity of shu tting down the service
source, demand, qu ality, system elements, equ ip- for (annu al) maintenance.
m en t , con s t r u ct ion , in it ia l op er a t ion , a n d
maintenance procedu res. In addition to address- As previou sly stated, where it is determined
ing each of these areas, the engineer shou ld seek that present and projected fu tu re rates of de-
additional sou rces of local information and ref- mand for water cannot be met or if the reliability
er en ces , in clu d in g geologica l s u r veys a n d is u nacceptable, independent sources have to be
water-qu ality test resu lts. developed. “Su rface water”—water available on
t h e ea rt h ’s s u r fa ce, s u ch a s t h a t fou n d in
Sources of Supply streams, rivers, or lakes—may be diverted and/
or impou n ded or oth erwis e s tored an d u s ed
The local water u tility or h ealth departmen t is where water rights are available an d flood and
th e preferred sou rce of information on the water drou gh t conditions are man ageable. Water-stor-
su pply and shou ld be contacted as soon as pos- age tanks and grou nd water pu mped from wells
sible in order to determine the adequ acy and are often more reliable sou rces for private su p-
qu ality of th e su pply, th e volu me and cost of the plies. “Grou nd water” is su bsu rface water stored
service, pressu res, an d local regu lation s. In in- in a satu rated state in materials beneath the
stances where the present and projected fu tu re earth ’s su rface. Aqu ifers store su bsu rface water
rates of demand cannot be met, or if th e reliabil- th at can be yielded in a u sable qu antity to a well
240 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

or spring. Grou nd water is gen erally available at is advan ced in to bedrock a few feet, a casin g is
th e point of u se an d is often of better qu ality in stalled, an d th e well is advan ced in to bedrock
th an su rface water. u n til water is en cou n tered. Th e an n u lu s be-
tween th e casin g an d bore h ole mu st be sealed
with an imperviou s material to preven t in filtra-
WELLS tion of su rface water in to th e aqu ifer. Specific
state regu lation s provide min imu m con stru c-
A “water well” is a cased h ole, u su ally vertical, tion stan dards for th e location of th e well with
th at is drilled in th e earth to access water th at regard to stru ctu res, su rface featu res, and prop-
is stored in voids called “aqu ifers.” Aqu ifers oc- erty lin es. Addition ally, state regu lation s may
cu r in b ot h b ed r ock a n d r egolit h a n d a r e specify a min imu m depth of th e well, a min i-
satu rated formation s th at yield water in su ffi- mu m amou n t of casin g, th e type of casin g, an d
cien t qu an tities to be u sed. Precipitation an d grou tin g specification s for th e an n u lu s of th e
su rface water rech arge aqu ifers. Modern wells casin g to prevent su rface contamination . Often ,
are gen erally drilled u sin g a mach in e th at ad- well permits are requ ired before actu al drillin g
van ces a bore h ole to an aqu ifer, where a casin g can begin .
is in stalled to preven t collapse of th e borin g.
Th is casin g also preven ts th e aqu ifer from be- Dug Wells
in g con ta min a ted by s u rfa ce wa ter or oth er
sou rces of su rface pollu tion at or n ear th e su r- Depth s can be u p to 65 ft (20 m) or more, de-
fa ce of t h e gr ou n d in filt r a t in g t h e a qu ifer pendin g on the position of th e water table, while
th rou gh th e borin g. diameters are u su ally 3 to 30 ft (1 to l0 m). Du g
The u se of the well will determine its size. wells can yield relatively large qu an tities of wa-
Residen tial wells providin g water for a sin gle ter from s h allow s ou rces ; th ey are th e mos t
dwelling gen erally ran ge from 2 to 6 in . (5 to 15 common kin d of well u sed for in dividu al water
cm) in diameter and produ ce several hu ndred su pplies. Th eir large diameters permit storage
gallon s of water per day. High-capacity wells, of con siderable qu an tities of water if th e wells
su ch as wells for in du stry or mu nicipal water exten d some distan ce below th e water table.
su pplies, may range from 6 to 36 in. (15 to 91 Some large mu n icipal wells called “collectors”
cm) in diameter or larger and may produ ce sev- are du g wells with lateral screen ed h orizon tal
eral million gallons of water per day. Shallow pipes.
wells of 50 ft (15 m) or less can be installed in In th e past, all du g wells were excavated by
loose formation s of sand by driving or jetting a hand; even today, th e manu al method is widely
2-in. (5-cm) pipe into the grou nd u ntil an ad- employed. A pick and shovel are the basic imple-
equ ate depth is reached to provide th e requ ired men ts. Loose material is h au led to the su rface
water. Deep wells, over 50 ft (15 m) in depth, are in a con tainer by means of pu lleys an d lin es.
generally drilled u sin g mu d or air rotary. These Large du g wells can be constru cted rapidly with
techn iqu es u se a flu id, su ch as water, drillin g p or t a b le exca va t in g eq u ip m en t , s u ch a s
mu d, or compressed air, to clean the soil cu t- clamshell and orange-peel bu ckets. For safety,
tings from the bore hole as the well is drilled. and to prevent caving, a linin g of wood or sheet
Water or drilling mu d is u sed in loose forma- piling shou ld be placed in the h ole to brace the
tions of sand and gravel to stabilize the bore hole, walls.
whereas clay and bedrock are generally drilled
u sing air to clean th e bore hole since these for- A du g well is permanently lin ed with a cas-
mation s are fairly stable. ing of wood staves, brick, rock, concrete, or metal.
A properly constru cted du g well pen etrating a
Th e bore h ole is advan ced u n til eith er ad- permeable aqu ifer can yield approximately 462
equ a te wa ter is en cou n t er ed or bedr ock is to 1392 gpm (1750 to 5269 L/ min), alth ou gh
reach ed. In eith er case, th e bore h ole mu st be most domestic du g wells yield less than 18,000
of a sign ifican t depth to isolate th e well, so th at ft 3 / day (500 m 3 / day). It is difficu lt to provide a
it is n ot con tamin ated from su rface water. In proper sanitary seal on a du g well. Constru ction
porou s formation s of san d or gravel, casin g is of du g wells is prohibited or at least discou raged
in stalled with a well screen to allow th e water in some areas becau se of the increased possibil-
to easily en ter th e well from th e aqu ifer. If bed- ity of su rface contamination compared to deeper
rock is en cou n tered before water, th e bore h ole wells constru cted by other mean s.
Chapter 9 — Private Water Systems 241

Bored Wells Driven wells are best su ited for domestic

water su pplies, for temporary water su pplies
Where a water table exists at a shallow depth in (su ch as those requ ired on a remotely located
an u nconsolidated aqu ifer, bored wells can fu r- constru ction project), and for exploration and
nish small qu antities of water at minimu m cost. observation. Driven wells are limited to u ncon-
Bored wells are constru cted with hand-operated solidated formations containing n o large gravel
or power-driven earth au gers u p to approximately or rocks that might damage the drive point. Driv-
48 in. (1.3 m) in diameter. Hand au gers are avail- ing can be done with a manu al sledge, ram driver,
able in several shapes and sizes, all operating with drop hammer, or air h ammer. Importan t advan-
cu tting blades at the bottom that bore into the t a ges of dr iven wells a r e t h a t t h ey ca n b e
grou nd with a rotary motion. When the blades constru cted in a short time, at minimu m cost,
are fu ll of loose earth, the au ger is removed from and by ju st one person.
the hole and emptied; the operation is repeated
u ntil the desired hole depth is reached. Hand-
Jetted Wells
bored wells seldom exceed approximately 8 in. (20
cm) in diameter and approx. 50 ft (l5 m) in depth. J etted wells are con stru cted by the cu tting ac-
Power-driven au gers bore holes u p to 4 ft (l.3 m) tion of a downward directed stream of water. The
in diameter and, u nder favorable conditions, to h igh -velocity stream wash es th e earth away,
depths exceeding approximately 100 ft (30 m). Like while th e casing, which is lowered into the deep-
du g wells, bored wells are su bject to su rface con- ening hole, condu cts the water and cu ttings u p
tamination because of their comparatively shallow and ou t of the well. Small-diameter holes of 2 to
depths. Inasmu ch as water-satu rated sands will 4 in. (5 to l0 cm) to depths greater th an 50 ft (l5
cave into the bored hole, the annu lar space be- m) can be formed in this mann er. J etted wells
tween the ou tside of th e well casin g an d th e typically have only small yields of water and are
bore-hole wall often cannot be adequ ately grouted best su ited to u ncon solidated formations. Du r-
to prevent the possibility of fu tu re contamination in g the jettin g operation, th e drill pipe is tu rned
seeping down from the grou nd su rface. slowly to ensu re a straight hole. To complete a
shallow jetted well after the casin g extends to
Driven Wells below th e water table, the well pipe with screen
attached is lowered to the bottom of the hole in-
A driven well consists of a series of connected side the casing. The ou ter casing is then pu lled,
len gths of pipe driven by repeated impacts into gravel is inserted between the interior casing and
th e grou nd to below the water table. Water en- th e bore h ole, and the well is ready for pu mping.
ters th e well throu gh a drive (or sand) poin t at
th e lower en d of th e well. Th is con sists of a The above procedu re can be simplified by the
screen ed cylin drical section protected du rin g u se of a self-jetting well poin t. This consists of a
drivin g by a steel cone at the bottom. Diameters tu be of brass screen en ding in a jetting nozzle,
of driven wells are small, most falling in the range which is screwed to the well pipe. As soon as the
of 2 to 4 in. (5 to l0 cm). Standard-weight steel well point is jetted to the requ ired depth, the well
and galvanized steel pipe havin g threaded cou - is completed an d ready for pu mpin g. Gravel
plings serves for casing. Most depth s are less shou ld be added arou nd th e drill pipe for per-
th an 50 ft (l5 m), alth ou gh a few exceed 65 ft (20 manent in stallation. Constru ction of jetted wells
m). As su ction -type or jet pu mps extract water is prohibited in some areas becau se of the in-
from driven wells, the water table mu st be n ear a bilit y t o gr ou t t h e a n n u la r s pa ce a n d t h e
th e grou nd su rface if a continu ou s water su pply consequ ent exposu re of the well to su rface con-
is to be obtained. The practical su ction limit (that tamination.
is, the vertical distan ce between the su ction in-
take of the pu mp and th e pu mpin g level in the Hydraulics of Wells
well) for a single pipe in stallation is abou t 25 ft
(7.6 m). However, two-pipe ventu ri su ction de- Figu re 9-1 shows a well u n der two conditions:
s ign s can remove water from deeper depth s. (A) static, or nonpumping, and (B) pumping. Once
Yields from driven wells are small, with dis- th e pu mping of the well starts, the water table
charges of abou t 3,500 to 8,800 ft 3/ day (100 to (or, in the case of a confin ed aqu ifer, the po-
250 m 3 / day). J et pu mps can be u tilized for wa- tentiometric su rface) is lowered in the vicinity of
ter depths from 25 to 50 ft (7.6 to 15 m). th e well, an d the resu ltin g water-table su rface is
242 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

(A) (B)
Figure 9-1 Well under (A) Static and (B) Pumping Conditions

known as the “cone of depression.” The decrease Equa t ion 9 -2

in the water level at and in the vicinity of the
well is known as the “drawdown .” r2
1055QLog10
r1
The basic equ ilibriu m equ ation for an u n- Kf =
(h22 – h12)
con fin ed a qu ifer ca n b e d er ived u s in g t h e
notations in dicated in Figu re 9-1. In this case, Where Loge has been converted to Logl0 , Kf
th e flow is assu med to be radial; the original (flow velocity) is in gal/ day/ ft 2 (L/ day/ m 2 ), Q
water table is considered to be horizontal; the (discharge) is in gpm (L/ min), an d r and h are
well is considered to fu lly penetrate the aqu ifer, measu red in feet (meters). If the drawdown is
which has an infinite area; and steady-state con- small compared with the total aqu ifer thickn ess,
dition s mu st prevail. Usin g Darcy’s law, th is an approximate formu la for the disch arge of the
becomes: pu mped well can be obtained by inserting wall
height (h w) for h 1 an d the height of th e aqu ifer
Equa t ion 9 -1 for h 2 in Equ ation 9-l.
Kf (h22 – h12) The basic equ ilibriu m equ ation for a confined
Q =
r aqu ifer can be obtained in a similar mann er,
1055 Loge 2 u sing the n otation indicated in Figu re 9-1. The
r1
same assu mptions apply. Mathematically, the
where
flow in ft 3/ s (m 3 / s) may be determined as fol-
Q = Discharge, gpm (L/ min) lows:
Kf = Permeability (flow velocity), g/ day/ ft 2
Equa t ion 9 -3
(L/ day/ m 2 )
h 2 = Static head measu red from bottom of 2Kf m (h2 – h1)
Q =
aqu ifer, ft (m) r
Loge 2
h 1 = Depth of water in well while pu mp- r1
ing, ft (m) where
r 2 = Radiu s of cone of depression, ft (m) m = Inside diameter of well shaft, ft (m)
r 1 = Radiu s of well, ft (m) The coefficient of permeability may be deter-
Th is equ a tion ma y th en be s olved for Kf, mined by rearranging Equ ation 9-3 as follows:
yielding:
Chapter 9 — Private Water Systems 243

Equat ion 9-4 the water, a sample sh ou ld be collected and sent

to a certified testin g laboratory for bacteriologi-
r2 cal examination.
528QLog10
r1
Kf = In region s wh ere winter frost occu rs, it is
m(h2 – h1)
important to protect pu mps and water lines from
freezing. Pitless adapters are th e most common
Protection of Wells method u sed to protect the well head from freez-
in g and pollu tion.
Whenever grou nd water pu mped from a well is
intended for hu man consu mption, proper sani- When a well is abandoned it shou ld be sealed
tary precau tions mu st be taken to protect the by filling with clay, cement grou t, or bentonite.
water qu ality. (See discu ssion of “Water Qu ality” Not only does sealing prevent su rface contamina-
below.) Pollu tion sou rces may exist either above tion from en terin g th e well, it als o preven ts
or below the grou nd su rface. Su bmersible pu mp accidents, prevents the possible movement of in-
installations are often equ ipped with a pitless ferior water from on e aqu ifer to an other, and
adapter, which provides an excellent sanitary seal conserves water in flowing wells. As necessary,
as well as frost protection for the discharge piping. other sealing measu res may be needed to ensu re
th at con tamin an ts do n ot migrate with in th e
Su rfa ce pollu t ion ca n en t er wells eit h er aqu ifer(s) by movement in the annu lar space be-
th rou gh the an nu lar space ou tside the casing or tween the well casing and the bore hole. In order
th rou gh the top of the well itself. To close av- to ensu re that the well is completely sealed, the
enu es of access ou tside the casing, the annu lar cement or bentonite shou ld be pu mped u nder
space shou ld be filled with a sealing grou t—ei- pressu re throu gh a tremie pipe or other means to
ther a cement or a bentonite grou t. Entry throu gh discharge at the bottom of the well, forcing its
th e top of th e well can be prevented by the provi- way u pward u ntil it reaches the su rface.
sion of a watertigh t cover to seal the top of the
casing. Some pu mps are available with close
metal bases that provide the necessary closu re. WATER DEMAND
For pu mps with an open-type base, or where the
pu mp is not placed directly over th e well, a seal The demand for water in an y system is deter-
is requ ired for the ann u lar open ing between the mined by th e consu mer. Wh ile the consu mer’s
discharge pipe an d the casing. It is desirable to u se may be estimated on an area basis, th e pre-
provide a small (sealed) opening in or below the ferred method for a small system is to consider
pu mp base to allow for periodic water-level mea- th e dynamic and static requ irements. The de-
su remen ts. Covers arou nd th e well sh ou ld be sign er sh ou ld refer to oth er ASPE Data Book
made of con crete, sh ou ld be elevated above the chapters that describe the methods for estimat-
level of the adjacent land, and shou ld slope away ing water demands. The engineer should consult
from th e well. Where possible, pitless adapters with the local administrative authority regard-
shou ld be u sed in preference to bu ried well seals ing local codes and regu lations. Irrigation loads
or seals located in a concrete pit. can usu ally be connected to time clocks to avoid
Su bsu rface pollu tion may be introdu ced by simultaneous demands. Air-conditioning system
n earby septic systems , adjacen t in du stry, or loads shou ld be based on the highest expected
nu merou s types of cu rrent and past land u ses. temperatures; however, u sing water (to waste)
A contaminated plu me can extend a long dis- for the thermal cooling of condenser equ ipment
tan ce in a n u n dergrou n d s tream or aqu ifer. is not recommended and may be considered
Regu lar bacteriological and chemical testing of wasteful. In this case, a closed-circuit cooling
th e water qu ality is requ ired to ensu re potabil- system, e.g., cooling towers, or geothermal heat
ity. Whenever a new well is completed or an old pu mps th at retu rn th e water to th e grou n d
well repaired, contamination from equ ipment, through discharge wells, conserving water u s-
well materials, or su rface water may be intro- age, shou ld be investigated.
du ced to th e well. The addition and agitation of Designing water systems for firefighting pu r-
a chlorine compou nd will disin fect th e well. Fol- p os es r equ ir es k n owled ge of a b u ild in g’s
lowin g t h e dis in fect ion , t h e well s h ou ld be construction, occu pancy, and u se. Nationally rec-
pu mped to waste u n til all traces of ch lorine are ogn ized s t a n da r d s , a ccept a b le t o t h e loca l
removed. As a final ch eck on the potability of admin istrative au th ority u n der th e applicable
244 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

code(s), shou ld be followed. Th e flow from a l8 - Coarse sand is less effective in the removal of
in. (3-cm) nominal size nozzle at 45 psig (3l0.3 tu rbidity an d bacteria, wh ile fin e sand requ ires
kPa) can be as much as 250 gpm (l5.8 L/ s). In a sh orter period between wash ings. Filters may
general, the minimum fire demands for residen- u se layers of variou s grades of sand and gravel
tial areas start at 500 gpm (3l.5 L/ s) and require to minimize filter gravel u pset and loss of sand.
an 8-in. (20-cm) nominal size main. These u nits may inclu de anthracite coal particles
or activated carbon, both of which are often ef-
During the initial stages of a fire, domestic
fective in removing objectionable tastes, odors,
use may be at the peak levels. As the occupants
and oth er impu rities. Filters sh ou ld be disin-
become aware of the fire, usage will drop. Irriga-
fected before being placed in service.
tion demands, as well as certain process-water
and air-conditioning (makeup) demands, if au-
tomatically controlled, will continue regardless Softening
of any fires. The maximum fire demand could
The two methods of redu cing any dissolved cal-
occu r a t a n y t ime. Als o, complet ely fir e-
sprin klered bu ildings may have con cu rrent ciu m and magn esiu m th at are su itable for large
maximum fire hydrant and sprinkler demands. water su pplies are the zeolite process and the
lime-soda method. The zeolite process replaces
th e calciu m and magnesiu m ch lorides, an d all
WATER QUALITY residu es (backwash) mu st be disposed of in lo-
ca tion s wh ere th e grou n d wa ter will n ot be
Th e Safe Drin kin g Water Act of l974, su bse- contaminated. Zeolite systems may be au tomated
qu en t ly r evis ed in 19 96, r equ ir es t h a t t h e or manu al systems. When iron is removed by
admin istrator of th e US En vironmen tal Protec- th is process, the oxides may clog the filter beds.
tion Agency (EPA) promulgate national standards Cleaning the beds requires high-velocity washing.
for the pu rity of the drinking water and corre- The lime-soda method removes calciu m, mag-
sponding regu lations to enforce them. Cu rrent nesium, manganese, iron, and carbon dioxide. The
EPA man u als in clu de stan dards establish in g pH is raised, and most u nits effectively destroy
maximu m con tamin ation levels . States h ave any harmfu l organisms. This method produ ces
adopted these standards or other, more strin- considerable qu antities of slu dge, which requ ire
gent standards. Efforts mu st be made to conform proper disposal. The lime-soda method involves a
with these regu lations in all systems. large installation and skilled operation. Equipment
Well water is u su ally satisfactory for drink- is needed to mix and feed chemicals and for floc-
ing becau se of th e natu ral filtration created as cu lation and settling, recarbonating and filtering.
the water passes throu gh the soil. However, when When iron is not removed, it may be held in solu -
there is an excess of dissolved minerals or gases, tion in cool water u p to 72 hou rs by the addition
treatment of the water is n ecessary. Selection of of hexametaphosphate. This chemical may pre-
the appropriate treatment process mu st be made vent incru station in water with a high pH.
based on a thorou gh knowledge of th e water and
its ch emical composition . Th e processes em- Scale and Corrosion Control
ployed inclu de: filtration, soften ing, coagu lation
and floccu lation, taste and odor control, prophy- Elimination of any excessive scale and corrosion
laxis, and disinfection. These treatment processes of the piping system is important. This may be
are described below. accomplished by the proper choice of piping ma-
terials or by ch emical treatment of the water.
Specifying a plastic distribu tion system will not
Filtration protect the metallic piping and equipment in build-
Where the water is not of an adequ ate pu rity, ings. The control of hardness, dissolved oxygen
filters are requ ired. Filters may be either gravity and carbon dioxide, and acidity may be neces-
or pressu re type and u su ally inclu de au tomatic sary. Sodiu m hexametaphosphate is commonly
controls for all fu n ction s. These devices may be u sed for corrosion control, scale prevention, and
san d (provided th at wh en aggressive or low pH removal of hardness.
water is processed, the san d does not contain
excessive amou nts of limeston e or shells). The
grade of th e san d depen ds on local conditions.
Chapter 9 — Private Water Systems 245

Taste and Odor Control The pu mp most commonly installed today is the
su bmersible pu mp.
Potassiu m permanganate oxidizes iron and man-
ganese, forming a precipitate. This compou nd also A cross section of a vertical tu rbine pu mp is
acts as an algaecide. Oxygenation is another way illu strated in Figu re 9-2. The designer sh ou ld
to “treat” the water, which may (in some cases) give more attention to the pu mp base (or fou n-
be more effective than treating it with potassiu m dation) th an is shown in this figu re. If the pu mp
permanganate. Activated carbon has been fou nd is in an u nh eated bu ilding, the fou n dation mu st
to be effective in removing phenolic compou nds be below the frost line in order to avoid any move-
as well as certain other undesirable materials. So- men t a n d th ere mu s t be s u fficien t ma s s to
diu m thiosu lfate or sodiu m bisu lfate has been eliminate any vibration. Also, extreme care mu st
u sed to remove chlorine from water, and copper be taken in setting the anchor bolts and in align-
su lfate will destroy living organic matter. in g th e pu mp a n d th e s h a ft to preven t an y
misalignmen t. Th e en gineer is referred to ASPE
Data Book , Volume 4, Chapter 4, “Pu mps” (forth-
Prophylaxis comin g), for additional information.
Flu oride is sometimes added to the water with The vertical tu rbine pu mp shown in Figu re
th e in ten t of redu cin g den tal cavities. Wh ere 9-2 is very practical for large-capacity, relatively
amou nts of flu oride are excessive, tooth en amel straight an d plu mb, shallow wells. Where deep
will become mottled. Some waters have adequ ate wells or misaligned wells are encou ntered, it may
or even excessive flu oride in th eir natu ral state. be more practical to u se a su bmersible pu mp.
These u nits can be fitted with almost an y nu m-
Disinfection ber of stages (sections) an d, depending u pon the
size of the well, can come close to match ing the
Disinfection sh ou ld be th e last step in the wa- capacity of th e su rface-mou n ted pu mp.
ter-treatmen t process. Ch lorin ation h as been
shown to prevent epidemics of waterborn e dis- When th e water su pply is not from a well
ea s e; it a ls o d es t r oys a m m on ia . It is a n but from su rface water, such as a pond or stream,
inexpensive method compared to u ltraviolet ra- if the pu mp (or pu mps) can be located below the
diation an d ozon e treatmen t. Gaseou s chlorine su rface of the water, a split-case, horizontal, end-
is u sed in large installations while calciu m and su ction pu mp may be u sed. In this case, mu ltiple
sodiu m hypoch lorite are satisfactory for small pu mps are an advantage an d wou ld receive the
systems. Well water from a properly constru cted water throu gh an intake header or manifold.
modern well seldom needs to be disinfected once Well pumps Well pu mps produ ce flow by trans-
th e well an d pu mping equ ipmen t are initially forming mech anical energy to h ydrau lic energy.
disinfected. Manu factu rers produ ce a wide variety of pu mps.
The selection of a particular size and type of pu mp
depends on several factors, inclu ding: (l) required
SYSTEM ELEMENTS
pu mping capacity, (2) well diameter and depth,
(3) depth and variability of pu mping level, (4) the
Pumps straightn ess of th e well, (5) sand pu mping, (6)
total pu mping head, (7) du ration of pu mping, (8)
The design of a pu mping system shou ld take into th e type of power available, and (9) costs.
consideration maintenance and the possible fail-
The total pu mpin g head, or total dyn amic
u re of one pu mp in the system. Becau se this is
head, of a pu mp represents th e total vertical lift
not possible in the case of a well, it is sometimes
and pu mped distance of the water from th e well.
necessary to have a backu p (second) well. While The total h ead consists of three components: (l)
this can be expensive, if the system serves fire th e drawdown in side the well (in clu ding aqu ifer
hydrants or fire-protection equ ipment within a
and well losses), (2) “static head,” being the dif-
bu ilding withou t the u se of a storage tank, it may
ference between the static grou nd-water level and
be essential. Where the demand is primarily from
th e static disch arge elevation , an d (3) friction
domestic fixtu res, a system that will provide 70%
losses du e to flow throu gh the intake and dis-
of the calcu lated demand at the requ ired pres- charge pipes. Th e total pu mping head increases
su res du ring maintenance or anticipated failu re with th e discharge rate.
shou ld be adequ ate for a short period of time.
246 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 9-2 Typical Gravel Filter Well with a Vertical Turbine Pump
(Note the Concrete Seal Adjacent to the Outer Well Casing.)
Chapter 9 — Private Water Systems 247

For shallow wells where only small discharges of the storage tank. Taking soil-bearing tests prior
are needed, su bmersible pu mps, vertical tu rbine to designing the fou ndation is extremely impor-
pu mps (Figu re 9-2), or gear pu mps may be in- tant; it is better to over design than to have a
stalled. Discharges ran ge u p to approximately portion of the fou ndation settle and allow the
18,000 ft 3 / day (500 m 3 / day). Su ction lifts shou ld storage tank to become warped or possibly leak.
not exceed approximately 23 ft (7 m) for efficient
Prefabricated storage tanks are available in
and continu ou s service. (Available su ction lift for
sections and constru cted of steel with a glass
th e selected pu mp is critical in this determina-
lining. If a steel tank is field-erected, after its
tion.)
construction it must be coated on the inside with
Where a larger discharge is requ ired from a an epoxy-base paint, and it is suggested that the
shallow well, a centrifu gal pump is commonly em- same coatin g be applied on th e ou tside for
ployed. The assembly may be mou nted with a weather protection. There are several different
horizontal or vertical shaft. The horizontal design suppliers of this type of material; it is recom-
is efficient, easy to install and maintain, and u su- mended that the en gineer consu lt an expert
ally con n ected directly to an electric motor. before specifying the coating.
Becau se of the low su ction head, the pu mp is of-
In flat-land areas, where the terrain does not
ten placed a short distance above the water level
allow for a ground-mounted storage tank, it is
in a large-diameter well. (The available NPSH [net
necessary to install an elevated tank on legs or
positive suction head] for the selected pump must
use a standpipe. The foundation in such installa-
meet the design requ irements.)
tions is ju st as critical as it is with grou nd-
mounted tanks.
Storage Tanks
This condition raises the question of ice form-
Storage tanks are u sefu l as emergency sou rces ing in the storage tank itself. If the water level
and to prevent overtaxin g the water-su pply sys- within the storage tank is allowed to flu ctuate
tem in firefighting situ ation s. Elevated storage over a broad range, the changes in the water
tanks will provide u niform pressu res and redu ce level will break up the ice so that it is not neces-
energy and pu mp costs. Storage tanks sh ou ld sary to heat the unit. Control of the water level
be constru cted of materials that are nontoxic and is discussed later in this chapter.
corrosion-resistant. The detailed constru ction re-
For a small private system (for instance, that
qu iremen ts for water-storage tan ks in tended for
for a remotely located sch ool), th e u se of a
firefighting pu rposes are ou tlined in National Fire
hydropneumatic storage tank is recommended
Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 22, Water
because it is relatively inexpensive compared with
Tank s for Fire Protection. Storage-tank su pports
an elevated storage tank. In sizing such a unit,
are usually designed to resist seismic movement;
the designer should assume that only one third
the tanks mu st have provisions for cleaning.
of the capacity will be available for peak demands,
Rainwater cisterns can also be used for an emer-
excluding the capacity of the well pump. Also, a
gency supply of drinking water if the water is
compressed-air supply to the top of the storage
appropriately treated prior to use.
tank should be provided to recharge the unit since
Storage-tank capacity and the size of the the large water surface can gradually absorb the
pu mp system are related. Withou t storage, the air and reduce the volume of the air cushion.
pu mps must be large enou gh to supply instan- Generally, hydropneumatic tank systems do not
taneou s demand with du e allowance for at least provide sufficient storage for fire protection or for
one pump to be out of service. As the size of the extended outages of the well pump.
storage tanks increase, the fill rate of gravity
The minimum size of storage, regardless of
tanks can decrease with the reduction, or elimi-
the type of tank, may be determined graphically
n a t ion , of pea k loa ds t o redu ce cos t s a n d
(see Figure 9-3). The first diagram denotes the
equ ipment size. This also allows continu ou s op-
hourly water demand throughout a typical peak
eration of the pumps at maximu m efficiency.
day. Also shown, as line A-B, is the average pump-
Grou nd-mou nted storage tanks located on ing rate, which is exceeded during the morning
the side of a hill must be installed on a concrete period from 5:00 to l0:00 am and again in the
foundation with the footing below the frost line afternoon from 2:00 to 3:00 pm. During these pe-
and adequate su pport under the entire bottom riods, water is drawn from the storage tank. The
248 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

th e in stantaneou s deman d of the water system.

The well, therefore, mu st h ave th e same capac-
ity as the pu mps. These pu mps mu st operate
continu ou sly, even when th ere is no demand. In
su ch a case, it is recommended that a pu mp with
a relatively flat pu mp cu rve be u sed. It is also
su ggested that, except for well pu mps, there be
a small bypass from th e pu mp discharge to the
pu mp su ction (0.5-0.75 in. [1.3–1.9 cm] nomi-
nal diameter) to avoid overh eating the pu mp and
th e water shou ld the pu mp ru n for some time
with ou t an y circu lation.
A system su ch as th e one ju st described (a
well and pu mp withou t a storage tan k) h as been
u sed su ccessfu lly for plan t fire protection . A
gravel-packed well with a capacity of l500 gpm
(94.5 L/ s) and a pu mp to match , driven by a
gasoline engin e with emergency start capability,
will most probably satisfy consu mer and fire-pro-
tection requ irements. Note that this system is
completely separate from the plant water sys-
tem, wh ich is also a l500-gpm (94.5-L/ s) well
and grou n d-mou nted tu rbine pu mp withou t a
storage tank. The plan t water pu mp mu st be
fitted with a variable-speed drive and/ or pres-
s u re-r elief va lve t o a ccommod a t e ch a n gin g
system demands and protect th e pu mp.
Wh ile th e in itial cost of th e well an d pu mp
Figure 9 -3 Graph Indicating Minimum
is h igh er th an th at for a system with a storage
Storage-Tank Size
tan k, th e design elimin ates th e problem of a
tower-mou n t ed s tora ge ta n k a n d as s ocia ted
main ten an ce problems an d costs. Su ch a sys-
second diagram denotes the cumulative water con- tem sh ou ld always be con sidered if th e aqu ifer
su mption for the day. Again the pu mping volu me is capable of yieldin g su fficien t water for su ch
(a constant rate) is shown as line A-B. The qu an- an in stallation .
tity “S” repres en t s th e tot a l s t ora ge volu me
requ ired with the su pply rate A-B. Alternate su p- Pressure Regulators
ply rates can be drawn and the corresponding
storage volu me requ irement determined. Pressu res in excess of 80 psi (55l.6 kPa) in the
water mains shou ld be avoided whenever pos-
sible; in some cases, they are restricted by local
Suction Piping
codes. If this is so, pressu re-regu lating devices
The minimu m distance below the water level that do not have to be installed in bu ildin gs. Pres-
a su ction inlet mu st be to avoid drawin g any air su re regu lators, as most devices, are su bject to
into th e su ction pipe is illu strated in Figu re 9-4. wear and may create noisy condition s, and relief
Minimu m su bmergen ce is h igh ly desirable in valves are requ ired to be u sed in con ju nction
order to develop a fu ll pu mp ou tpu t. In addition, with th em.
th e su ction pipe shou ld be a few inches (cen ti- This con dition determin es the height of the
meters) above the bottom of the storage tank to elevated storage tank from the lowest point of
avoid drawing any sediment into the suction pipe. u se. Th e flu ctu ation of the water level from the
Gravity storage tanks mu st be screened an d ad- top of the storage tank to the bottom is not criti-
equ ately ven ted. Wh en pu mps pressu rize the cal. If a well pu mp‘s starting and stopping is
water system directly with ou t storage tan ks, controlled by the storage tank level, the redu ced-
these u nits mu st have su fficient capacity to meet
Chapter 9 — Private Water Systems 249

(A) (B)

Figure 9 -4 Storage-Tank Suction Piping Detail: (A) Sump Suction Alternate,

(B) Anti-Vortex Alternate

pressu re condition of 80 psi (55l.6 kPa) can be Supply Piping

achieved by one of a number of acceptable means.
The engin eer shou ld con su lt with the local ad- The pipin g for the storage tank discharge may
ministrative au thority to determine the approved be for either pu mp su ction or gravity disch arge
meth ods. Un fortu n ately, in th e n orthern lati- to the system. In either case, the pipe sizes should
tu des, a float-type level con trol in the storage be large enou gh to handle th e highest demand
tank is frequ en tly affected by icing and, there- flow with a min imu m pressu re drop du e to fric-
fore, is not a very reliable device. One of the more tion. Sizin g of th e system’s pipe is depen den t on
common ways of elimin ating the problem is the the following factors: demand, pressu re, friction,
u se of an altitu de valve, which is installed in the velocity, and provision for fu tu re expansion. Fric-
su pply line to an elevated storage tank, basin, tion losses and elevation losses are graph ed or
or r es er voir for t h e p u r p os e of p r even t in g tabu lated in Ch apter 2, “Gray-Water Systems,”
overflow. The altitu de valve closes at the prede- of this volu me of the Data Book .
termined high -water level an d open s for refillin g In the past, some municipal water systems
when the water level recedes. A sin gle-acting al- were designed with 4-in. (nominal size) pipes at
titu de valve is employed for filling pu rposes only. the end of the main. This frequ ently resu lted in
The discharge from the storage tank is handled an accumulation of silt and ru st in the pipe line
by a swin g ch eck valve in a bypass arou nd the and a severe restriction of flow. It is recom-
altitu de valve. A dou ble-actin g altitu de valve is mended that the designer u se a loop system so
designed for two-way flows an d eliminates the that flow from a fire hydrant may arrive from
need for a bypass. Withou t additional con trols, both directions. Such a design reduces the pres-
the well pu mp(s) or system pu mp(s) will ru n con- sure drop in the system and, by enabling the
tin u ou s ly. An oth er type of s ys tem cu rren tly loop to be valved off in sections, permits mainte-
available on the market con trols th e well pu mp n a n ce of a s ect ion with a min ima l s ys t em
and the storage tank level by sensing the system’s shu tdown. Lateral ties across the loop shou ld
pressu re at the point of pu mp discharge. Th is also be valved at each end. The engineer should
system eliminates the n eed to u se leased tele- refer to Nation al Fire Protection Association
phone lin es from the elevated storage tank to (NFPA) Standard no. 24 for further details.
th e well pu mp.
250 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Fire hydrants on small, mu nicipal, pu blic wa- Equa t ion 9 -5

ter systems shou ld be located at the intervals
requ ired by th e local admin istrative au thority in W = c × w × B
conformance with the ju risdiction’s codes, bu t where
in no case shou ld the distance between hydrants W = Earth load of the pipe, lb/ l ft (kg/ m)
be more than 500 ft (l52.4 m). Preferably, th is
distance shou ld not be more than 300 ft (9l.4 c = Load coefficient
m). No portion of the bu ilding within a fire dis- w = Density of earth, lb/ ft 3 (kg/ m 3 )
trict shou ld be more than 500 ft (l52.4m) distant B = Width of trench, ft (m)
from a fire hydrant as a fire hose wou ld be laid.
In a complex, su ch as a large n u rsin g h ome, this Application of th e above formu la, along with
requ irement may necessitate the installation of th e estimation of su rface loads, are not simple.
fire hydrants remote from the water su pply main There is little danger in narrow trenches with
(if it is not possible to provide a loop arou nd the depths of less than 6 ft (l.8 m), except with u n-
complex). u su ally heavy su rface loads. The engineer should
refer to th e pipe manu factu rer’s data on mini-
Branches from a loop su pplying a manu fac- mu m cru shin g loads for the type of material that
tu ring facility normally serve the sprinkler risers will be u sed.
in several location s. There shou ld be a post indi-
cator valve on each branch ju st after it exits the The design of piping u nder airport ru nways
su pply main. mu st take into accou n t the wall thickness of the
du ctile-iron pipe versu s the tren ch conditions.
Additional calcu lations and data may be requ ired,
PIPE INSTALLATION especially where large aircraft lan d; su ch calcu -
lations and data inclu de th e load analysis of the
Piping shou ld be laid on a firm bed and covered concrete ru nway and the flexibility of the pipe.
with backfill that is noncorrosive and free of rocks.
Piping with flexible joints may be curved with-
Sand is the preferred material. In rocky soils, 6
ou t u sing an y special fittings, dependin g on the
in. (l5.2. cm) of tamped sand beneath and on each
type of cou plin g and the lengths of each pipe.
side of the pipe is recommended. Blocking shou ld
Plastic pipe can be bent somewh at. Table 9-1
be limited to steel and cast-iron pipe. Proper com-
provides the cu rve radii for du ctile-iron pipe.
pacting and backfilling will resu lt in good pipe
su pport and minimize settlement. Flooding clay
soil is not a satisfactory method of compaction. Thrust Blocks
Tamping on the slopes is requ ired to stop any
Thru st blocks are necessary where joints are n ot
rain water from u ndermining newly laid pipe.
restrain ed. Th e blocks are installed at changes
Unstable soil may require matting or piles. Trench-
ing shou ld be done in a safe manner, with shoring of d ir ect ion (b ot h h or izon t a l a n d ver t ica l),
and barricades, as requ ired by the local adminis- changes of size, an d the ends of the line.
trative au thority. Thru st blocks shou ld be cast in place at each
change in the direction of the pipe line and at all
The earth load on the pipe (for narrow ditches)
tees, plu gs, caps, and ben ds. Th e th ru st blocks
can be calculated by u sing the following equation:

Table 9-1 Curve Radii for Cast-Iron Pipe, ft (m)

Mechanical Joint Push-On Joint
Nominal Pipe Length, ft (m) Pipe Length, ft (m)
Pipe Size,
in. (mm) 12 (3.7) 16 (4.9) 18 (5.5) 12 (3.7) 16 (4.9) 18 (5.5) 20 (6.1)

3 (80) 85 (26) 110 (34) 125 (38) 140 (43) 185 (56) 205 (63) 230 (70)
4 (100) 85 (26) 110 (34) 125 (38) 140 (43) 185 (56) 205 (63) 230 (70)
6 (150) 100 (31) 130 (40) 145 (44) 140 (43) 185 (56) 205 (63) 230 (70)
8 (200) 130 (40) 170 (52) 195 (59) 140 (43) 185 (56) 205 (63) 230 (70)
Chapter 9 — Private Water Systems 251

shou ld be of a concrete mix not leaner than l Depth of Bury

part cement, 2.5 parts sand, and 5 parts stone.
Backing shou ld be placed between solid grou nd The minimu m depth of bu ry requ ired by recog-
and the fitting to be an chored; it shou ld be of nized national stan dards is as follows:
su ch bearing area as to ensu re adequ ate resis- Distance on Top
ta n ce t o t h e a n t icipa ted th r u s t. In gen er al, Location of Pipe Below
backing sh ou ld be placed so that the joints are Finished Cover, ft (m)
accessible for inspection an d repair.
The bearing face of concrete thru st blocks Under driveways 3 (0.9)
shou ld be per NFPA 24 or as shown in Table 9-3. Under railroad tracks 4 (l.2)
The areas in Table 9-3 have been derived u sing a
Other 2.5 (0.8)
water pressu re of 225 psi (l55l.3 kPa) and a soil
resistance of 2000 lb/ ft 2 (95.8 kPa). Thru st blocks
are satisfactory where the soil is su itable, giving These values are provided for the purpose of
bearing areas against the undisturbed vertical wall protecting the pipe and keeping pipe with unre-
of soil in a trench equ ivalent to sand and gravel strained joints from leaving the trench (especially
cemented with clay. For other types of soils, the during testing). Pipe installed in areas subject to
valu es given in Table 9-3 shou ld be mu ltiplied by freezing temperatures should be at least 1 ft (0.3
an appropriate factor. The su ggested factors are m) below the frost line or as appropriate for the
a s follows : s oft cla y—4, s a n d—2, s a n d a n d geographical location.
gravel—l.33, and shale—0.4. Mu ck or peat soils
cannot be depended on to resist thru st. Thru st
blocks for u ndergrou nd valves should be provided Settlement
for conditions as listed in Table 9-2.
Pipin g u n derneath or th rou gh the footin gs of
bu ildin gs s h ou ld be protected from bu ildin g
Table 9-2 Thrust Block Requirements settlemen t by the u se of sleeves. Flexible pack-
ing is often necessary. When piping n eeds to ru n
Working Pressure, Anchorage Recommended
parallel with a bu ilding’s footin g, recommended
psi (kPa) for Valves, in. (mm)
practice is to keep the pipes above a 45° line
down from the footings to avoid imposing foot-
50–100 (344.7–689.5) 12 (304.8) and higher in g loads on th e pipe.
101–150 (696.4–1034.2) 8 (203.2) and higher
151 (1041.1) and higher All sizes Expansion
Plastic piping shou ld be allowed to cool and settle
before bein g covered. Where the temperatu res
Table 9-3 Area of Bearing Face of
will ch a n ge a fter coverin g, expa n s ion join ts
Concrete Thrust Blocks, ft2 (m2) sh ou ld be con sidered to avoid any strain s on the
piping. Thermal expansion in a pipe is th e prod-
Nominal Tees, Plugs,
u ct of th e coefficien t of thermal expansion, the
Pipe Size, Caps, and
8 -Bend length, and the temperatu re difference. The ex-
in. (mm) ¼-Bend Hydrants
pansion can be calculated by using Equation 9-6.
4 (100) 2 (0.19) 2 (0.19) 2 (0.19) Equa t ion 9 -6
6 (150) 5 (0.47) 3 (0.28) 4 (0.37)
E = e × L × (T2 – Tl)
8 (200) 8 (0.74) 5 (0.47) 6 (0.56)
where
10 (250) 13 (1.21) 7 (0.65) 9 (0.84)
E = Expansion, ft (m)
12 (300) 18 (1.67) 10 (0.93) 13 (1.21)
e = Coefficient of thermal expansion
14 (350) 25 (2.32) 14 (1.30) 18 (1.67)
16 (400) 32 (2.97) 18 (1.67) 23 (2.14) L = Length of pipe, ft (m)
20 (500) 50 (4.65) 28 (2.60) 36 (3.34) T2 = Final temperatu re, °F (°C)
24 (600) 72 (6.69) 40 (3.72) 51 (4.74) T1 = Initial temperatu re, °F (°C)
252 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 9-4 provides the coefficient of expan-

sion for several materials.

Table 9-4 Coefficients of Expansion,

in/in/°F (mm/mm/°C)

Material Coefficient

Cast iron 0.56 ⋅ 10–5 (9.33 ⋅ 10–6)

Copper 0.98 ⋅ 10–5 (1.63 ⋅ 10–5)
Polybutylene 7.5 ⋅ 10–5 (1.25 ⋅ 10–4)
Polyethylene 8.0 ⋅ 10–5 (1.33 ⋅ 10–4)
PVC, Type 1 3.0 ⋅ 10–5 (5 ⋅ 10–5)

Corrosion Protection
Plastic pipes are n ot u su ally su bject to corro-
sion. The occu rrence of corrosion depends on the
soil and water conditions. Proper water treatment
and pipe lin ings can min imize in terior attack;
exterior attack may be redu ced by coatings, gal-
van ic protection , an d carefu l selection of th e
backfill. Coatin gs mu st remain in tact. If n ot,
corrosion will be accelerated in local areas. Refer
to the “Corrosion ” chapter in Data Book , Volu me
1, for further information.

INITIAL OPERATION AND

MAINTENANCE
All potable water piping mu st be disinfected prior
to bein g placed in to service. This process may
be accomplish ed by in trodu cing a solu tion of
chlorine followed by a thorou gh flu shin g of the
system with clear water. Well-kept records of the
piping and conn ections will facilitate good op-
era tion a n d ma in ten a n ce. Periodic flu s h in g,
p a r t icu la r ly of d ea d en d s a n d low-velocit y
bran ches, will preven t sedimentation and fou l-
in g. Regu larly sch edu led valve exercisin g will
ready the system for shu tdown du ring an emer-
gency. Leakage may be controlled with su rveys.
Inspection s du ring and after con stru ction will
gu ard against cross connection s.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
For fu rther detailed information on ground-water
protection, con tact The Nation al Grou nd Water
As s ocia t ion in Wes t er ville, Oh io, a t (8 0 0 )
551-7379 or www.ngwa.org.
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 253

Vacuum
Systems

INTRODUCTION FUNDAMENTALS

This ch apter describes design criteria, sou rce For th e pu rposes of this discu ssion, “vacu u m” is
equ ipment, and pipin g distribu tion networks for any air pressu re lower than atmospheric pres-
vacu u m systems u sed for general and labora- s u r e . Va c u u m is u s ed b y h a vin g a ir a t
tory application s and cen tral vacu u m-cleanin g atmospheric pressu re enter a piping system that
systems. has a lower pressu re. The way most vacu u m sys-
t em s fu n c t ion is t h a t a ir b ec om e s t h e
For the pu rposes of the discu ssion in th is
transportin g mediu m for an y gas or su spended
chapter, references to inch -pou nd (IP) u n its and
solids and th e negative pressu re provides the
international standard (SI), or metric, u nits shall
energy for transportation. These two essential
follow the following conven tion s:
factors operate in inverse proportion : as the air-
1. Flow-rate measu rements referrin g to stan- flow increases, the vacu u m pressu re decreases.
dard con dition s sh all be preceded by th e
The variou s systems must be designed to pro-
prefix “s” for IP u nits an d “n” for SI u n its.
du ce specific vacu u m-pressu re and airflow levels
2. Flow-rate measu rements referrin g to actu al th at have been determined, often by experience
conditions shall be preceded by the prefix “a” and experimentation, to be most effective in per-
for both IP an d SI u n its. forming their respective tasks. The exception is
3. Pressu re designations u sin g standard atmo- where vacu u m pressu re is intended to produ ce
s ph er ic con dit ion s a s t h e ba s e s h a ll be a force to lift objects or simply to evacu ate and
followed by the su ffix “g” for “gau ge pressu re” main tain a vacu u m in an enclosed space. For
in IP u nits. (No su ffix is u sed with SI u nits.) th ese u ses, airflow is only a fu nction of how lon g
it takes the system to achieve its u ltimate vacuum
4. Pressu re designations u sin g absolu te zero pressu re.
pressu re condition s as the base shall be fol-
lowed by the su ffix “a” in both IP and SI u nits. The design of vacu u m systems is based on
two factors: th e flow volu me measu red in cu bic
5. Pipe sizes u sing n ominal pipe-diameter di- feet per minu te, cfm (liters per min u te, Lpm) and
men sions in IP u n its shall be design ated as th e level of vacu u m pressu re main tained in the
“nominal pipe size” (NPS) and based on inches system.
and fractions of an inch (e.g., 2 and 1½ in.);
in SI u n its th e size shall be expressed as The “vacu u m level” is the difference in pres-
nominal diameter (DN), based on millimeters su re between th e evacu ated system an d th e
(e.g., 50 and 40 DN). atmosphere. Vacu u m pressu res fall into three
general categories:
Unless otherwise noted, measu rements u sed
in this chapter are in inch-pou nd (IP) u nits, with 1. Rou gh (or cou rse) vacu u m, u p to 28 in. Hg
metric (SI) u nits given in parenthesis. (94.8 kPa).
254 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

2. Medium (or fine) vacuum, up to 1 micron (µ). To compu te work forces and chan ges in vol-
u me, it is n ecessary to convert to negative gau ge
3. Ultra-high vacuum, greater than 1 µ.
pressu re—expressed as pou nds per squ are in ch
gau ge (psig) or kilopascals (kPa)—or to absolu te
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT pressu re—expressed as pou nds per squ are in ch
absolu te (psia) or kilopascals (kPa). The u nits
While defining “vacu um” is straightforward, mea- u sed are in ch es of mercu ry (in. Hg) and the mil-
su ring a vacu u m level (or force) is n ot. Several libar (mbar). These u nits origin ate from th e u se
methods of measurement are u sed, each depend- of a barometer. The basic barometer is an evacu -
ing on a different reference point. ated vertical tu be with its top end closed and the
open bottom placed in a con tainer of mercu ry
open to the atmosphere. The pressu re, or weight,
Units of Measurement and Reference exerted by the atmosphere on the open container
Points forces the mercu ry u p in to the tu be. At sea level,
The two basic reference poin ts for measu rin g th is pressu re su pports a colu mn of mercu ry
vacu u m are standard atmospheric pressu re and 29.92 in. high. In pressu re u nits, th is becomes
a perfect vacu u m. Wh en the point of reference is 14.69 psi (0 kPa).
standard atmosph eric pressu re, the measu re-
Standard reference points and conversions On
men t from th at to a specified vacu u m pressu re
th e dials of most pressu re gau ges, atmospheric
is called “gau ge pressu re.” If the pressu re level
pressu re is assigned th e valu e of zero. Vacu u m
is measu red from a perfect vacu u m, the term measu rements mu st h ave a valu e of less than
u sed for the measurement is “absolu te pressu re.” zero. “Negative gau ge pressu re” is th e difference
“Local barometric pressu re,” which is the pre-
between the system vacu u m pressu re and at-
vailin g pressu re at any specific location , sh ou ld
mosph eric pressu re. “Absolu te pressu re” is the
n ot be con fu s ed with s ta n da rd a tmos ph ere,
pressu re (in psia) above a perfect vacu u m an d is
which is mean barometric pressu re at sea level.
equ al to a tmos ph eric pres s u re les s n ega tive
gau ge pressu re.
Oth er va cu u m u n its a re “a tmos ph eres ,”
“t orrs ,” a n d “micron s .” To ca lcu la t e “a t mo-
sph eres” kn owin g absolu te pres su re in ps ia,
Table 10-1 Basic Vacuum-Pressure divide th at figu re by 14.7. A “torr” is 1/ 760 of an
Measurements atmosph ere, and a “micron” (µ) is 0.001 torr.
Inches Kilo- Table 10-1 compares basic vacu u m-pressu re
Negative Absolute of Pascals measu remen ts from th e two most common ly
Gage Pressure Pressure Mercury Absolute u sed reference poin ts. Figu re 10-1 gives con-
(psig) (psia) (in. Hg) (kPa) version from an d to variou s IP and SI pressu re
measu rements. Table 10-2 gives nu merical con-
0 14.7 0 101.4
Atmospheric pressure at sea level
–1.0 13.7 2.04 94.8 Table 10-2 Conversions from
–2.0 12.7 4.07 87.5 Torr to Various Vacuum-Pressure Units
–4.0 10.7 8.14 74.9
0.0010 torr = 1 micron mercury (∝ Hg)
–6.0 8.7 12.20 59.5
0.0075 torr = 1 pascal (Pa)
–8.0 6.7 16.30 46.2
0.7501 torr = 1 millibar (mbar)
Typical working vacuum level
1.000 torr = 1 mm mercury (mm Hg)
–10.0 4.7 20.40 32.5
1.868 torr = 1 in. water at 4°C (in. H2O)
–12.0 2.7 24.40 17.5 25.40 torr = 1 in. mercury (in. Hg)
–14.0 0.7 28.50 10.0 51.71 torr = 1 lb/in.2 (psi)
–14.6 0.1 29.70 1.0 735.6 torr = 1 tech. atmosphere (at)
–14.7 0 29.92 0 750.1 torr = 1 bar
Perfect vacuum (zero reference pressure) 760.0 torr = 1 standard atmosphere (atm)
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 255

version mu ltipliers for convertin g torr into vari- air. Using ambien t, standard free air at atmo-
ou s oth er vacu u m-pressu re u nits. Table 10-3 s ph eric pressu re (referred to as “scfm”) as a
gives variou s nu merical pressu re conversion s. common reference, the ambient free air enterin g
th e vacu u m pipe will expand to fill the vacu u m
Flow-rate measurement There are two types of in the piping system, creating a lower vacu u m
flow-rate measu rement. The first, u sed in chemi- pressu re. The flow in a vacu u m pipe is expanded
cal process indu stries, is mass flow measu red cfm and represents the flow under actual vacuum
by weight. The second is volu metric flow mea- condition s. This is referred to as “actu al cu bic
su red in cu bic feet per minu te, cfm (liters per feet per min u te,” or “acfm.” Th e above designa-
minu te, Lpm). On ly volu metric flow is u sed for tions are n ot u niversally u sed; therefore, it is
calcu lations in this chapter. importa n t to ma ke certa in th a t th e correct
The flow-rate measu rement for vacu u m is nomen clatu re for vacu u m-pu mp capacity speci-
exactly the opposite of th at u sed for compressed fica t ion s a n d flow r a t e is id en t ified a n d
u nderstood prior to selection and sizing.

Figure 1 0-1 Conversion of Vacuum-Pressure Measurements

256 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Standard air is dry (0.0 humidity), 14.7 psia where

(101.4 kPa), and 68°F (15.5°C). The expanded P = Actu al pressu re for the scfm being
air in the vacu u m pipin g system is called “ac- converted, in. Hg
tu al cu bic feet per min u te”(“a cfm”). An oth er
phrase u sed to indicate acfm is “inlet cu bic feet T = Actu al temperatu re for the scfm being
per minu te” or “icfm.” ACFM is greater than scfm. converted,°F
For practical pu rposes, a n u merical meth od
Converting scfm to acfm The following formu la for solvin g Equ ation 10-1 can be u sed if th e tem-
is u sed to convert scfm to acfm: peratu re is 60°F (15.6°C). At that temperatu re,
Equa t ion 10 -1 th e secon d part of the equ ation becomes u n ity.
Table 10-4 gives nu merical valu es for 29.92/ P.
29.92 T + 460 To fin d acfm, mu ltiply the scfm by the valu e
acfm = scfm ⋅
P 520 fou n d in the table opposite th e vacu u m pres-
su re, “P.”
A direct ratio for converting scfm to acfm (L/
Table 10-3 IP and SI Pressure Conversion s to L/ s) for variou s pressu res is given in Table
10-5. Mu ltiply th e scfm (L/ s) by the factor corre-
kPa in. Hg in. Hg psia sponding to the pressu re in in. Hg abs. (kPa abs.)
abs. abs. to find acfm (L/ s).

101.4 0 29.92 14.70

97.9 1 28.92 14.2086
94.5 2 27.92 13.7173
91.5 3 26.92 13.2260
87.77 4 25.92 12.7347 Table 10-4 Expanded Air Ratio, 29.92/P,
84.39 5 24.92 12.2434
as a Function of Pressure, P (in. Hg)
81.01 6 23.92 11.7521
77.63 7 22.92 11.2608 P 29.92 P 29.92
74.19 8 21.92 10.7695 P P
70.81 9 20.92 10.2782
67.43 10 19.92 9.7869
29.92 1.00 10.92 2.7399
64.05 11 18.92 9.2955
60.67 12 17.92 8.8042 28.92 1.0345 9.92 3.0161
57.29 13 16.92 8.3129 27.92 1.0716 8.92 3.3542
53.91 14 15.92 7.8216 26.92 1.1114 7.92 3.7777
50.54 15 14.92 7.3303 25.92 1.1543 6.92 4.3236
47.09 16 13.92 6.8390 24.92 1.2006 5.92 5.0540
43.71 17 12.92 6.3477
23.92 1.2508 4.92 6.0813
40.33 18 11.92 5.8564
36.95 19 10.92 5.3651 22.92 1.3054 3.92 7.6326
33.57 20 9.92 4.8738 21.92 1.3649 2.92 10.2465
30.20 21 8.92 4.3824 20.92 1.4302 1.92 15.5833
26.82 22 7.92 3.8911 19.92 1.5020 0.92 32.5217
23.37 23 6.92 3.3998 18.92 1.5813 0.80 37.40
19.99 24 5.92 2.9085
17.92 1.6696 0.70 42.0742
16.61 25 4.92 2.4172
13.23 26 3.92 1.9259 16.92 1.7683 0.60 49.8667
9.85 27 2.92 1.4346 15.92 1.8793 0.50 59.84
6.48 28 1.92‘ 0.9433 14.92 2.0053 0.40 74.80
3.10 29 0.92 0.4520 13.92 2.1494 0.30 99.7334
2.36 29.22 0.80 0.3930
12.92 2.3157 0.20 149.60
1.35 29.52 0.70 0.3439
11.92 2.5100 0.10 299.20
0.61 29.72 0.60 0.2947
0 29.92 0 0 Note: 1 in. Hg = 3.39 kPa
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 257

GENERAL VACUUM CRITERIA scfm by the factor fou nd opposite th e altitu de

where the project is located.
Adjusting Vacuum-Pump Rating for
Altitude Time for Pump to Reach Rated Vacuum
The ratin g of a pu mp at altitu de is a lower per- The time a given pu mp will take to reach its rated
centage of its rating at sea level. For each 1000-ft vacu u m pressu re depends on th e volu me of the
(304.8-m) increase in altitu de, atmospheric pres- system in cu bic feet (cu bic meters) and the ca-
su re drops by approximately 1 in. of mercu ry p a cit y of t h e p u m p in s cfm (L/ s ) a t t h e
(3.39 kPa). Refer to Table 10-6 for actu al baro- vacu u m-rated pressu re. Bu t simply dividing the
metric pressu re at various altitudes. For example, system volu me by the capacity of the pu mp will
for the city of Denver (at 5000 ft [1524 m]), the not produ ce an accu rate answer. This is becau se
local atmospheric pressu re is 24.90 in. Hg (84.3 th e vacu u m pu mp does n ot pu mp th e s ame
kPa). Dividing 30 into 24.90 gives a percentage
of 83.3%. If a pu mp is rated at 25 in. Hg (84.7
kPa) at sea level, 83.3% of 25 equ als 20.8 in . Hg
(70.4 kPa) at 5000 ft (1524 m). This is th e re-
qu ired vacu u m pressu re th at wou ld equ al 25 in .
Hg (84.7 kPa) at sea level.
At altitu des above sea level, th ere is a redu c- Table 10-6 Barometric Pressure
t ion in t h e s cfm d eliver ed b eca u s e of t h e Corresponding to Altitude
difference in local pressu re compared to stan-
da rd pres s u re. SCFM mu s t be in crea s ed to Barometric
compen sate for th is difference. Table 10-7 pro- Altitudea Pressure
vides mu ltiplication factors to accomplish this. m ft in. Hg kPa
To fin d th e adju sted scfm, mu ltiply the actu al
–3040 –10,000 31.00 104.5
–152 –500 30.50 102.8
0 0 29.92 100.8
152 500 29.39 99.0
Table 10-5 Direct Ratio for Converting 304 1,000 28.87 97.3
scfm to acfm (nL/s to aL/s) 456 1,500 28.33 95.5
608 2,000 27.82 93.7
In. Hg kPa Factor In. Hg kPa Factor
Abs. Abs. 760 2,500 27.31 92.0
912 3,000 26.81 90.3
1 97.9 1.05 16 47.09 2.15 1064 3,500 26.32 88.7
2 94.5 1.1 17 43.71 2.3 1216 4,000 25.85 87.1
3 91.15 1.1 18 40.33 2.5 1368 4,500 25.36 85.5
4 87.77 1.15 19 36.95 2.73 1520 5,000 24.90 83.9
5 84.39 1.2 20 33.57 3 1672 5,500 24.43 81.9
6 81.01 1.25 21 30.20 3.33 1824 6,000 23.98 80.8
7 77.63 1.3 22 26.82 3.75 1976 6,500 23.53 79.3
8 74.19 1.35 23 23.37 4.28 2128 7,000 23.10 77.8
9 70.81 1.4 24 19.99 5 2280 7,500 22.65 76.3
10 67.43 1.5 25 16.61 6 2432 8,000 22.22 74.9
11 64.05 1.55 26 13.23 7.5 2584 8,500 21.80 73.4
12 60.67 1.62 27 9.85 10 2736 9,000 21.39 72.1
13 57.29 1.75 28 6.48 15 2888 9,500 20.98 70.7
14 53.91 1.85 29 3.10 30 3040 10,000 20.58 69.3
15 50.54 2.0 29.92 0 60 aSea level = 0.
258 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

qu antity of air at different pressu res. There is To obtain the most accu rate answer, th e en-
actu ally a logarithmic relationsh ip that can be gin eer s h ou ld obta in pu mp cu rves from th e
approximated by the following formu la: manu factu rer and su bstitu te th e scfm (L/ s) ca-
pacity for the pu mp at each 5 in . Hg (16.9 kPa)
Equa t ion 10 -2 in cremen t, then add th em together to find the
V total time. Selection of the valu e for N depends
T = N on the high est level of system vacu u m pressu re
Q
and is constant for the several calcu lations.
where
T = Time, min. Adjusting Pressure Drop for Different
V = Volume of system, ft 3 (m 3 ) Vacuum Pressures
Q = Flow capacity of pu mp, scfm (L/ s) Wh en the sizing chart available to th e design en-
N = Natu ral log constant (see below) gin eer u ses a vacu u m level different than th at of
th e system being designed, the pressu re loss for
For vacu u m u p to 10 in. Hg (33.9 kPa),
th e scfm (L/ s) an d pipe size for the system’s
N=1 vacu u m pressu re can be fou n d by dividing the
For vacu u m u p to 22.5 in. Hg (76.2 kPa), pressu re drop in the chart by the ratio fou nd
N=2 from the following formu la:
For vacu u m u p to 26 in. Hg (88.0 kPa),
Equa t ion 1 0 -3
N=3
For vacu u m u p to 28 in. Hg (94.8 kPa), new vacuum pressure
30 –
N=4 pressure used to create chart

Simplified Method of Calculating

Velocity
Table 10-7 Factor for Flow Rate Use th e following formu la to fin d the velocity of
Reduction Due to Altitude a gas stream u n der a vacu u m:
Altitude Factor for Equa t ion 1 0 -4
m ft Adjusted scfm
V = C⋅ Q
0 0 1.0 where
152 500 1.02 V = Velocity, fpm (L/ s)
304 1,000 1.04 C = Constant for velocity based on pipe
456 1,500 1.06 size (Refer to Table 10-8.)
608 2,000 1.08 Q = Flow rate based on an absolute
vacuum pressure, acfm (L/ s)
760 2,500 1.10
912 3,000 1.12 As an example, calcu late the velocity of 100
scfm (47.2 L/ s) through a 2-in. (50 DN) pipe with
1064 3,500 1.14
a pressure of 20 in. Hg (67.7 kPa).
1216 4,000 1.16
1. First, find the equ ivalent absolute pressu re
1520 5,000 1.20
of 20 in. Hg (67.7 kPa). Using Table 10-3,
1824 6,000 1.25 read 9.92 in. Hg abs (33.57 kPa abs).
2128 7,000 1.30 2. Convert 100 scfm (47.2 L/ s) to acfm (L/ s) at
2432 8,000 1.35 a pressure of 9.92 in. Hg abs (33.57 kPa
2736 9,000 1.40 abs) by u sing Table 10-5. Opposite 10 in. Hg
3040 10,000 1.45
(33.9 kPa) read 1.5.
3344 11,000 1.51 100 ⋅ 1.5 = 150 acfm(70.8 L/ s)
3. Refer to Table 10-8 to obtain C. This table
1 scfm = 0.472 nL/s
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 259

has been developed from flow ch aracteris- VACUUM SOURCE AND SOURCE
tics of air in schedu le 40 pipe. Opposite 3-in. COMPONENTS
(80-mm) pipe read 19.53.
4. V = 150 ⋅ 19.53 General
V= 2930 fps (893 m/ s) Vacu u m is produ ced by a sin gle or mu ltiple
vacu u m-pu mp sou rce drawing air from remote
vacu u m inlets or equ ipmen t. Except for some
Table 10-8 Constant, C, for Finding rare in du s trial applica tion s , va cu u m pu mps
Mean Air Velocity with draw a ir from a receiver to produ ce th e
vacu u m.
Sched. 40 Sched. 40
DN Pipe Size, C DN Pipe Size, C Air exhau sted from the system mu st be dis-
in. in. ch a rged t o t h e a tmos ph ere by mea n s of a n
exhau st piping system. The pipe size shall be
12 a 740.9 65 2½ 30.12 large enou gh so as not to restrict operation of
15 ½ 481.9 75 3 19.53
the vacu u m pu mp. (See separate discu ssions
u nder th e “Laboratory and Vacu u m Systems”
20 ¾ 270.0 90 3½ 14.7
and “Vacu u m-Cleaning Systems” sections, which
25 1 168.0 100 4 11.32 follow.)
32 1¼ 96.15 125 5 7.27
Alarms are requ ired for maintenan ce pu r-
40 1½ 71.43 150 6 5.0
p os es or t o a n n u n cia t e t r ou b le, gen er a lly
50 2 42.92 200 8 2.95 in adequ ate vacu u m pressu re, in the system.
1 in. = 25.4 mm
Vacuum Pumps
Vacuum Work Forces The majority of vacu u m pu mps are divided into
two general grou ps: gas transfer and captu re.
The total force of th e vacu u m system acting on a Captu re-type pu mps are ou tside the scope of this
load is based on the vacu u m pressu re an d the ch apter.
su rface area on which the vacu u m is acting. This
is expressed in the following formu la: Gas-transfer pumps These are essentially air
compressors that u se the vacu um system as their
Equa t ion 10 -5 inlet and discharge “compressed” air to the atmo-
F = P ⋅ A sphere. Th e majority of pu mps u sed for most
applications are gas-transfer pu mps. They oper-
where ate by removing gas from the lower pressu re of
F = Force, psi (kPa) the system and conveying it to the higher pres-
P = Vacuu m pressu re, psig (kPa) su re of the free-air environment throu gh one or
more stages of compression provided by a vacuum
A = Area, in.2 (m 2 ) pu mp. These pu mps are also known as mechani-
Since the above formu la is theoretical, it is cal rotary-type pumps and are the type used most
common practice to u se a safety factor in the often for indu strial and laboratory pu rposes. Ex-
range of 3 to 5 times the calcu lated force to com- amples of gas-transfer pu mps inclu de:
pensate for the qu ality of th e air seal and other 1. Rotary vane, once-th rou gh-oil (OTO) type or
factors su ch as con figu ration of the load and oilless.
ou tside forces su ch as acceleration .
2. Reciprocating (rotary) piston pu mps.
3. Rotary lobe (roots), ordinary lobe or claw type.
4. Screw.
5. Liqu id ring.
6. Diaphragm.
7. Centrifu gal (tu rbo).
260 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Receivers Vacuum-Pressure Gauges

The piping-distribu tion system is connected to Th er e a r e t wo comm on ly u s ed ga u ges , t h e
th e receiver. The pu mp(s) are also connected to Bou rdon type an d the diaphragm type.
th e receiver an d maintain the desired ran ge of
vacu u m as the demand rises or falls dependin g Bourdon gauge Th is is a mech anical gau ge
on the nu mber of inlets that open or close. When u sed to measu re the difference in relative pres-
th e system vacu u m pressu re drops to a prede- su re between the system an d local barometric
termined level beyon d the capacity of a sin gle pressu re. The most widely u sed type of gau ge, it
pu mp, additional pu mps in a du plex assembly is simple, inexpensive, and ru gged. The heart of
a re s ta rt ed. Wh en th e des ired h igh level of th e gau ge is the Bou rdon tu be that is closed at
vacu u m is reached, the pu mps cou ld be shu t on e end and open to th e vacu u m at the other.
off. Larger u nits may be constantly operated, As the vacu u m pressu re varies, the tu be changes
loading, u n loadin g, or bypassing on demand. shape. A poin ter attach ed to the tu be moves,
Often, th ere is a timer on th e system allowin g in dicating the pressu re on a dial.
the pu mps to ru n for a longer time than requ ired
by system pressu re to prevent rapid cycling. Diaphragm gauge The diaphragm gau ge mea-
su res th e pressu re differen ce by sen sin g th e
Since the size of th e receiver has little effect deflection of a thin metal diaphragm or capsu lar
on actu al system operation, it is selected by the element. Similarly to the Bou rden gau ge, its op-
manu factu rer based on experience. eration relies on the deformation of an elastic
metal u nder pressu re.
Seal Liquids
Ancillary Equipment
For liqu id-ring pu mps, a circu lating liqu id in the
pu mp casing is an in tegral part of the pu mp op- A coalescing, or oil-mist, filter shou ld be u sed
eration . This liqu id, gen erally water or oil, is on th e exh au st of any pu mp that u ses oil to pre-
common ly kn own as “seal liqu id” and is n ot in- vent the discharge of oil into th e atmosphere. It
tended to refer to sh aft or an y oth er kinds of can also be u sed to recover solvents from the
sealing. discharge airstream.
Water, commonly u sed for sealin g pu rposes, A knockou t pot is a device that prevents en-
mu st be con tin u ou sly replaced. With no conser- trained liqu id or slu gs of liqu id from enterin g
vation, approximately 0.5 gpm/ hp (1.9 L/ hp) is th e inlet of mechanical pu mps u sed in indu s-
u sed. Manu factu rers have developed proprietary trial application s. It can also be combined with
water-conservation methods that typically reduce an inlet filter in one h ou sing.
th e u sage to approximately 0.1 gpm/ hp (0.4 L/
hp). Specific information abou t any water u sage Inlet filters are u sed to remove solids or liq-
and additional space requ ired mu st be obtained u ids that may be present in th e inlet airstream
prior to the air en tering the pu mp. Variou s filter
from the man u factu rer.
elemen ts are available to remove particu lates
Oil u sed for sealin g pu rposes is recircu lated, approximately 0.3 µ in size.
and may have to be cooled. The pu mp does not
In some cases where th e system as a whole
requ ire any water to operate. Th e oil eventu ally
becomes contamin ated an d mu st be replaced on has a h igh vacu u m pressu re, it may be desired
a regu lar basis. Typically, a ru nning time of 1500 to lower th e vacu u m pressu re to a branch. Th is
is gen erally done with an air-bleed valve on the
to 2000 h ou rs is the u sefu l life of seal oil. It may
bran ch where the lower vacu u m pressu re is de-
be desirable to install a ru nn ing time meter on
sired. The valve is opened and air is allowed to
th ese pu mps to aid in main tenan ce. Pu mps u s-
enter th e system. For precise control, a needle
ing oil often requ ire more installation space than
other types of pu mp. Specific information abou t valve is u sed.
additional space requ ired shall be obtained from
th e manu factu rer.
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 261

Figure 10-2 Schematic Detail of a Typical Laboratory Vacuum-Pump Assembly

Figure 10-3 Typical Process Vacuum-Pump Duplex Arrangement

262 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

LABORATORY AND VACUUM ceptable to have a sin gle vacu u m pu mp. The
SYSTEMS pu mps selected shou ld be oil free.
The two most often u sed pu mp types are the
The laboratory vacu u m system serves general liqu id ring and sliding vane. A common configu-
chemical, biological, and physics laboratory pu r- ration for more than one pump is a rack mounting
poses. Principal among such pu rposes are drying, one above the other and both pumps installed over
filtering, flu id transfer, an d evacu atin g air from the receiver for a compact footprint. A schematic
apparatu s. Th e u su al working pressu re of stan- detail of a typical laboratory vacuum pu mp as-
dard vacu u m systems is in the ran ge of 12 to 20 sembly is illustrated in Figu re 10-2. A schematic
in. Hg (40.6 to 67.7 kPa). In some cases, there is detail of a typical process vacuu m pu mp duplex
a need for “high” vacu u m in the range of 24 to assembly is illu strated in Figu re 10-3.
29 in. Hg (81.3 to 98.2 kPa), wh ich is u su ally
produ ced with a separate poin t-of-u se vacu u m
pu mp adjacent to the area of application. Distribution Network
Oth er types of system serve light indu strial Pipe material and joints Piping for the distri-
and manu factu rin g pu rposes, su ch as those of bu tion s ys tem sh all be a corros ion -res is tan t
th e pharmaceu tical an d chemical indu stries. material su ch as copper tu be type K or L, stain-
les s s teel, or ga lva n ized s teel pipe (u s u ally
Codes and Standards schedu le 40 ASTM A-53). Copper tu be shall be
h ard tempered except wh en in stalled u n der-
There are n o codes and standards applicable to grou n d, wh en soft tempered sh ou ld be u sed.
th e design of laboratory vacu u m and manufac- Althou gh cost h as a major influ ence on the se-
turing systems. The most important requ irements lection of the piping material, the most commonly
are th ose of the end u ser and good engin eerin g u sed is copper tu be type L, ASTM B-88 u p to 4
practice. For laboratory work within health-care in . (100 mm) in size, with soldered joints. Pipe 5
facilities, conforman ce to NFPA 99, Standard for in . (125 mm) an d larger is u su ally schedu le 40
Health Care Facilities , is requ ired. galvanized steel pipe with malleable iron fittings
Laboratories con du ctin g biologica l work and threaded join ts. Fittin gs shall be of a long-
where airborne pathogens could be released are tu rn drain age pattern so as n ot to impede the
required to follow the appropriate biological level flow of flu ids in th e pipe.
criteria established by the National Institu tes of
Health (NIH). For most biological installations, it Sizing criteria
is recommended that check valves be installed
in each branch line to every room or area to pre- Number of inlet s There are no code or other
vent any cross discharge. It is common to have mandated requirements specifying locations of
separate pumps for different biological areas. In vacuum inlets. The number of inlets is determined
addition, the vacu u m pu mp exhaust shall be by the user, based on a program of requirements
provided with duplex 0.02-µ filters on the ex- for all rooms, areas, and equipment used in the
haust to eliminate all pathogenic particu lates. facility. Inlets for laboratory stations, fume hoods,
etc. shall be appropriate for the intended use,
Vacuum Source based on the requirements of the end user.

The vacu u m sou rce u su ally consists of two or Flow ra t e The basic flow rate from each labo-
more pu mps that are design ed to operate as sys- ratory inlet shall be 1.0 scfm (0.47 L/ s). This is
tem demand requ ires, a receiver u sed to provide an arbitrary nu mber, based on experience. This
a vacu u m reservoir and to separate liqu ids from flow rate is u sed in conju nction with the diver-
th e vacu u m airstream, the interconnecting pip- sity factor.
ing arou n d the pu mps and receiver, an d alarms. For manu factu rin g facilities, the flow rate
A du plex pu mp arrangement is u su ally selected shall be obtained from the manu factu rer of the
if the system is critical to th e operation of the equ ipment or operation being su pported.
laboratory. In some smaller in stallations where
th e vacu u m system is n ot critical, it may be ac- Diversit y factor The diversity factor established
for general laboratories is based on experience. It
has been found to be slightly more than that used
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 263

Figure 1 0 -4 Direct Reading Chart Showing Diversity for Laboratory Vacuum

for compressed air because the vacuum is often diversity factor double that found in Table 10-9,
left on for longer periods of time. Refer to Figure but never less than the largest scfm (L/ s) calcu-
10-4 for a direct reading chart to determine the lated for the first two rooms. Since the above
adjusted general laboratory vacuum flow rate flow rates and diversity factors are arbitrary, they
using the number of connected inlets. Table 10-9 must be used with judgment and modified if
has been prepared for a numerical calculation of necessary for special conditions and client re-
the diversity factor, if desired. quirements. Always consult the user for definitive
For the design of classrooms, the diversity information regarding the maximum probable
factor for one and two classrooms on one branch simultaneous usage.
is 100%. For more than two classrooms, use a For industrial facilities, the information shall
be obtained from the end user.

Table 10-9 Allowable syst em pressure loss A generally

accepted criterion used to size a piping system is
Diversity Factor for Laboratory
to allow a high-to-low pressure loss of 3 to 5 in.
Vacuum Air Systems Hg (10.2 to 16.9 kPa) for the entire system (after
Number % Use the source assembly) and a maximum velocity of
of Inlets Factor 5000 fpm (1524 m/ min). If noise may be a prob-
lem, u se 4000 fpm (1219 m/ min). For smaller
1–2 100 systems, use a figure of 1 in. Hg (3.4 kPa) allow-
able pressure loss for each 100 ft (31 m) of pipe.
3–5 80
6–10 66 Source va cuum -p um p s iz i ng Th e s ou rce
11–20 35 pu mp for laboratories is selected u sing the flow
21–100 25 rate of gas calcu lated u sing all inlets, the diver-
264 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

sity factor for the wh ole facility, and a range of ance, in feet, for fittings of all types is called
vacu u m pressu re. The sou rce pu mps for indu s- the “equ ivalen t len gth of pipin g.” It is ac-
trial facilities are sized u sing the total connected cep t ed en gin eer in g p r a ct ice t o a d d a n
load redu ced by a diversity factor determin ed addition al 50% of th e measu red length of
from the du ty cycle of th e equ ipment and a di- piping to calcu late the equ ivalent len gth.
versity factor based on end-u ser requ iremen ts.
2. Determine the allowable piping pressu re loss
The pressu re range u su ally extends from 5 for system vacu u m pressu re in terms com-
in. Hg (16.9 kPa) higher than the highest required patible with th e ch art or table for flow rate
vacu u m pressu re (the pu mp stopping point) to a and pressu re loss per length of pipe u sed for
low figu re equ al to the lowest acceptable system sizing. Table 10-11 u ses in. Hg for 100 ft of
pressu re (th e pu mp startin g poin t). For du plex pipe (kPa for 30 m). This is accomplish ed by
and triplex pu mp arran gements, th e intermedi- dividing the allowable difference in start-to-
ate vacu u m settings for mu ltiple pu mps sh all be s top va cu u m pres s u re by t h e equ iva len t
adju sted accordin gly. length of pipe, in 100-ft (30-m) increments.
As an example, the ran ge of vacu u m pres-
Vacuum-pump exhaust -pipe sizing For sizing su res is from 20 to 15 in. Hg (68 to 51 kPa)
th e exh a u st pipin g from th e va cu u m-pu mp and the total equ ivalent ru n is 600 ft (180
sou rce assembly, refer to Table 10-10, u sing the m). The equ ivalent length, in hundreds of feet,
equ ivalent length of exhau st piping as the length equ als 6. Th e difference in pressu re is 5. Six
of piping. (See “Piping-Network Sizing” section divided by 5 equ als 1.20 in. Hg per 100 ft
below for a definition of “equ ivalen t length.”) a va ilable for friction drop. (On e h u n dred
eighty m divided by 30 equ als 6. Six divided
Piping-net work siz ing The following method
by 17 kPa —t h e a llowa b le pr es s u re los s
shou ld be u sed to size the pipe at each design
ran ge—equ als 0.35 kPa loss per 30 m of ru n
point:
for th e allowable pressu re to be lost in the
1. Calculate the equivalent length of pipe based piping network.)
on the longest ru n. To accurately determine
3. Calcu late the adju sted scfm (L/ s) at each
the correct length of the longest piping sec-
point u sing the connected scfm (L/ s) redu ced
tion , s ome figu re mu s t be a dded t o th e by th e diversity factor at each poin t.
measu red length to allow for the additional
friction resulting from fittings, valves, etc. The 4. For sizin g the distribu tion system, vacu u m
measu red length plu s the additional allow-

Table 10-10 Vacuum-Pump Exhaust Pipe Sizing

Total Vacuum Equivalent Pipe Length, ft (m)

Plant Capacity, 50 100 150 200 300 400 500
All Pumps (15.2) (30.4) (45.6) (60.8) (91.2) (121.6) (152)
scfm nL/s Pipe Size, in. (DN)

10 4.72 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50)

50 23.6 2 (50) 2½ (65) 3 (75) 3 (75) 3 (75) 3 (75) 3 (75)
100 47.2 3 (75) 3 (75) 3 (75) 4 (100) 4 (100) 5 (125) 5 (125)
150 71 3 (75) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 5 (125) 5 (125) 5 (125)
200 55 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 5 (125) 5 (125) 5 (125) 5 (125)
300 142 4 (100) 5 (125) 5 (125) 5 (125) 6 (150) 6 (150) 6 (150)
400 189 5 (125) 5 (125) 6 (150) 6 (150) 6 (150) 8 (200) 8 (200)
500 236 5 (125) 6 (150) 6 (150) 6 (150) 8 (200) 8 (200) 8 (200)
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 265

Table 10-11 Pressure Loss Data for Sizing Vacuum Pipe

Pressure Drop per 100 ft (30 m) of Pipe, in. Hg (kPa)
Nominal Pipe Size, in. (DN)
Standard
Air Flow, ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4
cfm (L/min) (20) (25) (32) (40) (50) (65) (80) (100)

1 (28.3) 0.15 (0.5)

2 (56.6) 0.39 (1.3) 0.10 (0.3)

3 (85.0) 0.77 (2.6) 0.19 (0.6)

4 (113.3) 1.24 (4.2) 0.31 (1.1) 0.10 (0.3)

5 (141.6) 1.78 (6.0) 0.44 (1.5) 0.14 (0.5)

6 (169.9) 2.40 (8.1) 0.60 (2.0) 0.19 (0.6)

7 (198.2) 0.77 (2.6) 0.24 (0.8) 0.12 (0.4)

8 (226.6) 0.95 (3.2) 0.31 (1.1) 0.15 (0.5)

9 (254.9) 1.17 (4.0) 0.38 (1.3) 0.18 (0.6)

10 (283.2) 1.38 (4.7) 0.45 (1.5) 0.22 (0.7)

15 (424.8) 2.80 (9.5) 0.88 (3.0) 0.44 (1.5) 0.12 (0.4)

20 (566.4) 1.46 (4.9) 0.72 (2.4) 0.19 (0.6)

25 (708.0) 2.20 (7.4) 1.09 (3.7) 0.29 (1.0)

30 (849.6) 1.52 (5.1) 0.41 (1.4) 0.14 (0.5)

35 (991.2) 2.00 (6.8) 0.54 (1.8) 0.18 (0.6)

40 (1132.8) 2.50 (8.4) 0.67 (2.3) 0.22 (0.7) 0.10 (0.3)

45 (1274.4) 0.81 (2.7) 0.27 (0.9) 0.12 (0.4)

50 (1416.0) 0.99 (3.3) 0.33 (1.1) 0.14 (0.5)

60 (1699.2) 1.34 (4.5) 0.45 (1.5) 0.19 (0.6)

70 (1982.4) 1.79 (6.1) 0.60 (2.0) 0.26 (0.9) 0.07 (0.2)

80 (2265.6) 2.30 (7.8) 0.77 (2.6) 0.32 (1.1) 0.09 (0.3)

90 (2548.8) 0.96 (3.2) 0.41 (1.4) 0.11 (0.4)

100 (2832.0) 1.17 (4.0) 0.50 (1.7) 0.14 (0.5)

125 (3540.0) 1.71 (5.8) 0.74 (2.5) 0.20 (0.7)

150 (4248.0) 2.30 (7.8) 0.99 (3.3) 0.27 (0.9)

175 (4956.0) 1.28 (4.3) 0.35 (1.2)

200 (5664.0) 1.61 (5.4) 0.44 (1.5)

Source: Courtesy of Ohmeda.

Note: Based on copper pipe type L, ASTM B88.
266 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

sizing chart Table 10-11 is based on scfm ily disposed of or recovered. Portable u nits can
(L/ s) flow rate an d friction loss per length of be easily moved throu ghou t all areas of a facil-
pipin g. En ter Table 10-11 with th e s cfm ity. The design of portable u nits is ou tside the
(nLpm) and find the valu e equ al to or less scope of this chapter.
th an th e previou sly determin ed allowable
pressu re loss. Read the size at the top of the Types of System and Equipment
colu mn where the selected valu e is fou nd.
There are th ree types of permanent system: dry,
Syst em lea k a ge There is a difference between wet and combination. The dry system is intended
desirable and acceptable leakage in a vacu um exclu sively for free-flowing, dry material. It is the
system. Ideally, there should be no leakage. It is most commonly u sed type of system, with clean-
common practice to test laboratory vacu u m-pip- in g capabilities ran ging from clean ing carpets to
in g s ys t em s , s ect ion b y s ect ion , a t r a t ed removing potentially toxic and explosive prod-
maximu m working pressu re for 24 hou rs with u ct spills from the floors of an indu strial facility.
no loss of pressu re permitted. For large systems, Equ ipment consists of a vacu u m produ cer, one
it is almost impossible to install an entire sys- or more separators that remove collected mate-
tem that does not have small leaks. If su ch is rial from the airstream, tu bing to con vey the air
the case, what is an acceptable amou nt? and material to the separator, an d inlets located
There is no generally accepted valu e for al- th rou gh ou t the facility. A wide variety of separa-
lowable leakage in a vacu u m system. That figu re tors are available to allow disposal an d recovery
shou ld be related to the volu me of the piping of th e collected material.
network in order to be meaningfu l. The Heat
Exchange Institu te has developed a standard The wet system is intended exclu sively for
liquid handling and picku p. It is commonly fou nd
based on system volu me. This formu la, trans-
in health-care, indu strial, and laboratory facili-
posed to solve for leakage, is:
ties where sanitation is important an d frequ ent
Equa t ion 10 -6 washings are requ ired. Equ ipmen t consists of a
vacu u m produ cer, a wet separator con stru cted
0.15 ⋅ V to resist th e ch emical action of the liqu ids in-
T volved, piping or tu bing of a material resistant
L = to the chemical action of th e liqu id, an d in lets
4.5
located throu ghou t the facility.
where
A combin ation system is capable of both wet
L = Leakage, scfm (L/ s)
and dry picku p. Equ ipment consists of a vacu u m
(Not e: To convert to metric, mu ltiply L by produ cer, a wet separator constru cted to resist
0.4719.) th e chemical action of the liqu id mixtu res in-
V = Total piping system volu me, ft 3 (m 3) volved, pipe or tu bing of a material resistant to
th e ch emical action of the combined solid/ liq-
T = Time for vacu u m pressu re to drop 1
u id, and in lets located throu ghou t the facility.
in. Hg (kPa), min
After calcu lating the system volu me an d the
Codes and Standards
leakage from the system, u se Figu re 10-5 to de-
termine if th e intersection of the two valu es falls There are n o codes an d standards govern ing the
with in the acceptable portion of the ch art. design and installation of vacu u m-cleaning sys-
tems.
VACUUM-CLEANING SYSTEMS
System Components
This section discu sses vacu u m systems u sed for
removing u nwanted solid dirt, du st, an d liqu ids Vacuum producer (exhauster) Vacu u m pro-
from floors, walls, and ceilings. This involves the du cers for typica l vacu u m-clean in g s ys tems
u se of eith er a perman ent, centrally located sys- consist of a single or mu ltistage, centrifu gal-type
tem or portable, self-contained, electric-powered u nits powered by an electric motor. Th e hou sin g
u nits. A central system transports the u nwanted can be constru cted of various materials to handle
debris to a cen tral location wh ere it can be eas- special chemicals and nonsparking alu min u m
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 267

Figure 10 -5 Acceptable Leakage in Vacuum Systems

Source: Cou rtesy of Becker Pu mps.
268 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

for potentially explosive du st. Th e disch arge of facility, the separator shall be provided with an
th e u n it can be positioned at variou s points to in tegral explosion relief/ ru ptu re device that is
accommodate the requ iremen ts of the exhau st- vented to the ou tside of the bu ildin g.
piping system.
Filters Vacu u m produ cers are n ormally ex-
Separators Separators are u sed to remove the hau sted to the ou tside air an d do not requ ire
solid particu lates in the airstream generated by an y filtration . However, wh en su bstan ces re-
th e vacu u m produ cers. moved from the facility are considered harmfu l
For dry-type systems, tu bu lar-bag and cen- to th e environmen t, a HEPA filter mu st be in-
trifu gal-type separators can be u sed. If only du st stalled in th e disch arge lin e to elimin ate th e
and other fin e materials are expected, a tu bu - possibility of con tamination of th e ou tside air.
la r -b a g t yp e is a d equ a t e. Th e b a g(s ) a r e The recommen ded location is between th e sepa-
permanently installed and cannot be removed. rator an d vacu u m produ cer, bu t an alternate
They fu n ction as an air filter for fine particles location immediately prior to penetration of the
and collect a majority of th e dirt. This dirt even- bu ildin g wall or roof is also acceptable.
tu ally falls into a hopper or dirt can at the bottom Silencers When the exhau st from th e vacu u m
of th e u n it. To empty the entire u nit, th e system produ cer is considered too noisy, a silencer shall
mu st be shu t down. The bag(s) mu st be shaken
be in stalled in the exhau st to redu ce th e n oise
to remove as mu ch of th e collected material as
to an acceptable level. Pu lsating airflow requ ires
possible and emptied into the dirt can . The dirt
special design considerations. The connection to
can is removed (or th e h opper is emptied into a
silencers shall be made with flexible connections.
separate container) to clean ou t the u nit. The Additional su pport for silencers is recommended.
dirt can shou ld be sized to con tain at least one Filters and silencers can be economically combined
fu ll day’s storage. Units are available with mu l-
into a single, integral unit.
tiple bags to increase filter-bag area. Shaking can
be done either manu ally or by motor. The mo- Inlets Inlets are female inlet valves an d are
tor-operated shaker has adju stable time periods equ ipped with self-closing covers. They provide
to start operation after a variable len gth of time a qu ick connection for any male h ose or equ ip-
from shu t down of the system and to sh ake the men t. The covers can be locked as an option.
bags for a variable length of time. If con tin u ou s Many different inlet types are available, in sizes
operation is requ ired, compressed air can be used ran ging from 1½ to 4 in. (40 to 100 mm) and of
to blow th rou gh th e bags an d remove th e dirt variou s materials.
with ou t requ iring a shu tdown.
The centrifu gal-type separator is designed to Control and check valves Valves for vacu u m-
remove coarser, dry particles from the airstream. clean in g systems are different th an stan dard
It is also recommen ded when more th an six si- valves. They are u sed to control the flow or stop
mu ltaneou s operators are anticipated to remove th e reverse flow of air in the vacu u m-cleanin g
th e bu lk of th e dirt. The air enters th e separator system. When u sed on ly fu lly open or closed,
tangential to the u nit, and the air containing par- th ey are generally referred to as “blast gates.”
ticu lates is forced into a circu lar motion within When u sed as regu lating valves, they are called
th e u n it. Centrifu gal force accomplishes separa- “wafer bu tterfly valves.” A less costly su bstitu te
tion. for a blast gate is an “air gate valve,” which op-
erates u sin g a sliding plate in a channel. The
The wet separator system collects th e liqu id, plate has a hole that matches the size of the open-
separates th e water from the airstream, and dis- in g in th e channel, with room to close off the
charges the waste to drain. This type of separator opening completely. Air gates can only be u sed
can be equ ipped with an au tomatic overflow in low-pressu re systems and are generally avail-
shu toff that stops th e system if the water level able in sizes from 2 to 6 in . (50 to 150 mm).
reaches a predetermined high -water level, and
it can be equ ipped with au tomatic emptying fea- Ch eck va lves a re typica lly s prin g-loa ded,
tu res. swing-type valves hinged in the center.
Immersion-type separators are u sed to col- Air-bleed control If the exhau ster is constantly
lect explosive or flammable material in a water operated with low or no inlet air, th ere is a pos-
compartmen t. If there is a potential for explo- sibility that the exhau ster motor will become hot
sion, su ch as exists in a grain or flou r-handlin g enou gh to requ ire shu tdown du e to overheating.
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 269

To avoid this, an air-bleed device can be installed requ irements of th e exhau ster.
on the inlet to the exhau ster th at will au tomati- The inlets shou ld be located between 24 and
cally allow air to enter the piping system. If the 36 in . (600 and 900 mm) above the floor.
facility indicates that th is may be a possibility,
the manu factu rer of the u nit shou ld be consulted De t e rmining t he numbe r of s imult ane ous
to determine the need for this device for the sys- operators This is another major design consid-
tem selected. eration becau se an u n derdesigned system will
not produ ce th e desired level of vacu u m an d an
Pipe and fittings The material most often u sed oversized system will be costly.
is th in-wall tu bing, generally in a range of 12 to
16 gau ge. This tu bin g is available in plain car- The maximu m nu mber of simu ltan eou s op-
bon s teel, zin c-coated s teel, a lu min u m, an d erators is decided by the facility’s hou sekeepin g
stainless steel. Fittings are special, designed for or main tenance department and depends on a
the vacu u m-cleaning system. Tu bing is normally nu mber of factors:
joined u sing shrink sleeves over the joints. Com- 1. Is th e preferred meth od to h ave gan g clean-
pression fittings and flexible ru bber sleeves and ing? Is it possible to alter this practice in order
clamps are also u sed. to resu lt in a less costly system?
Tu bing shall be su pported every 8 to 10 ft 2. What is the maximu m nu mber of operators
(2.4 to 3.1 m), depen ding on size, u n der normal expected to u se the system at the same time?
conditions.
3. Is the work don e daily?
Standard steel pipe is often u sed in areas
where the additional strength is requ ired. In spe- For commercial facilities where there may be
cial areas where leakage prevention and strength no available information, the following gu idelines
are man datory, the tu bing joints can be welded are based on experien ce and can be u sed to esti-
if requ ired. mate simu ltaneou s u se based on produ ctivity.
These figu res con sider the greater efficiency of
u sin g a central system compared to portable
Detailed System Design u nits, often in th e order of 25%. They mu st be
verified and based on actual methods anticipated.
Inlet location and spacing The first step in
system design is to locate th e inlets th rou gh ou t 1. For carpets, on e operator will be expected to
th e facility. cover 20,000 ft 2 (1860 m 2 ) of area for regu lar
carpetin g in an 8-h sh ift. For lon g or shag
The spacing of inlets depen ds on the length
carpets, the figu re is abou t 10, 000 ft 2 (930
of hose selected for u se. After this is decided,
m 2 ). An other gen erally accepted figu re for
th e inlet locations shall be planned in su ch a
short time periods is 3000 ft 2 / h (280 m 2 / h)
mann er that all areas can be reach ed by the se-
for standard floors, an d 2500 ft 2 / h (233 m 2 /
lected hose length. This plann ing mu st take into
h ) for sh ag and long carpets.
accou nt fu rnitu re, doorways, colu mn s, and all
obstru ction s. Some small overlap mu st be pro- 2. For hotels, an average figu re of 100 rooms,
vided to allow for h oses not bein g able to be in clu ding adjacent corridors, per 8-h sh ift
stretched to the absolu te end of their length . wou ld be expected. For lon g or shag carpets,
Consideration shou ld be given to providin g a 25 th e figu re is abou t 75 rooms.
ft 0 in. (7.5 m) spacing for areas where spills are 3. For theaters, u se the nu mber of seats divided
frequ ent, heavy floor deposits may occu r or fre- by 1000 to establish the nu mber of simu lta-
qu ent spot cleaning is necessary. neou s operators.
Generally, there are several alternate locations
4. For schools, 12 classrooms per day is an av-
possible for an y given valve. Inlets sh ou ld be
era ge figu re for a cu s todia n t o clea n in
placed n ear room en trances. Wherever possible,
addition to oth er du ties n ormally accom-
try to locate inlets in a constant pattern on ev- plished.
ery floor. This allows for th e location of common
vertical risers sin ce the distan ce between floors Inlet-valve, tool, and hose sizing The recom-
is less th an the distance between inlets. In an y mended inlet size for hand tools and hose is given
system, minimizing piping system losses by a in Table 10-12.
carefu l layou t will be reflected in redu ced power
Experience has shown that 1½-in. (DN 40) size
270 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 10-12 Recommended Sizes of Hand Tools and Hose

Average Removing
Nominal Size Floor Cleaning Close Heavy Spills or Overhead Standard Hose Length
and Hand Large Quantities Vacuum
DN in. Moderate Spills Work of Materials Cleaning ft m

25 1 Not used Yes Inadequate Not used 8 2.4

40 1½ Excellent Yes Fair Preferred 25 and 50 7.5 and 15
50 2 Good No Good Poor 25 and 50 7.5 and 15
65 2½ Not used No Excellent Not used 25 and 50 7.5 and 15

Source: Courtesy of Hoffman.

hose and tools for cleaning floors, walls, and ceil- provided to allow for easy in spection, and,
ings is the most practical size to u se. Smaller, where dirt bins mu st be emptied, room mu st
1-in. (DN 25), size tools are u sed for cleaning pro- be provided for th e carts n eeded to move
du ction tools, equ ipment, and benches. Larger th em. Dry separators can be located ou tside
hose and tools are u sed for picking u p expected th e bu ilding for direct tru ck disposal of the
large spills and cleaning large tanks, boxcars, and dirt, if su fficiently protected.
the holds of ships. Refer to Table 10-12 for gen-
eral recommendations for tool and hose sizes. Sizing the piping network
Standard hoses are available in 25, 37.5, and General After the inlets and vacuum equipment
50-ft (7.5, 12, and 15-m) len gth s. For general have been located, the layout of the piping system
cleaning, the location of in let valves shou ld al- accomplished, and the nu mber of simu ltaneou s
low for convenient cleaning with a maximu m of operators determined, system sizing can begin.
50 ft 0 in. (15 m) of hose. Th is represents a labor
Cleaning systems u sing hose and tools shall
saving by halving th e nu mber of times an opera-
have su fficient capacity so that one pass over an
tor has to ch ange ou tlets. This length shou ld n ot
area is all that is necessary for cleaning. With
be exceeded, except for occasion al cleanin g, be-
adequ ate vacu um, light to mediu m dirt deposits
cau se of excessive pressu re drop.
shall be removed as fast as the operator moves
Locating the vacuum-producer assembly The the floor tool across the surface. The actual clean-
va cu u m-pr odu cer a s s emb ly con s is t s of t h e ing agent is the velocity of the air sweeping across
va cu u m produ cer, common ly called a n “ex- the floor.
hau ster,” and the separators. The following shall
Va cuum-p res s ure requirement s a nd hos e
be considered when locating the vacu u m equ ip-
capacit y To achieve the necessary air velocity,
men t:
the minimum recommended vacuum pressure for
1. Provide en ou gh h eadroom for th e pipin g ordinary use is 2 in. Hg (7 kPa). For hard-to-clean
above th e equ ipmen t an d for th e variou s and industrial-type materials, 3 in. Hg (10 kPa)
pieces to be brou ght easily in to the room or vacuum pressure is required. The flow rate must
area where they are to be installed. be enough to bring the dirt into the tool nozzle.
Refer to Table 10-13 to determine the minimum
2. An ideal location is on the floor below the
and maximum recommended flow rate of air and
lowest inlet of the bu ilding or facility and cen-
the friction losses of each hose size for the flow
trally located to minimize the differen ces at
rate selected. For ordinary carpeting and floor-
remote inlet locations.
cleaning purposes, a generally accepted flow rate
3. A convenient means to dispose of th e col- of 70 scfm (35 L/ s) is recommended.
lected debris shou ld be available close by. If
a separator is u sed, an adequ ately sized floor Recommend ed velocit y Th e recommen ded
drain is requ ired. velocity in the vacu um-cleaning piping system
depends on the pipe’s orientation (h orizontal or
4. Enou gh room arou nd the separators shall be
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 271

Table 10-13 Flow Rate and Friction Loss for Vacuum-Cleaning Tools and Hoses

Minimum Volume Maximum Volume

and Pressure Dropa and Pressure Dropa
Nominal Size of Volume, Pressure Drop, Volume, Pressure,
Use Tools and Hose scfm in. Hg scfm in. Hg

Bench use 1-in. diam., 8-ft 40 1.20 50 1.90

1-in. flexible hose

White rooms or 1½-in. diam., 50-ft 60 2.25 90 4.10

areas with very 1½-in. flexible hose
low dust content

Usual industrial 1½-in. diam., 50-ft 70 2.80 100b 4.80

1½-in. flexible hose

Fissionable materials 1½-in. diam., 50-ft 100 2.50 120 4.20

or other heavy 1½-in. flexible hose
metallic dusts and
minute particles of
copper, iron, etc.

Heavy spills, 2-in. diam., 50-ft 120 2.60 150 3.80

Cleaning railroad 2-in. flexible hose
cars and ship holds

Source: Courtesy of Hoffman.

Note: 1 scfm = 0.5 nL/s; 1 in. Hg = 3.4 kPa
aThe pressure drop in flexible hose is 2½ times the pressure drop for the same length and size of Schedule 40 pipe.
bCan be exceeded by 10% if necessary.

Table 10-14 Recommended Velocities for Vacuum-Cleaning Systems

Horizontal Runs of
Branches and Mains and
Vertical Down-Flow Risers Vertical Up-Flow Risers
Nominal Minimum Recommended Minimum Recommended
Tubing Size Velocity Max. Velocity Velocity Max. Velocity
in. DN (ft/min) (ft/min) (ft/min) (ft/min)

1½ 40 1800 3000 2600 3800

2 50 2000 3500 3000 4200
2½ 65 2200 3900 3200 4700
3 75 2400 4200 3800 5100
4 100 2800 4900 4200 6000
5 125 3000 5400 4800 6500
6 150 3400 6000 5000 7200

Source: Courtesy of Hoffman.

Note: 1 ft/min = 0.3 m/min
272 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

vertical) and size. Since the velocity of the air in of simu ltaneou s operators. This table has been
the pipe conveys the suspended particles, it calcu lated to achieve the minimu m velocity of
should be kept within a recommended range. air requ ired for adequ ate cleaning. In this table,
Refer to Table 10-14 for recommended velocity “line” refers to perman en tly installed pipe from
based on pipe size and orientation of the pipe. in let to separator and “h ose” is the hose con-
The air velocity moves the dirt in the system. necting the tool to the inlet. Hose size 1½ in .(DN
Oversizing the pipe will lead to low velocity and 40) is recommen ded except where the material
poor system performance. to be cleaned will not pass throu gh hose th is
size or a large volu me of material is expected.
Select ing t he number of out let s used simul- After the in itial selection of the pipe sizes, the
t aneously Facilities may have many inlet valves actu al velocity and friction loss based on an tici-
bu t only a few will be u sed at once. Under nor- pated flow rates in each section of the pipin g
mal operating conditions, these inlets are chosen system shou ld be checked by u sing Figu re 10-6.
at random by the operators. To aid in the deter- This chart provides a more accu rate method of
mination of simu ltaneou s usage the following determin ing the pipe size, friction loss, an d ve-
conditions, which shou ld be expected, are given: locity of th e system. To u se it, enter th e chart
1. Adjacent inlet valves will not be u sed simu l- with the adju sted scfm and allowable pressu re
taneou sly. loss. Read the pipe size at the poin t where these
two values intersect. If this point is between lines,
2. For the purposes of calculating simultaneous u se the larger pipe size. If any parameter is fou nd
u se, the most remote inlet on the main and to be ou tside any of the calcu lated ranges, the
the inlet closest to the separator will be as- pipe size shou ld be revised.
su med to be in u se, along with other inlet
valves between the two. Pipe sizin g is an iterative procedu re, an d the
sizes may have to be adju sted to redu ce or in-
3. Where mains and ou tlets are located on sev- cr ea s e fr ict ion los s a n d velocit y a s d es ign
eral floors, the u se of inlets will be evenly progresses.
distribu ted along a main on one floor or on
different floors. Piping-system friction losses With the pipin g
network sized, the next step is to calcu late pre-
4. For long horizontal ru ns on one floor, allow
cis ely th e “wors t -ca s e” t ot a l s ys t em frict ion
for two operators on that branch.
losses, in in . Hg (kPa), so th at the exhau ster can
Siz ing t he piping Refer to Table 10-15 for se- be sized. These are calcu lated by adding together
lecting the initial pipe size based on the nu mber all of the following valu es, starting with the inlet
most remote from the exhau ster and con tinu in g
to th e sou rce:
1. Initial level of vacuum required. For average
Table 10-15 Pipe Size Based on conditions, the generally accepted figure is 2
Simultaneous Usage in. Hg (6.8 kPa). For hard-to-clean material,
industrial applications, and long shag-type
Number of Operators carpet, th e in itial vacu u m sh ou ld be in -
Line Diam., 70 scfm, 140 scfm, creased to 3 in. Hg (10.2 kPa).
in. DN 1.5-in. hose 2-in. hose
2. Pres s ure drop through the hos e and tool. Re-
fer to Table 10-13 for the friction loss through
2 50 1 — individu al tools and hose based on the in-
2½ 65 2 1 tended size and length of hose and the flow
3 75 3 2 rate selected for the project.
4 100 5 3 3. Los s of vacuum pres s ure due to friction of the
5 125 8 4 air in the pipe. Losses in the straight runs of
6 150 12 6 the piping system are based on the flow rate
8 200 20 10 of air in the pipe at the point of design. Refer
to Figure 10-6. Fittings are figured separately,
Source: Courtesy of Spencer Turbine. using an equivalent length of pipe to be added
Note: 1 scfm = 0.5 nL/s. to the straight run. Refer to Table 10-16 to
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 273

Figure 10 -6 Vacuum-Cleaning Piping Friction Loss Chart

274 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

determine the equ ivalent len gth of ru n for vacu u m level requ ired; the pressu re lost throu gh
each type and size of fittin g. Starting from th e tool an d hose selected; the friction loss of air
th e farthest inlet, u se the cfm, the pipe size, flowing throu gh the piping system; th e pressu re
fitting allowance, and the pipe length alon g lost th rou gh separators, filters, and silencers;
th e entire ru n of pipe to find th e total fric- and finally the exhau st pressu re to be overcome,
tion loss. if requ ired. Th ese valu es are added together to
4. Los s through the s eparator. A generally ac- establish th e vacu u m rating of th e exhau ster.
cepted figure is 1 in. Hg (3.4 kPa) loss through The flow rate of air, in scfm (L/ s), enterin g
all types of separators. The exact figure must the system is calcu lated by mu ltiplying the nu m-
be obtained from the manufactu rer. ber of s imu lt a n eou s opera t or s by t h e s cfm
(L/ s) selected as appropriate for the inten ded
5. Exhaus t line loss . This can usually be ignored
cleanu p requ irements. For smaller, less complex
except for long ru ns. Allow 0.1 in. Hg (0.34
systems, u sin g only the actu al selected inlet cfm
kPa) as an average figure for a run of 100 ft
(L/ s) is su fficient.
(30 m).
Vacuum-producer (exhauster) sizing Exhaust er d ischa rge The discharge from the
exhau ster is u su ally steel pipe rou ted ou tside
Exhaust er-inlet rat ing det erminat ion It is the bu ilding. It is also possible to route the ex-
now possible to size the exhauster. There are two hau ster discharge into an HVAC exhau st du ct
exhau ster ratings that mu st be known in order that is rou ted directly outside the bu ilding.
to select the size and horsepower. They are 1) For a piped exhau st, if the end is elbowed
the “worst-case” piping-system vacuu m-pressure down, it shall be a minimu m of 8 ft 0 in. (2.4 m)
losses an d 2) th e flow rate, in scfm (L/ s), of air above grade. If the end is vertical, an end cap
requ ired by th e system. shall be installed to prevent rain from entering
The vacu u m pressu re requ ired from th e ex- the pipe. A screen will prevent insects from en-
h a u s t er is t h e t ot a l p r es s u r e n eces s a r y t o tering. The size shall be equal to or one size larger
overcome all piping system losses. This consists than the size of the pipe into the exhau ster. Use
of the total pressu re drop from all compon en ts HVAC ductwork sizing methods to find the size
in the piping network from the inlet farthest from of the exhau st piping while keeping the air pres-
th e exh a u s ter. In clu ded a re th e in itia l in let su re loss to a minimu m.
The pressu re loss throu gh the exhau st pipe
shall be added to the exhau ster inlet pressu re
drop, the total of which will be calcu lated into
Table 10-16 Equivalent Length (ft.) of the pressu re that the exhauster mu st overcome.
Vacuum Cleaning Pipe Fittings For short ru ns of abou t 20 ft 0 in. (6 m), this can
be ignored.
Nominal Equivalent Length of Pipe Fittings (ft)a To accou nt for the variou s fittings compris-
Pipe Size, 90° Change 45° Change in g th e exh a u s t s ys tem, a n a ddition a l 30%
in. DN in Direction in Direction shou ld be added to the measured ru n to calcu-
late the equ ivalent piping ru n.
1¼ 32 3 1½
Exhaust er ra t ing a d just ment s
1½ 40 4 2
2 50 5 2½ Adjustment of cfm (L/ s ) for long runs For sys-
2½ 65 6 3 tems with very long runs or complex systems
3 75 7 4 with both long and short runs of piping, some
adjustment in the selected inlet cfm (L/ s) shall
4 100 10 5
be made. This is necessary because the actual
5 125 12 6 cfm (L/ s) at the inlets closest to the exhauster
6 150 15 7½ will be greater than the cfm (L/ s) at the end of
8 200 20 10 the longest run du e to the smaller friction loss.
The adju stment will establish an average inlet
Notes: 1) For smooth-flow fittings, use 90% of these values. cfm (L/ s) flow rate for all inlets that will be used
2) 1 ft = 0.3 m
aLengths based on use of cast-iron drainage fittings.
for sizing instead of the selected inlet cfm (L/ s).
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 275

To establish th e adju sted cfm (L/ s), it is n ec- sure. Refer to Table 10-7 for the factor. This fac-
essary to calcu late separately the total system t or s h a ll b e m u lt ip lied b y t h e s cfm
friction loss for each branch line contain ing in- (L/ s) figure to calcu late the adju sted cfm (L/ s)
lets n earest and farth est from th e exh au ster. to be used in sizing the exhauster.
Followin g th e procedu res previou sly explained
will resu lt in minimu m and maximu m system Adjustment for different cfm (L/ s ) standards An-
friction loss figu res. The following formu la can other adjustment to the scfm (L/ s) figure used to
be u sed to calcu late the adju sted cfm (L/ s): size the exhauster is required if the equipment
manufacturer uses inlet icfm (L/ s) instead of scfm
Equa t ion 10 -7 (L/ s). Icfm (L/ s) is the actual volume of air at the
inlet of the exhauster using local temperature and
farthest inlet
barometric conditions. Previously discussed tem-
friction loss (in. Hg)
adjusted cfm = ⋅ selected cfm peratu re and barometric conversions shall be
closest inlet used.
friction loss (in. Hg)
The adjusted cfm (L/ s) figure is used instead Separator selection and sizing The separator
of the selected cfm (L/ s) and multiplied by the is sized based on th e cfm (L/ s) of the vacu u m
number of simultaneous operators to size the produ cer and the type of material expected to be
exhauster. collected. Refer to Table 10-17 for a classifica-
tion of su ch material.
Adjus tment due to elevation All of the above cal- For dry separators, a starting poin t for sizin g
culations are based on scfm (L/ s) at sea level. If wou ld provide a 6:1 ratio of filter bag area to bag
the location of the project is at an elevation higher volu me for smaller volu mes of cou rse material
than sea level, the scfm (L/ s) shou ld be adjusted and a 3:1 ratio for fine du st and larger qu an ti-
to allow for the difference in barometric pres-

Table 10-17 Classification of Material for Separator Selection

Very Fine Fines Granular Lumpy Irregular

Recom- Ratio Recom- Ratio Recom- Ratio Recom- Ratio Separator
Size of mended Vol. Bag mended Vol. Bag mended Vol. Bag mended Vol. Bag Selection
material Sep. (S) Area Sep. (S) Area Sep. (S) Area Sep. (S) Area & Bag Area

Small Cent. Not appl. Cent. Not appl. Cent. Not appl. Cent. Not appl. dependent
Medium TB 6:1 Cent. 6:1 Cent. Not appl. Cent. Not appl. on
and TB material
Large Cent. 3:1 Cent. 6:1 Cent. 6:1 Cent. Not appl.
and TB and TB and TB

Source: Courtesy of Spencer Turbine Co.

Notes: 1. Centrifugal separators do not utilize bags.
2. Definition of terms:
Small: Light accumulations, such as those found in clean rooms, white rooms, laboratories, and so on.
Medium: Average accumulations, such as those found in classrooms, motels, assembly areas, and so on.
Large: Heavy accumulations, such as those found in foundries, spillage from conveyor belts, waste from processing
machines, and so on.
Fine: 100 mesh to 8 in. (3.2 mm).
Very fine: Less than 100 mesh.
Granular: 8 to ½ in. (3.2 to 12.7 mm).
Lumpy: Lumps ½ in. (12.7 mm) and over.
Irregular: Fibrous, stringy, and so on.
3. Abbreviations: Cent. = centrifugal; TB = tubular bag.
276 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

ties of all material. Wet an d centrifu gal-separa- is recommended that eith er cast-iron drainage
tor sizing is proprietary to each manu factu rer fittings or schedu le 40 steel pipe fittings u sin g
and is dependent on the qu antity an d type of san itary pattern sweeps and tees be su bstitu ted
material expected to be removed. for normally u sed tu bing materials.
Some au tomatic-separator clean ing systems It is good practice to provide a safety factor of
u se compressed air to aid in th e dislodging of extra cfm (L/ s) to ensu re that additional capac-
du st. Th e air pressu re recommen ded is gen er- it y is a va ila ble from t h e exh a u s t er wit h ou t
ally in the range of 100 to 125 psig (689 to 1034 affecting the available vacu u m. This shou ld not
kPa). exceed 5% of th e total cfm (L/ s) and is u sed only
when selectin g the exhau ster, not for sizing the
General design considerations “Abrasion” is piping system. The exhau ster size sh ou ld be se-
th e wearin g away of the in terior of th e pipe wall lected and then the safety factor added. Th e u nit
by large, h ard particles at the point wh ere these selected sh ou ld h ave that extra flow available.
particles strike th e pipe. The effects are greatest
The piping shall be pitched toward th e sepa-
at ch anges of direction of th e pipe, su ch as at
rator. Plu gged clean ou ts shou ld be installed at
elbows and tees and u nder the bag plates of sepa-
th e base of all risers and at 90° changes in di-
rators. When abrasive particles are expected, it
rection to allow any blockages to be easily cleared.

Figure 1 0 -7 Schematic of a Typical Wet-Vacuum Cleaning Pump Assembly

Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 277

Pipin g geometry in the design of wet-system

piping cou ld become critical. Every effort sh all
be made to keep the piping below the inlet valves
to prevent any liqu id from ru nn ing ou t of the
inlet after completion of the cleaning rou tines
and to ease th e flow of the liqu id into the pipe.
The wet-system pipe shou ld pitch back to the
separator at abou t 8 in./ ft (1 cm/ m). All drops
should be no larger than 2 in. (50 mm) in size
and only 1 inlet shall be placed on a single drop.
Each drop should terminate in a plugged tee fac-
ing down. This will allow any liquid still clinging
to the sides of the pipe to collect at the bottom of
the riser and be carried away the next time the
system is used. A typical wet vacuum-cleaning
system is shown in Figure 10-7.
In facilities using controlled substances, there
is always a possibility that a spill will occur. For
cleaning this type of spill, a portable vacuum-
cleaning unit should be selected so that the filter
can easily be weighed both before and after
cleanup to account for the controlled substances
picked up in the cleaning unit.

REFERENCES
1. Albern , W. F. 1972. Vacu u m pipin g sys tems .
Build ing Sy s tems Des ign.
2. Frankel, M. 1996. Facility piping s y s tems hand-
book . New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Harris, Nigel S. 1990. Modern vacuum practice.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
4. Hesser, Henry H. 1993. Vacu um sources. Pumps
and Sy s tems Magaz ine Au gu st.
5. Hoffman Industries. Des ign of Hoffman indus trial
vacuum cleaning s y s tems .
6. McSweeney, D.P., and R. Glidden. 1993. Vacuum
cleaning systems. Manuscript.
7. Moffat, R. 1987. Putting industrial vacuum to
work. Hy draulics and Pneumatics Magazine.
8. The Spencer Tu rbine Co. How to design Spencer
central vacuum systems.
278 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 279

Water
Treatment,
Conditioning,
and Purification

INTRODUCTION defin ition s given are simplified bu t su ffice for

th e pu rposes of th is ch apter.
This chapter describes the logic behin d the se-
lection of variou s water-treatment methods to
partially remove and replace variou s ch emical CODES AND STANDARDS
and su spended agents from a feed-water stream.
It also discu sses water-conditioning chemicals Many codes and standards apply to variou s sys-
u sed to control th e impact of ionic compou nds, tems; among them are th e following:
adju st pH, and inh ibit corrosion; and pu re-wa- 1. Potable water treatment shall comply with
ter systems that remove impu rities from the feed t h e 1 9 8 6 Sa fe Dr in k in g Wa t er Act a n d
water to a level at or below the limits desired by amendments.
th e end u ser.
2. The En viron men tal Protection Agen cy (EPA)
Information on basic water chemistry, impu - has identified treatment techn ologies with
rities fou nd in water, water analysis, and impurity given con tamin ant removal efficiencies for
measu rement is presented. General selection cri- potable water.
teria for th e removal or redu ction of specific
impu rities from water are also discu ssed. Sepa- 3. Pu re-water treatmen t shall comply with one
rat e s u bs ect ion s dis cu s s wa ter-con dition in g or more of the following, depending on the
systems for boiler feed water, water-conditioning pu rity of the water desired.
systems for cooling water, and the generation of A. College of American Pathologists (CAP)
pu rified water. an d American Society for Testin g an d
For th e pu rposes of discu ssion in th is ch ap- Materials (ASTM) reagent grade water.
ter, th e term “water treatmen t” is in ten ded to B. US Ph armacopeia (USP) stan dards for
mean the chemical or mech an ical removal an d/ water pu rity.
or replacemen t of ion ic or non -ion ic su bstan ces C. Association for the Advancement of Medi-
in feed water to produ ce water for a predefin ed cal Instru mentation (AAMI) standards.
u se. “Water con dition in g” is in ten ded to mean
th e addition of ch emicals to water for th e pu r- D. National Committee for Clinical Labora-
p os e s of in h ib it in g c or r os ion , c h e la t in g tory Stan dards, Inc. (NCCLS) standards.
h ardn ess, ch elatin g trace metals, su spen din g E. Semicondu ctor Equ ipment an d Materi-
colloids, and adju sting pH. “Pu re-water systems” a ls In t er n a t ion a l (SEMI) a n d ASTM
a re in t en ded t o m ea n s ys t ems d es ign ed t o electronics grade water.
produ ce water pu re en ou gh for u se in ph arma- 4. Water treatment for boiler feed water, cool-
ceu t ica l p la n t s , la b or a t or ies , h igh -d en s it y in g water and process water.
semicon du ctor man u factu rin g, an d very h igh -
p r e s s u r e b oile r s . Th e e xp la n a t ion s a n d 5. Food an d Dru g Admin istration (FDA).
280 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

BASIC WATER CHEMISTRY a u nit, it is con ven ient to view the acid radicals
as an integral anion u n it. When a metal radical
Water to be treated is known variou sly as “raw and acid radical combin e, th ey form a class of
water,” “feed water,” or “sou rce water.” Water that chemicals called “salts.” If a metal cation and a
has been treated is known as “treated water,” hydroxide anion combine, a “base” resu lts.
“produ ct wa ter,” a n d “s olu te.” Ch emica ls or
An “acid” is any compou nd capable of givin g
su bstances th at dissolve in water can be “elec-
u p a hydrogen ion (H+) or proton. The acid’s con-
trolytes” or “non -electrolytes.” “Electrolytes” are
jugate base, or anion, is the compou nd remaining
chemicals that dissolve in water to form ions, after the loss of the H+:
for example:
HCl conjugate base = Cl–
Sodium chloride Na+Cl–
A “bas e” is an y compou n d capable of ac-
Magnesium sulfate Mg2+SO42–
ceptin g a h ydrogen ion or givin g u p a h ydroxide
“Non-electrolytes” are chemicals that dissolve in (OH–) ion :
water bu t do not break down, for example, etha-
NaOH conjugate acid = Na+
nol (C2 H5 OH), su gars, and many organics. The
positively ch arged atoms are called “cation s” be- The “valence” of any elemen t is a measu re of
cau se they migrate to the cathode electrode and its chemical combining power compared to that
the n egatively charged atoms are called “anions” of a hydrogen atom, which has the assigned value
becau se they migrate to the anode electrode. The of 1. Th e valence is th e nu mber of electrons in
ions in solu tion act almost in depen den tly. For an atom th at are free to share, give, or take from
example, magnesiu m su lfate dissociates to form other atoms. An elemen t with a valu e of +2 can
positive magn esiu m ion s and negative su lfate replace two h ydrogen atoms in a compou nd, or
ions. Ions are often generally referred to as “salts” an element with a valence of –2 can react with
in reference to reverse osmosis water produ ction. two hydrogen atoms. When atoms combine to
form compou n ds, a cation atom mu st combine
When an electrolyte compou nd dissolves in
with an anion atom an d, in addition, the valence
water, th e molecu les of the compou n d separate,
of the two basic elements mu st equ al one an-
disperse among the molecu les of water, and are
other in order to form the compou nd.
held in su spension . “Su spension” u su ally refers
to colloids, particles, etc. that are su spended in Most of the basic chemical reactions in wa-
solu tion and do not settle u nder the influ ence of ter treatment con sist of rearran ging cation and
ju s t gra vity. Wh en th e limit of s olu bilit y is anion atoms u sing their valence. As can be seen
reached, those same compou nds become su s- in Table 11-1, hydrogen h as a valence of 1, and
pen ded solids. There is no ch emical reaction . su lfate has a valence of 2. When combined to
Dissolved materials cannot be removed by filtra- form su lfu ric acid, two hydrogen atoms are re-
tion, except by reverse osmosis. qu ired to form the combination, resu lting in the
formu la H2SO4 . The chief exception is the case
Some types of liqu id cann ot be dissolved. where carbonates and bicarbonates are destroyed
They break down into extremely small-sized par-
by heating or aeration, giving off carbon dioxide.
ticles an d th en disperse into th e water, even
th ou gh they are not solu ble. These liqu ids are The term “equ ivalent weight” is the weight,
called “immiscible liqu ids.” Th e resu lting small- in grams (g), of any element th at cou ld combine
sized particles are kn own as “colloids.” Colloidal with or displace 1.008 g of hydrogen or 8 g of
material is at the u pper end of the size range for oxygen . Since th e valence of an element is pro-
ions and molecu les, in the general range of 0.001 portional to its combinin g power, th e equ ivalent
to 1.0 micron (µ). In most cases, other liqu ids, weight is based on its valence. This is illu strated
su ch as oil an d grease, can n ot separate in to in Table 11-1.
smaller-sized particles and become dispersed bu t
simply remain in su spen sion. If they are lighter Water Impurities
th an water, they float on top. If heavier, they
sin k below the su rface. Natural, or sou rce, water is never chemically pu re
H2 O. Water dis s olves ion ic compou n ds a s it
All acid compounds referred to in water chem-
comes in con tact with th e grou n d su rface or
istry consist of hydrogen combin ed with an acid
mineral formations when percolated throu gh the
radical. Since the acid radical moves arou nd as
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 281

Table 11-1 Important Elements, Acid Radicals, and Acids in Water Chemistry
Element Symbol Atomic Weight Valence Equivalent Weight

Aluminum Al 27.0 3 9.0

Barium Ba 137.4 2 68.70
Calcium Ca 40.1 2 20.05
Carbon C 12.0 Variable —
Chlorine Cl 35.46 Variable 35.46
Fluorine F 19.0 1 19.0
Iron (ferrous) Fe2+ 55.8 2 27.9
Iron (ferric) Fe3+ 55.8 3 18.6
Hydrogen H 1.0 1 1.0
Magnesium Mg 24.3 2 12.15
Nitrogen N 14.0 Variable —
Potassium K 39.1 1 39.1
Oxygen O 16.0 2 8.00
Phosphorus P 31.02 Variable —
Sodium Na 23.0 1 23.0
Sulfur S 32.0 Variable —
Silicon Si 28.06 4 7.01

Acid Radicals Formula Molecular Weight Valence Equivalent Weight

Bicarbonate HCO3 61.0 1 61.0

Carbonate CO3 60.0 2 30.0
Chloride Cl 35.46 1 35.46
Nitrate NO3 62.0 1 62.0
Hydroxide OH 17.0 1 17.0
Phosphate PO4 95.0 3 31.66
Sulfite SO3 80.0 2 40.0
Sulfate SO4 96.06 2 48.03

Acid Formula Molecular Weight Equivalent Weight

Carbonic acid H2CO3 62.0 31.0

Hydrochloric acid HCI 36.46 36.46
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 98.0 32.67
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 98.1 49.05
Sulfurous acid H2SO3 82.1 41.05

Miscellaneous Compounds Formula Molecular Weight Equivalent Weight

Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3 78.0 26.0

Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCo3)2 162 81.0
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 100 50.0
Calcium sulfate CaSO4 136 68.0
Carbon dioxide CO2 44.0 22.0
Ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3 107 35.6
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 84.3 42.1
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 58.3 29.1
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 120 60.1
Sodium sulfate Na2SO4 142 71.0
282 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

earth. It also contain s dissolved gases an d du st Several meth ods of measu remen t are u sed,
picked u p when fallin g throu gh the air as rain, in clu d in g via ble-cou n t es s a ys , direct -cou n t
snow, or hail or when su rface water is in contact epiflu orescen t microscopy, scan n in g electron
with the air above th e water level. Water is clas- microscopy, an d bioch emical techn iqu es. Th e
sified as “su rface water” wh en obtain ed from most common means of measu ring bacterial con-
sou rces su ch as lakes an d rivers and “grou nd tamination is the viable-cou nt method. Th is is
water” when obtain ed from streams, wells, or don e by pa s s in g t h e wa t er bein g mea s u red
other aqu ifers origin ating u ndergrou n d. th rou gh a sterile n u trien t mediu m, and cou nt-
in g th e n u mber of colon ies appearin g on th e
Sus pe nde d mat t e r (part iculat e s ), t urbidit y mediu m after a period of time is allowed for
“Tu rbidity,” also called “su spen ded solids,” is a growth. These are called “colony forming u nits,”
general term u sed to describe an y form of in- or cfu s. En dotoxin s are measu red in endotoxin
s olu ble ma tter s u s pen ded in water. Color is u nits per milliliter (eu / mL). An often-u sed form
anoth er chemical phenomenon often associated of measu rement for endotoxins is the limu lu s
with tu rbidity. Color may be an in dication of amoebocyte lysate (LAL) test, wherein a blood
water contain ing decaying vegetation. However, extract of the horseshoe crab becomes tu rbid in
th e term “tu rbidity” is most often u sed when re- the presence of bacterial endotoxin s. This detec-
ferrin g to min era l pa rt icu la t es s u ch a s s ilt tion tech n iqu e u ses optical den sity (tu rbidity
becau se th ey are u su ally th e mos t plen tifu l. level) measu red over a period of time.
Other commonly occurring impurities are liquids,
su ch as oil, and the residu e cau sed by decayin g Ot her orga nisms This term for biological life
vegetation. Coarse particles th at settle rapidly is applied to larger living things, su ch as clams,
when water is standing are referred to as “sedi- mu ssels, their larvae, and other forms of life.
men t,” and fine particles that mostly remain in They tend to clog water inlets from bodies of salt
su spension are called “silt.” and fresh water and also may find their way into
the piping system of a facility.
Microorga nisms “Microorganisms” are bacte-
r ia a n d vir u s es . Th ey a r e livin g for m s of Dissolved minerals and organics Dissolved or-
particu late matter. Their u nu su al physiology al- ganic su bstances typically fou nd in water include
lows t h em t o gr ow a n d m u lt ip ly in wa t er both man-made and natu ral su bstances. Man-
con tain in g on ly trace levels of n u trients. Th e made ch emical compou nds, some of which are
presen ce of these nu trients in u ntreated water harmfu l to th e environmen t, inclu de h erbicides,
is an indicator of th e presence of microorgan- pesticides, trih alometh an es, su rfactan ts, an d
isms, if the temperatu re is favorable for their detergents. Natu rally occu rring chemical com-
growth . Alth ou gh microorgan isms are a su s- pou nds, which are typically not harmfu l in trace
pended solid, th e treatment requ ired for th eir amou nts, inclu de lignins, tannins, hu mic and
removal or neu tralization pu ts th em in a sepa- fulvic acid, and other bio-decomposition products.
rate category.
Alk a linit y “Alkalinity” is a measu rement of the
“Pyrogen s” cau se fever, and “path ogenic” or- qu antity of dissolved earth minerals in water and
ganisms (su ch as Legionella) cau se diseases of th e water’s ability to n eu tralize acids. All natu -
all kin ds. “En dotoxin s,” wh ich are fragmen ts ral water contain s some measu re of alkalinity. It
derived from the cell walls of gram-n egative bac- is mainly the su m of carbonate, bicarbonate, and
teria, are con sidered the most importan t an d hydroxide ions in water, with borate, phosphate,
widely occu rrin g grou p of pyrogens. Other or- and silicate ion s partially contribu tin g to the to-
ganic growth s inclu de “algae” (a primitive form tal. It is reported as parts per million (ppm)
of plant life), “fu ngi” (plants that lack th e ch loro- equ ivalen t of calciu m carbon ate. Alkalin ity is
phyll requ ired for photosyn thesis) and bacteria regarded as an important ch aracteristic of wa-
th at exhibit both plant and an imal ch aracteris- ter in determin ing its scale-formin g ten den cy.
tics. Bacteria are fu rther su bdivided into “slime
bacteria,” which secrete slime; “iron bacteria,” Alkalinity is measu red u sing two end-point
which thrive on iron; “su lfate-redu cing bacteria,” pH in dicators in a titration with acid. The phe-
which live by consu ming su lfate an d convertin g nolphthalein alkalinity, or P alkalinity, measu res
it to hydrogen su lfide gas; and “n itrifyin g bacte- th e stron g alkali in the solu tion . Th e methyl or-
ria,” wh ich u se ammonia and wh ose byprodu ct ange alkalin ity, or M alkalin ity, measu res all of
resu lts in the formation of n itric acid. th e alkalin ity present in the solu tion. The M al-
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 283

kalinity is often called the “total alkalinity” be- Ca lcium Calciu m is a silver-white, bivalent,
cau se it also inclu des the P alkalinity. Alkalinity metallic elemen t of th e alkalin e-earth grou p
is not a measu re of pH bu t is a contribu tor to occu rring only in combination. Common combi-
th e pH of th e solu tion . nations are calciu m carbonate, calcium chloride,
calciu m hydroxide, calciu m phosphate, and cal-
Ha rd ness “Hardness” is a measu re of the total ciu m silicates.
calciu m, magnesiu m, iron, and other metallic
elements that contribu te to th e “hard” feel of Ma gnesium The most common forms of mag-
water. Carbonate, su lfate, an d chloride salts of nesiu m are magnesiu m carbonate, magnesium
th ese elements are responsible for most of the bicarbonate, and magn esiu m chloride. These
s ca lin g depos ited on pipe a n d boiler wa lls . impu rities tend to deposit scale on surfaces they
Generally accepted practice limits the term “hard- come in contact with.
ness” to inclu de on ly calciu m an d magnesiu m.
Hardn ess is u su ally expressed in terms of mg/ L Silica The three common kinds of silica are
as CaCO3 . solu ble, colloidal, and particu late. Soluble silica
is often referred to as “reactive silica,” an d col-
Often, water is characterized in general terms loidal silica is sometimes called “non-reactive”
by the amou nt of hardness, as follows: or “polymeric.” The most common form in solu -
Soft 0–75 mg/L as CaCO3 tion is silicon oxide, and in su spension it is fou nd
Moderate 76–150 mg/L as CaCO3 as a fine colloid. These impu rities tend to de-
posit a scale on su rfaces th ey come in contact
Hard 151–300 mg/L as CaCO3
with an d form a gelatin ou s mass on reverse-os-
Very hard Over 300 mg/L as CaCO3 mosis (RO) membranes.
Iron The most common form of iron is ferrou s
Sod ium a nd pot a ssium Sodiu m and potas-
bicarbonate. Becau se this form of iron is solu ble
siu m form similar salts, with the most common
it may be treated the way one treats for hardness.
being sodiu m or potassiu m chloride, sodiu m or
Iron creates problems in ion-exchange pro- potassium carbonate, and sodiu m or potassium
cesses where polymeric resins are predominant. bicarbonate.
Iron also creates problems on the surface of sepa-
ration membranes. Soluble iron is called “ferrous” Chlorid es a nd s ulfa t es The most common
(Fe2+), while insolu ble iron is called “ferric” (Fe3+). forms of chlorides and sulfates are dissolved salts
Iron in the ferrou s form is su bject to receivin g of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesiu m.
an electron; it is said to be su bject to oxidation. These impurities tend to deposit a scale on su r-
The presence of oxidation agents in water with faces they come in contact with.
ferrou s iron is the root of the trou ble. Common
oxidan ts are oxygen O2 and Chlorine Cl2 . Nit ra t es The federal EPA has set drinking-wa-
ter limits for nitrates at 10 mg/ L. Thou gh water
If it were possible to maintain the iron as with high nitrate levels are treatable, the sys-
ferrou s throu ghou t the process, inclu ding regen- tems designer must be aware of the su pply water
eration of softening resin and the shu tdown of concentration. If neu tralized ion-exchange re-
membrane systems, the (Fe2+) wou ld not present gen er a t ion wa s t e or mem br a n e-s epa r a t ion
a problem. However, for all practical pu rposes, concentrate is discharged directly into the envi-
it is impossible to prevent some of th e ferrou s ronment or into a mu nicipal treatment system,
su bstance from oxidizing to the ferric su bstance. limits are placed on the discharge nitrate con-
Du ring the oxidation process, other ion ic su b- centration. Knowin g the concentration of the
stances are in volved. Typically th ere is a lon g su pply and the local discharge limits is critical
h ydrocarbon ch ain wh en resin or separation to the selection of equ ipment and system design.
membranes are made. In these long chains there
are sites where the ferric iron con nects to the Tra ce element s Trace elements are present in
polymer. Th e ferric con nection point acts as a very small qu antities and are only considered
catalyst for fu rther crystallization or ch emical problems if the amount is above an accepted level
reactions with th e iron or related su bstances, for the intended u se of the water. Examples are
th ereby creatin g a sn owball effect for fu rth er lead, cadmiu m, copper, bariu m, silver, lithiu m,
chemical reactions. zinc, chromium, mercury, arsenic, and selenium.
When a su pply-water treatment system is se-
284 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

lected, the waste produ cts mu st be considered. 4. Anion ion-exchan ge resin, th e solvent and
Many mu nicipalities sell the slu dge created by th e organic amin es (NH3 – NH4 +)
th eir process to local farms as fertilizer or cattle
5. Reverse osmosis membrane, the solvent used
feed. Th erefore, they place considerable restric-
to create th e barrier polymer.
tion s on treatmen t dis ch a rges . Th e s ys tems
designer/ specifier n eeds to be aware of all local 6. UF and nanofilter membranes, th e solvent
codes and practices to be effective. Thou gh ele- u sed to create th e polymer.
men ts may be iden tified as trace by analysis of 7. Fibergla s s -rein forced pla s tic (FRP), poly-
th e su pply water, in the concen trate they may p r op ylen e, a n d p olyet h ylen e-t r e a t ed
exceed local, state, and federal discharge limits. water-storage tanks.
Dissolved gases Th e most common dissolved 8. Filter an d ion -exchan ge vessel lin ings.
gases in n atu ral raw water are oxygen, carbon 9. Pipe solvent, glu e, and “dope.”
dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen su lfide. Water
obtained from a potable water supply u sually also 10. Cross-flow filter media.
has chlorine an d flu orides presen t, added for 11. Other “plastic” wetted materials u sed in the
pu blic-h ealth pu rposes. Of increasin g concern constru ction of the system.
is th e presen ce of radon gas in many water su p-
plies obtained from wells. Many of the items listed above have su bsti-
tu te materials or can be treated to remove the
Oxygen is th e basic factor in the corrosion seriou s VOCs. To determine the best approach
process; it mu st be present for th e corrosion of for avoidin g seriou s contamination , contact the
metals. Its removal or redu ction redu ces the cor- su pplier of the treatmen t produ cts considered.
rosiveness of the water. Carbon dioxide, nitrogen Remember, however, that th ese organ ic com-
oxides, su lfu r oxides, and hydrogen su lfide con- pou nds are volatile—meaning that, with u se, the
tribu te to corrosion by making water acidic. VOCs will dissipate dramatically. Also, there are
For chlorine, no pretreatment is u su ally nec- commercially available flushing solutions that are
essary for a feed water with less th an 1 ppm. u sed to rinse down h igh-pu rity installations be-
When more than 1 ppm of chlorine is present, fore they are placed in service. Th ese solu tions
an activated carbon filter is recommended. kill bacteria and rinse VOCs withou t severe dam-
a ge t o t h e s ys t em . To d et er m in e t h e b es t
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) “Volatile approach for th e materials selected for the pro-
organic compou nds” are those compou nds that ces s , alwa ys con s u lt with th e ven dor before
evaporate readily at ambient temperatu res and proceedin g. Fu rth ermore, con su lt th e u ser to
pres su res. For th e most part VOCs are man determin e the impact of the VOCs given off by
made. Swamp gas is an example of a natu rally th e treatmen t on the process. Consu ltation can
occu rring VOC. However, most of the compou nds save considerable effort, time, and money.
th at are a concern regarding the produ ction of
chemically pu re water are man made. The fed-
eral EPA as well as most state EPAs have lists of WATER ANALYSIS AND IMPURITY
21 VOC compou nds that are regu lated and 34 MEASUREMENT
more VOC compou nds that are u nregu lated.
The analysis of a water sample is the process of
It may interest th e plu mbing engineer, how- fin din g th e qu a n tities of va riou s impu rit ies
ever, that most of the VOCs th at create concern present. Th e qu antities mu st be presented in a
for th e end u ser of ch emically pu re water come logical and u nderstandable manner to allow for
from the process itself. VOCs may come from easy and practical in terpretation. It is of u tmost
th e followin g typical treatmen t elemen ts an d importance th at the initial analysis of in comin g
associated tran sport systems: water be accu rate and contain a worst-case sce-
1. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and chlorinated poly- n ario an d th at th e desired ou tpu t qu ality be
vin yl chloride (CPVC) pipe. established prior to th e selection of any treat-
men t system.
2. Polypropylene and polyeth ylene pipe.
The most accu rate analyses of water samples
3. Cation ion -exchange resin , the solvent u sed
are don e by laboratories specializin g in th is type
to make th e polymer.
of work. Sterile contain ers mu st be u sed and
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 285

several samples mu st be taken over a period of pH

time to ensu re that peak readings and average
valu es are obtain ed. There are also many field “pH” is a measu rement of the hydrogen ion con-
tests of water samples, wh ich, wh ile not as ac- centration in water an d, therefore, a measu re of
cu ra t e a s la bora t ory tes t s , ma y provide a n th e water’s acidity. pH is calcu lated from the
accu racy acceptable to the u ser. logarithmic reciprocal of th e hydrogen ion con-
centration in water. The pH scale ran ges from 0
The resu lts of the analysis are expressed in to 14, with valu es lower th an 7 bein g acid, val-
many ways. A common method u sed to report u es high er than 7 bein g alkaline, and 7 bein g
the concentration of ions in solu tion is the weight neu tral. When an acid is added to water, the
of an element or compou n d per liter of water, concentration of hydrogen ions increases, resu lt-
expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/ L) of wa- in g in a lower pH. When an alkaline is added to
ter. An other method is parts per million (ppm). water, the hydrogen ions decrease, resu lting in
PPM can be expressed either by the weigh t of an a h igher pH. The change of a pH u nit represen ts
impu rity compared to the weigh t of water (ab- a ten fold increase (or decrease) in stren gth. The
breviated “w/ w,” weigh t to weigh t) or by th e pH is n ot a measu re of alkalinity.
volu me of the impu rity to the volu me of water
(abbreviated “v/ v”). Other u n its are also u sed,
su ch as grains per gallon (gpg) an d equ ivalen ts
Specific Resistance
per million (epm). Mg/ L differs from ppm in ex- “Specific resistance” (megaohm-cm) is a measu re
pressin g a proportion in weight per volu me. This of th e amou nt of electrolytes in water. It mea-
finds specific u se in th e analysis of salin e wa- su res the ability of 1 cm 3 of the sample solu tion
ters. For common su pplies where the specific at a given temperatu re to resist the flow of an
gravity of the liqu id is arou n d 1, mg/ L and ppm electrical cu rrent. It is based on th e activity of
are equ al. Grains per gallon (gpg) is a term often the compou nds dissolved in water and is the most
u sed in discu ssion of ion -exchange equ ipment practical method of measu ring ionic impu rities
capabilities, where 1 gpg = 17.1 ppm. from a given sample. Resistance is given in ohms
As previou sly explained, compou nds break ( ). The resistance is based on the amount of
down in to ions when dissolved. Alth ou gh chem- ionized salts only and varies with the tempera-
ists can measu re the amou nt of each ion present ture of the water.
in a sample, it is not practical to find the total
amou nt of each compou nd th at actu ally went
into solu tion . In practice, the actu al method of
an alysis measu res on ly ion s. Usin g th e ion ic
measu rement when reporting impu rities makes
it easier and more convenien t to interpret the Table 11-2 Converting ppm of Impurities to
resu lts. ppm of Calcium Carbonate
To fu rther simplify reporting, it is desirable
Cations Ionic ppm Anions Ionic ppm
to redu ce all ions presen t in solu tion to a com-
Multiplier Multiplier
mon denominator. The common denominator is
calciu m carbonate. This is accomplished by com-
paring the equ ivalent weigh t of all ion s present Hydrogen 50.00 Hydroxide 2.94
and expressing them as the ppm anion and cat- Ammonium 2.78 Chloride 1.41
ion equ ivalent of calciu m carbon ate. The main Sodium 2.18 Bicarbonate 0.82
reason is that the molecu lar weight of calciu m Potassium 1.28 Nitrate 0.81
carbonate is 100 and its equ ivalen t weight is 50. Magnesium 4.10 Bisulfate 0.52
This method of expression is a widely accepted
Calcium 2.50 Carbonate 1.67
standard for reporting a water analysis, bu t it is
not u niversal. Table 11-2 presents the conver- Ferrous iron 1.79 Sulfate 1.04
sion factors u sed for major impu rities. Figu re Ferric iron 2.69
11-1 illu strates a typical water analysis report Cupric 1.57
indicating impu rities in ppm, equ ivalents u sefu l Zinc 1.53 Other
in calcu lating reactin g chemicals, and a com- Aluminum 5.55 Carbon dioxide 2.27
parison of positive and negative ion s.
Chromic 2.89 Silica 1.67
286 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Pu re water has an electrical resistance of ap- with warmer temperatu res produ cing higher val-
proximately 18.3 megaohm-cm (M cm), at 77°F u es. For example, th e electrical resistan ce of
(25°C). This maximu m resistance valu e is based water at 50°F (10°C) is 8.8 M -cm, and at 104°F
on calcu lation of th e electrical resistance from (40°C), 43.3 M -cm.
th e very small concen trations of hydrogen and
Instruments, referred toas “water resistivity
hydroxide ions from th e sligh t dissociation of
meters,” are now available to accu rately mea-
water. This dissociation yields concentrations of
su re the electrical resistance of water. Becau se
1 x 10 –7 moles/ L for each hydrogen and hydrox-
of the large impact of temperatu re, th ese meters
ide. Temperatu re is a sign ificant factor in the
typically report electrical resistance normalized
measu rement of the electrical resistance of water,

Figure 1 1 -1 Typical Water Analysis Report

Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 287

to 77°F (25°C). Resistivity meters are typically given the name “mho,” which is “ohm” spelled
u s ed a s a m ea s u r e of t h e t ot a l a mou n t of backwards. Th e actu al con du ctance is so small
electrolytes in pu rified water when th e concen- it is measu red in micromhos (µmho), which is
trations are very low. Resistivity conversions are on e million th of a mho. As an example, at 70°F
given in Table 11-3. (19°C) demineralized water with ½ ppm dissolved
salt h as a con du ctance of 1 µmho. Pu re water
Specific Conductance has a specific con du ctance of 0.055 µmho/ cm
at 77°F (25°C). Con du ctivity con version s are
“Specific condu ctance” (micromho/ cm) measu res given in Table 11-3. Specific condu ctance in ac-
th e ability of 1 cm 3 of the sample solu tion at a tu al practice is normally measu red by probes
given temperatu re to condu ct an electrical cu r- su spen ded in the stream of water.
ren t. It is th e reciprocal of th e resistan ce, in
oh ms. Since it is the opposite of resistan ce, it is Total Suspended Solids
“Total su spended solids” is th e su m of all the
su spended material fou nd in the water sample
and is commonly measu red in either parts per
Table 11-3
million (ppm, w/ w) or milligrams per liter (mg/
Resistivity and Conductivity Conversion L), wh ich measu res th e weight of the material
per volu me of th e sample. For all practical pu r-
Grains/gala ppm ppm Conductivity, Resistivity,
as CaCO3 as CaCO3 NaCI ∝mho/cm M /cm
poses, these two forms of measu rement are equ al
to each other (1 ppm = 1 mg/ L).
99.3 1700 2000 3860 0.00026 Tu rbidity in water is classified by the size of
74.5 1275 1500 2930 0.00034 the particu lates in microns (µ) (1/ 1000 in. [0.03
49.6 850 1000 1990 0.00050 mm] diameter) and tested by a ligh t interference
24.8 425 500 1020 0.00099 method known as a nephelometric. This test com-
pares the water sample by color to a stan dard
9.93 170 200 415 0.0024
color scale. This measu remen t is obtained by
7.45 127.5 150 315 0.0032
comparing the sample being tested with a known
4.96 85.0 100 210 0.0048 color referen ce; the total su spended solids are
2.48 42.5 50 105 0.0095 in dicated based on this comparison. The most
0.992 17.0 20 42.7 0.023 common reporting meth od is the nephelometric
0.742 12.7 15 32.1 0.031 tu rbidity u nit (ntu )—the higher th e nu mber, the
0.496 8.5 10 21.4 0.047 more tu rbid the water.
0.248 4.25 5.0 10.8 0.093 The nephelometric tu rbidity u n it measu res
0.099 1.70 2.0 4.35 0.23 th e color of a beam of light passed th rou gh the
0.074 1.27 1.5 3.28 0.30 water sample being tested. An often -u sed stan-
0.048 0.85 1.00 2.21 0.45 dard for potable water is th e standard meth od
0.025 0.42 0.50 1.13 0.88 for the examin ation of water and waste water
developed by th e American Pu blic Health Ser-
0.0099 0.17 0.20 0.49 2.05
vice, wh ich u ses formazin as th e stan dard for
0.0076 0.13 0.15 0.38 2.65 produ cing a known volume of tu rbidity. The stan-
0.0050 0.085 0.10 0.27 3.70 dard color scale to which it is compared is derived
0.0025 0.042 0.05 0.16 6.15 from the platinu m cobalt u nit (PCU). Other meth-
0.00099 0.017 0.02 0.098 10.2 ods less frequ ently u sed are the comparator tu be
0.00070 0.012 0.015 0.087 11.5 d et er m in a t ion u s in g for m a zin , ca lled t h e
0.00047 0.008 0.010 0.076 13.1 formazin tu rbidity u nit (FTU); an d the original
0.00023 0.004 0.005 0.066 15.2
test, th e J ackson tu rbidity u nit (J TU), named
for th e man who developed a stan dard can dle
0.00012 0.002 0.002 0.059 16.9
u sed to compare the color of candle light throu gh
0.00006 0.001 0.001 0.057 17.6 a sample to a color standard. The most accu rate
none none none 0.055 18.3b method of measu ring solids is gravimeterically,
a Grains per gal = 17.1 ppm (CaCO ). wherein a known qu antity of water is evaporated
3
b Theoretical maximum. and the resu lting solids weigh ed.
288 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

The most effective meth od of removing tu r- equ ivalent by itself, then mu ltiplying the prod-
bidity is by th e u se of filters and strainers. The u ct by the equ ivalent weight of CaCO3 or 50.
equ ipmen t chosen to accomplish th is task de-
pends for the most part on the sizes an d types of Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
th e solids to be retained. Other factors inclu de
th e materials of constru ction of the device, the “Total organic carbon” (TOC) is a measu rement
natu re of the raw water, flow-rate requ irements, of the organic carbon compounds found dissolved
th e particle removal target, in itial and operatin g in water. Th ese compou n ds con tribu te to corro-
costs, an d mainten ance requ irements. s ion , cau se problems in man u factu rin g, an d
u su ally indicate the presence of endotoxin s in
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) water for pharmaceu tical u se. The test is widely
requ ested to determin e th e con tamin ation of
Often referred to as “dissolved inorgan ics” and water by trace organ ic compou n ds that cou ld
“mineral salts,” the “total dissolved solids” (TDS) produ ce a residu e or in terfere in fu rther lab-
is generally the su m of all the dissolved minerals, or a t or y a p p a r a t u s t es t s or p r ovid e t r a ce
in clu din g chlorides, su lfates, an d carbon ates. contamin ation in a ph armaceu tical produ ct.
Dissolved solids contribu te to scale deposit and
The measu rement is generally complicated
corrosion of piping an d equ ipment. Wh en dis-
and depen den t on the expected level. For higher
solved in water, min eral salts form positively
levels, th e organic compou nd is first converted
charged ions, mostly sodiu m and calciu m, and
to carbon dioxide, which is measu red by infra-
negatively charged ions, mostly ch lorides and
red abs orption . Ga s s trippin g is requ ired to
su lfates.
remove other forms of carbon ions from dissolved
TDS is con sidered two diverse ways in the mineral compou n ds. For parts per billion (ppb)
field of water treatment. Engineers designing ion- levels, photolytic oxidation is u sed an d the re-
exchange systems consider TDS differen tly than su ltin g carbon dioxide is then measu red.
th ose design ing membrane-separation systems.
Neither approach is incorrect, bu t if the approach Silt Density Index (SDI)
is not defined it can cau se design errors in the
final process. Qu an titatively, TDS is the differ- The “silt density index” (SDI) is a measu re of the
ence in th e weight between the tare weigh t of a fou ling poten tial of a feed-water sou rce. Since
cru cible and the residu e remaining after filtered colloids and oth er solids can be an y size in the
water is evaporated. The qu an titative ch emical su bmicron range, there is n o direct method to
definition is that u sed by membrane-separation measu re their concentration in feed water. The
systems designers. The analytic, ionic, definition SDI is fou nd by passing the feed water th rou gh
is u sed by ion-exchange systems designers. Since a 0.45-µm rated Millipore filter at 30 psi (207
ion-exch ange by defin ition is an ionic ch emical kPa). TheSDIis found fromthefollowingformula:
process, th e systems design er mu st consider a
balan ced ionic solu tion wh en figu ring capacity Equa t ion 1 1 -1
and equ ipment size. When designing a treatment
t1
system consisting of both membrane separation 1 – ⋅ 100
an d ion exch an ge, care mu st be taken wh en t2
SDI =
moving from the separation u nit’s produ ct wa- T
ter analysis to th at of the ion-exchange system.
where
Separation systems an alysis reports, as well
as most laboratory water analysis reports, are t 1 = Initial time needed to collect a 500-mL
shown as ppm as CaCO3 . For example, sodiu m sample of water throu gh a fresh 0.45-
wou ld be reported as Na +, as wou ld calciu m be µm filter, 47 mm in diameter (s)
reported as Ca 2+. However, to simplify the task, t 2 = Time to filter and collect a second
when design ing an ion-exchan ge system the “as 500-mL sample after exposing the
ion” is converted to CaCO3 . Th e conversion is same filter as above for 15 min to th e
don e by considerin g the equ ivalent weigh t of the flow of feed water (s)
ion, the atomic weight divided by the ion’s exist-
T = Total test time (min ) (Typically 15 min.
ing exchan ge valan ce. The equ ivalent weight is
For high SDI, T may be less.)
th en converted to CaCO3 by dividing the ion’s
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 289

To obtain an accu rate test, at the end of the is an excess of iron in the liqu id, generally iron
elapsed time the filter shou ld not become more oxide (ru st) and iron carbonate (a corrosion prod-
th an approximately 74% plu gged. If this figu re u ct). Anoth er is mu d, dirt, an d clay that tend to
is exceeded, the test sh ou ld be repeated u sing a collect an d adhere in areas of low circu lation.
shorter overall elapsed time. A Millipore filter Slu dge is prevented by filtering the incoming feed
is the onlymembrane currentlyapproved bythe water and adding chemical dispersan ts to keep
American SocietyofTestingMaterials (ASTM)for th e solids in su spension. They are removed by
determining the SDI. The higher the number is, blowdown. Mu d, dirt, and clay are rarely encou n-
the greater the potential for fouling. tered except when th e feed water is from su rface
sou rces.
Manymanufacturers ofreverse osmosis (RO)
cartridges recommend allowable SDI figures for Condenser scale deposits consist of calciu m
feed water. Typically, for hollow-fiber modules carbon ate, calciu m su lfate, or silica minerals.
thereis a maximumSDIof3 and for spiral wound They form when the minerals’ concentration in
modules the allowable SDI figure is 4. For con- water reaches a level where th eir solu bility or
tinuous deionization, an SDI of 4 or less is th e pH of satu ration is exceeded an d the min er-
recommended. In practice, when water has an als come ou t of solu tion . This can be prevented
SDIgreater than 4, a pre-filter with a 4-µmdepth by controlling the pH, dilu tin g the circu latin g
is recommended. In addition to the 4-µm filter, wa t er to preven t con cen t ra tion , a n d a ddin g
an additional 1-µmfilter is recommended down- chemicals to inhibit and prevent scale formation.
stream. The use ofa 4-µmfilter on the feed-water
streamis always recommended as a precaution Biologic al fouling Microbiological fou lin g is
against fouling regardless of the potential SDI. cau sed by th e growth of bacteria, algae, fu ngi,
and oth er organisms. Th eir growth is aided by a
favorable water temperatu re, favorable pH, the
DEPOSITS AND CORROSION presen ce of oxygen , an d food. “Slime” is th e
bu ildu p of microbes an d their waste produ cts,
Th e con ta min a n ts previou s ly dis cu s s ed will which also inclu de du st and oth er su spended
cau se piping system fou ling by depositing mate- matter.
rial on the walls of the pipe, thereby redu cin g Microbial control is achieved by sterilization,
the efficiency of the system; and redu ce the thick- disinfection, and sanitation. “Sterilization” is de-
ness of the pipe wall by corrosion , wh ich will fined as the lethal disru ption of all bacteria, mold
cau se failu re of the pipin g system. Following is a and yeast, and eliminates biofilm and spores.
brief discu ssion of these categories of problems Nu merically, it is a 12 log redu ction in bacteria.
and treatment methods as they generally apply Disin fection is a 6 log redu ction of microbials.
to most systems. “San itation ” is generally considered as a killin g
of th e vegetative organ isms an d minimizes the
Deposits presence of bacteria an d endotoxins. Nu meri-
cally, it is a 3 log redu ction in bacteria.
Scale and sludge “Scale” is a solid deposit on
th e walls of a pipe resu lting from th e precipita- Th ere are different meth ods of con trollin g
biofou ling. Chemicals, u ltraviolet radiation, heat,
tion of dis s olved min era l s olids in t h e flu id
filtering, an d ozone are the ones most commonly
stream. This scale redu ces heat transfer and in-
u sed. Th e meth od selected depends on the in-
terferes with the flow of water by increasing the
tended u se of the treated water and the proposed
friction of the flu id with the walls of the pipe.
Boiler scale con sists of calciu m, magn esiu m, materials of the system compon ents.
iron, an d silica minerals. It is preven ted by pre-
treating water prior to its entering the boiler to Corrosion
remove mu ch of the scale-forming in gredien ts
and adding effective ch emicals to th e feed water “Corrosion ” is the loss and even tu al failu re of
to adju st pH, preven t corrosion , an d preven t metals an d alloys from the electrochemical re-
deposits from occu rring. action between water an d the pipe material. It is
separated in to two basic types: general and lo-
“Slu dge” is a sticky, adherent deposit in the calized. General corrosion describes the potential
feed water resu lting from the settling ou t of su s- dissolu tion of pipe over its entire exposed su r-
pended matter from several sou rces. One sou rce
290 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

face. Localized corrosion affects only a small area corrosion inhibitors. Dissolved gases are removed
of th e pipe su rface. by deaeration.
• General corros ion. This is a breakdown of the
pipe material at a u niform rate over its entire PREDICTING SCALE FORMATION
surface by direct chemical attack. It is caused AND CORROSION TENDENCIES
by the loss of the protective passive film that
forms on the su rface of the pipe coupled with A common and costly water-cau sed problem is
a chemical reaction occu rring between the th e formation and deposit of mineral scale. Al-
pipe material and the chemicals in the fluid.
th ou gh scale deposits may contain a complex
Particu lar types of corrosion inclu de the fol-
mixtu re of min eral salts, the primary constitu -
lowing:
ent is calciu m carbonate.
1. “Galvanic corrosion” is a type of corro-
s ion th a t occu rs in a liqu id mediu m Most salts are more solu ble in hot water than
(called an electrolyte) when a more ac- in cold water. Calciu m and magnesiu m salts, on
tive metal (anode) an d a less active metal th e other h and, will dissolve more readily in cold
(cathode) come in con tact with one an- water than in h ot. As a resu lt, they will ten d to
oth er an d form an electrode poten tial. deposit on su rfaces wh en there is a rise in tem-
When this occu rs, the more active (noble) peratu re. Th e following are the primary factors
metal will ten d to dissolve in the electro- th at affect th is ten den cy:
lyte and go in to solu tion. 1. Alkalinity.
2. “Intergranu lar corrosion” is a type of cor- 2. Hardness (calciu m).
rosion that occu rs in the pipe wall wh en
material in th e grain bou ndary of some 3. pH.
alloys is less resistan t to the corrodin g 4. Total dissolved solids.
agen t than th e grains th emselves, and
5. Temperatu re.
th e bon ds between th e grain s are de-
stroyed.
pH
3. “Erosion corrosion” is cau sed by a wear-
ing away of th e pipe wall, u su ally as a The pH valu e reflects th e concentration of hy-
resu lt of excessive flu id velocity or con- drogen protons (H+) or hydroxyl ions (OH–) in
stant wearing away by solids in the water aqu eou s solu tions. The level of this concen tra-
striking th e walls of the pipe. tion , as in dicated by pH, defin es th e ratio of
• Localized corrosion. This takes place on small bicarbonate to carbonate alkalinity. The measu re
areas of the su rface, u sually at high rates, of pH is made on a logarithmic scale. One en d of
and takes various forms: th e scale is the hydrogen proton, the other end
is th e hydroxyl ion . Wh en the pH is 7, it is an
1. “Stress-corrosion crackin g” is a physical
in dication that there is an exact balance of hy-
deterioration and cracking of the pipe wall
drogen proton s to h ydroxyl ions in water. A pH
cau sed by a combination of h igh operat-
below 7 indicates an acid or a predomin ance of
in g temperatu re, ten sile stress on th e
hydrogen proton s. A pH above 7 in dicates a ba-
pipe, and chemicals in th e flu id stream.
sic solu tion or a predominan ce of hydroxyl ions.
2. “Pitting” is characterized by deep penetra- In either direction th e molar concen tration of
tion of the metal at small areas of the eith er is increasing by a factor of ten . A pH be-
surface, concentrating in small cells with- low 5.0 in dica t es 100% ca rbon ic a n d ot h er
ou t affectin g the entire su rface. mineral acids. A pH in the ran ge between 5.3
3. “Crevice attack corrosion” occu rs at ju nc- and 8.2 indicates a bicarbon ate/ carbonate rela-
tions between su rfaces (often called cru d tionship of th e water. A pH above 8.2 indicates
traps) wh ere a crack exists that allows carbon ate an d h ydroxyl alkalin ity. As th e pH
an accu mu lation of a corroding agent. proceeds u pward from acidic to basic, the in-
crease in carbonates increases the tendency for
Con ven tion al corrosion treatmen t of feed
calciu m and magnesiu m carbonates to precipi-
water for boilers and coolin g water systems con-
tate ou t of solu tion.
s is ts of pH con trol an d th e u s e of ch emica l
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 291

Temperature carbonate and thu s be less corrosive. Water with

a non-scaling tendency will tend to dissolve pro-
The high er the temperatu re, the greater th e ten- tective films an d thu s be more corrosive. The
den cy of dissolved solids to precipitate ou t of in terpretation of th e LSI is based on the nu meri-
solu tion becau se of their property of inverse solu - cal valu es given in Table 11-4.
b ilit y. Th is is p a r t icu la r ly t r u e of ca lciu m
carbonate.
Table 11-4 Prediction of Water Tendencies
by the Langelier Index
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)
Langelier
In the 1930s, W. F. Langelier stu died the pri- Saturation Index Tendency of Water
mary factors that affect the tendency of water to
form deposits of mineral scale on heat tran sfer
2.0 Scale-forming and for practical
equ ipment. As a resu lt of this work, the Langelier
purposes noncorrosive.
index, best known as the Langelier Satu ration
Index (LSI), was created. This in dex is based on 0.5 Slightly corrosive and scale-
forming.
nu merical valu es given to the factors that affect
deposits. 0.0 Balanced, but pitting corrosion
possible.
The in dex is actu ally a calciu m carbonate –0.5 Slightly corrosive and nonscale-
satu ration in dex. It is based on th e assu mption forming.
th at water with a scalin g tendency will ten d to –2.0 Serious corrosion.
deposit a corrosion -in h ibitin g film of calciu m

Table 11-5 Numerical Values for Substitution in Equation 11-3 to Find

the pHs of Saturation for Water

Total Solids (ppm) A Ca as CaCO3 (ppm) C M. Alkalinity (ppm) D

50–330 0.1 10–11 0.6 10–11 1.0

400–1000 0.2 12–13 0.7 12–13 1.1
14–17 0.8 14–17 1.2
Temp., °F (°C) B 18–22 0.9 18–22 1.3
32–34 (0–1.1) 2.6 23–27 1.0 23–27 1.4
36–42 (2.2–5.6) 2.5 28–34 1.1 28–35 1.5
44–48 (6.7–8.9) 2.4 35–43 1.2 36–44 1.6
50–56 (10–13.3) 2.3 44–55 1.3 45–55 1.7
58–62 (14.4–16.7) 2.2 56–69 1.4 56–69 1.8
64–70 (17.8–21.1) 2.1 70–87 1.5 70–88 1.9
72–80 (22.2–26.7) 2.0 88–110 1.6 89–110 2.0
82–88 (27.8–31.1) 1.9 111–138 1.7 111–139 2.1
90–98 (32.2–36.7) 1.8 139–174 1.8 140–176 2.2
100–110 (37.8–43.3) 1.7 175–220 1.9 177–220 2.3
112–122 (44.4–50) 1.6 230–270 2.0 230–270 2.4
124–132 (51.1–55.6) 1.5 280–340 2.1 280–340 2.5
134–146 (56.7–63.3) 1.4 350–430 2.2 350–440 2.6
148–160 (64.4–71.1) 1.3 440–550 2.3 450–550 2.7
162–178 (72.2–81.1) 1.2 560–690 2.4 560–690 2.8
178–194 (81.1–90) 1.1 700–870 2.5 700–880 2.9
194–210 (90–98.9) 1.0 880–1000 2.6 890–1000 3.0
292 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

The LSI is calcu lated as follows: Aggressiveness Index (AI)

Equa t ion 11 -2 Developed by the EPA, the aggressiven ess index
is u sed as a gu idelin e parameter to find the cor-
LSI = pH – pHs rosive ten den cy of potable water. This in dex is
where calcu lated as follows:

LSI = Langelier satu ration index nu mber. Equa t ion 1 1 -5

pH = pH value obtained from testing the AI = pH + Log 10 (Alkalinity × Hardness)
water in question.
Values lower than 10 indicate an aggressive
pHs = Calcu lated pH of satu ration for the
water, values between 10 and 12 indicate a mod-
calciu m carbonate present in the
erately aggressive water, and a value higher than
water in qu estion.
12 indicates a nonaggressive water.
The most accu rate meth od is to u se the follow-
ing formu la:
TREATMENT METHODOLOGIES
Equa t ion 11 -3
Aeration
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) – (C + D)
The numerical values of A, B, C, and D for “Aeration” is a gas-transfer process in which wa-
substitution into Equation 11-3 are found in ter is brou ght into contact with air for the pu rpose
Table 11-5. A more empirical method to find pHs of transferring volatile su bstan ces to or from the
is to u se Figu re 11-2. raw water. It is u sed most often to remove u n de-
sirable gases su ch as carbon dioxide, h ydrogen
su lfide, and methane. Aeration, by introdu cin g
Ryzner Stability Index (RI) oxygen , is also u sed to remove iron and manga-
The Ryzner stability in dex (RI), often referred to nese and to lower the amou nt of VOCs in grou nd
as the “stability in dex,” is an empirical meth od water. The following are criteria for its u se:
u sed to predict the scale-forming tendencies of 1. Redu ction of carbon dioxide by 90% is ob-
water. The RI is calcu lated from the followin g t a in ed by n ea r s a t u r a t ion wit h oxygen .
formu la applyin g th e same definitions u sed for Carbon dioxide dissolved in ground water will
th e LSI: consu me lime in the lime-soda softening pro-
cess with ou t any accompanyin g softening.
Equa t ion 11 -4 Generally accepted practice in dicates th at
RI = 2 pHs – pH aeration is not econ omical for carbon-diox-
ide concentration s in water of less than 10
The RI is always positive. When it falls below mg/ L. Th e amou nt of lime saved shou ld be
6.0, scale formation is possible; the lower the compared to th e cost of pu rchasing an d op-
number of the index, the more probable scale erating the aerator before deciding on its u se.
formation becomes. For an interpretation of the
RI, refer to Table 11-6. 2. Aeration will partially remove VOCs from raw
water by oxidation, making them insolu ble.
They are then coagu lated an d removed from
Table 11-6 Prediction of Water Tendencies th e water.
by the Ryzner Index
3. Aeration alone cou ld be u sed for the removal
Ryzner Index Tendency of Water of hydrogen su lfide in concentration s of 2
mg/ L or less. Above this level, it cou ld be
4.0–5.0 Heavy scale
u sed in conju nction with chlorination, which
oxidizes hydrogen su lfide.
5.0–6.0 Light scale
6.0–7.0 Little scale or corrosion 4. Iron and manganese can be removed by aera-
tion if this will not be done by other methods.
7.0–7.5 Significant corrosion
These metals are oxidized to form insolu ble
7.5–9.0 Heavy corrosion h ydroxides , wh ich precipita te ou t at th e
9.0 and higher Intolerable corrosion proper pH levels. They can then be removed
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 293

Figure 1 1 -2 pH of Saturation for Water

by settlemen t or filtered ou t of th e water the other, with perforated, slot, or mesh bottoms.
stream. Each ppm of dissolved oxygen will The trays are filled with 2 to 6 in.(40 to 140 mm)
oxidize abou t 7 ppm of iron or mangan ese. of a mediu m, su ch as coke, stone, or ceramic
balls , to improve water dis tribu tion an d gas
Several types of aerator are commonly u sed:
transfer as well as provide catalytic oxidation in
waterfall, diffu sion (or bu bble), and mechanical.
th e mediu m. The vertical opening between trays
The type of system u sed most commonly in u til-
ity water treatment is the waterfall. ranges between 12 and 30 in. (305 and 762 mm),
depen din g on th e n u mber of trays requ ired.
Waterfall aerators are made in several types: Water loading on the trays is u su ally in the range
cascade, spray nozzle, an d mu ltiple tray. They of 10 to 20 gpm/ ft 2 (379 to 757 L/ m/ m 2 ). Effi-
operate by having the raw water en ter the u nit ciency can be improved by the u se of en closu res
from th e top and fall by gravity to the bottom, and forced air blowers to provide cou n ter-flow
u sing variou s methods to even ly distribu te the ventilation.
water and disperse it evenly throu ghou t the u nit.
The type of waterfall aerator most commonly used The simplest type of aerator is the diffu sion
type, which bu bbles compressed air u p th rou gh
is the n atu rally ventilated, mu ltiple-tray type.
th e water tank. Th e large volu me of air requ ired
This u nit consists of a series of trays, on e above
limits th is to smaller flows of water. Air requ ire-
294 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

men ts vary from 0.1 to 0.2 stan dard ft 3 / min tank and disposed of. Most clarifier designs have
(scfm)/ gal (0.003 to 0.006 m 3 / min/ L) of water these processes done in the same operating u nit.
aerated. A detention time, which ran ges from 10
The most frequ ently u sed chemical coagu -
to 30 min, is n ecessary. Advantages of this type
lant is alu minu m su lfate, called “alu m” or “filter
of aerator are the freedom from cold-weath er
alu m.” Oth er frequ en tly u sed coagu lan ts are
operating problems, very low h ead loss, and the
sodiu m alu minate and potash alu m. Iron coagu -
possibility of u sin g th is process for ch emical
lants inclu de ferric su lfate, ferris su lfate, and
mixing.
ferric chloride. Organic polyelectrolytes, which
Mechanical aerators consist of an open im- are high molecu lar weigh t polymers, are also
peller operating on th e water su rface of a tank. employed in low dosages to increase th e effec-
They are not as efficient as either of th e two sys- tiveness of treatmen t.
tems previou sly described, so lon ger reten tion
It is u su ally a matter of trial and error to
times are necessary.
find the correct amou nt of alu m. This is becau se
th e amou nt depends on th e size an d qu antity of
Clarification th e su spended solids in the raw water, the re-
ten tion time prior to floccu la tion , th e wa ter
“Clarification” is a process to redu ce or remove
temperatu re, and the amou nt of mixin g. All of
tu rbidity, silt, an d sediment present in the raw-
th ese conditions chan ge from day to day.
water su pply. The water cou ld be treated with
chemicals or filtered, depen ding on th e amou nt As with almost every process, th ere is more
of impu rities present and the volu me of water to th an on e meth od for achieving a desired goal
be treated. If treated with chemicals, time is re- where the demand for water is not very large.
qu ired for th e solids to settle ou t of su spension. One alternative floccu lation method is to pro-
The chemical treatmen t process is u su ally re- du ce a finer floc, wh ich can be removed by an
served for large volu mes of water. appropriate filter system. By eliminating a large
settling basin , a high-qu ality water can be pro-
Su spended and colloidal particles are nor-
du ced more qu ickly with smaller equ ipment.
mally in the range of 0.1 to 10 µ in size. They
stay apart becau se negatively charged ionized
matter are absorbed on th eir su rfaces and repel Deaeration
each other. A measu re of th e charge that su r-
Dissolved gases in th e water su pply, su ch as
r ou n d s t h e colloid is k n own a s t h e “zet a
oxygen , carbon dioxide, h ydrogen su lfide, and
poten tial.” These negative charges are redu ced
ammon ia, can produ ce corrosion an d pittin g.
by the u se of positively charged chemicals called
They mu st be removed prior to u sing the water
“coagu lants.” Coagu lants, throu gh a chemical re-
for most pu rposes.
action, redu ce the zeta poten tial and allow the
colloids to clu ster to form a larger, jelly-like mass Althou gh carbon dioxide an d hydrogen su l-
called “floc.” In a process called “floccu lation ,” fide can be removed by aeration , in many cases
colloidal particles, bacteria, an d organic matter it is easier and less expensive to remove them by
are mechanically brou ght together into larger and “deaeration.” Th is process operates on the prin-
h ea vier pa rticles . Too h ea vy to rema in s u s - ciple of raisin g th e water temperatu re to th e
pended, these particles now settle out of the water satu ration point for the existin g pressu re. There
to th e bottom. This process is called “sedimen- are two types of deaerator: steam and vacu u m.
tation.” When heated water is needed, su ch as for boil-
ers, the steam type is preferred. When cold water
Clarification of large volu mes of water is done
is requ ired, th e vacu u m type is u sed.
in a basin. First, th e coagu lant(s) mu st be intro-
du ced with a strong action in order to completely Steam deaerators break u p water into a spray
disperse and mix th e chemicals with the incom- or th in film, then sweep th e steam across and
ing water. Often, some of th e slu dge produ ced th rou gh it to force ou t the dissolved gases. With
by floccu lation is mixed with th e coagu lant. Af- th is method, oxygen can be redu ced to near the
ter coagu lation is accomplished, th e mixtu re is limit of detection . Design u se is spread evenly
th en gently mixed to allow the now larger par- among spray, tray, and combination u nits. Typi-
ticles to settle rapidly to th e bottom of th e tank. cal deaerators h ave a heatin g an d deaeration
The particles and chemicals that settle ou t are section and a storage section for hot, deareated
called “slu dge,” which mu st be removed from the water. Often, a separate tan k is provided to hold
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 295

an addition al 10-min su pply of deaerated water. retically requ ired amou n t. Hydroch loric acid,
The direction of steam may be cross flow, down rather th an su lfu ric acid, is preferred for regen-
flow, or cou n ter cu rren t. Th e majority of th e eration. Th is process is very sensitive to the flow
steam con den ses in the first section of the u n it. rate, temperatu re, and con taminant level of the
The remaining mixtu re of noncondensable gases feed water. These changing conditions mu st be
is dis ch arged to atmos ph ere th rou gh a ven t considered by the manu factu rer in th e design of
condenser. the process. The entire regeneration cycle is simi-
lar to that of a cation ion-exchan ge colu mn.
Vacu u m deaerators u se a steam jet or me-
chanical vacu u m pu mp to develop the requ ired
vacu u m u sed to draw off the u n wan ted gases. Decarbonation
The vessel has a packin g material inside, and
Decarbonation is rarely u sed bu t shou ld be con-
th e inlet water is in trodu ced to the top of the
sidered if the bicarbon ate level in th e feed water
u n it an d passed down th rou gh th is packin g.
is in th e ran ge of 14 to 20 mg/ L or h igh er.
Deaerated water is stored at the bottom of th is
vessel. Th e steam or vapor vacu u m located at Deca r b on a t ion is u s u a lly a ccom p lis h ed in
th e top of th e u n it disch arges th e u n wan ted smaller systems by the u se of filtered air cou nter
flowing throu gh th e water stream and strippin g
gases. The vacu u m u nit is far less efficient than
ou t the carbon dioxide.
th e steam on e, and is most often u sed in dem-
in er a lizer s ys t em s t o r ed u ce t h e ch em ica l
operating cost and the demin eralizer size, and Distillation
to protect anion-exch ange resins from possible
oxidation damage. In its basic form, “distillation” is the process of
boiling feed water, condensing the steam pro-
du ced from the feed water, and collecting the
Dealkalizing condensate, which yields a produ ct water theo-
retically free from n onvolatile impu rities. There
“Dealkalizing” is a process that redu ces the al-
are three methods cu rrently u sed to produ ce dis-
kalinity of feed water. This can be done either
t illed wa t er : s in gle-s t a ge dis t illa t ion , va por
with or withou t the u se of acid regenerant. With-
ou t th e u se of acid, the regen erant u sed is salt, compression, an d mu lti-effect distillation.
and the process is often called “salt splittin g.” Single -s t age dis t illat ion Th e s till u s ed for
The salt-splitting process exchanges all bicar- single-stage distillation is the simplest type of
bon ate, su lfate, and nitrate anions for chloride still. Feed water enters the still and is evapo-
anions. For best resu lts, it is recommended that rated and condensed in a single stage. Coolin g
deion ized water be u sed as feed water. Where water is requ ired to con den se the steam pro-
hard, alkaline, and low-sodiu m water is avail- du ced. Th is t ype of s t ill pr odu ces wa t er of
able, the u se of a weak acid resin shou ld be approximately 1 megohm-cm, with higher pu rity
considered. possible with option al equ ipment that removes
The entire regen eration cycle is similar to dissolved gaseou s impu rities. Th is still has a
water soften ing (which is described later in th is small footprint, is less labor inten sive, and tol-
chapter). It is not u n common to u se the same erates feed water with a high level of impu rity.
salt an d regenerant piping to accommodate both
th e soften er and the dealkalizer. Some cau stic Vapor-compression distillation “Vapor com-
soda may be added (1 part cau stic soda to 9 parts pression,” sometimes called “thermocompression
salt) to redu ce the leakage of alkalinity and car- distillation,” is a method of evaporation in wh ich
bon dioxide. Sin ce th is can ca u s e h a rdn es s a liqu id is boiled inside a bank of tu bes. The va-
leakage from the dealkalizer, a filter downstream por gen er a t ed t h en pa s s es t h r ou gh a m is t
of th e processed water is necessary. elimin ator that removes any water droplets. The
pu re vapor is withdrawn by a compressor where
A weak acid resin can also be u sed. Th e pro- th e en ergy imparted resu lts in a compressed
cess transfers th e alkaline salts of calciu m and steam with increased pressu re and temperatu re.
magnesiu m to the weak acid resin. Th is process Th e h igh er-en ergy compres s ed s team is dis -
shou ld inclu de degasification if requ ired by the charged into an evaporator. At th is point, the
produ ct water. The weak acid process operates steam gives u p most of its energy (latent heat) to
at a very h igh u tilization factor, near the theo- th e water in side th e tu bes. More vapor is gen er-
296 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 11 -3 Detail of Vapor Compression Still

Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 297
298 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

ated an d th e process is repeated. Th e conden- The pu re steam generated in the first effect
sate (distilled water) is withdrawn by the distillate is introdu ced into the shell side of th e second
pu mp and is discharged th rou gh a two-stream effect. The pu re steam condenses, produ cing dis-
heat exchan ger. tilled water while givin g u p its latent heat to the
high-pu rity feed water in side the second effect
The excess feed water that did not evaporate
tu bes, cau sing the feed water to boil an d gen er-
is also pu mped throu gh an exch anger. Both the
a t e va por . Ea ch effect op er a t es a t a lower
distillate and the blowdown are cooled, and the
pressu re th an th e previou s effect to provide the
feed water is preheated prior to its entering the
temperatu re difference th at allows the tran sfer
evaporator. These exchangers min imize the en-
of heat. The pu re steam generated in the tu be
ergy consu mption of the system and eliminate
side of the first effect by the condensing power
th e need for additional coolin g water. The sys-
steam passes throu gh the mist eliminator to re-
tem operates con tin u ou sly on ce it is started.
move any entrain ed water droplets. Feed water
Addition al makeu p h eat, u su ally su pplied by
from th e first effect passes throu gh an orifice
steam, is requ ired for continu ou s operation. Va-
and in to the tu be side of th e secon d effect. The
por compression is generally con sidered more
first effect pu re steam enters th e shell side of
economical for large qu antities of water and does
th e second effect an d is condensed on the ou t-
not requ ire a high -qu ality feed water for proper
side of th e tu bes.
operation. The vapor compression still is moder-
ate in both first and operatin g costs. Th e con den s a t e (d is t illed wa t er ) pa s s es
th rou gh an orifice and en ters the shell side of
Refer to Figu re 11-3 for a typical flow dia-
th e th ird effect. Feed water in the second effect
gram of a vapor-compression distillation u n it.
passes th rou gh an orifice an d into the tu be side
Multi-effect distillation Multi-effect distillation of the th ird effect.
u nits u se the process of staged evaporation and After passin g throu gh the mist eliminator,
condensation to gen erate distilled water. Each th e last effect, pu re steam enters th e condenser
stage is called an “effect.” Distilled water is pro- and condenses on th e ou tside of the condenser
du ced in each effect by con den sing the steam coils. This distilled water from the last effect and
generated by the evaporation of h igh-pu rity feed th e distilled water from the previou s effects is
water in the previou s stage. The initial drivin g cooled by the cooling water of the condenser. The
force for the evaporation is “power steam” ap- distilled water exits the con den ser and enters
plied to th e shell side of the first effect vessel. th e distillate pu mp. Th e distillate is pu mped
The mu lti-effect still has the highest initial cost th rou gh the distillate con trol valve and th rou gh
and th e lowest operating cost and requ ires the th e storage/ du mp valve. Th e con den ser level
highest-qu ality feed water of all the stills. controller senses the distillate level and signals
The feed water enters the vessel, and its pres- th e control valve to maintain the desired level.
su re is boosted by the feed pu mp. The feed water Noncondensable gases in the condenser are
flows th rou gh a coil in the condenser, wh ich al- vented to the atmosphere. Th e con den ser tem-
lows it to pick u p h eat from th e con den sin g peratu re is maintained at a predetermin ed level
steam. This preheated feed water flows th rou gh by th e cooling water flow. Th e u nit is protected
th e feed-control valve and into the tu be side of by pressure-relief valves along with high and low-
th e first effect. The first effect level controller level alarms.
senses the feed-water level and sign als th e feed-
control valve to maintain the desired level. Power Refer to Figu re 11-4 for a typical flow dia-
s tea m is in trodu ced in to th e u n it an d flows gram of a mu lti-effect distillation u nit.
th rou gh the steam-con trol valve and into the
shell side of the first effect. Filtration
Temperatu re sen sors sense the temperatu re
Deep-bed sand filtration Deep-bed filters are
on the tu be side of th e first effect an d sign al the
designed to remove coarse su spen ded particu -
steam-control valve to maintain the required tem-
lates larger th an 10 µ in size. It is a pressu re
peratu re. This steam condenses on the ou tside
type filter th at u ses either mu lti-graded san d or
of the tu bes of the first effect, giving u p its latent
heat of vaporization to th e feed water inside the mu ltimedia as the filter mediu m. Particu late re-
tu bes, cau sing it to boil an d generate vapor. moval in the order of 98% shou ld be expected.
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 299

Detail of Multi-Effect Still

Figure 11 -4
300 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Sand-only filters for laboratory water systems 9. Reverse-osmosis waste-treatment applica-

sh ou ld gen erally operate at a face velocity of tions.
abou t 4 gpm/ ft 2 (192 L/ min/ m 2 ) of cross-sec-
The above filtration systems are typically
tional bed area. Mu ltimedia filters operate at
used in conjunction with ion-exchange and re-
abou t 6 gpm/ ft 2 (228 L/ min/ m 2 ) of cross-sec-
verse-osmosis, high-purity systems to remove
tion a l bed a rea . Sin ce th e a bove va lu es a re
bacteria, pyrogens, and nonvolatile TOC com-
general in natu re, it is important to operate these pounds. These filtration systems are used in
u nits at th e velocities recommended by the indi- waste-treatment applications, includingthe con-
vidu al man u factu rer.
centrated waste of reverse-osmosis systems and
The multimedia filter achieves a more uniform ion-exchange waste.
distribution of filter media throughout the bed than
the sand-only filter and is considered a more effec- Activated carbon filtration Activated carbon
tive type of filter. A typical multimedia filter for is u sed to remove residu al chlorine, chlorimine
laboratory use consists of a top layer of anthracite d is in fect a n t s , d is s olved or ga n ics s u ch a s
having a 1.1-mm grain size and a 1.5 specific grav- trihalometh anes, an d a major portion of natu -
ity, a middle layer of san d h avin g a 0.5-mm rally occu rring dissolved organic material from
diameter grain size and a specific gravity of 26, mu nicipal water su pplies. The n onionic organ-
and a bottom layer of garnet having a 0.2-mm grain ics tend to coat ion-exchange resins and all types
size and a 4.2 specific gravity. The normal opera- of membran es.
tional flow rate ranges from 6 to 15 gal/ min (gpm)/ There is a relu ctance on the part of system
ft 2 (228 to 570 L/ min/ m 2 ) of bed area. designers to u se the activated carbon filter in
Backwash ing is requ ired to clean the filter, th e gen eration of pu re water (PW) becau se of the
with th e efflu en t dis ch arged to t h e s a n ita ry possible development of significant levels of bac-
drainage system. A backwash flow rate of 10 to teria in th e u nit itself. This can be controlled by
15 gpm/ ft 2 (380 to 570 L/ min / m 2 ) is generally periodically sanitizing it with pu re steam or hot
requ ired for effective cleanin g. water with a temperatu re greater than 176°F
(80°C). The need for sanitizing can only be de-
Cross-flow and tangential-flow filtration In termined by testing the water. Becau se of th is
th e past 10 years a nu mber of membrane filters n eed for sterilization, th e in terior of the filter
have appeared on th e market. Th e membrane hou sin g shou ld be lin ed or coated. When u sin g
systems have greatly expan ded th e field of me- PW as feed water, stainless-steel housings should
ch an ical filtra tion . Th e followin g are s everal be avoided becau se of possible ch loride stress
typical media and membrane-filtration systems: corrosion an d chloride pitting resu lting from the
chlorine in the feed water. A typical detail of a
1. Bag filter gross filtration, in clu ding limited packed-bed, activated-carbon u nit is illu strated
membrane applications. in Figu re 11-5.
2. Standard cartridge depth filtration .
3. Hu rrican e (a trademark of the Harmsco Ion Exchange and Removal
Corporation). The Hurricane filter is a cross
between a standard tangential cartridge ap- “Ion exchange” is the basic process where spe-
plication and a cross-flowfilter. cific ions in a feed-water stream are transferred
into an exchange mediu m called “resin” and ex-
4. Horizontal and vertical pressure media fil- changed for different ions of equ al charge. When
ters, with or without a precoat. the ion-exchange process is u sed to treat water
5. Sub-micron cartridge filtration, including only for removal of hardness, it is generally known
point-of-use (POU) ultrafiltration cartridges. as “water softening.” When the ion-exchange pro-
cess is u sed to treat water for the removal of ions
6. Cross-flow membrane system designed for to produ ce pu re water, it is often referred to as
particulate removal in the concentrate. “deionization” (DI) or “demineralization.”
7. Ultra-filtration toless that 10,000 molecular Th e deionization / demin eralization process
weight compounds. u ses different types of resin to exch ange first
8. Nano-filtration with a very low molecular anion s and th en cation s that will resu lt in the
weight filtration, toioniclevels ofcalciumsul- removal of all ions from feed water when the pro-
fate. cess is carried to completion. When all of the
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 301

Figure 1 1 -5 Schematic Detail of Large-Scale, Granular-Activated Carbon Filter

ionic componen ts involved in water are removed Regenerable ion exchange “Regenerable ion
by ion exch ange, the water is said to be “deion- exchange” is a batch process where ions in raw
ized ” or “demin er a lized.” Th e ion -exch a n ge water are transferred onto a resin mediu m in
p r oces s is a ls o u s ed t o r em ove d is s olved exchange for other ions bonded to that mediu m
inorganics. Water softening only exchanges some as the raw water percolates throu gh it. This is
types of ions for oth ers that are less detrimen tal accomplished by having the ion s in the raw wa-
for th e intended end u se of the water. Table 11-7 ter adsorbed onto a bed of exchan ge resins and
lists th e common an ions and cation s typically replaced with an equ ivalent amou n t of another
fou nd in water. Ion exchange will not remove sig- ion of the same charge. Th is action con tin u es
nificant amou nts of organics, bacteria, particles, u n til th e mediu m h a s rea ch ed its exch an ge
colloids, or tu rbidity. capacity, where it is no longer capable of exchang-
in g ion s. Water softenin g and deionization are
Table 11-7 Typical Cations and Anions the most common of the ion-exchange processes.
Found in Water Th ere are two general types of deionizers:
working and polishin g. Th e working type is u sed
Cations Anions
for the initial removal of the bu lk of ions from
feed water or as only an ion -exch ange process
Calcium Carbonates
(su ch as hardn ess removal) if the pu rification is
Magnesium Bicarbonates a single process. The polish ing type is u sed to
Sodium Sulfates pu rify feed water after an in itial ru n throu gh a
Potassium Chlorides working ion-exchan ge system.
Iron Nitrates
Manganese Silica Resins Resin -exchange media inclu de natu ral
in organ ic alu minu m silicates (sometimes called
302 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

“zeolites” or “green sands”); ben tonite clay; and resin is considered acceptable to obtain a more
synthetic, gelatinou s and synthetic, organic res- efficient and longer-lasting resin. Weak-base ex-
in s. Most processes u se th e synth etic resins. ch an gers a re n ot effective in th e remova l of
Resins are graded by pu rity an d consistency in carbon dioxide or silica. Th ey remove strong ac-
size of resin. ids more by adsorption than by ion exch ange.
The en d resu lt is the same, and the efficiency of
Resin is manu factu red in th e form of a large
weak-base regeneration for acid-salt removal is
nu mber of spherical beads, typically abou t 0.4
far su perior to that of strong-base material for
mm in dia m et er. Th es e b ea ds h a ve wea kly
th e same job. Thu s, weak-base u nits are su pe-
bon ded ions present on their su rfaces th at are
rior when the feed water is h igh in su lfates and
u sed for the exchange process. Becau se the pro-
ch lorides.
cess mu st exch ange ions of the same charge,
ion-exch ange resins are composed of either an- Th e two most often-u sed cation -exch an ge
ion or cation exchange resins. Manu factu rers are resins are strong acid or weak acid. Stron g cat-
constantly making new resins for differen t ion- ion resins remove all cations, regardless of the
removal pu rposes. This is a constantly changin g anion with wh ich they are associated. These res-
techn ology. in s h ave a moderate exch an ge capacity an d
requ ire a stron g acid regenerant, su ch as hydro-
Tradition al deionization exchan ges cations
chloric or su lfu ric acid.
with hydrogen, H+, ions (an acid) and anions with
hydroxyl, OH–, ions (a base). Althou gh not 100% The deion ization process can be arranged as
effective, these two exchange processes together either a two-step (dual-bed) or single-step (mixed-
remove cations and anions from water an d the bed) process. In the du al-bed process, one vessel
remain in g H+ an d OH– ion s combin e to form contain s the anion-exchange resins and a sec-
water. Wh en all of the ionized impu rities are re- ond vessel the cation -exchan ge resin s. In the
moved, the water is said to be “deionized,” wh ich mixed-bed u nit, a single vessel contains a mix-
is also referred to as “demineralized.” tu re of both resin s. The du al-bed arrangement
produ ces a water that is less pu re than that pro-
There is a large nu mber of ion-exchange res-
du ced by a mixed bed bu t has a greater removal
ins available. Each resin is formu lated to obtain
capacity. A typical mixed bed contains 40% cat-
optimu m performance for different impu rities.
ion resins and 60% anion resin s. Du al beds are
The affinity for different ions in solu tion is termed
easier to regenerate. It is not u ncommon to h ave
“selectivity coefficients.” Th e nu mber of charges
a du al-bed exch an ger, often referred to as a
(valence) available on a particu lar ionic mediu m
“working exchanger,” installed before a mixed bed
is a major factor in the selection of specific res-
to remove th e bu lk of th e impu rities then h ave
ins to remove the desired impu rities and is based
th e mixed bed, often ca lled a “polis h in g ex-
on an analysis of raw water. Th e resins are con-
changer,” fu rther pu rify the water to th e desired
tained in a vessel, often referred to as a “colu mn.”
high pu rity. A typical single-bed ion -exchange
The actu al resin bed cou ld be su pported by a
u nit is illu strated in Figu re 11-6. A typical du al-
mat of graded gravel, screen -wrapped pipe, or
bed ion-exch ange u nit is illu strated in Figu re
perforated plates, which also act to even ly dis-
11-7. A typical mixed-bed ion-exch ange u n it is
tribu te feed water over the entire resin bed. The
illu strated in Figu re 11-8. The piping and valve
resin beads in the vessel also create an effective
arrangements of different man u factu rers may
depth filter. This filtering action leads to fou lin g
differ from those shown .
and u n predictable operatin g ru ns becau se of an
accu mu lation of particu lates. Regeneration cycle The ion-exchange process
Anion resins cou ld be either a stron g or a is reversible. As th e water con tin u es to pass
weak base. An often-u sed anion resin is divinyl th rou gh th e ion-exchange resin beds over time,
benzen e, a gelatinou s bead. Anion resin type 1 th e n u mber of ions on th e resin beads available
premiu m has a very close toleran ce of bead size. for exchange declines and gradu ally is exhau sted.
Anion resin type 1 regu lar is generally u sed for This process starts at the entry of the water to
maximu m silica redu ction. Resin type 2 is u sed th e vessel and progresses down th e bed. Wh en
most often, it is generally u sed u nless type 1 is th e resins h ave reached the limit of exch ange,
specifically requ ested. There is a difference in th e bed is said to have reached its “exchange
cost and a difference in capacity between the two capacity.” It is then n ecessary to take the col-
resins. In general, the higher cost of the type 1 u mn ou t of service to be regenerated.
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 303

Figure 11-6 Typical Single-Bed Ion Exchanger

Figure 1 1-7 Typical Dual-Bed Ion Exchanger

304 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 1 1 -8 Typical Mixed-Bed Ion Exchanger

“Regeneration,” which is the reverse of deion- acid and cau stic waste streams to neu tralize the
ization, is th e term u sed for th e displacemen t of efflu ent to the greatest extent possible. Additional
th e ion s removed from the feed water. Regen era- acid or cau stic may h ave to be added to the final
t ion gen er a lly con s is t s of t h r ee s t ep s : (1 ) efflu ent to produ ce a pH acceptable to the local
backwashing, (2) application of regenerating so- au th orities. Note: Su fficient safety precau tions
lu tion , an d (3) rin s in g. Regen eration can be need to be taken when handling regeneration
per for med eit h er co-cu r ren t ly (in t h e s a me chemicals.
direction as th e flow of feed water) or cou nter-
Backwashing is a counter-current operation
cu rrently (in the opposite direction of the flow of
that accomplishes two purposes. The first is to
feed water). All of the water u sed for regenera-
remove any particulates that have accumulated
tion mu st be rou ted to a drain of adequ ate size.
in the resin bed and on the beads. The second is
In addition, the acid and cau stic mu st be neu -
to regrade the resin beads so that new beads are
tralized prior to disch arge in to a pu blic sewer
on top of the bed, which is where the heaviest
system. It is common practice to combine the
du ty from the beads is required. This is done by
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 305

having th e resin bed expan ded from its normal, iron, chlorides, an d silica to avoid fou ling the
packed con dition by th e reverse flow of water. strong-base anion exchangers. Weak-base anion
The man u factu rer establish es the requ ired flow exchangers are regenerated most economically
rate of backwash that shou ld be maintain ed. A with techn ical-grade, flake sodiu m h ydroxide.
flow rate th at is too high will blow resin ou t of Strong-base exchangers are best regenerated u s-
the tank and into the drain. The flow rate of water ing nylon or rayon-grade sodiu m hydroxide, also
shou ld be enou gh to scru b the beads together, 76%. If pu rchased in a 40% solu tion, the same
increasing the cleaning action. A greater-than- grade previou sly indicated shou ld be u sed. All
recommended flow will on ly waste water an d cau stic shall have a maximu m of 2 ppm chlor-
provide n o additional benefits. ates.
The two chemicals u sed to regenerate cation The flu sh cycle is th e shortest step. It is a
resin beds are either a 93% solu tion of su lfu ric co-cu rren t process wh ose pu rposes are to flu sh
acid or a 30 to 32% solu tion of hydroch loric acid away any remainin g residu e of the regeneration
(HCl), also called “mu reatic acid.” As th ey flow liqu ids to drain and to repack the bed in prepa-
th rou gh the colu mn s, th ey replace the retained ration for the new ru n.
cations with hydrogen ions from the acid. Hy-
The en tire regeneration cycle typically takes
drochloric acid is u sed most often becau se it has
abou t 1 hou r. If the process requ ires contin u -
the greatest efficiency, and only ¼ of the amou nt
ou s operation , a du plex s et of equ ipmen t is
of su lfu ric acid is u sed. Su lfu ric acid is mu ch
in stalled so that one is in u se while the other is
lower in cost and is u sed when there is a large
being regenerated.
qu antity of resin to be regenerated, which makes
its lower cost practical. The chemical u sed most To estimate the frequ ency of regeneration,
often for regenerating anion resins is a 40% mix- first, from literatu re provided by the manu fac-
tu re of sodiu m h ydroxide, which replaces the turer, determine the exchange capacity, in grains,
reta in ed a n ion ion s with h ydroxyl ion s . For of th e selected resin bed. Next, from the analysis
mixed-bed u nits, the resins mu st be separated of the raw water, find the average level of TDS,
prior to regeneration . and con vert this figu re into grains per gallon (li-
ter). Dividing the flow rate, in gallons (liters), into
Th e qu ality of th e ch emicals u sed for re-
th e grain capacity of the resin bed gives th e time
gen er a t ion h a s a n im p or t a n t effect on t h e
it takes to satu rate the resin bed before regen-
main ten an ce of exch an ge capacity. Alth ou gh
eration is requ ired. As men tion ed above, th e
ch emically pu re ingredients are n ot requ ired,
designer n eeds to consider th e ionic or molecu -
some con tamin ants fou nd in th ese ch emicals
lar composition of the regeneration waste.
collect on the resins and even tu ally cau se diffi-
cu lty in operation. Service deionization “Service deionization ” is
Technical-grade acids, which are free of oils not an other form of deionization bu t, rather, a
and other organic materials, are acceptable for different type of equ ipment arran gement. With
th e regeneration of cation resin s. They sh ou ld the regenerable type, the deionization (DI) equ ip-
be 66° Bau me, free of su spen ded matter, and men t is permanent and the regeneration is done
light in color. Th ey shou ld mix freely with water on site by operatin g or main tenance person nel.
and not form any precipitate. Acid-containin g They mu st handle and store the chemicals u sed
inhibitors sh ou ld not be u sed. Su lfu ric acid is for regeneration. With th e service type, th e su p-
u su ally the most econ omical choice for large- plier replaces cartridges of exhau sted resins with
scale u se. Hydrochloric acid shou ld be technical regenerated ones.
grade and a minimu m of 30% HCl by weigh t (18° The service DI system u ses individu al car-
Bau me) and shall not contain excessive amou nts tridges or tanks for the anion, cation, and mixed
of iron and organic materials. HCl obtained by beds. Wh en th e in dividu al cartridges are ex-
th e salt-aid or hydrogen-chlorine process h ave hau sted, they are replaced by the su pplier with
been fou n d satisfactory. HCl obtain ed by th e recharged u nits on site and the exhau sted car-
h ydrolys is of ch lorin a t ed orga n ic ch emica ls tridges are removed to be regen erated at th e
shou ld be avoided, particu larly if u sed to treat su pplier’s premises. This arrangement consider-
potable water. ably redu ces the initial cost of the equ ipment,
Anion-exchange resins are regenerated with eliminates the need to store chemicals, and frees
76% sodiu m hydroxide, which shall be low in the operating or maintenance personnel from the
306 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

time requ ired for regenerating the u nits. In addi- called a “cell pair.” Many sets of these cell pairs
tion, it saves water that does not have to be u sed can be placed between on e set of electrodes in a
for backwash. The operating costs to a facility for plate-and-frame device to achieve the desired flow
service DI equ ipment are higher than they are for ou tput. The higher the nu mber of these cell pairs,
the permanent bed type. However, when regen- th e high er is th e flow ou tpu t. Th is arrangement
eration discharge and variable produ ction costs is schematically illu strated in Figu re 11-9.
are considered, the cost of point-of-operation dem-
Feed water enters into the top of all the com-
ineralization becomes attractive.
partments. Under the influ ence of a DC electrical
Continuous deionization Continu ou s deion- field, ion s move from th e water in th e dilu te
ization (CDI), also known as “electrodeionization” stream, throu gh the ion-exchange resin, toward
(EDI), is a continu ou s water-pu rification process th e electrode with th e opposite charge. Cations
th at u ses direct cu rren t (DC); an alternating ar- move toward th e cathode, throu gh th e cation-
r a n gem en t of ca t ion a n d a n ion -p er m ea b le permeable membran e, an d in to th e adjacen t
membranes; and mixed-bed, ion-exchange resin. concentrate stream. Anions move toward the an-
The cation and anion membranes form parallel, ode, throu gh the anion-permeable membrane,
th in , flow compartmen ts, alternating between and into the adjacent concentrate stream. Deion-
concentrating an d dilu ting compartmen ts. The ized water exits from th e bottom of the dilu te
dilu ting compartmen ts contain a th in layer of stream. Th e altern ating cation and anion-per-
ion-exchan ge resin. Some manu factu rers also meable membranes trap an d concentrate ions
u se ion-exchange resin in the concentrating com- in the con centrate ch annels. A small flow of feed
partments. A single set of these compon en ts is water contin u ou sly rin ses the con centrated ions

Figure 11 -9 Schematic Operation of a Continuous Deionization Unit

Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 307

to drain. Th e ion-exchange resin bed serves as a Lime soda addition The lime-soda-ash method
highly condu ctive mediu m throu gh which ions uses either hydrated lime or quicklime along with
flow becau se of the electric field. The variou s flow soda ash. When added to water, these chemi-
streams are hydrau lically independent, allowin g ca ls r ea ct wit h t h e dis s olved ca lciu m a n d
a high volu me of high-pu rity water (produ ct) and magnesiu m carbonate to form insolu ble com-
a low volu me of con cen trate (waste). pou nds. These compou n ds precipitate ou t of
solu tion and are passed throu gh a filter to be
The resin-filled dilu ting compartment (cell)
removed. They are then discharged to drain. This
creates a low-level resistance path for ions. At the
process is u su ally carried ou t du ring the clarifi-
bottom of the dilu ting cell u nder the proper com-
cation process rath er th an separately and is
bination of flow, temperatu re, water condu ctivity,
reserved for large volu mes of water.
and voltage, the resins regenerate au tomatically
withou t the u se of added chemicals. This is com- Ion exchange The ion-exchange method of wa-
monly referred to as “electroregeneration” of the ter softening is a cation-exchange process used
ion-exchange resins. This process is continu ou s to remove insolu ble and scale-forming iron and
and resu lts in a steady su pply of high-pu rity wa- other mu ltivalent cations, which are the primary
ter from the diluting compartments. The continu al cau ses of hardness, and to replace them with
ion removal and electroregeneration result in some sodiu m ions, which do not contribu te to hard-
significant advantages over conventional ion ex- ness. The removal of these impu rities prevents
change, inclu ding no handling and disposal of the bu ildu p of insolu ble scale precipates on pip-
hazardou s regeneration chemicals, no interru p- ing and the reverse-osmosis membrane. It is
tions due to exhaustion of the resins’ ion-exchange accomplished by passing the water throu gh a
capacity, and low operating costs. bed of granu lar sodiu m, cation-exchange resin.
CDI is sensitive to feed-water impu rities, and This process is commonly called “sodiu m cycle
experience has shown that very few natu ral po- ion exchange.”
table feed-water su pplies can meet the requ ired The resin bed typically occu pies abou t q of
feed-water specification s withou t softenin g and the tank. The other 3 is needed for expansion of
additional pretreatment. Becau se of this limita- the resin bed during backwash. A generally ac-
tion , mos t proces s es a re n ow u s in g CDI for cepted range of between 0.4 and 3 gpm/ ft 3 (50
polishin g pu rposes after reverse osmosis (RO). and 380 L/ min/ m 3 ) of resin is u sed to deter-
The u se of RO and CDI resu lts in a complimen- mine th e volu me of resin and the cycle time of
tary combination of pu rification technologies, the th e u nit.
RO removing the bu lk of contaminants and the
CDI polishing the water to high pu rity levels. An- Microbial growth in side the u nit is a concern
other disadvantage of CDI is that the membranes in softening systems u sed for pharmaceutical and
and resin s are incompatible with most sanitiz- some laboratory pu rposes. The water softener is
in g a gen ts . Man u fa ctu rer s pecification s an d regenerated with a brine solu tion, which does
gu idelines shou ld be checked and followed. How- not destroy bacteria. The liqu id brine solu tion
ever, when CDI is u sed in combination with RO, storage-and-regeneration equ ipment also allows
th e RO process effectively provides efficien t re- microbial growth in storage tanks that are ex-
moval of bacteria, and the sanitization of the RO posed to the atmosphere. An alternative is to u se
can redu ce th e ris k of down s trea m bacteria a dry storage system, which generates salt solu -
growth. Fu rthermore, it has been reported that tion from water that is mixed with salt pellets
CDI can provide water con sistently low in bacte- on ly wh en necessary for regen eration. This con-
ria an d the CDI process can have a germicidal trols microbial growth better th an wet systems,
effect du e to local pH sh ifts as s ociated with bu t constant mainten ance is requ ired to moni-
electroregen eration. tor the brine tan k. The qu ality of the salt in all
systems sh ou ld be periodically determin ed to
Water softening “Water softening” is a process ensu re th at th ere are “n o added su bstances”
that reduces or removes dissolved impu rities that presen t.
cau se hardness in water. This is commonly done
The regeneration cycle is similar to that pre-
by either of two methods: adding lime-soda ash
viou sly discu ssed. The difference is that salt is
to the raw water for very large volu mes or pass-
u sed to regen erate the resin bed. Indu strial wa-
in g th e ra w water th rou gh a n ion -exch an ge
ter softeners u se rock salt for econ omy. Rock
process.
salt, becau se of its high mineral content, requ ires
308 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

a special tank called a “desolver” to dissolve the Membrane Filtration and Separation
rock salt in water prior to u se. The water soft-
ener is similar to the schematic single-bed ion “Membrane filtration an d separation” is a gen-
exchanger illu strated in Figu re 11-6. eral term for a water-pu rification process that
removes contaminants from feed water by means
Ion-exchange system design considerations of a thin , porou s barrier called a “membrane.”
“Leakage” is the presence of u ndesired ions in When u sed as a filter, a membrane is capable of
th e final treated water. One of the major deci- removing impu rities of a mu ch smaller size than
sion s th at mu st be made wh en selectin g an other types of filters. Filters of this natu re are
ion-exch ange system is allowable leakage. The often called “u ltrafilters” and “nan ofilters.”
amou nt of leakage is a fu nction of the complete-
A semipermeable membrane limits the pas-
n es s of regen era tion of th e res in . For water
sage of selected atoms an d/ or molecu les in a
softenin g, gen erally accepted leakage amou n ts
specific manner. Membrane filtration and sepa-
range between 0.1 and 1 ppm. Since total regen-
ration , wh en u sed to produ ce pu re water, is
eration of the resin bed is inefficien t and very
characterized by h avin g the feed water flow par-
costly, most water softeners operate at ½ to q of
allel to th e membrane (often called “tangential
the ultimate capacity of the softener. There is
flow”). Not all of the feed water is recovered. Many
sodium leakage from cation exchangers and silica
of th e membran es u sed are also available as
leakage from anion exchangers. Normally, mixed-
depth filters and in sin gle th ickness are u sed as
bed units have negligible leakage.
disk filters. There are two gen eral categories of
In general, for high-purity applications, a membran e filtration : reverse osmosis u sin g a
single pass cannot give adequate purification of semipermeable membran e and filtration u sin g
the water stream; therefore, a polisher is neces- u ltrafiltration and nan ofiltration membranes.
sary. A mixed-bed ion-exchange system, when
used as a polisher, has, in general, a 74% lower Reverse osmosis Reverse osmosis (RO) is a
initial cost than a two-bed system. A single-pass broad-based water-pu rifyin g process involvin g
RO system is about equal to a two-bed ion-ex- osmosis and ionic repu lsion.
change system. Osmosis is th e spon tan eou s passage of a
Usually, if the water demand for a facility is solvent (su ch as water) throu gh a semipermeable
less than about 40 gpm (151 L/ min), the great- membrane u ntil there is an equ al concentration
est benefit will be derived from the simpler, less of solu te molecu les (impu rities su ch as sodiu m
costly equipment with higher operating costs. For chloride) on both sides of the membrane. Th is
this quantity, it is usual to have a mixed-bed membrane is called “semipermeable” becau se it
unit without a degasifier, which is not required. allows the solvent to diffu se, or pass throu gh,
For systems with a requirement of 200 gpm (757 bu t is imperviou s to the solu te.
L/ min) or more, the majority of the systems in- In the n atu ral osmosis process, wh en two
s ta lled will h a ve mu ltiple-bed u n it s a n d a solu tions of different concentrations are sepa-
degasifier. Manufacturers must be contacted for rated by a s emipermea ble membra n e, water
specific system and resin selection and required molecu les from the less con centrated solu tion
equipment. will spon tan eou sly pass throu gh the membrane
Where applicable, the use of weakly acidic to dilu te th e more concentrated solu tion. Th is
and weakly basic resins minimizes chemical costs occu rs u ntil a rou gh equ ilibriu m is achieved. The
and reduces losses to waste because of the high drivin g force is a difference of pressu re, called
regenerative capacity. th e “osmotic pressu re” or “concen tration gradi-
en t,” th at exists across the membran e and is
There are some problems, such as microbial based on the degree of concentration of contami-
growth, associated with water softeners. Sanita- nants. Th is pressu re is wh at drives th e flow of
tion is usually accomplished during regeneration. solvent. The flow, or flu x, will con tinu e u ntil the
Iron buildup in the unit could pass through to osmotic pressu re is equalized, which then resu lts
downstream purification equipment unless op- in a higher pressu re on th e concentrated solu -
erating personnel constantly monitor the water tion side that is equ al to the osmotic pressu re.
quality.
Reverse osmosis is the flow of solvent in the
direction opposite the direction of flow of natu -
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 309

ral osmosis. If enou gh pressu re is applied to the depending on the manufacturer of the RO mod-
more concentrated solu tion, which in these dis- ule. Fouling resistance is low.
cu ssions is water, pu re water is diffu sed throu gh
th e membrane leaving behind the bu lk of the Spiral-w ound revers e os mosis (SWRO) This con-
contamin ants. This concentration of contami- figu ration, illu strated in Figure 11-11, typically
n an ts is con tin u ou s ly flu s h ed to drain , an d achieves a large surface area per u nit volu me.
th ereby removed from th e system. The pu rified In this design, a flat membrane is formed around
water is called “permeate” an d the contamin ant a fabric spacer closed on three sides with the
containing water “reject” or th e “reject stream.” open side terminating in a perforated produce
In some cases, th e reject stream is referred to as water tube. The unit is placed in a pressure ves-
“salt.” Th e performan ce ch aracteristics of th e sel. Feed water permeates through the membrane
selected membrane determine how large a sys- and flows radially inside the enclosu re toward
tem is requ ired. The flow rate is measu red in the product tu be.
membrane flu x. “Membrane flu x” is a measu re-
men t of th e flow rate of permeate th at will pass Tubular revers e os mos is (TRO) This configura-
th rou gh a given area of th e membrane at a spe- tion, illustrated in Figure 11-12, consists of a
perforated tu be manu factu red from ceramic,
cific temperatu re an d pres s u re. Th e ra tio of
carbon, or porous plastic with larger inside di-
purified-water flow to the feed-water flow is called
ameters than the hollow-fiber configuration. The
“recovery.” Most applications requ ire a minimu m
membrane is installed on the inside of the tu be.
40% recovery rate to be considered practical.
Rejection characteristics are expressed as a per- A number of tubes are installed inside a pres-
cen t of th e s pecific impu rities removed a n d su re vessel. Feed water enters the tu be and
permeates through the membrane to be collected
depend on ion ic ch arge an d size.
on the ou tside. The feed-water channels are
Membra ne mod ule configura t ions There are much more open than those of the SWRO and
fou r types of membrane module configuration less su bject to fouling.
u sed for RO applications: hollow fiber, spiral
wou nd (SWRO), tu bu lar (TRO), and plate and
frame. Spiral wou nd is the most commonly used
configu ration. In each design, maximu m tu rbu-
len ce is n eces s a r y t o a void con cen t r a t ion
polarization.

Hollow -fiber revers e os mos is The hollow-fiber

configu ration, illustrated in Figure 11-10, con-
sists of a perforated tu be manu factu red from
ceramic, carbon, or porous plastic with inside
diameters ranging from 6 to 1 in. (8 to 25 mm).
It requires rigid support when mounted inside
the pressure vessel. Feed water could be intro-
du ced into either the center or the ou tside,

Figure 11 -10 Hollow-Fiber Figure 1 1-1 1 Spiral-Wound

Reverse-Osmosis Configuration Reverse-Osmosis Configuration
310 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

which in flu ence the capacity of the individu al

membranes selected:
1. Operating pH.
2. Ch lorine tolerance.
3. Temperatu re of the feed water.
4. Feed-water qu ality, u sually measu red as SDI.
5. Types of impu rity and prior feed-water treat-
men t.
Figure 1 1-1 2 Tubular 6. Membran e flu x.
Reverse Osmosis Configuration 7. Nu mber of operating h ou rs.
8. Resistan ce to biodegradation an d ability to
be sanitized.
Plate and frame This configuration, illustrated 9. Rejection characteristics. Typical RO systems
in Figure 11-13, consists of a membrane that is remove th e followin g con tamin an ts to th e
fixed to a grooved plastic or metal plate with sev- following levels:
eral plates stacked togeth er in a frame th at
includes feed water and drain ports. As the feed Inorganic ions 93 – 99%
water flows across the membrane surfaces, the Dissolved organics > 99%
pu rified water penetrates the membrane and
(>300 molecu lar weight)
ga th ers alon g th e fra me for collection . Th e
retentate continu es to flow and cou ld be recir- Particu lates > 99%
culated or directed to drain. Microorgan isms > 99%
This configuration is mostly used for filtra- The selection of a system configu ration sh all
tion and rarely for RO systems. The packing be based on the following considerations:
density is low and the resistance to fouling is
1. Maximu m recovery.
very high. It is used for small to mediu m vol-
u mes, generally less than 20 gpm (76 L/ min). 2. Fou ling properties an d resistance.

Membrane selection System performan ce is 3. Produ ction rate per u nit volu me.
determined by con sidering th e following factors, Only a few polymers have the necessary char-
a ct er is t ics t o fu n ct ion a s a s emiper mea b le
membrane:
1. Th in film composite of variou s polymer ma-
terials.
2. Polyamide.
3. Cellu lose acetate.
4. Cellu lose tricetate.
5. Polysu lfone.
Typical characteristics and a comparison of
th ese membranes are given in Table 11-8.

Cro s s -flo w fi lt rat i o n Ult r a filt r a t ion a n d

n an ofiltration membran es are categorized by
th eir pore size. Ultrafiltration membrane pore
sizes range from 0.001 to 0.02 µm. Nanofiltration
membranes have pore sizes that allow the pas-
sage of solids to 10,000 molecu lar weigh t, or
Figure 11 -13 Plate-and-Frame da lton s . Th e 10,000-da lton cu toff is recom-
Reverse-Osmosis Configuration men ded for th e complete removal of pyrogens.
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 311

Table 11-8 Comparison of Reverse-Osmosis Polymers

Thin Film Cellulose Cellulose

Composite Polyamide Acetate Triacetate Polysulfone

pH stability 2–12 4–11 2–8 4–7.5 3–11

Chlorine tolerance Fair–poor Poor Good Fair–good Good

Biological resistance Good Good Poor Fair–good Good

Temperature limit for stability, °F (°C) 122 (45) 95 (35) 95 (35) 86 (30) 95 (35)

Typical rejection ionic species (%) >90 >90 90 90 90

Flux High Low Low–medium Low–medium High

Typica l recover y ra tes for u ltra filters ra n ge Ultraviolet radiation Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
between 95 and 98%, with the remainder flu shed is an in-line process. UV light is generated u sin g
to drain . mercu ry vapor lamps. There are two different
wavelength s available th at produ ce th e inten-
The membranes are man u factu red by bond- sity and energy ou tpu t necessary for the intended
in g the membran e on to a porou s, su pportin g germicidal-treatment requirements. Federal stan-
su bstrate and then configu ring it into elements. dard 209E an d aseptic gu idelines issu ed by the
These filters are u su ally u sed as a pretreatment FDA provide s ome gu idan ce for th e u s e an d
for th e removal of colloids, bacteria, pyrogens, application of UV irradiation.
particu lates, and h igh-molecu lar-weight organ-
ics. Spiral wou nd an d hollow fiber are the two The 254-nm wavelength operates in th e ger-
most often-u sed configu rations. micidal region, sterilizing by destroying bacteria,
mold, viru ses, and oth er microorgan isms. Th is
Microbial Control wavelength is preferred for pu re-water systems;
it significantly redu ces the mu ltiplication of or-
ganisms.
Chemicals Th e most often-u sed disin fection
method is the addition of oxidizing or nonoxidiz- The 185-nm wavelen gth operates in a h igh-
in g ch em ica ls . Ch em ica ls cou ld b e eit h er energy spectru m of electromagn etic qu an tu m
biocides, which are substances that kill microbes, packet, photon radiation (light) band. Th e en-
or biostats, which preven t th e fu rther growth of ergy available h as th e ability to break down
microbes. Commonly u sed chemicals are ch lo- organic molecu les an d compou nds to carbon di-
rine and chlorine compounds, hydrogen peroxide, oxide and water by the photooxidation process.
and acid compou nds. It slowly breaks the bonds in organic molecu les
To be effective, the chemical must have a mini- by direct radiation and also oxidizes organisms
mu m “contact time” in the water. In addition, a by the formation of h ydroxyl radicals. Th e UV
spectru m is illu strated in Figu re 11-14.
residu al amou nt of the chemical mu st be present
to keep its effectiveness against organisms. A flow rate of approximately 2 fps (0.6 m/ s)
is a gen eral indu stry stan dard for the effective
Ch emicals add impu rities to th e water and
sanitation of pu rified water. The flow rate throu gh
are n ot gen erally su itable for a pu re-water envi-
ron men t. Th ey mos tly a re u s ed t o dis in fect th e UV device shou ld be redu ced compared to
potable and process water an d equ ipment and th at of the circu lation loop to exten d the neces-
sary contact time. The recommended location for
are in jected directly in to th e flu id stream by
th e UV device is prior to the deionization equ ip-
means of a meterin g pu mp. When present in the
men t.
feed water u sed for pu rification, they mu st be
removed. Chlorine may produ ce trihalomethanes.
312 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 1 1 -14 UV Wavelength Spectrum

Problems in clu de gen eration of ion s th at Ozone Ozone (O3 ) is an oxidizing gas gen erated
lower th e resistivity of water and the possible from gaseou s oxygen or catalytically from water.
leaching of silica from the qu artz sleeve of the The most often-u sed method of produ cing ozone
UV device. Glass, plastic, ru bber, and similar is by a corona-discharge gen erator, which con-
materials exposed to UV radiation will, over time, verts the oxygen in air to ozone. The air is passed
crack, etch, discolor, and flake. Tests have shown between two electrodes where an electrostatic
th at only 50% of the energy u sed by the bu lb is dis ch arge across th e gap con verts oxygen to
actu ally transmitted to the water and th at, in ozone. A typical schematic drawing of a corona-
time, 25% of the ou tpu t will be lost compared to discharge generator is illustrated in Figu re 11-15.
a new bu lb.
It is a common misconception th at th e ozone
Filtering A filter removes organisms from the created by the bu lbs in mercu ry vapor lamps is
flu id stream. Generally accepted practice is to imparted to the water. The engineer sh ou ld re-
u s a 0.2-µm absolu te filter for th e removal of m em b er t h a t wh en 1 8 5 -n m s ys t e m s a r e
ba ct er ia . Alt h ou gh t h e effect iven es s of t h is employed as a treatment process the bu lbs are
practice is qu estioned by some au thorities, rec- enclosed in —indeed, have to be en closed in —
ommended current practice is to u se a membrane qu artz sleeves. Thou gh it is tru e that the 185-nm
with an absolute rating (cu toff) of 10,000 daltons. bu lbs are u sed to gen erate ozon e, the bu lbs are
Cartridge filtration is the most commonly u sed in a chamber where they are exposed to oxygen-
method of filtration. rich air. The ozone created in that chamber is
th en in du ced in to th e aqu eou s s trea m as a
Heat Heating to 175°F (80°C) effectively sanitizes method of stream sanitation.
water u nder pressu re. The heating can be ac-
The ozone system consists of a feed-gas-treat-
complished by u sin g steam, electric, or oth er
men t u n it, an ozon e generator, a water-ozone
types of heat exch angers. It is common practice
contact mechanism, an d a destru ction u nit to
to circu late pu rified water at th is temperatu re
elimin ate any residu al ozone.
and u se heat exchangers to lower the water tem-
peratu re at each point of u se if necessary. 1. Feed-gas treatment. The gas reaching the gen-
erator must have all particles larger than 0.3
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 313

Figure 1 1 -1 5 Principle of Corona-Discharge Ozone Generator

µm and 95% of those larger than 0.1 µm re- Th e m ech a n is m for ozon e oxid a t ion is
moved. In addition, aerosols, moistu re, and throu gh generation of hydroxyl radicals. The gas
hydrocarbons shall be removed as requ ired is directly in jected in to the water stream.
by th e man u factu rer. Th is pu rification is
Problems in clu de the ozone system’s inabil-
u su ally su pplied as part of a package.
ity to oxidize all organic compou nds; also it is
2. Ozone generator. The three basic types of slow acting and in some cases will form stable
generator are the Lowther plate u nit, Otto and refractory compou nds.
plate u nit, and tube unit. They differ only in
the manner in which they are cooled. Ozone
generators u se large amou nts of electrical WATER TREATMENT
power, generally between 15 and 26 kWh/
kg of O3 . This su bsection describes the variou s methods
3. Ozone an d water are mixed in direct con tact and equ ipment u sed to treat water for variou s
with one another by the u se of static or me- pu rposes.
chanical mixers, injectors, or colu mns that
optimize the dissolu tion of th e gas. Ut ility Wat er Treatment
4. Depending on the generator, ozone concen- Water from wells, rivers, lakes, and streams is
tration s can vary from 100 to 3000 ppm. commonly used for cooling and washing purposes,
Becau se high concentrations are harmfu l to among others. Clarifying and treating the water
hu mans and metals, the ozone shou ld not be to meet the pu rity requ irements of the proposed
allowed to escape to atmosphere without being end u se requ ires good monitoring and qu ick re-
treated to a level below 0.1 ppm. Destru ction action to raw and treated water flu ctu ations. If
can be accomplished by catalytic, thermal, th e water is to be recircu lated, the treatment
and activated carbon. Thermal u nits operate methods are more stringent than if it is not. If
at a temperatu re of 572°F (300°C) and gener- the water is to be discharged into the environ-
ally requ ire a 3 to 5-min contact time to be ment, local codes must be adhered to with regards
effective. to allowable chemical amou nts present in the
waste water to avoid the need for waste treatment.
314 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Initial filtering If the su pply is from su rface range of treatment methods is available, depend-
water, a coarse or fine screen is u su ally placed in g primarily on the impu rities fou nd in the raw
at th e in take to keep ou t fish and other large water, th e operating pressu re of the boiler, and
debris. Coarse screens are u su ally ½-in. (1.27- th e makeu p rate of water. These meth ods cou ld
cm) diameter bars with a clear opening of 1 to 3 be mech a n ica l or ch emica l—th e a ddition of
in. (2.54 to 7.62 cm). Fine screens cou ld h ave chemicals to prevent deposits, in hibit corrosion,
openings of approximately A-in. (0.95-cm) square, or n eu tralize impu rities detrimental to the pro-
with the water velocity through the screen lim- pos ed en d u s e of t h e wa t er a n d t h e u s e of
ited to about 2 fps (0.6 m/ s). If the quantity of dispersants to keep particu lates in su spension.
water is small enough, basket strainers can be
The treatmen t starts with an accu rate feed-
used. In climates where freezing may occur, the
wa t er a n a lys is . Th is is com p a r ed t o fin a l
inlet should be placed far enough below the low-
treatment objectives established by the u ser and
water level to prevent freezing.
th e boiler man u factu rer. The degree of removal
Clarification After initial filtering, clarification is d et erm in ed by t h e differ en ce in t h e t wo
is requ ired to obtain water that meets the stan- an alyses. Recommen ded stan dards for boiler
dards for the proposed u se. The selection of the feed -wa t er a n d s t ea m qu a lit y a r e given in
clarifier is based on the volu me of water to be Table 11-9.
treated an d the fin al qu ality desired. If th e vol- A boiler-water treatment program shall ac-
u me of water is small and the raw water is not complish the following:
very tu rbid, filters may be u sed.
1. Redu ce or remove hardness to control scale
Biological control To control microorganism by either mechanical (external) or ch emical
fou ling of th e system, microorganisms mu st be (internal) treatment.
destroyed if possible, inactivated to keep them
2. Mainten ance of proper levels of alkalinity to
from reprodu cing, and removed from the water
ensu re that proper chemical reactions can
stream. Th is is u su ally accomplished by chlori- occu r.
nation, filtration, UV radiation, ozone generation,
and special adsorbents. 3. Control dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide
th rou gh deaerating an d the addition of an
Ch lorination is th e least costly and most of- oxygen scavenger.
ten-u sed method. The action of chlorine requ ires
a specified contact time an d the establishment 4. Mainten ance of proper levels of conditioners
of a residu al chlorin e amou n t. A range of 0.5 to so that th e su spen ded solids remain in su s-
1.0 ppm is generally accepted for typical waters. pension and can be easily eliminated throu gh
blowdown.
Wat er s oft ening Water soften in g sh ou ld be
5. Optimu m boiler blowdown .
considered to redu ce the hardness in th e u tility
water system wh en the system is u sed for recir- The mechanical removal of hardness is most
cu lated coolin g pu rposes. often accomplished by water softening u sing an
ion-exchange process, where the insolu ble cal-
ciu m an d magn esiu m ion s are replaced with
Boiler Feed-Wat er Conditioning
highly solu ble sodiu m ions. A commonly u sed
In a boiler, energy in the form of heat is trans- resin is a strong acid resin in sodiu m form often
ferred across a heat-tran sfer su rface from a fu el referred to as “zeolite.” Real zeolite is a natu rally
source to the water u sed for making steam. When occu rring mineral that is no longer widely u sed
su bject to elevated temperatu re and pressu re, becau se of its higher cost. Its u se introdu ces arti-
th e composition of the raw boiler-water su pply ficial resins that are more efficient for most u ses.
u ndergoes radical ch anges. The adju stment of pH is accomplished by the
The effects of dissolved gases are magnified. in jection of dilu te su lfu ric or hydroch loric acid
The dissolved min erals may deposit a scale on or sodiu m hydroxide or sodiu m carbonate. Th is
th e transfer su rface that affects the h eat-trans- requ ires close monitoring.
fer process . Th e res u lt is a redu ction in th e Feed-water oxygen and carbon dioxide are
heat-transfer rate, a redu ction in th e flow rate, normally removed with deaerators before the feed
and increased damage from corrosion . A wide water enters the boiler. In addition to mechani-
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 315

Table 11-9 Recommended Boiler Feed-Water Limits and Steam Purity

Drum Range TDSa Range Total Suspended Solids Range TDSc

Pressure, Boiler Water Alkalinityb Boiler Water Steam (ppm)
psig (kPa) (ppm max.) Boiler Water (ppm max.) (max. expected value)

Drum-Type Boilersa
0–300 (0–2068) 700–3500 140–700 15 0.2–1.0
301–450 (2075–3103) 600–3000 120–600 10 0.2–1.0
451–600 (3110–4137) 500–2500 100–500 8 0.2–1.0
601–750 (4144–5171) 200–1000 40–200 3 0.1–0.5
751–900 (5178–6205) 150–700 30–150 2 0.1–0.5
901–1000 (6212–6895) 125–625 25–125 1 0.1–0.5
1001–1800 (6902–12 411) 100 1 0.1
1801–2350 (12 418–16 203) 50 n/a 0.1
2351–2600 (16 210–17 926) 25 n/a 0.05
2601–2900 (17 933–19 995) 15 n/a 0.05

Once-Through Boilers
1400 and above 0.05 n/a n/a 0.05

Source: American Boiler Manufacturers Association.

Note: n/a = not available.
a Actual values within the range reflect the total dissolved solids (TDS) in the feed water. Higher values are for high solids, lower values are
for low solids in the feed water.
b Actual values within the range are directly proportional to the actual value of TDS of boiler water. Higher values are for the high solids, lower
values are for low solids in the boiler water.
c These values are exclusive of silica.

cal deaeration , it is recommended th at a ch emi- Boiler blowdown is the bleeding off of some
cal oxygen scavenger be added to the water to water from the boiler. Wh en steam is generated,
qu ickly eliminate any remainin g traces of oxy- impu rities are left behind from the feed water
gen. Many scaven gers are in u se bu t the most converted to steam; in time, these accu mu late.
frequ ently u sed scaven gers are su lfites (u p to When the level of impu rities becomes too high , a
1000 psig [6895 kPa]) an d compou nds of hydra- portion of the water is disch arged to drain. Th is
zin e. Hyd r a zin e is b ein g r ep la ced b y is called “blowdown.” Blowdown cou ld be inter-
dieth ylhydroxylamine (DEHA), carboh ydrazide, mittent or continu ou s.
hydroqu inon e, and isoascorbic acid.
Ch emicals can be added to the boiler feed Cooling-Water Conditioning
water for two pu rposes. One is to keep the hard-
ness-cau sing salts in solu tion where they will This su bsection discu sses basic principles u sed
not cau se scaling. The second is to precipitate for con trollin g scale, corrosion, and biological
fou ling of water u sed in evaporative cooling tow-
th em ou t of solu tion to allow the particu lates to
ers an d con den ser systems.
be disposed of du ring blowdown. There are many
effective materials, generally blends of compo- The basic reason for th e treatment of coolin g
n en t ch emica ls . Th os e mos t oft en u s ed a re water is to keep any dissolved solids from de-
polymers and ph osphates an d carbon ates that positin g onto any piping or equ ipmen t. This is
are designed to optimize the precipitation of cal- accomplished by preventing the dissolved solids
ciu m, magnesiu m, and iron. Modern treatment from reachin g the satu ration poin t. This is u su -
has made hardn ess deposits mu ch less common ally expressed as the cycle of concen tration of
bu t iron deposits more common becau se of the th e water, which compares the dissolved solids
retu rn of condensate to the boiler. in the feed water with the dissolved solids con-
316 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

tent of the circu lating water. As an example, if These shall be recommended by th e man u -
th e feed water has a TDS of 100 ppm an d the factu rer of both the chemicals and the equipment
circu lating water has a TDS of 300, a cycle of to ensu re compatibility. Th e pH of the circu lat-
concentration of 3 has been reached. The cycle in g water is u su ally con trolled to a point n ear
of con cen t r a t ion is r ed u ced b y b leed off 7.5 to decrease its scale-forming tendency. The
(blowdown ) from the system. addition of a dilu te acid is th e most often-u sed
method of control. A corrosion inhibitor often
Scale The basic treatment for scale in cooling- adds compou nds th at increase the tendency of
water systems is to add inhibitors that keep the s cale to occu r; th erefore, a balan ce mu st be
scale from depositin g on the walls of th e pipe. reached.
They are similar to those u sed for boiler-water
treatment bu t with the addition of su rfactants, Biological fouling Microbial control is achieved
which ch ange the su rface characteristics of the with the addition of biocides, either oxidizing or
pipe to prevent deposition and aid in removal if nonoxidizing dependin g on th eir chemistry and
deposits occu r. killin g action. Ozone is also commonly u sed.

Corrosion “Corrosion ” can be broadly defined Biocide treatmen t is in ten ded in itially to
as an electrochemical process. Corrosion takes sh ock microbes with a heavy dose, then the con-
place when an electrical potential is possible be- centration of th e compou n ds is allowed to fall to
tween two su rfaces common to an electrolyte. a level of 25% of th e initial dose. This is a gen er-
The factors that impact on corrosion in aqu atic ally accepted lower limit below which the biocide
systems inclu de: is not considered effective. Often, becau se of the
presence of several different strains of microbes,
1. Dissolved oxygen. more th an one biocide may be requ ired. A con-
2. Total dissolved solids. tact time that mu st be approved by the chemical
manu factu rer is requ ired.
3. Alkalinity an d pH.
These chemicals are added by means of a
4. Total h ardness.
chemical feed pu mp discharging directly into the
5. Temperatu re. piping system. The levels mu st be closely moni-
tored with alarms established by performance
6. Flow velocity.
in dicators based on operating experience.
7. Types of metal u sed in the process.
8. Condition of the interior surface of the plumb- Potable Water Treatment
ing system.
Water u sed for hu man consu mption or in ten ded
9. Extraneou s electrical cu rren t. to be part of food produ cts mu st be treated to
10. Bacteria. comply with the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA),
th e Su rface Water Treatment Ru le (which is a
Simple tools u sed to predict the propensity
part of the SDWA), and local regu lations. Su b-
of an aqu eou s solu tion to be corrosive are the
stances that affect the qu ality of potable water
Lan gelier, Stiff & Davis, an d Ryzn ar in dexes.
are classified in fou r major headings:
Corrosion treatments consist of:
1. Phy sical. Physical characteristics, such as
1. pH con trol.
color, turbidity, taste, and odor, are often re-
2. Chemical inhibitors. lated to the appearance of the water. Physical
3. Oxygen scavengers like hydrazine, sodiu m quality is u sually corrected through the use
bisu lfate, and morphine. of variou s types of filter.

4. Ensu ring proper flow rates by correct size 2. Chemical. The chemical characteristics of
selection of metal pipe. wa t er a re r ela t ed t o dis s olved min era ls
(mostly hardness), gases, and organics. The
5. Sacrificial anode. chemical quality of water is adju sted by the
6. Polishing and passivation of interior su rfaces. u se of water softeners, ion exchange, RO
units, and activated charcoal units to remove
7. Biocide treatment. organic impu rities.
3. Biological. These characteristics are con-
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 317

cerned with microorganisms that affect the 1. 21 CFR 210, cu rrent good man u factu rin g
health of the consu mer. Biological treatment practice (cGMP) for dru gs.
requ ires the u se of biocides and biostats to
2. 21 CFR 211, cGMP for fin ished pharmaceu -
elimin ate and redu ce the nu mber of micro-
ticals.
organisms present in the water and to create
a residu al amou n t of the chemical to main- 3. USP/ NF official water nomograph s.
tain the requ ired level of action requ ired by 4. Federal Food, Dru g and Cosmetic Act.
code.
4. Radiological. This category is concerned pri- Laboratory Systems
marily with radon in areas where the water
may have come in contact with radioactive For laboratory work, all application s do n ot re-
substances. Retention and aeration lower the qu ire th e same qu ality of water. The American
radon cou nt to acceptable limits in approxi- Society of Testing Materials (ASTM), the College
mately 8 hours. of American Path ologists (CAP), th e Nation al
Committee for Clin ical Laboratory Stan dards
A synopsis of general treatment methods for (NCCLS), and the Association for the Advan ce-
small potable-water systems, inclu ding discu s- ment of Medical Instru mentation (AAMI) have all
sion of general advantages and disadvantages,
developed standards for water u sed in laborato-
is given in Table 11-10.
r ies d ep en din g on it s in t en d ed u s e. Th es e
s t a n da rds a re s u mma rized in Ta bles 11-11
WATER PURIFICATION (ASTM), 11-12 (NCCLS), and 11-13 (AAMI). The
ASTM electronics-grade water standard is given
in Table 11-14 for reference only.
This section discu sses pu re water u sed for labo-
ratory and pharmaceu tical pu rposes. The various Th ere are th ree pu re-water categories in th e
systems are broadly defined and gen eral gu ide- NCCLS specifications:
lin es for pu re water produ ction , storage, an d
distribu tion are provided. • Ty pe I, called “reagent grade water,” is u sed
for analysis of trace matter and other critical
Ultra-pu re water systems u sed in th e pro- applications. It is the pu rest water covered
du ction of food produ cts and electronic indu stries by any written standard. Th is water is free
are considered process systems and are, there- from organic and inorganic impu rities, su s-
fore, ou ts ide t h e s cope of t h is ch a pter. For pen ded solids, and microorganisms.
information on su ggested gu idelin es for water • Type II, called “analytical grade water,” is su it-
pu rity in the electron ics indu stry, con tact the able for all bu t the most critical procedu res.
Semicondu ctor Equ ipment Manu factu rers Insti-
tu te, Mou ntain View, Californ ia. • Type III, called “general laboratory-grade wa-
ter,” is su itable for most qu alitative analysis
A total water-treatment system consists of and equ ipment rinsing an d as a su pply for
three general, interrelated phases: pretreatment, generating type I water.
purification, and distribution (including post treat-
ment) of the pu rified water. Pu rification methods There are fou r basic applications where high-
in clu de distillation , deion ization , con tin u ou s p u r it y wa t e r is n ee d ed in t h e b iologica l
laboratory: (1) water for media u sed in growin g
deionization, membrane filtration, and other ap-
tissu e cu ltu res, (2) water u sed in media formu la-
proved processes. Water for injection (WFI) water
tions for growing bacteria and other procaryotes,
can only be produ ced by distillation or membrane
(3) water u sed to make bu ffer solu tions that are
filtration. Ultra-pu re water for specific applica-
tions is often made using pu re water as feed water, u sed in enzymatic reaction s, and (4) water u sed
which is then fu rther pu rified to meet the specific to make solvent standards and reagents for vari-
ou s types of analysis.
requ irements at the point of u se.
Anoth er grade of water called “organic free
Codes and Standards water” is often requ ired for trace analysis of vari-
ou s impu rities. It has no formal specification and
The requ ired qu ality of pu rified water depends is requ ired to have an organic pu rity greater than
on the application . Variou s codes h ave specifi- th at requ ired for type I.
cally defin ed water qu ality for u se in variou s
indu stries. Among th em are:
318 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 11-10 Water-Treatment Technology for Small Potable Water Systems

Technology Advantages Disadvantages

Filtration
Slow sand Operational simplicity and reliability, Not suitable for water with high turbidity, requires
low cost, ability to achieve greater than large land areas.
99.9% Giardia cyst removal.
Diatomaceous earth Compact size, simplicity of operation, Most suitable for raw water with low bacterial
(septum filter) excellent cyst and turbidity removal. counts and low turbidity (<10 ntu), requires
coagulant and filter aids for effective virus removal,
potential difficulty in maintaining complete and
uniform thickness of diatomaceous earth on
filter septum.
Reverse-osmosis Extremely compact, automated. Little information available to establish design
membranes criteria or operating parameters, most suitable
for raw water with turbidity <1 ntu, usually
must be preceded by high levels of pretreatment,
easily clogged with colloids and algae, short filter
runs, concerns about membrane failure, complex
repairs of automated controls, high percent of
water lost in backflushing.
Rapid sand/ Compact, treat a wide range of water Chemical pretreatment complex, time-consuming;
direct filtration quality parameters and variable levels. cost.
package plants

Disinfection
Chlorine Very effective, has a proven history of Potential for harmful halogenated
protection against waterborne disease, byproducts under certain conditions.
widely used, variety of possible application
points, inexpensive, appropriate as both
primary and secondary disinfectant.
Ozone Very effective, no THMs formed. Relatively high cost, more complex operation
because it must be generated on-site, requires
a secondary disinfectant, other byproducts.
Ultraviolet Very effective for viruses and bacteria, Inappropriate for surface water, requires a
radiation readily available, no known harmful secondary disinfectant.
residuals, simple operation and
maintenance for high-quality waters.

Organic Contaminant Removal

Granular-activated Effective for a broad spectrum of organics. Spent carbon disposal.
carbon
Packed-tower aeration Effective for volatile compounds. Potential for air emissions issues.
Diffused aeration Effective for volatile compounds Clogging, air emissions, variable removal
and radionuclides. efficiencies.
Advanced oxidation Very effective. Byproducts.
Reverse osmosis Broad spectrum removal. Variable removal efficiencies, waste-water
disposal.

Inorganic Contaminant Removal

Reverse osmosis Highly effective. Expensive waste removal.
Ion exchange Highly effective. Expensive waste removal.
Activated alumina Highly effective. Expensive waste removal.
GAC Highly effective. Expensive waste removal.
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 319

Table 11-11 CAP and ASTM Reagent-Grade Water Specifications

CAP Type ASTM Type
I II III I II III IV

Spec. conductance (µmhos/cm) 0.1 0.5 10 0.056 1.0 0.25 5.0

Spec. resistance (M · cm) 10 2.0 0.1 18 1.0 4 0.2
Silicate (µg/L) 50 100 1000 3 3 500 —
Heavy metals (µg/L) 10 10 10 — — — —
Total organic carbon (µg/L) — — — 100 50 200 —
Potassium permanganate reduction (min.) 60 60 60 — — — —
Sodium (µg/L) 100 100 100 1 5 10 50
Chlorides (µg/L) — — — 1 5 10 50
Hardness neg neg neg — — — —
Ammonia 0.1 0.1 0.1 — — — —
Bacterial growth (cfu/mL) 10 104 — a a a a

pH — — 5.0–8.0 — — — 5.0–8.0
CO2 (µg/L) 3 3 3 — — — —
a Microbiological contamination: When bacterial levels need to be controlled, reagent grade types should be further classified as follows:
Type A Type B Type C
Maximum heterotropic bacteria count 10/1000 mL 10/1000 mL 100/10 mL
Endotoxin, endotoxin unit (EU) <0.03 0.25 Not applicable

Table 11-12 Table 11-13

NCCLS Reagent-Grade Water Specifications AAMI/ANSI Water-Quality Standards

Characteristics Type I Type II Type III Suggested Maximum

Contaminant Level (mg/L)
Bacterial content
(colony-forming units Calcium 2 (0.1 meq/L)
per mL, maximum) 10 a
1000 N/A Magnesium 4 (0.3 meq/L)
Sodium 70 (3 meq/L)
pH N/A N/A 5.0–8.0 Potassium 8 (0.2 meq/L)
Resistivity (25°C, M /cm) 10 1.0 0.1 Fluoride 0.2
Chlorine 0.5
Silicate (mg/L max.) 0.05 0.1 0.1
Chloramines 0.1
Particulate mattera 0.22-µm filter N/A N/A Nitrate (N) 2
Sulfate 100
Organicsb Activated carbon N/A N/A
Copper, barium, zinc 0.1 each
Source: Frankel 1996. Arsenic, lead, silver 0.005 each
a Preferably, type I water should be bacteria free. Chromium 0.014
b These specifications are process specifications and are not
Cadmium 0.001
Selenium 0.09
measured by the end user.
Aluminum 0.01
Additional purification may be reguired for selected clinical labora-
tory procedures, such as: Mercury 0.0002
1. Preparation of water with minimal pyrogen levels for cell Bacteria 200 (cfu/mL)
culture.
2. Preparation of bacteria-free water for direct fluorescent Source: Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumen-
detection of bacteria as in Legionella direct fluorescent antibody tation (AAMl), 1990, Hemodialysis Systems Standard. Adopted by
testing or direct fluorescent stains of mycobacteria. American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 1992.
3. Preparation of water with minimal organic content for Note: “meq/L” = mole equivalent/liter
HPLC.
320 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 11-14 ASTM Electronics-Grade Water Standarda

Grade
Assay E-I E-II E-III E-IV

Resistivity, minimum >18.0a 17.5b 12 0.5

(M · cm at 25°C) > 17.0a > 16.0b
SiO2 (total), max. (µg/L) 5 10 50 1000
Particle count (per mL) 1 3 10 100
Particle size limit (µm) 0.10 0.5 1.0 10
Viable bacteria, max. 1/1000 mL 10/1000 mL 10/1 mL 100/1 mL
Copper, max. (µg/L) 1 1 2 500
Zinc, max. (µg/L) 0.5 1 5 500
Nickel, max (µg/L) 0.1 1 2 500
Sodium, max. (µg/L) 0.5 1 5 1000
Potassium, max. (µg/L) 2 2 5 500
Chloride, max. (µg/L) 1 1 10 1000
Nitrate, max. (µg/L) 1 1 5 500
Phosphate, max. (µg/L) 1 1 5 500
Sulfate, max. (µg/L) 1 1 5 500
Total organic carbon, max. (µg/L) 25 50 300 1000
Endotoxins 0.03 EUc 0.25 EUc N/Ad N/Ad

Source: ASTM Standard D5127-90.

a Above 18 D · cm 95% of the time, not less than 17.
b 17.5 or greater 90% of the time, not less than 16.
c EU = Endotoxin unit.
d N/A = not applicable.

Pharmaceutical Systems of the variou s contaminan ts present in the feed-

wa t er s t r ea m a n d of t h os e t o b e r em oved .
The type of water u sed for pharmaceu tical pu r- Knowledge of the highest levels of contaminan ts
poses is called “USP” pu rified water. The name and the h ighest-pu rity water requ ired can not be
is derived from the United States Pharmacopoeia overemphasized. Unless th ese factors are well
(USP) specifications for pu rified water, with re- es t a blis h ed, t h e s elect ion of a n y t r ea t men t
visions to the specification made from time to method is impossible. A typical pharmaceu tical
time based on cu rren t tech nology. There are two water-pu rification flow diagram is shown in Fig-
categories of water referred to: purified water (PW) u re 11-16.
and water for injection (WFI). The stan dard for
each is given in Table 11-15.
Feed Water
Th ere are fou r basic tech n ologies u sed to
produ ce pu re water: ion exchange, distillation, Feed-water qu ality, which is sou rce dependent,
membrane filtration and separation , and con- is the first parameter to be identified in the de-
tinu ou s deion ization (CDI) or electrodeionization sign of a pu re-water system. The sou rce strongly
(EDI). Th e degree of treatment depends on the in flu en ces the pretreatmen t options an d may
end-u ser requ irements, the amou n t an d natu re dictate the treatment methods. A wide variation
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 321

in types an d concen trations of impu rities is pos- mu st also meet the 400 cfu / mL, the maximu m
sible, depen ding on whether the feed water is valu e specified in USP XXII. Another requ irement
obtained from a pu blic u tility or a private sou rce, is that it shall contain no added su bstances. This
su ch as a well or other su rface or grou nd-water is an issu e that appears to be interpreted differ-
sou rce. Su rface waters are u su ally high in par- ently by in dividu als and organizations involved
ticu lates, colloids, and organ ics. Undergrou nd in the design of PW systems. There are systems
waters tend to have low levels of particu lates, presen tly in u se th at appear, from an overall
colloids, an d organics and relatively high levels perspective, to violate this position. Items su ch
of calciu m an d magn esiu m hardness and alka- as the chlorination of raw water su pplies, acid
lin it y (b ica r b on a t e s ). S ou r c e wa t e r fr om addition to adju st pH, and the u se of ozone to
agricu ltu ral areas often h as high levels of ni- control microbial growth are su bject to interpre-
trates, phosphates, and organic pesticides. Water tation. All of the con cerns are resolved du rin g
from pu blic u tilities has residu al chlorin e, flu o- the application phase for FDA approval and vali-
rides, an d chlorimines as well as iron oxides and dation of th e system.
other pipe-related impu rities. It is important to
establish or obtain historical water analysis data Purification System Design
from different times and seasons of the year in
order to properly design a system with en ou gh Specific methods of pu rification are capable of
flexibility to obtain the requ ired pu rity u nder removing variou s types of impu rities better than
worst-case conditions. others. None can be depended on to remove all
It is an FDA requ iremen t th at the feed water th e impu rities necessary to achieve the pu rity
for USP pu rified water and WFI systems meet level requ ired for USP pu rified water. It is ac-
cep t ed p r a ct ice t o u s e a com b in a t ion of
the EPA gu idelin es for potable water. Of particu -
technologies, each of which is designed to re-
lar con cern is th e microbial level. Th e water
move a specific type of impu rity.
shou ld be virtu ally free of coliform, which is a
path ogen ic marker organ ism. Th e feed water The methods u sed to produ ce this water de-
pend on the feed water su pplying the facility. In
most instances, that feed water has a high level
of some classes of contaminant. It is mu ch more
economical to pretreat that water to remove the
bu lk and/ or the more concentrated of those im-
Table 11-15 USP XXII Purified-Water and
pu rities, then u se the pu rification equ ipment to
WFI Water-Purity Standards “polish” the water to the desired pu rity level. In
Purified Water for some cases, the removal of individu al impu rities
Component Water Injection is necessary to allow the u se of specific types of
pu rification equ ipment.
pH 5.0–7.0 5.0–7.0
Pretreatment Pretreatmen t is considered for
Chloride (mg/L) 0.5 0.5 two reasons:
Sulfate (mg/L) 1.0 1.0
1. Potential damage to the membran e selected.
Ammonia (mg/L) 0.1 0.1
Calcium (mg/L) 1.0 1.0 2. To increase membrane filtration qu ality.
Carbon dioxide (mg/L) 5.0 5.0 The need for pretreatment is determined by
Heavy metals (mg/L) 0.1 as Cu 0.1 as Cu an an alysis of the raw water su pply. Th e deci-
sion is generally governed by th e cost efficiency
Oxidizable of the pretreatment method and whether the cost
Substances Pass USP Permanganate Test of pu rch asin g and installin g th e pretreatment
equ ipment will redu ce the initial cost of the main
Total solids (mg/L) 10.0 10.0
treatment equ ipment and lower the operatin g
Bacteria (cfu/mL) 100 50.0 cost of th e system as a wh ole enou gh to ju stify
—FDA action limit 100 cfu/mL 10 cfu/100 mL its in stallation.
Pyrogen (EU/mL by LAL) — 0.25
Wa t er t empera t ure Membrane produ ctivity
Source: Numerical values are interpretations of procedures listed (flu x) is u sually rated with feed water at 77°F
in the Standards in United States Pharmacopoeia, 22d ed. (25°C) and is inversely proportional to the feed-
322 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Figure 1 1 -16 Typical Pharmaceutical Water-Flow Diagram

water viscosity. Wh en the water temperatu re is necessary. When using drinking water standards,
lower, additional membrane area is required. The this problem is rarely encountered.
flux increases with increased feed-water tempera-
tu re. Heating the feed water lowers the viscosity. Filt ra t ion Filters are u sed to remove su s-
The water cou ld be heated with a separate water pended solids originating from any sou rce. If
heater or with a blendin g valve u sing domestic continu ou s produ ction is requ ired, a du plex ar-
hot water mixed with feed water to provide the rangement shou ld be installed so that the filters
necessary temperatu re. can be backwashed or replaced with no inter-
ru ption in service.
pH adjust ment The selected membrane should
have an optimum pH operating range. To achieve S and and multi-media filters A common initial
it, a dilute acid is injected into the feed water if meth od for gros s pa rticu la te remova l from
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 323

sou rce water is a pressu re mu lti-media san d microorganisms and TOC from the feed water
filter, u sed if th e con cen tration of su spen ded prior to its reaching the RO units. Materials used
solids is greater th an 0.2 ppm. If th e con cen - in the system mu st be compatible with these
tration is lower th an that, a 5 to10-∝mcartridge u nits. There is a relu ctance to u se any chemical
filter is often used. Experience has found that to remove microorganisms due to FDA restric-
cartridge replacement is uneconomical com- tion s regarding adding chemicals to th e feed
pared to backwashing. water. However, chlorine is commonly added to
disinfect the feed water becau se it is cost effec-
Cartridge filters These are used to remove lesser tive and can easily be removed by GAC filters.
amou nts of particu lates prior to the central pu-
rification equ ipment. It is generally accepted Biocid e remova l The most common source of
practice to provide an in-line 5-∝m cartridge feed water for most facilities is potable water.
depth filter to eliminate any particulates that This water contains a residu al amou nt of chlo-
would clog or interfere with the operation of the rine, which is necessary to comply with code for
central purification equipment. This filter is rec- drinking-water qu ality. To remove this residu al
ommended ifthe SDI is less than 4 and generally chlorine, a granu lated, activated-charcoal filter
required if the level is more than 4. If the level is is provided. An “organic trap” may also be re-
more than 4, an additional 1-∝mcartridge filter qu ired if organics are very high.
is recommended downstream of the main filter.
In some locations, or on some feed waters, it is Central Purification Equipment
practical to use a sand, multimedia filter and a
cartridge filter (with the sand filter first). The basic meth ods u sed to produ ce h igh-pu rity
water are distillation, ion exch ange, con tin u ou s
Carbon filtration Following the removal of gross deion ization or electrodeionization, and reverse
particulates, a granu lated carbon filter is pro- osmosis. The method u sed will depend on the
vided to remove residual disinfectants (chlorine, pu rity desired and limitation s on initial or oper-
chlorimine, etc.), dissolved organics (oils, pesti- ating cost.
cides, surfactants, etc.), and suspended organics
(humic and fulvic acids, etc.). Storage Th e storage of water redu ces the size
Flow rates through this filter are usually in of the pu rification equ ipmen t. Storage tanks are
con stru cted from fiberglass-rein forced plastic
the range of 1.0 to 4.0 gpm/ ft 2 (3.78 to 15.14 L/
with an in ternal vial su itable for th e pu rpose,
min/ 0.093 m 2 ) of filter area, depending on the
polypropylene (high-density or cross-linked with
qu antity of organics and chlorimines in the en-
a minimu m specific gravity of 1.5), polyethylene,
tering water. The higher the qu ality of water, the
slower the flow rate. and stain less steel (fin ish specified by u ser or
process). Th e bottom of the tank shall be dished
Problems of carbon filters are their tendency or conical to aid in complete drainage. It is an
to harbor microbial growth du e to the removal of established fact th at high-pu rity water degrades
chlorine. Frequ en t sanitizing is n ecessary, u su - in storage. Fou r major sou rces for th is degrada-
a lly wit h pota s s iu m perma n ga n a te, s odiu m tion are:
hydroxide, or steam. If steam is selected, the tank
shou ld be constru cted of 316L SS. 1. Water extract contamination from any con-
tainer.
Wa t er soft ening If the hardness is high, it is 2. Bacteria grow an d secrete waste produ cts.
necessary to provide a water softener to redu ce
the calciu m and magnesiu m present to a level 3. Organics from solvents and shedding of cloth-
requ ired by the membrane selected. Water soft- in g can diffu se throu gh the air and dissolve
ening is recommended if the iron content exceeds in the water.
0.4 ppm. 4. Laboratory person nel secrete u rea in perspi-
The softener is another device that harbors ration an d respiration that can cau se the
formation of ammon ia in stored laboratory
microbial growth. Sanitizing with potassiu m per-
water.
manganate is generally u sed.
The tank for USP water shou ld be airtight
Biologica l a nd TOC red uct ion UV u nits and and equ ipped with a non-shedding, 0.2-∝m hy-
ozone generators are generally u sed to remove drophobic filter for venting. For WFI systems the
324 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

tank shou ld be type 304L or 316L SS, pressu re V = Velocity, fps (m/ s)
rated to a min imu m of 35 psig (241 kPa) pres- ID = Actu al inside diameter, in. (mm)
su re an d 30 in. (760 mm) Hg vacu u m, 180 grit
and electro-polished. It is common practice to (Note: Check for actu al ID of variou s
have a nitrogen gas blanket in the vapor space pipes based on schedules. Verify
above the water in the storage tank to redu ce impact of various linings. Know the
th e possibility of airborne contamin ation. The impact of su rface finish inside pipe
tank shall have a jacket to maintain a tempera- being considered.)
tu r e of 177º F (80°C) a n d be in s u la t ed a n d Pu mp selection can be made after pressure
provided with a ru ptu re disk. losses are calcu lated through the entire system.
The discharge shou ld be from the center bot- If a booster pump is required to keep the flow at
tom of the tan k to allow complete circu lation of the correct velocity, it is a far less costly invest-
th e stored water. The water retu rn shou ld be at ment than fixing a contaminated piping system.
th e top of the tank and be equ ipped with a spray Th e pipe s h a ll be s loped a t 8 -in . (3.2
ball or s pray rin g. Th is min imizes microbial mm/ m) pitch to allow complete drainage of the
growth by continu ou sly washin g the u pper ar- network. Dead legs of more than 6 pipe diam-
eas of th e tank. eters are not permitted by cGMP requirements.
To prevent future plastic pipe sagging from in-
St eriliz a t ion It is common practice to provide
terfering with drainage, continuous support is
an in-line UV sterilization device to redu ce mi- recommended. Using PP as a baseline, PVDF is
croorganisms that may be present in the water. twice the cost and SS four times the cost in-
Another often-u sed method is to heat pu rified
stalled.
water to a temperatu re of 177°F (80°C) to pre-
vent microorganism growth , th en circu late it to Valves shall be consistent with the piping ma-
main tain the sterile condition. An other possibil- terials. Prior to the RO or DI units, full-bore ball
ity is the installation of a filter that will remove valves are recommended. In the purified loop, use
any organic particu lates. SS diaphragm valves with an EPDM or Teflon dia-
phragm and a backing ring. Provide sample valves
Piping distribution network The piping mate- (usually needle type) at strategic points in the sys-
rial for USP water should be fabricated from virgin tem to allow samples to be taken.
p olyp r op ylen e (PP), p olyvin yliden e flu or ide
(PVDF), or stainless steel (SS). Plastic pipe shou ld Pumps for purified water should be of sani-
be bu tt-joint heat fu sed, and SS pipe shou ld be tary design using a double mechanical seal with
orbital welded. Pipin g material for WFI water product water as the lubricant for the seals. WFI
shou ld be SS, 180 grit, and electro-polished. Fit- pumps should be type 316L SS, 180 grit, and
tings shall have extended ends for orbital welding. electro-polis h ed. A cas in g dra in s h ou ld be
All cou plings shall be sanitary tri-clamp. Insu la- provided.
tion shall be non-chloride bearing and designed
System design considerations USP/ WFI wa-
for a temperatu re of 176°F (80°C). Velocity in the
ter is u sed in the pharmaceu tical manu factu ring
system shou ld be approximately 6 to 9 fps (1.83
process and often becomes part of the produ ct.
to 2.74 m/ s) for su pply from the storage tank to
Becau se of th is, all aspects of the pu rification
the system and 3 to 6 fps (0.91 to 1.83 m/ s) in
system and distribu tion n etwork are su bject to
the retu rn leg. Piping system design and pu mp
inspection and validation by the FDA, which has
selection is critical to ensu re the correct velocity
th e responsibility to determine if the qu ality of
throu ghout the whole loop. The following is a “rule
water u sed is adequ ate.
of thu mb” formu la u sed to select the correct pipe
diameter: The FDA has specific gu idelin es for selection
of stills an d RO equ ipment u sed for produ ction
gpm (L/s) ⋅ 0.4085
V = of WFI. In con trast, PW systems can u tilize dif-
ID2 ferent types of pu rification equ ipmen t, since the
or microbial and chemical qu ality can vary depend-
in g on the proposed u se of th e water.
gpm (L/s) ⋅ 0.4085 ½
ID = The pu rpose of any gu idelines or standards is
V
to verify that all pertinent pu rity requ irements of
where
the equ ipment and distribu tion system conform
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 325

to cu rrent good manu factu ring practice (cGMP), 13. Nussbaum, O.J . 1992. Treating cooling water.
are capable of consistently produ cing water of the Heating, Piping, Air Conditioning Magaz ine. Feb-
requ ired qu ality, and are capable of delivering ru ary: 67-63.
water to the u se point that meets the acceptance 14. Otten, Gerald. 1992. Measuring water purity by
criteria for water that comes in contact with prod- specific resistance. American Laboratory Maga-
u ct. This investigation also inclu des verification z ine J uly.
that the purification equipment selected is capable 15. Parekh, B.S. 1991. Get you r process water to
of produ cing water of the requ ired pu rity; that come clean . Chem ical En gineering Ma ga z ine.
the qu ality of installation for the distribu tion net- J anu ary: 71-85.
work produ ces a pipin g n et work ca pa ble of 16. Sendelbach, M.G. 1988. Boiler water treatment.
delivering water of the requ ired qu ality to all ou t- Chem ical Engineering Magaz ine. Au gu st: 127-
lets; and that the continu ing qu ality of system 132.
operation, maintenance, and ongoing testing will 17. Stenzel, Mark H. 1993. Remove organics by ac-
consistently provide water of the desired pu rity. tivated carbon adsorption. Chemical Engineering
Progres s Magazine April: 36-43.

REFERENCES 18. Ta n a k a , T. , et a l. 1 9 8 4 . Dis in fect ion of

escherichia coli by using water dissociation ef-
1. Blake, Richard T. Water treatment for HVAC and fect on ion exchange membranes. In Proceedings
potable w ater s y s tems . New York: McGraw-Hill. of the European-Japan Congres s on Membrane
and Membrane Proces s es , J une.
2. Brown, J ., N. J ayawardena, and Y. Zelmanovich.
1991. Water systems for pharmaceutical facili- 19. Yeh, K.L., and S.H. Lin. 1993. Looking to treat
ties. Pharmaceutical Engineering Magazine. J uly/ wastewater? Try ozone. Chem ical Engineering
August: 14-23. Magazine. May: 113-116.

3. Cartwright, Peter S. 1994. Reverse osmosis and

nanofiltration system design. Plumbing Engineer.
March: 45-49.
4. Collen tro, W.V. 1992. Ph armaceu tical water
(Parts 1 & 2). Ultrapure Water Magazine, Novem-
ber/ December.
5. Denoncourt and Egozy. 1986. Trace level analy-
sis of high purity water. Ultrapure Water Magazine
J uly/ August.
6. Dow Chemical Corp. Water conditional manual.
7. Du nleavy, M. 1991. Membrane technologies in
the power industry. Paper presented at The Ninth
Annual Membrane Technology/ Planning Confer-
en ce a n d Secon d High -Tech Sep a r a t ion s
Symposium, November, Newton, Massachusetts.
8. Frankel, M. 1996. Facility piping system hand-
book. New York: McGraw-Hill.
9. Gorry, M., P. Amin, and D.W. Richardson, Sr.
1994. Take the gu esswork out of demineralizer
design. Chemical Engineering Magazine. March:
112-116.
10. J anoschek, R., and G.C. du Mou lin. 1994. Ul-
traviolet disinfection in biotechnology: Myth vs
practice. BioPharm Magazine, J anuary/ February:
24-27.
11. Meyrick, C.E. 1989. Practical design of a high-
pu rity water system. Pharmaceutical Engineering
Magazine. September/ October: 20-27.
12. Nalco Chemical Co. The Nalco w ater hand book .
2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
326 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 327

Special-Waste
Drainage
Systems

INTRODUCTION systems and to Chapter 1 for information on

sanitary-drainage piping systems.
This chapter describes and discu sses th e collec-
tion an d criteria n eces sary for th e des ign of
variou s special-waste drainage systems for liq- CODES AND STANDARDS
u id efflu en t other than discharge from sanitary
and storm water sou rces. Except for th e neu - There are two gen eral ju risdiction al bodies that
tralization of acid efflu ent, the treatment methods regu late differen t aspects of special-waste sys-
are ou tside the scope of th is chapter. tems. The first are local and regional au th orities,
wh o create an d en force plu mbin g an d h ealth
These systems are separated into categories codes. These inclu de the local authorities charged
with similar characteristics rather than grou p- with th e review an d approval of plu mbing sys-
ed a s dis ch a rge from s pecific fa cilit ies . Th e tems’ design and discharge into the pu blic sewer
systems discu ssed are: system. Althou gh th ey are con cerned with regu -
1. Acid-waste systems. latin g the size and design of plu mbing systems
with in a bu ilding, th ey also restrict the intro-
2. Radioactive-waste systems. du ction of any type of waste into the sanitary
3. Biological and infectiou s-waste systems. sewer that may degrade the pu blic sewer pipin g
system or that is incapable of being easily treated
4. Chemical-waste systems.
in the pu blic waste-treatment facility.
5. Fire-su ppression water drainage.
Th e s econ d, wh ich h ave far more s trin gen t
Each of th ese waste sys tems h as u n iqu e regu lations, are th e variou s agencies con cern ed
properties that mu st be separately addressed. with protectin g workers , th e pu blic, a n d th e
These systems generally rou te th e waste from en viron men t from th e dis ch a rge of toxic s u b-
fixtu res and equipment into a facility waste-treat- s ta n ces . In clu ded in th is grou p a re federa l,
m en t s ys t em , wit h t h e t r ea t ed efflu en t state, an d local au th orities respon sible for pre-
disch argin g directly in to th e pu blic san itary- ven t in g t oxic d is ch a r ge of a n y s u b s t a n ces
drain age sewer system. Very often, u ntreated con s idered h armfu l in to th e gen era l en viron -
waste is stored on site and collected by approved men t , pu blic s ewer s , a n d pu blic t r ea t men t
waste-removal contractors for disposal. s ys tems . Su ch dis ch arges can occu r eith er as
Un less specifically noted otherwise, all of the a res u lt of s pills a n d a cciden ts or by deliber-
waste streams are assu med to have the approxi- a t e , ille ga l d is c h a r ge . To p r e ve n t s u c h
mate flow characteristics of water. Pipe sizin g discharge, it is common practice for th ese agen-
criteria are based on this assu mption. cies to inspect facilities, man date on-site facility
t r ea t men t s ys t ems , a n d requ ir e t h e u s e of
Refer to Chapter 4 of this volu me of the Data dou ble-wall pipin g an d lea k detection to pre-
Book for information on storm-drainage piping ven t a n d mitiga t e a n y lea ka ge from pipin g.
328 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Oth er regu lation s, su ch as cu rren t good manu - PIPE MATERIAL AND JOINT
factu rin g pra ctice (cGMP) from th e Food an d SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
Dru g Admin is tra tion (FDA), th e regu la tion s of
th e federa l En viron men tal Protection Agen cy Important factors in the selection of appropriate
(EPA), and facility validation protocols, are con - pipe material, gaskets, jointing methods, and
s tan tly bein g revis ed du e to tech n ological an d other piping components for any special drain-
des ign ch a n ges . age system are cost, temperatu re of th e efflu ent,
It is recommen ded that the services of an th e kind of chemicals, and the concen tration of
experienced environmental consu ltant, who is fa- each that will en ter the pipe. For some systems,
m ilia r wit h t h e la t es t a pplica b le ru les a n d th e smoothness of th e pipe interior or the lack of
regu lation s and th eir interpretations, be con- a cru d trap are also important factors. Th is also
su lted for system compliance with the maze of applies to an y associated ven t system.
regu lations. Selection is accomplished by first establish-
in g t h e flow r a t e, t em p er a t u r e r a n ge, a n d
concentration and composition of all efflu ent and
SYSTEM APPROVAL chemicals that are expected. All pipe manu fac-
REQUIREMENTS tu rers h ave pu blish ed ch emical compatibility
charts that give the effects of variou s chemicals
Th ere is a distin ction between drain age efflu - on that particu lar pipe and recommendations for
ent that can be “locally” treated within a bu ilding acceptance u sing these chemicals. For conditions
(su ch as by biological waste sterilization, pH ad- not listed on these ch arts, the design er sh ou ld
ju stmen t of ch emical waste, or oil separation ) make direct contact with the manu factu rer of
an d oth er efflu en t th at requ ires a larger an d th e material creating the anticipated con ditions
more complex waste-treatmen t system ou tside and ask for techn ical assistance.
a bu ilding on site. Acceptance of su ch local treat-
men t can be obtain ed on ly after con feren ces When the compatibility of various pipe systems
with th e au th orities responsible for issu ing con- is the same, the total installed cost and possible
tamin ation limits for su ch a disch arge. If th e ease of assembly are the deciding factors.
local treatmen t system provides th e appropri-
a t e level of con t a m in a n t r em ova l, d ir ect
disch arge in to th e pu blic san itary sewer is ac-
PIPE SIZING CONSIDERATIONS
ceptable. If th e levels of con tamin an t removal
are beyon d th e capability of su ch local treat- System design is con cerned only with the ad-
m en t , a m or e s op h is t ica t ed s ys t e m t h a t equ acy of the pipe to carry away the design flow.
demon strates removal of con tamin an ts to th e System configu ration u su ally requ ires that traps
levels desired by th e au th ority h avin g ju risdic- be provided on fixtu res an d floor drains and that
tion mu st be ch osen . th e ven ting system conform to good plu mbin g
design practice, wh ich limits the pressu re inside
Any special drain age system efflu en t rou ted th e system. All the elements of system design
for treatmen t in side a facility or on site does are left to the ju dgment of th e design engineer.
n ot requ ire examin ation or approval by th e lo-
cal plu mbin g official. If an y efflu en t is rou ted to The variou s plu mbin g codes generally u se
th e pu blic sewer system for even tu al treatmen t, on ly satisfactory performance as a sizin g gu ide
h owever, th e disch arge mu st con form with lo- for special-waste system pipe sizing, compared
cal regu lation s for maximu m con cen tration s of to specific drainage requ irements man dated for
an y con tamin an t or pH levels. If th e on ly re- sizing sanitary drainage systems. A common ex-
qu ired meth od of treatmen t is pH adju stmen t ception is for laboratory fixtu res, wh ich may
prior to disch argin g in to th e bu ildin g san itary requ ire th at the drainage and vent systems be
drain age system or pu blic sewer system, most sized on a fixtu re-u nit basis.
au th orities h ave requ iremen ts for acid drain - The reason for the lack of code requ iremen ts
age systems th at mu st be followed. A pH valu e is that special drainage systems do not have a
of 4.0 is gen erally viewed as th e lowest accept- predictable or docu mented u sage history, as do
able level for direct discharge in to a pu blic sewer standard plu mbing fixtu res in san itary drainage
system. systems. Equ ipment drainage, spills, disch arge
from produ ction facilities, and discharge from
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 329

fixtu res with in t h e fa cilities a re n ot a lwa ys changes in one ion concentration produ ce corre-
planned. They occu r mostly at random intervals sponding changes in the other. The pH valu e is
dictated by cleaning, produ ction , maintenance calcu lated from the logarithmic reciprocal of the
schedu les, and, often , accidents. hydrogen ion concentration in water. The pH scale
ranges from 0 to 14, with 0 being acid and 14
In addition, special drainage systems that are
being alkaline; 7.0 is neu tral. A change of one
completely within the property of the facility do
u nit represents a tenfold increase (or decrease) in
not fall u nder plu mbing code requ irements for
strength. pH is not a measu re of alkalinity.
pipin g size or design , alth ou gh th ey may fall
u nder the ju risdiction of agen cies su ch as the
EPA. Becau se of these factors, the special drain- GENERAL SYSTEM DESIGN
age piping system is sized on the basis of “good CONSIDERATIONS
engineering practice,” which u ses system slope,
composition of the efflu en t, and expected flow
It is good practice to separate each of th e differ-
rates rath er than fixtu re u nits. ent systems in side the facility or bu ilding to a
From each poin t in the system, the flow rate point ou tside the bu ilding so that the individu al
and pitch of th e piping mu st be known to size services can be isolated and allowed to be tested
th e pipe. Pipe size shou ld be determin ed based and sampled as may be requ ired in the fu tu re
on the followin g criteria: by any local or national au thority. An other rea-
son is th at the system may, at some point in the
1. Efflu en t has th e characteristics of water. (If fu tu re, requ ire separate treatment becau se of a
th e efflu ent contains large concen trations of new su bstance that may be discharged.
solids, the pitch sh ou ld be adju sted accord-
ingly.) One of the more constant aspects of special
drainage systems is fu tu re change. In time, the
2. The drainage system is sized on th e basis of
processes will change, equ ipment will be more
gravity drain age an d main tenan ce of a mini-
efficient, facilities will become larger, and tech-
mu m velocity of 2 feet per second (fps) (0.61
nology will be improved so that the efflu ent will
m/ s), u sing the anticipated maximu m flow
be different than it is at the time a system is origi-
rate and pitch of the pipe at each point of
nally designed. This change mu st be allowed for.
design and a maximu m velocity of 10 fps
It is common practice to size the drain one size
(3.05 m/ s) if the waste con tains any solids.
larger than the design figu res indicate or not to
3. Gravity drain age pipe size is based on flow size the drain line to the exact point on the sizing
rate, slope, and velocity. Refer to Table 12-1 chart indicated by the figu res, especially where
to find the velocity and size of pipe based on there is a probability of fu tu re expansion.
flow rate and slope. Depending on the sys-
Consideration shou ld be given to selectin g a
tem, piping shou ld be sized to flow between
½ to ¾ fu ll to allow for u nexpected larger pipe size slightly larger than that requ ired for
discharges, fu tu re changes, and accidents. th e immediate flow rate or a material capable of
resisting a greater selection of chemicals than
necessary at th e time of design. Th is mu st be
pH DEFINITION verified with the clien t, of cou rse, to ensu re that
th e extra cost incu rred by these options is ac-
Any dissolved impu rity in water separates to form ceptable.
negatively and positively charged atoms called
“ions.” Negative ions are called “cations” becau se
th ey migrate to th e cath ode, and positive ions ACID-WASTE DRAINAGE AND VENT
are called “an ions” becau se th ey migrate to the SYSTEMS
anode.
General
All acid compou nds consist of hydrogen com-
bined with an acid radical. In a mixtu re of acid An a cid-was t e dra in age s ys tem collects an d
and water, hydrogen ions result. pH is a measu re- transports liqu id wastes with a pH lower than
men t of th e h ydrogen ion con cen tration of a 7.0 from laboratory fixtu res, equ ipment, an d all
solu tion. Since the balance of hydroxyl (cation) areas of a facility for discharge in to an appropri-
and h ydrogen (an ion) ion s mu st be constant, ate treatmen t facility or the sanitary drainage
330 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Table 12-1 Drainage Pipe Sizing

Grade 1Ñ2 Full 2Ñ3 Full Full

Pipe
size Discharge Velocity Discharge Velocity Discharge Velocity
(in.) (in./ft) (%) (gpm) (cfs) (ft/s) (gpm) (cfs) (ft/s) (gpm) (cfs) (ft/s)

2 1.0 7 0.02 1.3 10 0.02 1.5 13 0.03 1.3

2.1 9 0.02 1.8 14 0.03 2.0 18 0.04 1.8
4.2 14 0.03 2.9 22 0.05 3.2 28 0.06 2.9
1 8.3 20 0.05 4.0 32 0.07 4.5 40 0.09 4.0
3 1.0 18 0.04 1.7 29 0.06 1.9 36 0.08 1.7
2.1 26 0.06 2.4 41 0.09 2.7 51 0.11 2.4
4.2 40 0.09 3.7 64 0.14 4.1 80 0.18 3.7
1 8.3 57 0.13 5.3 90 0.20 5.9 114 0.25 5.3
4 1.0 39 0.09 2.0 61 0.13 2.2 77 0.17 2.0
2.1 55 0.13 2.8 87 0.20 3.1 110 0.25 2.8
4.2 87 0.20 4.5 138 0.31 5.0 174 0.39 4.5
1 8.3 123 0.28 6.3 194 0.44 7.1 245 0.55 6.3
6 0.5 79 0.18 1.8 124 0.28 2.0 157 0.35 1.8
1.0 1 10 0.25 2.5 174 0.39 2.8 220 0.49 2.5
1.5 135 0.30 3.1 213 0.47 3.5 269 0.60 3.1
2.1 157 0.35 3.6 248 0.55 4.0 314 0.70 3.6
2.5 175 0.39 4.0 277 0.62 4.5 350 0.78 4.0
3.1 193 0.43 4.4 305 0.68 4.9 386 0.86 4.4
3.5 207 0.46 4.7 327 0.73 5.3 413 0.92 4.7
4.2 225 0.50 5.0 355 0.79 5.6 449 1.00 5.0
5.2 247 0.55 5.6 391 0.87 6.3 494 1.10 5.6
6.3 270 0.60 6.1 426 0.95 6.8 539 1.20 6.1
7.3 292 0.65 6.6 461 1.03 7.4 583 1.30 6.6
8 0.2 108 0.24 1.6 170 0.38 1.8 215 0.48 1.6
0.4 153 0.34 2.0 241 0.54 2.2 305 0.68 2.0
0.6 191 0.43 2.4 302 0.67 2.7 382 0.85 2.4
0.8 236 0.53 2.9 372 0.83 3.2 471 1.05 2.9
1.0 247 0.55 3.2 391 0.87 3.6 494 1.10 3.2
1.5 303 0.68 3.8 479 1.07 4.3 606 1.35 3.8
2.1 348 0.78 4.5 550 1.22 5.0 696 1.55 4.5
2.5 392 0.88 4.9 621 1.38 5.5 785 1.75 4.9
3.1 427 0.95 5.4 674 1.50 6.0 853 1.90 5.4
3.5 449 1.00 5.8 710 1.58 6.5 893 2.00 5.8
4.2 494 1.10 6.2 780 1.74 6.9 987 2.20 6.2
4.5 516 1.15 6.6 816 1.82 7.4 1032 2.30 6.6
10 0.2 211 0.47 1.7 334 0.74 1.9 422 0.94 1.7
0.4 303 0.68 2.4 479 1.1 2.7 606 1.35 2.4
0.6 359 0.80 2.9 568 1.3 3.2 718 1.60 2.9
0.8 438 0.98 3.5 692 1.5 3.9 875 1.95 3.5
1.0 472 1.05 3.8 745 1.7 4.3 943 2.10 3.8
1.5 561 1.25 4.5 887 2.0 5.0 1122 2.50 4.5
2.1 651 1.45 5.3 1029 2.3 5.9 1302 2.90 5.3
2.5 741 1.65 5.7 1170 2.6 6.4 1481 3.30 5.7
3.1 808 1.80 6.4 1277 2.8 7.2 1616 3.60 6.4
3.5 853 1.90 6.8 1348 3.0 7.6 1706 3.80 6.8
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 331

Table 12-1 (M) Drainage Pipe Sizing

Grade 1Ñ2 Full 2Ñ3 Full Full

Pipe
size Discharge Velocity Discharge Velocity Discharge Velocity
(mm) (cm/m) (%) (L/s) (m3/s) (m/s) (L/s) (m3/s) (m/s) (L/s) (m3/s) (m/s)

50 1.04 1.0 0.44 0.57 0.40 0.63 0.57 0.46 0.82 0.85 0.40
2.08 2.1 0.57 0.57 0.55 0.88 0.85 0.61 1.14 1.13 0.55
4.16 4.2 0.88 0.85 0.88 1.39 1.42 0.98 1.77 1.70 0.88
8.32 8.3 1.26 1.42 1.22 2.02 1.98 1.37 2.52 2.55 1.22
80 1.04 1.0 1.14 1.13 0.52 1.83 1.70 0.58 2.27 2.27 0.52
2.08 2.1 1.64 1.70 0.73 2.59 2.55 0.82 3.22 3.12 0.73
4.16 4.2 2.52 2.55 1.13 4.04 3.96 1.25 5.05 5.10 1.13
8.32 8.3 3.60 3.68 1.62 5.68 5.66 1.80 7.19 7.08 1.62
100 1.04 1.0 2.46 2.55 0.61 3.85 3.68 0.67 4.86 4.81 0.61
2.08 2.1 3.47 3.68 0.85 5.49 5.66 0.94 6.94 7.08 0.85
4.16 4.2 5.49 5.66 1.37 8.71 8.78 1.52 10.98 11.04 1.37
8.32 8.3 7.76 7.93 1.92 12.24 12.46 2.16 15.46 15.58 1.92
150 0.5 4.98 5.10 0.55 7.82 7.93 0.61 9.91 9.91 0.55
1.04 1.0 6.94 7.08 0.76 10.98 11.04 0.85 13.88 13.88 0.76
1.5 8.52 8.50 0.94 13.44 13.31 1.07 16.97 16.99 0.94
2.08 2.1 9.91 9.91 1.10 15.65 15.58 1.22 19.81 19.82 1.10
2.5 11.04 11.04 1.22 17.48 17.56 1.37 22.09 22.09 1.22
3.12 3.1 12.18 12.18 1.34 19.25 19.26 1.49 24.36 24.36 1.34
3.5 13.06 13.03 1.43 20.63 20.67 1.62 26.06 26.05 1.43
4.16 4.2 14.20 14.16 1.52 22.40 22.37 1.71 28.33 28.32 1.52
5.2 5.2 15.59 15.58 1.71 24.67 24.64 1.92 31.17 31.15 1.71
6.3 6.3 17.04 16.99 1.86 26.88 26.90 2.07 34.01 33.98 1.86
7.3 7.3 18.43 18.41 2.01 29.09 29.17 2.26 36.79 36.82 2.01
200 0.2 6.81 6.80 0.49 10.73 10.76 0.55 13.57 13.59 0.49
0.4 9.65 9.63 0.61 15.21 15.29 0.67 19.25 19.26 0.61
0.6 12.05 12.18 0.73 19.06 18.97 0.82 24.10 24.07 0.73
0.8 14.89 15.01 0.88 23.47 23.51 0.98 29.72 29.74 0.88
1.04 1.0 15.59 15.58 0.98 24.67 24.64 1.10 31.17 31.15 0.98
1.5 19.12 19.26 1.16 30.22 30.30 1.31 38.24 38.23 1.16
2.08 2.1 21.96 22.09 1.37 34.71 34.55 1.52 43.92 43.90 1.37
2.5 24.74 24.92 1.49 39.19 39.08 1.68 49.53 49.56 1.49
3.12 3.1 26.94 26.90 1.65 42.53 42.48 1.83 53.82 53.81 1.65
3.5 28.33 28.32 1.77 44.80 44.75 1.98 56.35 56.64 1.77
4.16 4.2 31.17 31.15 1.89 49.22 49.28 2.10 56.60 62.30 1.89
4.5 32.56 32.57 2.01 51.49 51.54 2.26 65.12 65.14 2.01
250 0.2 13.31 13.31 0.52 21.08 20.96 0.58 26.63 26.62 0.52
0.4 19.12 19.26 0.73 30.22 31.15 0.82 38.24 38.23 0.73
0.6 22.65 22.66 0.88 35.84 36.82 0.98 45.31 45.31 0.88
0.8 27.64 27.75 1.07 43.67 42.48 1.19 55.21 55.22 1.07
1.04 1.0 29.78 29.74 1.16 47.01 48.14 1.31 59.50 59.47 1.16
1.5 35.40 35.40 1.37 55.97 56.64 1.52 70.80 70.80 1.37
2.08 2.1 41.08 41.06 1.62 64.93 65.14 1.80 82.16 82.13 1.62
2.5 46.76 46.73 1.74 73.83 73.63 1.95 93.45 93.46 1.74
3.12 3.1 50.98 50.98 1.95 80.58 79.30 2.19 101.97 101.95 1.95
3.5 53.82 53.81 2.07 85.06 84.96 2.32 107.65 107.62 2.07
332 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

system after local treatmen t. Th e vent system For the laboratory environmen t, emergency
equ alizes flow in the drainage system in the same showers shall be provided immediately ou tside
mann er it does in a sanitary drainage system. every room. Where rooms are adjacen t, a sin gle
shower is acceptable. Floor drains are not re-
For the pu rposes of th is ch apter, acid waste
qu ired bu t prevent th e floor su rrou n din g the
is divided into two general categories: laboratory
shower from becoming wet and h azardou s. Ev-
waste and in du strial waste. Laboratory waste
ery room shall have an emergency eyewash inside
con sists primarily of dilu te an d con cen trated
the room, u su ally mou n ted on a sin k or free
mixtu res of liqu id chemical su bstan ces of min-
standing if sink mou nting is not practical.
eral and organic origin and water. Man y types of
acid are u su ally present. Laboratory waste is Where vapor is possible, fog nozzles that u se
discharged from sinks, cu p sinks, fu me hoods, water to su ppress the vapor and foam systems to
and other similar fixtu res and equ ipment. Dis- prevent vapor from rising shou ld be considered.
charge from floor drain s, au toclaves, and glass
was h ers , an d con den s ed water from variou s Common Types of Acid
sou rces are also in clu ded.
Acid waste from in du strial facilities consists Acids are widely u sed chemicals in the ch emical
processing indu stry. The most common ly u sed
of waste from acciden tal spills origin atin g from
acids are:
tan ks an d pipin g, an d an ticipated waste dis-
charged from equ ipment in to drains. Very often , Sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) Su lfu ric acid, among the
th e drain age pipin g h as to carry an y of th e ac- mos t common ly u s ed acids , is commercia lly
ids u sed as part of th e process. Wh ere spills available in many con centrations and as vari-
are directed in to h oldin g tan ks, th e drain age ou s percen tages of oleu m. “Oleu ms” are su lfu ric
pipin g, tan ks, pu mps, an d pipin g n ecessary to acids containing su lfu r trioxide dissolved in the
con vey th e efflu en t to trea tmen t fa cilities is acid, wh ich are called “fu ming” grades. Gen er-
n ormally part of th e plu mbin g en gin eer’s re- ally recommen ded pipin g materials for th es e
spon sibility. acids at low temperatu res (140°F [60°C] an d
The most important considerations in the se- lower) an d u p to 90% con cen tration are PVC
lection of piping, valves, drains, and tanks for acid (polyvinyl chloride), CPVC, PP, PVDF, ETFE, and
are the concentration and temperatu re of the acid. HDPE plastic; glass; alloy 20; du riron; an d FRP
Acid waste water from chemical and other facili- (fiberglass-reinforced plastic) piping with special
ties mu st be neu tralized to a pH of 4.0 or higher resins. At 90% an d high er con cen trations, car-
prior to discharge into the sanitary system. bon steel schedu le 80 is often u sed. Stainless
steel is generally u nsu itable, except for oliu m
with less than 10.3% concentration. Vent lines
Health and Safety Concerns
shou ld be of the same material u sed for the drain
All grades and concentrations of acids can cau se line.
severe damage to the eyes and tissues of the body. Va lve t ypes in clu de ba ll, ga t e, a n d dia -
Contact with the eyes can cau se blindness. Con- p h r a gm , wit h ga t e va lves b ein g t h e m os t
tact with the skin cau ses irritation and bu rns. commonly u sed. For low pressu res and tempera-
Inh aling the mist or vapors can cau se lu n g irri- tu res su itable for specific plastic pipes, plastic
tation or bu rns. Ingestion destroys tissu es of the is often u sed. For higher temperatu res and pres-
mou th, throat, an d stomach. su res, alloy 20 is preferred. In all cases, becau se
Extreme care shou ld be exercised in the han- of differences in manu factu ring, pipe vendors
dling an d cleanu p of all acids. This man dates shou ld be consu lted as to th e su itability of ma-
th at emergency drench equ ipment be provided terials for specific acid pipin g service.
immediately adjacen t to all hazards and loca- Centrifu gal pu mps constru cted of SS alloy
tion s wh ere spills an d oth er acciden ts cou ld 320 with Teflon packin g are in common u se.
occu r. If several people are normally present at Ot h er m a n u fa ct u r er s u s e FRP a n d p la s t ic
a h azardou s location , mu ltiple pieces of dren ch pu mps. Also available are metallic pu mps lined
equ ipment should be provided. Where fumes may with plastic or glass. Temperatu re limits sh ou ld
be given off, emergen cy breath in g apparatu s be carefu lly checked for material su itability.
mu st be provided.
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 333

Spills of con centrated acids from tanks onto soda sh ou ld n ot be u sed becau se hydrochloric
floors an d equ ipment sh ou ld be washed off and acid reacts with this ch emical.
flooded with water, which is then rou ted to the
acid drainage system for neu tralization. Tanks Nitric acid (HNO3 ) Nitric acid is available in
th at con tain this spillage shou ld be of a su itable three grades, designated by the percent of con-
plastic. Since water reacts rapidly with the acid cen t r a t ion b y weigh t : 5 6 –7 0 , 7 0 –8 4 , a n d
and splatters, cau tion shou ld be exercised. Heat 97.5–100%.
and fu mes are also given off. Breathing the fu mes Recommended pressu re piping material for
cau ses throat and lu n g inju ry. Where th is situ a- concentrations u p to 95% is 304L SS. Above this
tion is possible, su itable emergen cy breathin g concentration, aluminu m piping is recommended.
apparatu s shou ld be provided. An emergency Pu mps for concentrations u p to 95% shou ld be
shower shou ld be provided in the immediate vi- constru cted of 304L SS. Above this concentra-
cin ity of acid storage an d pipe rou ting. tion, titanium, alu minum type 3003 or silicon iron
Su lfu ric acid is nonflammable, bu t it is highly are commonly u sed. Recommended materials for
reactive. Below a con centration of 75% it reacts gate, ball, plu g, and globe valves are 347 SS or
with carbon steel and other metals to form hy- 304L SS. Drain lines shou ld be glass.
drogen . It is particu larly h azardou s wh en in Precau tion s and procedu res for spills and
contact with carbides, chlorates, n itrates, fu l- safety and health con cerns are similar to those
min a tes , picra tes , a n d powdered meta ls . In for su lfu ric acid, except that temperatu re and
higher concentrations it will ignite combu stible hu midity have an effect on the reaction of nitric
materials, su ch as oily rags and sawdu st. Dry acid on su ch metals as copper, brass, and zinc.
chemicals or carbon dioxide are the fire-su ppres- Nitric acid reacts violen tly with organ ic su b-
sion methods of choice. s t a n ces , occa s ion a lly ca u s in g explos ion s . A
Becau se of the danger of fu mes, oleu m spills self-contain ed breath ing apparatu s is requ ired
shou ld be contained by cu rbs an d th e liqu id di- for approachin g spills becau se of the emission
ver t ed a wa y fr om t h e a r ea of a s p ill t o a of n itrogen oxides, common ly called “n itrou s
containment area, where the liqu id can be neu - fu mes,” which are extremely h azardou s.
tralized. The resu lting liqu id sh ou ld be absorbed
Hydrobromic acid (Hbr) Hydrobromic acid is
with diatomaceou s earth, expanded clay, or other
commercially available in two concentrations: 70
nonreactive material. This material shou ld be
and 99.95%.
carted away for su itable disposal.
Recommended pressu re piping materials are
Phosphoric acid (H3 PO4 ) Phosph oric acid is glass an d ru bber-lined steel pipe, PVC, PE (poly
available in concentrations of between 75 and ethylene), and PTFE (polytetrafloroethylene). In
87%. Recommen ded pressu re piping is SS type addition to th e pressu re piping, glass pipe cou ld
316 extra low carbon (ELC). The drainage and be u sed for drainage. Valves are often ball and
vent piping, valves, and pu mps are similar to plu g type with PVC, PE, and PTFE linin g. Ru b-
th ose u sed for su lfu ric acid. The Occu pational ber -lin ed pin ch va lves a re common ly u s ed.
Safety and Hazard Administration (OSHA) has Pu mps are similar to those u sed for su lfu ric acid,
limits for hu man exposu re to this acid. with the addition of Hasteloy B material.
Precau tion s for spills and safety and h ealth Precau tion s and procedu res for spills and
concerns are similar to those for su lfu ric acid. safety and health con cerns are similar to those
for phosphoric acid, bu t the vapors are mu ch
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Hydrochloric acid, also
more hazardou s. This acid reacts with metals
known as “mu riatic acid,” is available in fou r
and produ ces explosive h ydrogen gas.
stren gth s, design ated as degrees Bau me (an
equ ivalent n otation of specific gravity). Perchloric acid (HClO4 ) Perchloric acid is avail-
Piping materials for drainage an d ven t pip- able in a concentration of 69–72% stren gth and
ing, valves, and pu mps are similar to those u sed is the stron gest of all the in organ ic acids.
for su lfu ric acid. Precau tions and procedu res for Recommended pressu re piping materials are
spills and safety an d health concerns are simi- glass an d PTFE. Drain lin es can be glass or
lar to those for su lfu ric acid, except that cau stic du riron . Valves are often ball-an d-plu g type
manu factu red from PTFE and du riron. Pu mps
334 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

manufactured from PTFE are the most commonly ter, su ch as is discharged from air compressors
u sed. and other condensate drains, can also spill into
the laboratory drainage system when convenient.
Precau tions an d procedu res for spills and
Becau se of possible stoppages th at cou ld flood
safety and health con cerns are similar to those
all the piping, the en tire laboratory waste sys-
for phosphoric acid, except th at, when heated to
tem shall be of the same acid-resistant pipin g
150°F (69°C), perchloric acid can cau se objects
material.
not normally considered combu stible, su ch as
ru bber gloves an d hu man skin , to bu rst in to Wh ere the only waste discharge is from labo-
flames. ratory fixtu res, the u se of fixtu re-u n it sch edu les
for pipe sizing is acceptable, except that simu l-
Selection of Laboratory Waste Piping taneou s u se shou ld be factored into the sizin g
and Joint Material process. Wh en the efflu en t is expressed in gal-
lons per min u te (gpm) (liters per second [L/ s])
The majority of the efflu ent from an “average” from a known disch arge, base the size on th is
laboratory con sists primarily of water an d acid. gpm (L/ s) and th e equ ivalen t gpm (L/ s) from the
If toxic to th e staff, ch emicals u sed for experi- fixtu res. The pipe shall be sized u sin g the pitch
men ts are u su ally con fined to fu me h oods. The and a ¾-fu ll pipe.
designer shou ld obtain information regarding the
Th e laboratory drain age an d ven t system
extent and concen tration of all the ch emicals
shall be separate from all oth er systems u ntil
expected to be u sed in th e laboratory from the
th e efflu ent is adequ ately treated; it may th en
end u ser. be combin ed on the site with oth er waste lin es.
The most cost-effective above-the-floor pip- If a manh ole is requ ired in the acid waste line, it
in g fr om la b or a t or y fixt u r es is gen er a lly sh ou ld be acid resistant. A typical acid-resistant
fire-retardant polypropylen e with eith er h eat- manh ole is illu strated in Figu re 12-1.
fu sed socket or “screwed mechanical” type joints.
Oth er acceptable materials are glass with com- Acid Waste Treatment
pression joints an d high -silicon cast iron with
cau lked or compression gasket join ts. Alth ou gh All acid waste requ ires neu tralization to a pH of
PVC and CPVC have the lowest initial cost, they between 7.5 and 4.0 before it is permitted to be
also have a limited ran ge of chemical compat- discharged into any pu blic sewer for disposal.
ibility, with PVC having a low temperatu re rating. Commonly accepted practice permits local au -
PTFE is resistant to th e widest variety of ch emi- th orities to allow primary-trea ted efflu en t to
cals and has the highest temperatu re rating and discharge directly in to the pu blic sanitary sewer
highest cost. system after only pH treatment. The most often-
u sed primary procedu res are direct, con tin u ou s
Piping u ndergrou nd, su bject to local codes,
contact with limeston e chips in an acid-neu tral-
could also be polypropylene with heat-fused socket
izing basin or con tinu ou s or batch treatment in
joints or high-silicon cast iron with compression
an au tomated n eu tralization system u tilizin g
gasket joints. Glass piping shou ld be encased in
chemical feed neu tralizing.
a sleeve of polyethylene for protection.
An acid-neu tralizing basin operates on the
Vent pipe shall be the same material as the
prin ciple of a chemical reaction between the acid
drain pipe. The vent shall be carried u p to above
and th e limestone chips. Each basin sh all be
the roof level. Vent piping penetrating the roof
designed by the man u factu rer to allow su fficient
shall not be glass. An adapter shou ld be u sed
contact time for the chemical reaction to accom-
and any other acceptable acid-resistant pipe ma-
plis h complet e n eu t ra liza t ion ba s ed on t h e
terial shou ld be provided through the penetration.
maximu m flow rate anticipated. Average figu res
show that 100 lb (45 kg) of limestone ch ips treat
System Design Considerations 97 lb (44 kg) of su lfu ric acid and 75 lb (34 kg) of
hydrochloric acid. Efflu ent consisting mostly of
Gen eral system design con sideration s for the su lfu ric acid shou ld be treated with dolomite
laboratory drain age system sh all be th e same as limestone chips.
th ose for the sanitary drain age system, in clu d-
ing placemen t of clean ou ts. Each fixtu re sh all For general laboratory waste, several meth-
be in dividu ally trapped and ven ted. Clean wa- ods of t rea tmen t u s in g limes t on e ch ips a re
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 335

Figure 12 -1 Typical Acid-Resistant Manhole

336 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

available. For single isolated sinks, an acid-neu - can coat individu al ch ips and preven t proper
tralizing trap shou ld be considered. For a small chemical action to neu tralize the acid.
nu mber of sin ks in a clu ster, a sh elf-mou nted,
For a larger n u mber of fixtu res or equ ip-
small-diameter basin cou ld be u sed. It sh ou ld
men t an d wh ere treatmen t by limeston e ch ips
be confined to treating the discharge of acids from
alon e is n ot practical, a system con sistin g of
a small nu mber of fixtu res an d in remote loca-
sin gle or mu ltiple basin s an d/ or a mixin g tan k
tion s or for individu al sinks where th e timely
sh ou ld be in stalled. If th is is located at a low
main ten ance n eeded to fill th e basin may be
level, a pu mp is requ ired to brin g th e disch arge
qu estionable. Larger basins, su ch as the on e il-
u p to th e level of th e sewer. A soph isticated ar-
lu strated in Figu re 12-2, are available to treat
rangement of probes, chemical feed pu mps, level
th e efflu ent from a large nu mber of laboratory
in dicators, an d alarms is requ ired. An agitator
sin ks. If the discharge of oil or grease is expected
or mixer may be in stalled in th e basin to mix
in th e laboratory waste stream, the installation
th e acid with th e cau stic. Th e addition of a re-
of an in terceptor basin before the acid su mp is
corder may be desired. Th e acid-n eu tralizin g
recommended. Some objectionable contaminants

Figure 12 -2 Typical Large Acid-Neutralizing Basin

Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 337

system operates on th e prin ciple of au tomati- The requ irements for handling radioisotopes
cally addin g proper amou n ts of cau stic to th e in laboratories are essentially no different than
in comin g acid waste, th ereby n eu tralizin g th e th e requ irements for h andling toxic chemicals
acid. Th e probe is con n ected to an au tomatic or path ogens, with th e exception of providin g
cau stic feed pu mp th at in trodu ces th e proper radiation sh ieldin g if necessary. The ideal goal
amou n t of n eu tralizin g liqu id in to th e basin or is to totally elimin ate th e exposu re of workers,
mixing tan k. The most common ly u sed n eu tral- staff, an d the gen eral pu blic. Sin ce this is not
izin g ch emica l is ca u s t ic s oda . Con tin u ou s realistic, it is requ ired not only to prevent over-
treatmen t may also requ ire addition al down - exposu re bu t to keep any exposu re to radiation
stream sen sin g probes an d ch emical additive as low as is reason ably achievable. Th e design
location s to en su re th at th e disch arge is with in shall implement criteria that eliminate or redu ce
acceptable limits. Figu re 12-3 illu strates a typi- to allowable levels the radiation exposu re of work-
cal continu ou s waste-treatment system. Variou s ers an d main ten an ce pers on n el an d preven t
manu factu rers have nu merou s proven an d su c- exposu re of the gen eral pu blic to u nacceptable
cessfu l meth ods of acid treatmen t. amou nts of radiation by waterborne radioactive
waste (“radwaste”).
It is good engineerin g practice to have the
discharge from the neu tralizer separately rou ted
into th e san itary h ou se drain ou tside of a bu ild- The Nature of Radiation
ing for dilu tion prior to discharge into th e pu blic
“Radioactivity” is th e spon tan eou s emission of
sewer. This may also be necessary in order for
local au th orities to monitor the waste stream “harmfu l” particles from the u nstable nu cleu s of
with ou t h aving to enter a bu ilding. an atom. There are many intermediate steps in
th e stabilization cycle, inclu din g the formation
For preliminary determination of the nu m- of other, less complex, radioactive byprodu cts
ber of sinks requ ired for average laboratories, called “isotopes.” These byprodu cts, in tu rn , de-
allow 1 sin k for each 200 ft 2 (18.6 m 2 ) of labora- cay to form oth er u nstable isotopes as the cycle
tory area. Each sink will discharge 1 gpm (3.8 continu es. The end resu lt is an element that is
L/ min ). Cu p sinks will discharge 0.5 gpm (1.9 highly stable. For example, the en d produ ct of
L/ min ). For a maximu m flow rate, assu me that u raniu m is lead. One of the intermediate byprod-
50% of the sinks cou ld discharge simu ltaneously. u cts of u raniu m is radon.
“Radiation” is a general term that means an y
RADIOACTIVE WASTE DRAINAGE or all of th e followin g; alph a rays, beta rays,
AND VENT SYSTEM gamma rays, neu trons, x-rays, and other atomic
particles. There are th ree general classifications
General of radiation of concern, namely, alpha, beta, and
gamma. Alpha radiation is actu ally a helium atom
Commercial facilities can be characterized by low with a high velocity. Beta radiation is an elec-
qu antities an d levels of radioactive waste, and tron with a h igh velocity. Gamma radiation is a
therefore, have a lesser set of regu latory requ ire- particle similar to a photon, which is ligh t. Al-
ments than nu clear power plants. Becau se of the pha an d beta radiation can generally be stopped
small amou nt of radioactive material present at by the skin or clothing, paper, or an other simi-
commercial type facilities, larger storage an d lar, light material. Alpha loses energy very qu ickly
treatment systems are n ot provided, an d severe in air an d is n o practical concern for distances
safety requ irements are not necessary. Facilities greater than 12 in . (305 mm). High-en ergy beta
having higher qu antities of radioactive material radiation is common ly contained by only 1 in.
and levels of radiation fall u nder a different, much (25 mm) of solid, dense plastic. Beta is den ser,
more strin gen t set of regu latory requ iremen ts carries more energy greater distances than al-
th an commercial or institu tional projects. For pha, and will bu rn bare skin an d, in particu lar,
su ch facilities, the su bmission of docu mentation damage the eye bu t will generally not penetrate
for the protection of the pu blic and workers in in to th e body to cau se any internal damage. The
th e even t of an acciden t are con siderably more greatest danger with beta radiation is to the eyes,
complex. The prin ciples of drainage system de- particu larly when the eye is directly exposed close
sign apply to all kinds of system. to th e sou rce.
338 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

Gamma radiation is electromagnetic in na- Radiation Measurement

tu re. It carries th e most energy and therefore is
th e most dangerou s to h u mans. Its wavelength “Radioactivity” is a gen eral term u sed for th e
is shorter th an light waves. Wh en generated, it total releas e of ra diation of a ll types from a
is similar to x-rays and behaves in a man ner sou rce. Its measu remen t is in disin tegration s
similar to ligh t waves. When released from a per secon d (dps). Th is measu remen t is possible
sou rce, gamma rays have a mass and velocity for gamma radiation becau se in most radioac-
th at has a measu rable en ergy potential.

Figure 12 -3 Typical Continuous Acid-Waste Treatment System

Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 339

t ive m a t er ia ls d p s a ls o pr od u ces a k n own Allowable Radiat ion Levels

amou n t of gamma radiation . However, th e best
man n er of measu rin g gamma radiation is to There is no exact radiation level that is certain
measu re th e en ergy it produ ces per kilogram to cau se any individu al perman ent harm. Man y
(pou n d) of air. Becau se the in stru men ts needed scientists believe there is no level that is harm-
to measu re radiation in th is way are very ex- less. There is a term called “backgrou nd level of
pen sive, it is n ot widely u s ed ou ts ide of th e radiation” that exists all over the world. The most
laboratory. The so-called Geiger-Mu eller cou nter common sou rce of this is the su n, and it is called
is th e most common device for measu rin g ra- “cos mic r a d ia t ion .” In a ddit ion , ma n y s u b-
dia t ion . It mea s u res t h e pen et ra t ion of t h e stances, su ch as fly ash from bu rning organ ic
particles th at en ter in to a tu be, wh ere th e par- fu els (particu larly coal), granite, and many other
ticles react with a gas in th e tu be creatin g an natu ral su bstances th at contain trace isotopes
electrical ch arge th at can be measu red. If an of elements, emit radiation. One of the most com-
amplification device is u sed, it can be h eard in mon of these trace elements is carbon 14, u sed
the form of static. The more modern instru ments by scien tists to date many materials.
h ave a digital readou t. The Nu clear Regu latory Commission (NRC)
is a governmental body that h as th e responsibil-
Units of radiation Particu late radiation is mea-
it y of es t a b lis h in g cr it er ia for t h e field of
su red by th e nu mber of disintegrations per u nit
radioactivity. These criteria appear in the fed-
of time. A cu rie (c) is equ al to 3.7 x 1010 dps.
eral governmen t’s Code of Federal Regulations .
One millicu rie (mc) is 0.001 c, or 3.7 x 107 dps.
One rad is defined as th e dose corresponding to All personnel working at any site that has a
th e absorption of 100 ergs/ gram of tissu e. A possibility of exposure to radiation are requ ired
Roentgen measu res ions carrying a total of 2.58 to wear some type of exposu re detection device
x 104 cou lombs (C) of electrical energy. that gives an accu rate determination of their
actual exposure. The photographic badge is the
Since the term “radiation ” is a general one, a
most common and is u sed where sensitivity is
more specific method mu st be u sed to measu re
requ ired. A pen-shaped device called a “dosim-
its effect on hu mans. That measu rement is called
eter” is commonly u sed wh ere there is less need
a “dose.” A “dose” is defined as the total qu antity
for accu racy. It is u sed where instant determi-
of radiation absorbed by the body or any portion
nation of dose is necessary.
of the body. Mu ch of the time, the dose is modi-
fied by referen ce to a u nit of time. This differs An “u nrestricted area” is any area within a
from radioactivity becau se all radiation is not facility that is n ot specifically controlled for the
absorbed by th e body. pu rpose of protecting any individu al from radia-
tion or radioactive materials. A “restricted area”
A “rad” is a measu re of the dose to body tis-
is access controlled. Another term, “environs,”
su e in terms of energy absorbed per u n it mass.
may also be u sed to describe areas adjacent to a
Gamma radiation is the type of radiation most
restricted or high-radiation area.
common ly measu red th is way.
A high -radiation area is defined as any ac-
The most important measu rement is the “ra-
cessible area within a facility that is capable of
diation equ ivalen t to man,” or “rem.” A “rem” is
allowing the body to receive 100 millirem (mrem)
the measure of ionizing radiation passing throu gh
of radiation in a 1-h period.
or absorbed by th e body in terms of the biologi-
cal effect relative to a dose of 1 roentgen of x-rays.
The relation of th e rem to other dose u nits de- Shielding
pen ds u pon the actu al biological effect to the
particu lar part of the body bein g stu died an d the The pu rpose of shieldin g is to redu ce or elimi-
actu al conditions an d amou nt of time of the ir- nate radiation emanating from any sou rce within
radiation. One rem is the equivalent of 1 roentgen th e facility. The most effective material h as the
du e to x or gamma radiation, and also 1 rad du e greatest den sity, so lead h as been u niversally
to x, gamma, or beta radiation . One rem of h igh- u sed for this pu rpose. Anoth er common ly u sed
flu x neu trons is rou ghly equ ivalent to 14 million material is con crete. The differen ce in sh ieldin g
neu trons per squ are cen timeter (cm 2 ) incident th ickness between concrete and lead is th e fol-
to the body. lowing: v in. (4 mm) of lead is the equivalent of
12 in. (305 mm) of concrete. The basic philoso-
340 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

phy is that th e u se of con crete as a stru ctu ral Since given amou nts of radioactive material
elemen t of the bu ilding serves dou ble pu rposes remain active for different periods of time, it is
as a very good shielding material. It is u p to the not possible to predict wh en any material will
Radiological Safety Officer (RSO), whose respon- become completely stable. Th e method u sed is
sibilities we discu ss later, to determine the type to determine when a specific material loses half
of sh ieldin g and its placement to lower radiation of its radioactivity, wh ich is called its “h alf life.”
in specific areas. Radiation travels in a straight
line; th erefore, if a tank or a len gth of pipe has System Design Criteria
to be sh ielded, the proper man ner is to form a
labyrinth, so th at the sh ine from the tan k can’t The approval process and application require-
escape in a straight line. me nt s Th e u s e of a n y radioa ctive ma terial
Th e m a t er ia ls mos t com mon ly u s ed for requ ires the licen sing of th e site for a specific
shielding pu rposes are concrete and sheet lead. pu rpose, qu an tity, an d amou n t of radioactive
Oth er materials th at have proven effective are material. Application for this licen se is made to
(a) lead-lined concrete blocks, (b) lead-lined lath either the NRC or a particu lar state. Those states
for plaster, and (c) lead-lined panels an d gyp- th at have elected to adopt NRC regu lations and
su m boards. provide their own staff for th e pu rpose of issu -
ing and approving licenses are called “agreement
The barriers set u p to redu ce radiation lev- states.” In some cases th ese states make addi-
els are primary barriers, wh ich are the first line tional regu lations of their own. Those states that
of defense, and secondary barriers, which are rely on the NRC to review an d issu e licen ses are
u sed to eliminate leakage radiation and scattered “non-agreement states.” The application is made
radiation where it may possibly exist. to the appropriate party.
The du ties of the Radiological Safety Officer
Radioactive Materials
(RSO) inclu de administration, monitorin g per-
Radioactive materials are u sed for the followin g s on n el expos u re limits , a n d con trollin g an y
five general categories of work: release of radio nu clides to the sewer system. In
addition , it is u su ally the RSO who works with
1. Imaging sciences. engineers in th e design phase of th e facility to
2. Diagn ostic pu rposes. ensu re that the piping ru ns and all other me-
chanical work will resu lt in a low exposu re to
3. Treatment pu rposes. people with in the facility. For the most part, th is
4. In du strial u ses. work is aimed at en su rin g that facility person-
n el do n ot exceed th e maximu m permiss ible
5. Research .
radiation dose allowed under the applicable codes
Almost all of the materials u sed are isotopes. for any particu lar type of radioactive material
An “isotope” is a form of an element with a dif- present and that non-staff members are not su b-
feren t (or exces s ) n u mber of n eu tron s in its ject to u nacceptable levels of radiation. The RSO
nu cleu s. Becau se of this difference, the atom is is also responsible for the following:
u nstable. These isotopes are identified by th eir
“atomic weight,” wh ich is the weigh t of the nu m- 1. Tea ch es facility s ta ff abou t th e poten tia l
dangers.
ber of n eu tron s and protons in th e nu cleu s.
2. Keeps the n ecessary records for the facility.
There are a great nu mber of isotopes in u se
today. Some of th e more common are: 3. Keeps inventory of material and records dis-
posal.
• Iodine 131 (8-day half-life).
4. Is respon sible for concen tration of materials
• Phosphoru s 32.
at the facility.
• Tech netiu m 99 (6-hou r half-life).
5. Assists engineer in the design of mech anical
• Calciu m 45. systems.
• Carbon 14. 6. Design ates areas within th e facility to be re-
• Strontiu m 90. stricted.
• Radiu m 226.
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 341

General design criteria The prime consideration low level of radiation is present. Other materials
in the design of any facility is controlling the ex- shou ld be in vestigated as to their su itability for
posu re of personnel to radiation, a concept called u se for th e levels anticipated.
ALARA, an acronym for “as low as reasonably
All the commonly u sed materials (cast iron,
achievable.” This requ ires that, in the design of
ductile iron, copper, steel, and glass) and the joints
the facility, every reasonable method to limit the
normally u sed to pu t pipes together fall far short
possible exposu re of personnel inside the facility
of the ideal. However, all of them are su itable for
and to keep the presence of radioactivity in any
low-level waste and radioactive sou rce materials
u nrestricted area to a figu re as low as reasonably
fou nd in facilities with a low level of radiation. It
achievable mu st be considered. Among the things
is only when the radiation levels of the waste
that mu st be taken into accou nt are the cu rrent
materials get into the “high radiation” level cat-
state of technology, the economics of fu rther im-
egory that they fail one or more of the conditions
provements in relation to the benefits to the public
listed above. As a resu lt, stain less steel with
health and safety, and other socioeconomic con-
welded join ts h as emerged as the material of
s ider a t ion s t h a t r ela t e t o t h e u t iliza t ion of
choice for all “indu strial” type waste produ cts.
radioactive material in the general pu blic inter-
Type 316L is the type most commonly u sed.
est. The designer of the facility mu st also make a
reasonable effort to eliminate residu al radiation. A welded joint is the only type of joint that
One of the overriding concepts is the “worst case” meets the criterion for not allowing a cru d trap.
possibility, where the worst possible combination The orbital welding process is often u sed since it
of circu mstances is u sed to determine the pos- produ ces the clean est in terior weld su rface. The
sible level of radiation and the period of time of proper weld end preparation is critical to proper
the exposu re. This concept shou ld not be over- welding and mu st be diagrammed or described
u sed, and a gen eral ru le is to h ave on ly one in the specification s.
“accident” at a time. As an example, a seriou s
There are two types of joint u sed for drainage
spill and a fire wou ld not be considered as likely
to occu r simu ltaneou sly. pipe: butt welding and socket welding. “Bu tt weld-
ing” is a term u sed to describe two pipes placed
Pipe material selection The pipe selected for en d to end and joined with no overlapping. A
th e radioactive drain age system depends u pon “socket weld” describes the process by which one
th e type of radiation and th e level of radioactiv- pipe is placed inside the other and only one end
ity expected, which , in tu rn , depend u pon the of the exposed pipe is actu ally welded arou nd the
amou nt and type of radioactive material at the exterior of the pipe. This is like a cou pling, with
facility. In gen eral, an ideal radwaste drainage only the joint on the ou tside of the pipe welded.
pipe shou ld have the following properties: In general, only pipe 2 in. (50 mm) and less is
socket welded. Pipe this small (2 in. [50 mm] and
1. It mu st be nonporou s. u nder) is called “small bore pipe.”
2. It mu st be easy to clean an d decontaminate. Specifications for, an d approval of, th e en-
3. It shou ld be acid resistant. tire welding process for both shop weldin g and
field weldin g is necessary. It is also n ecessary to
4. It shou ld be non-oxidizing.
qu alify welding personnel to ensu re that they
5. The joints shou ld not form a cru d trap. have su fficien t training and kn owledge to pro-
6. J oint materials mu st not be affected by ra- du ce a weld of the requ ired qu ality called for in
diation exposu re. th e specifications. Th e qu alifications of weldin g
personnel are difficu lt to assess. High-tempera-
It is possible in very h igh radiation areas to tu re, h igh -pressu re pipe is covered by ASME
have a pipe affected by th e radiation present. codes th at specify th e selection of su ccessive
The oxides of the pipe can become radioactive or weldin g type passes, filler metal composition ,
th e pipe itself can be weakened. Plastic pipin g is joint preparation, movement and handling of the
not acceptable for radiation -waste systems du e pipe, tack weldin g an d clampin g, welding cu r-
to the possibility that the plastic may be affected rents, metal deposit rates, and weld inspection.
by the radiation. Another possibility is the weak- Non e of th es e code requ iremen t s a pplies to
ening of elastomeric seals or gaskets becau se of welded nonpressu re drainage pipe. If the engi-
high levels of radiation . For this reason , Teflon neer does n ot have the knowledge to specify the
is never u sed where anything more than a very minimu m requ irements for welders and the weld-
342 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

ing process, it cou ld be left u p to the contractor qu ickly an d to allow a scou ring action to keep
who h as the job to determine the correct specifi- th e radioactive solids in su spension.
cations for th e project an d recommend th em to
It is common practice to have h igh levels of
th e engin eer for approval. When this is done,
radiation confined to glove boxes or protected
the contractor establishes minimu m criteria that
fu me hoods. The small amou n t of liqu id waste
will qu alify any individu al for welding on th is
produ ced from this equ ipmen t shou ld be stored
particu lar project. It is then u p to the contractor
in shielded containers below th e equ ipment and
to test a welder’s ability to make sou nd welds
removed periodically. If th e s torage of larger
u nder the actu al working condition s and u sin g
qu antities of low-level radwaste is requ ired, the
th e same equ ipment expected to be u sed on the
waste is piped to a holding tank. A common hold-
job an d certify that person as being qu alified.
in g time is ten h alf-lives of th e efflu ent. Usu ally,
These criteria shou ld be reviewed by the engi-
radwaste is stored for disposal on the site, ou t-
neer for acceptability. It is common practice to
side of a bu ilding and wh ere easy tran sfer of the
u se an ou tside, knowledgeable third party for
liqu id is possible. The removal mu st be don e by
th is review process.
licen sed waste-disposal contractors who remove
The defects in welded piping mu st be fou nd th e waste from th e h olding tan k in to a special
and corrected. All of them arise from the fact tru ck, which transports th e liqu id waste to a
th at the weld does not actu ally create a mono- designated site su itable for disposal of low-level
lithic piece of pipe. The flaws are cracks or voids waste. The solid wastes, su ch as gloves, wipes,
in the joint. The testing methods are of the n on- an d th e like are stored in special contain ers,
destru ctive type (NDT). Th e methods are: which are removed to th e disposal area with the
liqu id radwaste.
1. Visu al inspection of the weld.
Floor drains are normally not desired in labo-
2. Dye pen etration.
ratories. If th ere is a spill of radioactive material,
3. Magn etic testin g. it is wiped u p by hand u sin g absorbent mate-
4. Ultrasonic testing. rial, an d the solid containing th e spill is pu t in a
special radwaste holding container within the lab.
5. X-ray. If a floor drain is installed, it sh ou ld be con-
stru cted of stainless steel. For testing pu rposes
General design considerations Hu man or ani-
and to close off a drain when it is not expected to
m a l wa s t e, even t h a t con t a m in a t ed wit h
radioactivity, is exempt from all NRC regu lations, be u sed, each drain shou ld be su pplied with a
requ iring only compliance with local codes as far closu re plu g. If there are areas wh ere a spill is
possible, th e floor mu st be pitch ed to a floor
as disposal, sizin g, and all other criteria appli-
drain. A generally accepted valu e for the pitch of
cable to standard drainage systems. There are
th e floor is 1 in./ 20 ft (2.54 cm/ 6.10 m). The
also many isotopes th at are exempt from regu la-
thickness of the slab mu st be closely coordinated
tions regarding disposal in to the pu blic sewer.
becau se th e slab is thin nest at the drain and
An ot h er r equ ir em en t is t h a t t h e liqu id made th icker at the en ds of the area served to
radwaste to be discharged shall be dilu ted with make u p the pitch. It is not practical to cast the
th e ordinary waste efflu en t from the rest of the slab evenly an d add a topping, becau se there is
facility before bein g disch arged to th e pu blic a tendency to chip the topping and possibly have
sewer system. Th is u su ally requ ires th at th e a radioactive spill get u nder the top coating. Since
radwaste piping first be kept separate from the th e slab depth is greater th e longer the ru n to
rest of th e facility’s efflu ent, bu t combin ed to- th e drain, it is necessary to indicate the top of
gether before leaving the bu ilding for disch arge the drain elevation at each drain. This also makes
into a pu blic sewer. Th ere are no restrictions it easier for th e sh op fabricator to make u p ac-
regarding the combining of any radwaste together cu rate pipe spools.
th at are permitted to be disch arged separately.
Drains also requ ire special treatment. They
A method sh ou ld be provided, su ch as a valved
ou tlet from both the radwaste line and the com- shou ld also be manu factu red of stainless steel.
bin ed disch arge, for th e RSO to take a grab There will be different types of drain in different
areas, and they may be in stalled at different el-
sample of the radwaste stream if desired.
evations. Becau se of this and the probability that
The pitch of the piping shou ld be kept as th e piping will be made in spools (preassembled
steep as possible in order to empty th e pipe sections of piping), it is a good idea to nu mber
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 343

all the individu al drains on th e design drawings. primary and secondary preventive measu res that
A box n ext to each drain can be u sed to provide provide personn el, en vironmental, and experi-
in for m a t ion r ega r d in g t yp e, n u m b er , a n d mental protection. “Primary barriers” are specific
elevation. pieces of equ ipment su ch as the biological safety
cabinet (which is th e biologist’s equ ivalent of the
Since fittings are a natu ral cru d trap, ru n-
chemist’s fu me h ood) and glove boxes. “Second-
n in g pipin g in , u n der, over , or a dja cen t t o
ary containment” refers to featu res of the facility
u nrestricted areas in a facility shou ld be avoided.
design su rrou nding and su pporting the primary
If this is not possible, the line shou ld be placed
contain ment. These featu res are described and
where additional shielding can be added, either
classified in pu blications of the National Insti-
at the time of constru ction or after the start of
tu tes of Health (NIH), in Bethesda, Maryland,
actu al u se, when the RSO may determine by su r-
among oth ers.
vey that additional shielding is necessary. Mu ch
of the time, the ability to take the joint apart and The classifications for biological containment
flu sh ou t any cru d is an advantage. Any of the in laboratories con sist of fou r biosafety levels,
popu lar joints for no-hu b or grooved pipe are ac- BL1 through BL4. Pu blications describe the work
ceptable, as well as those for glass pipe if that is practices, equ ipment, and BL selection criteria
u sed in a laboratory for chemical resistance. based on the activity of a particu lar laboratory.
If th e laboratory or produ ction facility produ ces
Th e d es ign er s h ou ld b e gen er ou s wit h
or u ses greater than 2.6 gal (10 L) involvin g vi-
cleanou ts. Th ey may be needed to flu sh ou t the
able organisms, the facility may become large
line to redu ce spot h igh radiation rather than
scale (LS). This is noted as “BL2 LS.”
roddin g it ou t.
Manu factu rin g stan dards shall conform to
good large-scale produ ction (GLSP) standards.
INFECTIOUS AND BIOLOGICAL- Th e same stan dards apply to both small and
WASTE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS large-scale facilities.

Biological waste h as the same basic character- Facility type of work is ou tlin ed later in th is
chapter in a very abbreviated and simplified form.
istics as other types of laboratory and produ ction
fa cilit y wa s t e, b u t wit h t h e a d d it ion of
biohazardou s material. “Biohazardou s material” Codes and Standards
is material su spen ded in the waste stream with
live organisms that, if n ot con tained, have the Mandated gu idelines and regu lations inclu de the
poten tial to cau se infection , sickness, and other following:
very seriou s diseases. Th is waste may be dis- 1. OSHA blood-borne pathogen regu lation s.
ch arged by gravity an d u n der pressu re from
many sou rces, in clu ding: 2. NIH gu idelines for the u se of recombinant
microorganisms
1. Fermentation tan ks and equ ipment.
3. FDA cGMP regu lation s.
2. Process centrifu ges.
4. CDC/ NIH (Center for Disease Control/ Na-
3. Sin ks, both hand-washing and process. tion a l In s t itu te of Health ) gu idelin es for
4. Containment area floor drains. biosafety in microbiological an d biomedical
laboratories.
5. J anitor closet drain s.
Biological safety levels The laboratory contain-
6. Necropsy table drains.
ment levels described in the CDC/ NIH gu idelines
7. Au toclave drains. for biosafety in microbiological and biomedical
8. Contaminated condensate drain s. laboratories are su mmarized as follows:

Containment is the method u sed to isolate Biosa fet y level 1 (BL1 ) cont a inment This is
and confine biohazardou s material. The facility the typical biological research facility classifica-
equ ipmen t and design shall conform to accept- tion for work with low-hazard agents. Viable
a ble a n d a ppropriat e con ta in men t pra ctices microorganisms not known to cau se disease in
based on the hazard potential. A con tainment healthy adu lts are u sed at this level. Work activ-
category is u sed to describe an assembly of both ity is done on an open bench and any hazard
344 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

present can be controlled by u sing standard labo- A bio-waste treatment system shall be provided
ratory practice. Stan dard featu res consist of within the facility to sterilize liquid waste.
easily cleaned, imperviou s bench su rfaces and
hand-wash sin ks, and the work area is sepa- Liquid-Wast e Decontamination System
rated from gen eral offices, animal rooms, and
produ ction areas. Contaminated liqu id and solid A “liqu id-waste decontamination system” (LWDS)
waste sh all be treated to remove biological haz- collects an d sterilizes (decon taminates) liqu id
ards before disposal. Wastes con tain in g DNA waste. Efflu ent containing potentially hazardou s
materials or potentially infectiou s microorgan- bio-matter is collected in a dedicated drainage
isms sh all be decontaminated before disposal. system generally discharging by gravity into a
Facilities to wash h ands are requ ired in each su mp below the floor level within the facility.
laboratory. From th e su mp, efflu ent is pu mped into a “kill
tank” where the actu al sterilization occu rs. A “kill
Biosafet y level 2 (BL2) cont ainment Facility tank” is a vessel in to wh ich steam or ch emical
construction for this level is similar to that for disin fectant can be injected to kill any organ-
BL1 except that the microorganisms may pose ism. The kill-tan k system sh all be qu alified to
some risk and safety cabinets are often present. th e same biosafety level as th e facility th at it re-
Equipment and work surfaces shall be wiped down ceives its discharge from. The kill-tank system
with a su ita ble dis in fecta n t. Sin ks sh a ll be mu st be a batch process since time is needed to
scrubbed daily with a chlorine-containing abra- complete the sterilization an d decontamin ation,
sive and flushed with a suitable disinfectant. All based on th e process u sed.
liquid waste shall be immediately decontaminated
by mixing it with a suitable disinfectant. System components In addition to piping, an
LWDS con sists of the su mp or tank to receive
Nearly all laboratories operate u nder levels 1
con tamin ated disch arge from th e drain s an d
or 2 containment. At these levels, the facility is
equ ipmen t of the facility, a pu mp to move the
engaged in research, diagnostic, or produ ction
contaminated efflu ent from the sump and u p into
activities thou ght to pose little or minimal risk
to workers. th e kill tan k(s), an d the kill tanks that will de-
contaminate an d sterilize th e efflu en t to a point
Biosa fet y level 3 (BL3 ) cont a inment Level 3 permitting disposal into the same system u sed
activity involves organisms that pose a signifi- for the sanitary waste from the facility—gen er-
cant risk or represent a potentially seriou s threat ally a pu blic sanitary sewer.
to health and safety. Biosafety cabinets are re-
Sump pit The su mp pit into which the efflu ent
quired and all penetrations to ou tside the facility
mu st be sealed to prevent leakage. These seals drains shall have a gasketed, waterproof cover.
mu st be capable of being cleaned. Liqu id waste The controls are similar to those provided on a
plu mbing su mp pu mp and shall be capable of
is kept within the laboratory or facility and steam
being chemically or steam sterilized. The sizing
sterilized prior to discharge or disposal. Vacu um
of the pit is done in conju nction with the sizing
inlets mu st be protected by appropriate filters
of the pu mp so that the pump stays on for a
and/ or disinfectant traps. Laboratory animals
requ ire special hou sing or, if conventional hou s- minimu m of 1 min to avoid too frequ ent start-
ing is u sed, personnel mu st be appropriately ing. Other possibilities, su ch as having the pit
contain one batch of product if necessary, may
protected with full su its and respirators. A hand-
be considered.
washing sink that is rou ted to sterilization shall
be located adjacent to the facility exit. Vents from Kill-t a nk a ss embly The kill tank consists of
plu mbing fixtu res must be filtered. a du plex-tank arrangement, allowing one batch
Biosafet y level 4 (BL4) cont ainment This is a to be decontaminated while the other is filling.
rarely used classification; activities in this type of The size of the tanks vary based on the indi-
vidu al facility, bu t common practice is to have
facility require a very high level of containment.
each tank capable of containing one day’s ef-
The organisms present have life-threatening po-
flu e n t p lu s t h e c h e m ic a ls u s ed for
tential and may initiate a serious epidemic disease.
decon tamin ation . An oth er con sideration is to
All of the BL3 requirements apply. In addition,
showers shall be provided for personnel at the air h ave su fficien t size to h old a catastroph ic spill.
lock where clothes are changed upon entry or exit. Th ere is u su ally an agitator to mix th e efflu en t
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 345

with th e deactivation ch emicals. In addition to In the event of an accident, OSHA has ru les
th e kill ta n ks , tan ks con tain in g dis in fectan t to aid personnel responding to emergencies in-
ch emicals to be in jected are requ ired. A fu lly volving any hazardou s material.
au tomatic con trol system mu st be provided to
ensu re the timely addition of the requ ired chemi- System design considerations The treated dis-
cals in the correct amou n ts and for th e requ ired charge from any containment treatment shall be
du ra tion for dea ct iva t ion of t h e bio-ma t ter. separately rou ted to the sanitary system ou tside
Alarms an d statu s sh all be displayed in an ap- the bu ilding to allow for monitoring and sampling.
propriate pan el located in a facility control room
or oth er area, wh ich sh all be provided.
CHEMICAL-WASTE SYSTEMS
Dr a i n a g e s y s t e m a nd c om p one n t s Th e
drainage system must be closed, which requ ires General
sealed floor drains and valved connections to
equ ipment wh en not in u se. Sin ce the HVAC Indu strial-waste drain age systems can contain
system maintains a n egative pressu re, it is im- a wide variety of water-born e wastes, amon g
portant that the traps on all floor drains have a them chemicals, solvents, su spended solids, and
seal 2½ in . (65 mm) deeper th an th e n egative flammable liqu ids, as well as waste water, man y
differen ce in air press u re. Th e traps of floor of which are considered hazardou s. The pu rpose
drain s sh all be filled with a disin fectan t solu - of the in du strial-waste drainage system is to col-
tion wh en n ot u sed, to elimin ate th e possibility lect and tran sport these wastes from inside a
of spreadin g organ isms between differen t areas facility to a point on site where disposal or treat-
served by th e same con n ected section s of th e men t can be accomplished.
pipin g system.
Codes and Standards
The drain age pipin g material is based on the
expected chemical composition of the efflu ent and A great body of regu lations affect the design of
th e sterilization method. If the local au thorities any indu strial drainage system. Among them are
determin e that th e bio-waste is h azardou s, a th e federal Clean Water Act (CWA) and Resou rce
dou ble-contained piping system with leak detec- Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which
tion may be requ ired. Stainless steel or PTFE are administered by the federal EPA as well as
pipe is u su ally chosen where higher-temperatu re state and other local agencies. The local au thori-
efflu ent may be discharged or steam steriliza- ties are also empowered to create regulations that
tion may be requ ired. PVC, CPVC, polypropylene, are stricter than federal regu lation s. Where pro-
or lined FRP pipe can be u sed where efflu ent tem- du ction and manu factu ring facilities disch arge
peratu res are lower an d also where chemicals waste, it is a general practice to en gage the ser-
will provide the meth od of sterilization. vices of professionals experienced in waste-water
If waste from pressu rized equ ipment is dis- treatment and en vironmental issu es to en su re
charged into a gravity system, th e system mu st compliance with all of the latest applicable regu -
be adequ ately sized to carry away th e waste at lations an d an acceptable treatment system.
th e proposed flow rate with pipe flowin g ½ fu ll, The major regu latory factor to be considered
and adequ ate vents mu st be provided to equ al- is th e determin ation if an y pa rticu la r wa s te
ize the internal pressu re and ensu re that the pipe stream is hazardou s. If so, protective measu res,
is always at atmosph eric pressu re. su ch as dou ble-contained piping systems and
Valves sh all be diaphragm type and capable leak detection may be requ ired.
of bein g sterilized u sing the same method u sed
for the pipe. After appropriate decontamin ation, Pipe Material and Joint Selection
the kill-tank efflu ent shall be discharged to drain.
This efflu ent mu st be treated prior to disch arge Becau se of the vast diversity of manu factu rin g
into a pu blic sewer system for disposal. processes, it is impossible to make any general
characterization of in du strial waste water. It is
Vent s Vents from pipe, fixtu res, sealed su mp common to have variou s areas within a plant or
pits, and kill tanks mu st be filter sterilized prior indu strial complex disch arging different types of
to leaving the system u sing a HEPA or a 0.2-µ efflu ent with greatly varyin g characteristics.
filter.
346 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

The largest qu antity of efflu en t in an indu s- a fu nnel type of drain shou ld be provided.
trial facility originates from drains. Drains receive The top of the fu nnel sh ou ld be as close to
discharge from produ ction equ ipment, floor wash th e floor as reasonable in order for an air
down, process and produ ction machines, and gap to be provided between the top of the
other equ ipment, su ch as compressors and boil- floor drain an d the end of th e equ ipmen t
ers. The floor drain an d th e discharge pipe from drain. This air gap shall be twice the diam-
the drain mu st be capable of resisting chemicals eter of th e drainage lin e.
discharged from the produ ction equ ipmen t. Se- 5. Adequ ate cleanou ts mu st be provided in drain
lection of the most appropriate pipin g material
lines. In lin es that are at the ceilin g of high
can only be accomplished if the n atu re of the
floors, th e cleanou ts shou ld be extended to
efflu ent, both present and fu tu re, is known and
th e floor above to avoid the need for mainte-
can be allowed for.
nance person nel to climb ladders to clean
An often -u sed material is vitrified clay sewer stoppages.
pipe becau se of its resistance to most chemicals. 6. Th e min imu m size drain line u nder the slab
Manholes are lined, as is shown in Figu re 12-1. or u n dergrou nd sh ou ld be 2 in. (50 mm).
Floor drains shou ld be a minimu m size of 4
System Design Considerations in . (100 mm).

The design of th e drain age system is dependent 7. Adequ ate venting of th e drainage line mu st
on the location, composition, and qu antity of dis- be provided to allow for smooth flow. The
charged efflu ent from all sou rces. The layou t and vents shall be con nected to the top of the
engineering of a piping network requ ires inge- drain line in order eith er to allow air at the
nu ity and attention to detail. top of the pipe to be ven ted ou t (when there
is a slu g of liqu id) or to admit air requ ired by
Selection of the type an d location of floor th e flow of water or du e to a partial vacu u m
drains is a major aspect of drain age system de- created by the liqu id flowing fu ll. Vents sh all
sign . Th e followin g are gen eral gu idelin es for be a minimu m size of 2 in. (50 mm).
locating and selectin g the drain s:
8. Local regu lation s may requ ire th e u s e of
1. Wet floors are to be avoided. Drain s shou ld dou ble-contained piping to preven t potential
be located next to equ ipment and be large leakage from discharging into the en viron-
enou gh to allow mu ltiple discharges to spill men t. A leak-detection s ystem sh ou ld be
easily over them with ou t requ iring a ru n of provided th at annu nciates leakage.
pipe over the floor or having to spill on the
floor an d ru n to the drain. If large flow rates
are expected, a large drain should be selected. FIRE-SUPPRESSION WATER
DRAINAGE
2. The u se of long tren ch drains in areas where
a nu mber of pieces of equ ipment are placed
For indu strial facilities, the water u sed to su p-
creates easy access to all the variou s drains
press a fire cou ld become contaminated with the
from th e equ ipmen t. Th is arran gemen t is
produ cts an d raw materials it comes in contact
u su ally less costly than mu ltiple drains.
with. It is requ ired that any water, su ch as sprin-
3. In many cases, the discharge from equipment k ler a n d fir e-h os e dis ch a r ge, t h a t h a s t h e
may be u n der pressu re becau se of the h ead possibility of bein g con taminated in this man-
of water in the piece of equ ipmen t, su ch as ner be rou ted to holding basins for an alysis and
occu rs when a tank is emptied. The drain possible treatment before being discharged into
shou ld be large enou gh in physical size to th e environment. If there is n o material capable
accept th e largest expected flow. The size of of cau sing contamin ation, no special con sider-
th e discharge pipe mu st be large enou gh to ation is necessary except to protect other areas
accept the maximu m qu an tity flowing fu ll by of th e facility from possible floodin g.
gravity withou t overflowin g. An air gap sh all
be provided to prevent pressu rizing the grav- System Descript ion
ity drain age system.
4. To accept th e largest n u mber of mu ltiple, The drainage system consists of th e drains, lo-
small-sized drain age lin es from equ ipment, cated in su ch a manner to intercept the flow of
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 347

fire water; th e drainage pipin g; a holding basin san itary sewers. These standards vary, and the
on site to con tain an d treat th e total volu me of respon sible enforcemen t and code au thorities
water; an d the necessary treatment system that mu st be consu lted to determine the level of treat-
will neu tralize th e water prior to its disch arge men t requ ired.
into the environment.
The most common flammable liquid is oil. The
The amou nt of water discharged from the fire- hazard created is either one of safety (since the
s u ppres s ion s ys t em is fa r grea t er th a n t h e vapors cou ld create an explosive condition, the
amou nt of waste water discharged from the fa- oil will float on water and cou ld be set on fire) or
cilit y u n d er n or m a l op er a t in g con d it ion s . health (where the breathing of the vapors is dan-
Overflow floor drain s large en ou gh to take the gerou s to health and toxic if ingested by hu mans).
design flow rate sh all be installed at poin ts that
The common characteristic of all volatile liq-
will intercept the water before it flows ou t of door-
u ids is that they are lighter than water. Th eir
ways or drive bays and rou te it to holding basins.
removal from water, therefore, is similar to the
The placement of th ese overflow drain s sh all be
removal of oil ou tlined below.
selected to intercept all of the water disch arged
and preven t it from damaging other parts of the
facility or escaping away from th e property or Oil in Water
into the grou nd.
Oil is considered immiscible, since it cann ot be
Th e drain age pipin g is sized based on flow mixed with water; oil in water exists in several
rate an d pitch from th e facility to th e deten tion forms:
basin . The efflu ent is essentially clear water with
a few solids. Th e flow rate of water requ ired to 1. Free oil.
be disposed of is determin ed by first calcu lat- 2. Mech anically dispersed oil is fine droplets
in g th e sprin kler water den sity over th e area ran ging in size from microns to fraction s of
u sed for h ydrau lic calcu lation s. Add to th is th e an inch (millimeter). These droplets are stable
flow rate from the n u mber of fire standpipe hose du e to electrical charges and other forces bu t
streams possible. Velocity in th e drain age pipe n ot du e to th e presen ce of su rface active
is n ot a major con sideration becau se th e sys- agents.
tem will be rarely u sed. A shallow pitch will give
3. Ch emica lly s tabilized emu ls ion s a re fin e
a low velocity th at may resu lt in th e deposit of
droplets th at are stable du e to su rface active
some material th at cou ld be flu sh ed ou t after
agents.
th e even t of th e fire. A h igh velocity will n ot
affect th e life of th e pipin g system becau se of 4. Dissolved an d dispersed oil is su spended in
th e sh ort amou n t of time th e system will be in su ch a small size (typically 5 µ or smaller)
operation . Pipe size is selected based on th e th at ordin ary filtration is n ot possible.
actu al pitch of th e pipe an d th e capacity flow- 5. Oil-wet solids, which are particu lates that oil
in g fu ll. Refer to Table 12-1. adh eres to the su rface of.
Venting of the system is requ ired in order to
Methods of separation and treatment Oil spills
allow free flow of the efflu ent. Each individu al
and leaks are best treated in their most concen-
drain need not be vented, but each branch should
trated state, wh ich is at their sou rce or as close
have a loop vent of at least 2 in . (50 mm) in size.
to their sou rce as is reasonable. The primary
The vent cou ld be connected to the sanitary vent
methods u sed to separate and remove free oil
system or carried throu gh the roof independently.
and oil-wet solids are flotation and centrifu ga-
The pipe material selected shall be compat- tion . Secon dary treatmen t, su ch as ch emical
ible with the possible ch emicals it may carry. treatmen t/ coalescen ce an d filtration , is th en
u sed to break u p oil water emu lsions an d re-
move dispersed oil. Finally, tertiary treatment,
FLAMMABLE AND VOLATILE su ch as u ltrafiltration, biological treatment, and
LIQUIDS carbon adsorption will remove the oil to requ ired
levels prior to discharge. This chapter discu sses
Federal, state, and local regu lations have estab- on ly th e general principles of th e primary and
lish ed stan dards for th e disch arge of volatile secondary separation methods and devices.
liqu ids, particu larly oil, in to storm-water an d
348 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

The American Petroleu m Institu te (API) has Flot at ion devices For larger-scale service, the
established criteria for the large-scale removal flotation of oil and oil-wet solids to the top of the
of globules larger than 150 µ. In abbreviated form, flotation chamber can be increased by the at-
th ey are: tachment of small bu bbles of air to the surface
of the slow-rising oil globu les. This is done by
1. The horizontal velocity throu gh the separa-
adding compressed air to the bottom of the flo-
tor may be u p to 15 times the rise velocity of
tation chamber in a special manner that creates
th e slowest-rising globu le, u p to a maximu m
small bubbles that mix with and attach them-
of 3 fps (0.91 m/ s).
selves to the oil globules.
2. The depth of flow in the separator shall be
with in 3 ft 0 in. to 8 ft 0 in . (0.9 to 2.4 m). Cent rifuga l sepa rat ors For larger-scale ser-
vice, the centrifugal separator is used. This device
3. The width of the separator shall be between operates on the principle of indu cing the com-
6 ft 0 in . and 20 ft 0 in. (1.8 to 6.1 m). bined oil and water mixtu re to flow arou nd a
4. The depth to width ratio shall be between circular separation chamber. The lighter oil glob-
0.3 and 0.5. u les collect arou nd the central vortex, which
contains the oil removal mechanism, and the
5. An oil-retention baffle shou ld be located no
clear water collects at the ou ter radial portion of
less than 12 in. (305 mm) down stream from
the separation chamber. Methods have evolved
a skimming device.
that produce efflu ent water with only 50 to 70
Gravit y separat ors Gravity separation is the ppm of oil, and proprietary devices exist that
primary and most often-used separation method. lower oil content to 10 ppm.
It is based on the specific gravity difference be-
tween immiscible oil globules and water. Since Filt rat ion Chemical methods used to break oil/
all volatile liquids are lighter than an equal vol- water emu lsions followed by depth type filters to
ume of water, gravity separators operate on the remove the destabilized mixtu re have proven ef-
principle of flotation. As the water and oil flow fective in the removal of oil globu les in a range of
through the unit, the oil floats to the top and is sizes between 1 and 50 µ. The velocity and flow
trapped inside by a series of internal baffles. Since rate of the mixtu re mu st be carefu lly controlled
the oil remains liquid, it is easily drawn off. to allow optimu m effectiveness of the system.

Figure 1 2-4 Typical Oil Interceptor

(Source: Courtesy of Rockford Co.)
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 349

Smaller syst ems Oil separators for small flows Most commonly u sed for an oil interceptor is
u su ally take the form of a single u nit consisting a coated steel vessel. Gratings, if used, must have
of a drain grating into which the efflu ent flows, the strength to withstand the type of vehicle ex-
is trapped and separated by gravity, then is di- pected to pass over the interceptor. A collection
verted to an accu mu lator chamber to be drawn basket may be specified where debris, su ch as
off manu ally or au tomatically. Another type of metal chips, can be intercepted before entering
u nit u ses an overflow arrangement that sends the interceptor.
the trapped oil to a remote oil-storage tank.
Refer to Figure 12-4 for an illustration of a
Becau se there is the possibility that the va- typical small oil interceptor. Figure 12-5 illustrates
por given off by the flammable liquid could ignite, the installation of a typical oil interceptor with
it is important to provide a separator vent that gravity oil drawoff for multiple-floor drain inlets.
terminates in the open air at an approved loca-
tion above the highest part of the structure. Some
codes requ ire that a flame arrestor be installed
on the vent.

(A)

(B)

Figure 1 2-5 Typical Gravity Draw-Off Installation (A) Plan and (B) Isometric
(Source: Frankel 1996)
350 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2

REFERENCES
1. Fran kel, M. 1996. Facility piping s y s tems hand-
book . New York: McGraw-Hill.
2. Geogehegan, R.F., and H.W. Meslar. 1993. Con-
tainment control in biotechnology environments.
Pharmaceutical Engineering.
3. Grossel, S.F. 1998. Safe handling of acids. Chemi-
cal Engineering Magazine J uly.
4. Kaminsky, G. 1998. Failsafe neu tralization of
wastewater effluent. Plant Services Magazine May.
5. Mermel, H. 1988. pH control of chemical waste.
Heating/ Piping/ Air Conditioning Magazine.
Index 219

Index

(delta), 1998 V1:18 plumbing and piping symbols, 1998 V1: 9–14
µ (micro) prefix, 1998 V1: 42 text, drawin gs, an d compu ter programs, 1998
%(percentages), 1998 V1: 21 V1: 17–23
(ohms), 1998 V1: 41 above fin ish ed floor (AFF), 1998 V1: 17
m (ohm-meter), 1998 V1: 41 above-grou n d pipin g
2-pole, fan-cooled, electric motors, 1998 V1: 201 in spection ch ecklist, 1998 V1: 96
5-minute storm durations, 1999 V2: 69–70 materials for, 1999 V2: 14–15
10-minu te storm du ration s, 1999 V2: 69–70 storm-drain age systems, 1999 V2: 68
10-year rain fall retu rn periods, 1999 V2: 69–70 abrasion , 1998 V1: 143, 1999 V2: 18, 1999 V2:
15-minu te storm du ration s, 1999 V2: 69–70 276
18-8-3 SS, 1998 V1: 140 abs, ABS (absolu te), 1998 V1: 17
18-8 SS, 1998 V1: 140 ABS (acrylon itrile-bu tadien e-styren e), 1998 V1: 24
28 CFR Part 36, 1998 V1: 101 ABS pipin g, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 15, 1999 V2: 68
70:30 Cu Ni, 1998 V1: 141 absolu te (abs, ABS), 1998 V1: 17
90:10 Cu Ni, 1998 V1: 141 absolu te pressu re
100-year rain fall retu rn periods, 1999 V2: 69–70 defined, 1998 V1: 24
1964 Alaska Earth qu ake, 1998 V1: 163 in vacu u ms, 1999 V2: 254
1971 San Fran cisco Earth qu ake, 1998 V1: 163– absolu te temperatu re, 1998 V1: 24
164 absolu te zero, 1998 V1: 24
3822/ 1 (Laboratory Tes ts on Nois e Emis s ion by absorph an (carbon filtration ). See activated carbon
Appliances and Equipment Us ed in Water filtration (absorphan)
Supply Ins tallations ), 1998 V1: 198 absorption, defined, 1998 V1: 24
absorption rates for soils, estimating, 1999 V2:
A 217–220
absorption su rface in seepage beds, 1999 V2: 224
A, X#, X#A (compressed air). See compressed air
absorption tren ch es. See leaching trenches (leach
A (amperes). See amperes
fields)
A (area). See area (A)
ac, AC (alternating current), 1998 V1: 17
a (atto) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
AC (air chambers). See air chambers (AC)
A/ m (amperes per meter), 1998 V1: 41
AC-DC rectifiers, 1998 V1: 147, 1998 V1:149
A-weighted sound levels, 1998 V1: 198
acc (accumulate or accumulators), 1998 V1: 17,
AAMI (Association for the Advancement of Medical
1998 V1: 24
Instrumentation), 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2:
acceleration
317, 1999 V2: 319
earthquakes, 1998 V1: 159, 1998 V1: 160
AAV (automatic air vents), 1998 V1: 13
linear. See linear acceleration
abandoned seepage pits, 1999 V2: 226
measurements, 1998 V1: 41
abandoned septic tanks, 1999 V2: 231
accelergrams, 1998 V1: 159
abandoned wells, 1999 V2: 243
access doors, 1998 V1: 24
abbreviations
accessibility. See physically challenged individuals
International System of Units, 1998 V1: 40
Acces s ibility Guidelines for Buildings
Index — 2 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

and Facilities, 1998 V1: 99 ratin gs for fixtu res an d appliances, 1998 V1:
accessible, defined, 1998 V1: 24 198–200, 1998 V1: 204
Acces s ible and Us able Buildings and Facilities , 1998 silen cers on vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 268
V1: 99, 1998 V1: 122 sou n d power levels, 1998 V1: 198
accumulate (acc, ACCUM), 1998 V1: 17 system design , 1998 V1: 205–214
accumulators (acc, ACCUM), 1998 V1: 17, 1998 V1: system layou t, 1998 V1: 207
24 tran smission in pipes, 1999 V2: 15, 1999 V2:
accuracy 121
in measurements, 1998 V1: 40 vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 263
of pressure-regulating valves, 1999 V2: 152 vibration isolation , 1998 V1: 207–214
ACEC (American Consulting Engineers Council), water h ammer, 1998 V1: 203, 1998 V1: 206,
1998 V1: 64 1999 V2: 132
acfh (actual cfh), 1999 V2: 180 water pipin g design, 1998 V1: 200
acfm (actual cubic feet per minute), 1999 V2: 255– acres, con vertin g to SI u nits, 1998 V1: 47
256, 1999 V2: 257 acrylon itrile-bu tadiene-styren e (ABS), 1998 V1: 24
acid-con tain ing in h ibitors, 1999 V2: 305 activated alu min a water treatment, 1999 V2: 318
acid radicals, 1999 V2: 281 activated carbon filtration (absorph an )
acid regen eran ts, 1999 V2: 295, 1999 V2: 302, in gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 27, 1999 V2: 28
1999 V2: 305 in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: 29
acid resin s, 1999 V2: 295 illu strated, 1999 V2: 301
acid-resistant floor drain s, 1999 V2: 16 overview, 1999 V2: 300
acid-resistan t piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 341 pu re-water systems, 1999 V2: 323
acid vents (AV), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 24 small water systems, 1999 V2: 318
acid-waste systems well water, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 245
acid-waste treatmen t, 1999 V2: 334–337 active, defin ed, 1998 V1: 149
con tin u ou s systems, 1999 V2: 338 active poten tial, defin ed, 1998 V1: 149
h ealth an d safety con cern s, 1999 V2: 332 active slu dge, 1998 V1: 24
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 329, 1999 V2: 332–334 actu al cfh (acfh), 1999 V2: 180
large facilities, 1999 V2: 336 actu al cu bic feet per min u te (acfm), 1999 V2: 255–
pipin g an d join t material, 1999 V2: 334 256, 1999 V2: 257
system design con sideration s, 1999 V2: 334 ACU (air-con dition in g u n its), 1998 V1: 17
types of acid, 1999 V2: 332–334 ADA (American s with Disabilities Act), 1998 V1: 99,
acid wastes (AW), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 24 1998 V1: 100
acidity ADAAG, 1998 V1: 99, 1998 V1: 101
in corrosion rates, 1998 V1: 141 ADAAG Review Federal Advisory Committee, 1998
in water, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: V1: 122
285 adapter fittin gs, 1998 V1: 24
acids, defin ed, 1999 V2: 280 addenda in con tract docu men ts, 1998 V1: 63, 1998
acme th reads, 1998 V1: 24 V1: 64
acou stics, defin ed, 1998 V1: 215 addresses
acou stics in plu mbin g systems organization s and associations information , 1998
acceptable levels in bu ildin gs, 1998 V1: 197 V1: 60
bu ilding material acou stic insu lation, 1998 V1: plu mbin g specification s in formation , 1998 V1: 80
197–198 administrative au thorities, 1998 V1: 24
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 115 admiralty brass, 1998 V1: 141
design procedu res, 1998 V1: 203 adp, ADP (apparatu s dew points), 1998 V1: 17
equ ipmen t selection, 1998 V1: 205–206 adu lt-sized wh eelch airs, dimen sion s, 1998 V1: 102.
flow velocity, 1998 V1: 203 See als o wheelchairs
glossary, 1998 V1: 215–217 advanced oxidation water treatment, 1999 V2: 318
gu rgling noises in pipes, 1999 V2: 35 aeration, 1998 V1: 24
in trodu ction, 1998 V1: 197 aeration cells, 1998 V1: 149
n oise an d vibration con trol, 1998 V1: 204–205 aerators
occu pied domestic spaces, 1998 V1: 201 aeration treatment, 1999 V2: 292–294, 1999 V2:
pipe sleeves an d, 1998 V1: 206 318
pressu re an d, 1998 V1: 206 soven t aerators, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 46, 1999
pu mp speeds and, 1998 V1: 206 V2: 54–56, 1999 V2: 60, 1999 V2: 62
pu mps, 1998 V1: 201–203 aerobic, defin ed, 1998 V1: 24
Index Index — 3

aerobic waste-water treatment plants, 1999 V2: sheets of water and, 1999 V2: 2
232–233 air locks, 1998 V1: 207
AFF (above fin ished floor), 1998 V1: 17 air pressure, 1999 V2: 255–256
AGA (American Gas Association ) air-separation ch ambers, 1999 V2: 56
address, 1998 V1: 60 air sprin gs, 1998 V1: 208, 1998 V1: 209, 1998 V1:
appliance ven tin g stan dards, 1999 V2: 178 210
defined, 1998 V1: 24 air tests
gas-train ven t stan dards, 1999 V2: 177 in cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154
relief valve stan dards, 1999 V2: 166 defined, 1998 V1: 25
water h eatin g stan dards, 1999 V2: 170 air velocity in vacu u m clean in g systems, 1999 V2:
aggregation in soil stru ctu re, 1999 V2: 218 270
aggressiven ess index, 1999 V2: 292 air vessels (ch ambers), 1998 V1: 203
agin g disabilities, 1998 V1: 103 aircraft cable bracin g meth od, 1998 V1: 173
agitators in kill tanks, 1999 V2: 344 aircraft fu el, 1999 V2: 13
agreemen t states, 1999 V2: 340 airport ru n ways, pipin g u n dern eath , 1999 V2: 250
agricu ltu ral drain tile, 1999 V2: 221 ALARA (as low as reason ably achievable), 1999 V2:
AHAM (Association of Home Applian ce Man u factu r- 341
ers), 1998 V1: 60 alarm check valves, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 25
ah p, AHP (air h orsepower), 1998 V1: 17 alarms
AHU (air-h an dlin g u nits), 1998 V1: 17 defined, 1998 V1: 25
AI (aggressiven ess in dex), 1999 V2: 292 on kill tanks, 1999 V2: 345
AIA (American In stitu te of Arch itects). See American on vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2: 262
Institute of Architects on water tanks, 1999 V2: 151
air, compressed. See compressed air (A, X#, X#A) Alaska Earth qu ake, 1998 V1: 163
air, free, 1998 V1: 25 Albern , W.F., 1999 V2: 277
air, standard, 1998 V1: 25 algae, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 289
air admittance valves, 1999 V2: 64 alkalin ity
air-bleed vacu um controls, 1999 V2: 268–269 alkalin e solu tion s in corrosion rates, 1998 V1:
air breaks, 1998 V1: 24. See als o air gaps 141
air chambers (AC) boiler feed water, 1999 V2: 314
defined, 1998 V1: 24 dealkalizin g treatmen t, 1999 V2: 295
symbols for, 1998 V1: 13 measu rin g, 1999 V2: 282–283
water hammer arresters, 1998 V1: 203, 1998 V1: pH an d, 1999 V2: 285, 1999 V2: 329
206, 1999 V2: 132, 1999 V2: 143 predictin g scale an d corrosion , 1999 V2: 290
air compressors in vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 259 water satu ration , 1999 V2: 293
AIR COND (air conditioning). See air-conditioning allowable radiation levels, 1999 V2: 339
systems allowable vacu u m system pressu re loss, 1999 V2:
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI), 263
1998 V1: 60 alloy pipes, 1998 V1: 25
air-conditioning cooling towers. See cooling-tower alloys, 1998 V1: 25
water alph a ray radiation , 1999 V2: 337
air-conditioning systems (AIR COND) alt, ALT (altitu de), 1998 V1: 17
fixture-unit values, 1999 V2: 9 alteration (altrn , ALTRN), 1998 V1: 17
symbols, 1998 V1: 17 altern ate bracin g attach men ts for pipes, 1998 V1:
waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 128 176
water demand, 1999 V2: 243 altern ate energy sou rces, 1998 V1: 132
air-conditioning units (ACU), 1998 V1: 17 altern atin g cu rrent (ac, AC), 1998 V1: 17
air densities, calculating, 1998 V1: 6 altern ative collection and treatment of waste water,
air flow rates, 1998 V1: 19 1999 V2: 232
air gaps. See als o air breaks; effective openings altern ative treatment of waste water, 1999 V2: 226–
as cross-connection control devices, 1999 V2: 227
144, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 148 Alternatives for Small Was te-w ater Treatment
defined, 1998 V1: 24, 1998 V1: 25 Sy s tems : Cos t-effectivenes s Analy s is ”, 1999
air-gate valves, 1999 V2: 268 V2: 238
air-handling units (AHU), 1998 V1: 17 Alternatives for Small Was te-Water Treatment
air horsepower (ahp, AHP), 1998 V1: 17 Sy s tems : On-s ite Dis pos al/ Seepage Treatment
air in pipes and Dis pos al, 1999 V2: 238
fixture drains, 1999 V2: 2
Index — 4 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

Alternatives for Small Waste-w ater Treatment American Society for Testing an d Materials (ASTM)
Systems: Pressure Sew ers / Vacuum Sew ers , abbreviation for, 1998 V1: 25
1999 V2: 238 address, 1998 V1: 60
altitude (alt, ALT), 1998 V1: 17 electronics-grade water stan dards, 1999 V2: 320
altitude adjustments for vacuum, 1999 V2: 257, high -pu rity water stan dards, 1999 V2: 317
1999 V2: 275 membran e filters, 1999 V2: 289
altitude valves, 1999 V2: 249 pu blication s, 1998 V1: 198
altrn, ALTRN (alteration), 1998 V1: 17 reagen t-grade water stan dards, 1999 V2: 279,
alum, 1999 V2: 294 1999 V2: 319
aluminum, 1998 V1: 137, 1998 V1: 141, 1999 V2: stan dards, 1998 V1: 51–59
281 American Society of Civil En gin eers (ASCE)
aluminum 100, 1998 V1: 140 con tract pu blications, 1998 V1: 64
aluminum 2017, 1998 V1: 140 sewer pu blication s, 1999 V2: 95, 1999 V2: 114
aluminum check valves, 1999 V2: 177 American Society of Heatin g, Refrigeratin g and Air
aluminum hydroxide, 1999 V2: 281 Condition in g En gineers (ASHRAE)
aluminum piping, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 176, defined, 1998 V1: 25
1999 V2: 196 pu blication s, 1998 V1: 2, 1998 V1: 6, 1998 V1:
aluminum silicates, 1999 V2: 301–302 7, 1998 V1: 49, 1999 V2: 214
alu minu m su lfate, 1999 V2: 294 water h eatin g codes an d stan dards, 1999 V2:
amb, AMB (ambien t), 1998 V1: 17 170
ambient (amb, AMB), 1998 V1: 17 American Society of Mech anical En gineers (ASME)
ambient temperatu re, 1998 V1: 25 address, 1998 V1: 60
ambu latory accessible stalls, 1998 V1: 108 defined, 1998 V1: 25
American Ch emical Society, 1998 V1: 151 fired and u nfired pressu re vessel stan dards,
American Concrete Institu te, 1999 V2: 102, 1999 1999 V2: 170
V2: 114 pu blication s, 1999 V2: 214
American Con su ltin g En gineers Cou ncil (ACEC), relief valve stan dards, 1999 V2: 166
1998 V1: 64 American Society of Plu mbin g Engin eers (ASPE)
American Gas Association (AGA) ASPE Solar Energy Sy s tem Des ign Handbook ,
address, 1998 V1: 60 1998 V1: 132
appliance ven tin g stan dards, 1999 V2: 178 defined, 1998 V1: 25
defined, 1998 V1: 24 publications, 1999 V2: 65
gas-train ven t stan dards, 1999 V2: 177 American Society of Plumbing Engineers Research
relief valve stan dards, 1999 V2: 166 Foundation (ASPERF), 1998 V1: 25
water h eatin g stan dards, 1999 V2: 170 American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE), 1998
American In stitu te of Architects (AIA) V1: 25
address, 1998 V1: 80 American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE),
General Conditions of the Contract for Cons truc- 1998 V1: 25, 1998 V1: 60
tion, 1998 V1: 64 American standard pipe threads, 1998 V1: 25
MASTERSPEC, 1998 V1: 68 American Standards Association. See American
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) National Standards Institute (ANSI)
abbreviation for, 1998 V1: 17, 1998 V1: 25 American Water Works Association (AWWA)
address, 1998 V1: 60 address, 1998 V1: 60
ANSI A117.1-1988, 1998 V1: 107–122 defined, 1998 V1: 26
ANSI A117.1-1980, 1998 V1: 99 publications, 1999 V2: 155
ANSI A117.1-1986, 1998 V1: 100 American Welding Society (AWS), 1998 V1: 169
ANSI A117.1-1998, 1998 V1: 99, 1998 V1: 100, American wire gage (AWG), 1998 V1: 17
1998 V1: 122 Americans with Disabilities Act, 1998 V1: 99, 1998
ANSI-ASSI: Building Code Requirements for V1: 100
Minimum Des ign Loads in Buildings and Americans w ith Dis abilities Act Acces s ibility Guide-
Other Structures , 1998 V1: 195 lines , 1998 V1: 100, 1998 V1: 101
ANSI C72.1, 1998 V1: 133 Amin, P., 1999 V2: 325
ANSI Z22.10.3, 1998 V1: 133 ammonia, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 294
gas piping standards, 1999 V2: 194 amperes (A, amp, AMP, AMPS)
publications, 1998 V1: 51–59, 1998 V1: 195 ampere-hours, 1998 V1: 135
water qu ality stan dards, 1999 V2: 319 amperes per meter, 1998 V1: 41
American Petroleu m In stitu te, 1999 V2: 348 measurement conversions, 1998 V1: 41
American Pu blic Health Service, 1999 V2: 287 symbols for, 1998 V1: 17
Index Index — 5

amphoteric corrosion, defined, 1998 V1: 149 ANSI-ASSI: Building Code Requirements for Minimum
amphoteric materials, 1998 V1: 141 Des ign Loads in Buildings and Other Struc-
anaerobic, defined, 1998 V1: 25, 1998 V1: 149 tures , 1998 V1: 195
anaerobic bacteria in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227 ANSI C72.1, 1998 V1: 133
analytical grade water, 1999 V2: 317 ANSI Z22.10.3, 1998 V1: 133
anchoring equ ipment anthracite coal filters, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 300
anchorage forces in earthqu akes, 1998 V1: 189 anthropometrics for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 103–107
anchors, defined, 1998 V1: 193 an ti-cross-con n ection precau tion s, 1999 V2: 32
illu strations of potential problems, 1998 V1: 194 apparatu s dew poin ts (adp, ADP), 1998 V1: 17
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 165 applian ces. See als o fixtures
anchoring pipes, 1999 V2: 18, 1999 V2: 85 acoustic ratings, 1998 V1: 198–200, 1998 V1:
anchors, defined, 1998 V1: 25, 1998 V1: 193 204
“an d/ or” in specification s, 1998 V1: 67 appliance conn ectors, 1999 V2: 176
an ech oic ch ambers, 1998 V1: 203 codes an d stan dards, 1998 V1: 58–59
ANG (an gle). See angles (ANG) defined, 1999 V2: 213
ANGI (angles of incidence), 1998 V1: 17 draft hoods on applian ces, 1999 V2: 178, 1999
angle grates in school shower rooms, 1999 V2: 11 V2: 213
angle snubbers, 1998 V1: 166 gravity vents for gas applian ces, 1999 V2: 178
angle stops, 1998 V1: 25 natu ral gas, 1999 V2: 175, 1999 V2: 177–178
angle valves (AV), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 25 oxygen depletion an d gas applian ces, 1999 V2:
angles (ANG) 178
measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 Applied Tech n ology Cou ncil (ATC), 1998 V1: 185,
symbols, 1998 V1: 17 1998 V1: 195
angles of bend, 1998 V1: 25 approach es to toilet compartmen ts, 1998 V1: 110
angles of incidence (ANGI), 1998 V1: 17 approvals
angular acceleration measurements, 1998 V1: 41 for radioactive materials systems, 1999 V2: 340
angular velocity measurements, 1998 V1: 41 for special-waste drain age systems, 1999 V2: 328
animal research centers, 1999 V2: 147, 1999 V2: approved, defin ed, 1998 V1: 25
344 approved testin g agen cies, 1998 V1: 25
animal shelters, 1999 V2: 16 approximate (approx., APPROX), defin ed, 1998 V1:
anions 17
anion resins, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 305 approximate valu es, 1998 V1: 40
defined, 1998 V1: 150, 1999 V2: 280 aqu astats, 1998 V1: 13
in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140 aqu ifers
in ion exchange, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2: 301, defined, 1999 V2: 240
1999 V2: 302 poten tiometric su rfaces, 1999 V2: 241
in pH values, 1999 V2: 329 in private water systems, 1999 V2: 239
annual costs. See economic concerns u ncon solidated aqu ifers, 1999 V2: 241
annular spaces in wells, 1999 V2: 240, 1999 V2: arabic nu merals, 1998 V1: 40
243 Architectu ral Barriers Act (90-480), 1998 V1: 100
anodes area (A)
anode expected life, 1998 V1: 146–147 calcu latin g, 1998 V1: 4–6
an odic protection , 1998 V1: 150 con version factors, 1998 V1: 43
defin ed, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 150 measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
galvanic series of metals, 1998 V1: 140 non -SI u n its, 1998 V1: 42
sacrificial an odes, 1998 V1: 144 symbols, 1998 V1: 17
an odic in h ibitors, 1998 V1: 149 area drain s, 1998 V1: 25
an odic poten tial (electron egative potential), 1998 areaways, 1999 V2: 67, 1999 V2: 69
V1: 151 ARI (Air Con ditioning an d Refrigeration In stitu te),
an odic protection , defin ed, 1998 V1: 150 1998 V1: 60
ANSI. See American National Standards Institute arresters for water h ammer. See water hammer
(ANSI) arresters; water hammer arresters
ANSI 117.1-1988, 1998 V1: 107–122 arterial vents, 1998 V1: 25, 1999 V2: 52
ANSI A117.1-1980, 1998 V1: 99 “as low as reason ably ach ievable” (ALARA), 1999
ANSI A117.1-1986, 1998 V1: 100 V2: 341
ANSI A117.1-1998, 1998 V1: 99, 1998 V1: 100, ASA A117.1-1961, 1998 V1: 99
1998 V1: 122 asbestos cement piping, 1999 V2: 122
Index — 6 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

ASCE. See American Society of Civil Engineers AV (acid vents), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 24
(ASCE) AV (angle valves), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 25
ASHRAE. See American Society of Heating, Refriger- availability. See demand
ating and Air Conditioning Engineers available vacuum, safety factors and, 1999 V2: 276
(ASHRAE); AVB (atmospheric vacuum breakers), 1999 V2: 144,
1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 148
average (avg, AVG), defined, 1998 V1: 17
ASME. See American Society of Mechanical Engi- average pressure drops in water systems, 1999 V2:
neers (ASME) 125, 1999 V2: 126, 1999 V2: 127
ASPE. See American Society of Plumbing Engineers avg, AVG (average), 1998 V1: 17
(ASPE) AW (acid wasters), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 24
ASPE Solar Energy Sy s tem Des ign Handbook , 1998 AWG (American wire gage), 1998 V1: 17
V1: 132 AWS, 1998 V1: 169
ASPERF (American Society of Plumbing Engineers AWWA. See American Water Works Association
Research Foundation), 1998 V1: 25 (AWWA)
aspirators, 1998 V1: 25 AWWA Cros s Connection Control Manual, 1999 V2:
ASSE. See American Society of Safety Engineers 155
(ASSE); American Society of Sanitary Engi- AWWA Standard for Dis infecting Water Mains , 1999
neering (ASSE) V2: 155
Association for the Advancement of Medical Instru- AWWA Standard for Dis infection of Water Storage
mentation (AAMI), 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: Facilities , 1999 V2: 155
317, 1999 V2: 319 Ayres, J .M., 1998 V1: 195
Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers azimuth (az, AZ)
(AHAM), 1998 V1: 60 solar (SAZ), 1998 V1: 17
ASTM. See American Society for Testing and symbols for, 1998 V1: 17
Materials (ASTM) wall (WAZ), 1998 V1: 17
ATBCB (US Architectural and Transportation
Barriers Compliance Board), 1998 V1: 100, B
1998 V1: 101
b/ m (bills of material), 1998 V1: 17
ATC-3 (Tentative Provis ions for the Development of
back pressu res in pipes, 1999 V2: 2, 1999 V2: 4,
Seis mic Regulation for Buildings ), 1998 V1:
1999 V2: 35
195
back-siphonage, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 V2: 144, 1999
ATC-3 (Tentative Provis ions for the Development of
V2: 145. See als o backflow
Seis mic Regulations for Buildings ), 1998 V1:
back venting, 1999 V2: 43, 1999 V2: 47
185
backfilling
Atienze, J ., 1999 V2: 34
around septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
atmospheres (atm, ATM)
around subsurface drainage pipes, 1999 V2: 102
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
around water system pipes, 1999 V2: 250
symbols, 1998 V1: 17
backfill defined, 1998 V1: 26
vacuum units, 1999 V2: 254
building sewers and, 1999 V2: 15
atmospheric pressure in vacu um, 1999 V2: 254
man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 84, 1998 V1: 86
atmospheric vacuum breakers (AVB), 1998 V1: 25,
backflow. See als o back-siphonage
1999 V2: 144, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 148
backflow connections, defined, 1998 V1: 26
atmospheric vents (steam or hot vapor) (ATV), 1998
defined, 1998 V1: 26
V1: 11
backflow preventers
attachments, 1998 V1: 195
cold-water pressure losses and, 1999 V2: 125
“atto” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 144–149
ATV (atmosph eric ven ts), 1998 V1: 11
cross-con n ection con trol devices, 1999 V2: 144–
Au ciello, Eu gen e P., 1999 V2: 114
145
au thorities h aving ju risdiction , 1998 V1: 24, 1998
defined, 1998 V1: 26
V1: 25
hazard assessmen t, 1999 V2: 145
au tomatic air ven ts (AAV), 1998 V1: 13
in stallation , 1999 V2: 148–149
au tomatic sprin kler system types, 1998 V1: 37
isolatin g premises, 1999 V2: 145–147
Automatic Sprink ler Sy s tems Handbook , 1998 V1:
roof drains, 1999 V2: 84
195
th ermal expan sion compen sation an d, 1999 V2:
automatic storage water heaters, 1999 V2: 160
167
automatic trap primers, 1999 V2: 10, 1999 V2: 14
vacu u m breakers, 1999 V2: 144, 1999 V2: 149
automotive traffic, 1999 V2: 11, 1999 V2: 223
backgrou n d levels of radiation, 1999 V2: 339
Index Index — 7

backhoe work, man-hou r estimates, 1998 V1: 85 base units, 1998 V1: 41
backing rings, 1998 V1: 26 bathhouses, 1999 V2: 235
backu p, defined, 1998 V1: 26 bathing rooms, 1998 V1: 108
backu p storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 70, 1999 bathroom groups, 1999 V2: 43, 1999 V2: 62, 1999
V2: 79 V2: 63
backwash from water softeners, 1999 V2: 244, bathtubs
1999 V2: 307 accessibility design, 1998 V1: 114–115
backwashing acou stic ratin gs of, 1998 V1: 199
filters, 1999 V2: 300 bath tu b en closu res, 1998 V1: 115
in regeneration cycle, 1999 V2: 304–305 estimated water flows from, 1999 V2: 25
backwater valves, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 V2: 12, 1999 fixtu re-u nit loads, 1999 V2: 3
V2: 13 grab bars, 1998 V1: 116, 1998 V1: 117
bacteria gray-water systems an d, 1999 V2: 22
biological fou lin g, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 316– in stallation man -h ou r estimates, 1998 V1: 83
317 resilien t-mou n tin g design , 1998 V1: 212
ch emical control, 1999 V2: 311–313 seats, 1998 V1: 121
in drin kin g water, 1999 V2: 244 sou n d dampin g materials, 1998 V1: 200
in feed water, 1999 V2: 282 batteries
in filters, 1999 V2: 300 corrosion cells in sacrificial anodes, 1998 V1:
in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227 146
in water-h eatin g systems, 1999 V2: 169 batteries of fixtu res, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 V2: 64
in wells, 1999 V2: 243 Bau meister, Th eodore, 1998 V1: 1, 1998 V1: 3,
baffleplates, 1998 V1: 26 1998 V1: 6, 1998 V1: 49
baffles in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 228 BCMC (Board for Coordin ation of Model Codes),
bag-filter gross filtration , 1999 V2: 300 1998 V1: 101
Bahamas, gray-water systems in, 1999 V2: 33 beam clamps, 1998 V1: 192
balan cin g pu mps, 1998 V1: 202 Beau soliel, R.W., 1999 V2: 65
balancin g valves (BLV), 1998 V1: 11 bedding and settlement
balcon y drains, 1999 V2: 69 arou n d septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
ball ch eck valves, 1998 V1: 26 bu ildin g sewers an d, 1999 V2: 15
ball join ts, bracin g an d, 1998 V1: 173 pipe su pports an d, 1999 V2: 14
ball valves (BV), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 protectin g again st settlement, 1999 V2: 19
V2: 332 settlement loads, 1998 V1: 189
Ballan co, J u liu s, 1999 V2: 114 su bsu rface drainage pipes, 1999 V2: 102
Baltimore Dept. of Pu blic Works, 1999 V2: 34 water system pipin g, 1999 V2: 250, 1999 V2:
bare pipe, 1998 V1: 147, 1998 V1:148 251
bariu m, 1999 V2: 281 bell-and-spigot joints and pipin g. See als o hub-and-
baro, BARO (barometric), 1998 V1: 17 spigot piping and joints
baro pr, BARO PR (barometric pressu re). See defined, 1998 V1: 26
barometric pressure earthquake protection and, 1998 V1: 169
barometers (baro, BARO) underground, 1999 V2: 88
symbols for, 1998 V1: 17 bell holes, 1999 V2: 88
vacuums and, 1999 V2: 254 bell hub depressions, 1999 V2: 15
barometric (baro, BARO), defined, 1998 V1: 17 bells, defined, 1998 V1: 26
barometric loops, 1999 V2: 144 below-slab drainage, 1999 V2: 103
barometric pressure (baro pr, BARO PR, BP) bend-and-loop pipe configurations, 1998 V1: 205
altitude adjustments, 1999 V2: 257 bending movements, conversion factors, 1998 V1:
barometric, defined, 1998 V1: 17 43
barometric pressure, defined, 1998 V1: 21 bends, joints in, 1998 V1: 82
in vacu ums, 1999 V2: 254, 1999 V2: 275 Bennett, E.R., 1999 V2: 238
barrels, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 bentonite clay, 1999 V2: 302
barrier free, 1998 V1: 26. See als o physically bentonite grout, 1999 V2: 243
challenged individuals Bernoulli’s equ ation, 1998 V1: 6–7
barriers in sound insulation, 1998 V1: 197 beta ray radiation, 1999 V2: 337
bars, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 beverage-processin g plan ts, 1999 V2: 147
base BFV (bu tterfly valves), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 27
compou nds in water, 1999 V2: 280 bh p, BHP (brake horsepower), 1998 V1: 7, 1998 V1:
defined, 1998 V1: 26 17
Index — 8 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

bicarbonates, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 blood or oth er objection able materials, 1999 V2: 16.
V2: 290, 1999 V2: 295 See als o infectious and biological waste
bid bonds, 1998 V1: 64 systems
bid/ tender forms, 1998 V1: 64 blow-backs, reduced-size venting and, 1999 V2: 49
bidders blowdown
defined, 1998 V1: 63–64 boiler blowdown, 1999 V2: 314, 1999 V2: 315
in formation in project man u als, 1998 V1: 64 cooling towers, 1999 V2: 316
writin g of specification s an d, 1998 V1: 67 removing sludge, 1999 V2: 289
Biddison , 1998 V1: 195 blowou t fixtures, acoustic design and, 1998 V1: 200
bills of material (b/ m, BOM), 1998 V1: 17 blue dyes in gray water, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 33
bindin g, preven ting in clean ou ts, 1999 V2: 9 BLV (balancing valves), 1998 V1: 11
biochemical measu remen ts of microorgan isms, Board for Coordination of Model Codes (BCMC),
1999 V2: 282 1998 V1: 101
biocides, 1999 V2: 311, 1999 V2: 316, 1999 V2: BOCA (Building Officials and Code Administrators
317, 1999 V2: 323 International, Inc.), 1998 V1: 60
biofou lin g, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 316 BOCA Bas ic Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 114
bioh azardou s materials. See infectious and biologi- Boegly, W.J ., 1999 V2: 238
cal waste systems boiler blow-off tanks, 1998 V1: 26
biological and biomedical laboratories. See als o boiler blow-offs, 1998 V1: 26
laboratories boiler room earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 168
infectious waste systems, 1999 V2: 343 Boiler Water Treatment, 1999 V2: 325
vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262 boilers
biological characteristics of drinking water, 1999 cast-iron supports for, 1998 V1: 163
V2: 316, 1999 V2: 318 codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59
biological control in pure water systems, 1999 V2: earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 165
323. See als o microbial growth and control feed water corrosion inhibitors, 1998 V1: 149
biological fouling, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 316 feed water treatments, 1999 V2: 314–315
biological treatment natu ral gas systems an d, 1999 V2: 174
in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: 27 scalin g, 1999 V2: 289
of oil spills, 1999 V2: 347 sedimen t bu ckets in drains, 1999 V2: 12
of sewage in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227 boilin g poin ts (bp, BP)
biological waste systems. See infectious and biologi- defined, 1999 V2: 213
cal waste systems symbols for, 1998 V1: 17
biosafety cabinets, 1999 V2: 344 boltin g problems in seismic protection , 1998 V1:
biosafety levels (BL1-BL4), 1999 V2: 343–344 192, 1998 V1: 193
biostats, 1999 V2: 311, 1999 V2: 317 BOM (bills of material), 1998 V1: 17
bitu mastic-en amel-lin ed pipin g, 1999 V2: 122 bon ded join ts, 1998 V1:148
bitu min ized felt, 1998 V1: 200 bon ds an d certificates, 1998 V1: 64
bitu min ou s pipe join t compou n d, 1999 V2: 223 bon n ets, 1998 V1: 26
BL1-4 levels, 1999 V2: 343–344 booster-pu mp systems, 1998 V1: 204, 1999 V2:
black pipes, 1998 V1: 26 121, 1999 V2: 152
black steel piping, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 176, booster water heaters, 1998 V1: 124, 1998 V1: 127,
1999 V2: 196, 1999 V2: 197–211 1999 V2: 160
black water systems boosting water pressu re, 1999 V2: 149–152
amou n t of generated black water, 1999 V2: 23 borate, 1999 V2: 282
compared to gray water, 1999 V2: 21, 1999 V2: bore h oles for wells, 1999 V2: 240
23 bored wells, 1999 V2: 241
estimatin g sewage qu an tities, 1999 V2: 233–238 borin gs
bladder bags, 1998 V1: 113 su bsu rface site drain age, 1999 V2: 100
blades in pu mps, 1998 V1: 201, 1998 V1: 202 wells, 1999 V2: 240
Blake, Rich ard T., 1999 V2: 325 borosilicate glass pipin g, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 15,
blan k flan ges, 1998 V1: 26 1999 V2: 122
blast gates, 1999 V2: 268 Bosich , J oseph F., 1998 V1: 152
bleach es, 1999 V2: 230 bottled gas, 1999 V2: 174
block-like soils, 1999 V2: 218 Bou rdon gau ges, 1999 V2: 260
blockin g water system pipes, 1999 V2: 250 bowl depth of sin ks, 1998 V1: 114
blood an alyzers, 1999 V2: 14 Boyle, W.C., 1999 V2: 34
bp, BP (boilin g poin ts), 1998 V1: 17, 1999 V2: 213
Index Index — 9

BP (barometric pressu re). See barometric pressure breath ing apparatu s for emergencies, 1999 V2:
braces (walking aids), 1998 V1: 103 332, 1999 V2: 333
bracing brick dome covers on seepage pits, 1999 V2: 225
aircraft cable method, 1998 V1: 173 brin es
alternate attachments for pipes, 1998 V1: 176 refrigeran ts, 1998 V1: 149
avoiding potential earthquake problems, 1998 in water soften in g, 1999 V2: 307
V1: 194 British thermal u n its (Btu , BTU)
defined, 1998 V1: 193 British thermal u n its per h ou r (Btu / h ), 1998 V1:
hanger rod connections, 1998 V1: 179 26
hubless cast-iron pipe, 1998 V1: 179 calcu latin g h ot water savin gs, 1998 V1: 127
lateral sway bracing, 1998 V1: 183–184 con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 47
lon gitu din al and tran sverse bracin g, 1998 V1: defined, 1998 V1: 26, 1998 V1: 133, 1999 V2:
182 213
lon gitu din al-only bracin g, 1998 V1: 174, 1998 symbols for, 1998 V1: 17
V1: 182 bromtriflu oro-meth an e CBrF3 (h alon 1301), 1998
open-web steel joists, 1998 V1: 178 V1: 33
pipes on trapeze an d, 1998 V1: 177, 1998 V1: bron ze, in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140
180 bron ze floor drain s, 1999 V2: 15
pipin g systems for seismic protection , 1998 V1: bron ze-mou n ted, defined, 1998 V1: 26
168–184 bron ze sedimen t bu ckets, 1999 V2: 14
riser bracin g for h u bless pipes, 1998 V1: 180 bron ze trim, 1998 V1: 26
self bracin g, 1998 V1: 192 Brown , F.R., 1998 V1: 195
spacin g of, 1998 V1: 189 Brown , J ., 1999 V2: 325
steel beam conn ection s, 1998 V1: 177 Brown & Sh arpe wire gage (B&S), 1998 V1: 17
stru ctu ral an gle bracin g, 1998 V1: 173 Brown stein , E., 1999 V2: 65
stru ctu ral chan nel bracin g, 1998 V1: 173 B&S (Brown & Sh arpe wire gage), 1998 V1: 17
stru t bracin g, 1998 V1: 175, 1998 V1: 177 Btu , BTU (British Th ermal u nits). See British
su perstru t, 1998 V1: 172 Thermal units
sway bracin g, 1998 V1: 181, 1998 V1: 183–184, Btu/ h (British thermal units per hour), 1998 V1: 26
1998 V1: 187–188, 1998 V1: 190 bubble aerators, 1999 V2: 293
Tension 360 bracing, 1998 V1: 171 bubbles, 1999 V2: 38. See als o detergents; soaps
tran sverse bracin g, 1998 V1: 173, 1998 V1: 181 buffing finishes on grates, 1999 V2: 11
tru ss-type action s, 1998 V1: 192 building drains
typical earth qu ake bracin g, 1998 V1: 170 combined, 1998 V1: 27
brake h orsepower (bhp, BHP) cross-sections of, 1999 V2: 2
pu mps, 1998 V1: 7 defined, 1998 V1: 27, 1999 V2: 64
symbols for, 1998 V1: 17 flow in, 1999 V2: 2
branch -bottom con n ections, 1998 V1: 13 inspection checklist, 1998 V1: 96
bran ch intervals installation, 1999 V2: 15
defined, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 V2: 64 pneumatic pressure in, 1999 V2: 2
branch sewers, 1998 V1: 38 sanitary, 1998 V1: 27. See als o sanitary drainage
branch tees, 1998 V1: 26 systems
branch -top con n ection s, 1998 V1: 13 sovent system connections, 1999 V2: 60–61
branch ven ts, 1998 V1: 26 storm, 1998 V1: 27
bran ch es, defin ed, 1998 V1: 26 Bu ildin g Officials an d Code Admin istrators Intern a-
brass tion al, In c. (BOCA), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2:
dezin cification, 1998 V1: 138 114
in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141 bu ilding sewers (h ou se drain s), 1998 V1: 27, 1999
in galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 V2: 15
brass fittin gs, 1999 V2: 196 bu ildin g sites. See sites
brass floor drain s, 1999 V2: 15, 1999 V2: 16 building storm-drainage systems
brass pipes, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 122, 1999 V2: design criteria, 1999 V2: 68–69
176, 1999 V2: 196 pipe sizing an d layou t, 1999 V2: 69
brazed join ts, earth qu ake protection an d, 1998 V1: rain fall rate tables, 1999 V2: 69–78
169 roof drain age, 1999 V2: 79–94
brazin g alloys on gas piping, 1999 V2: 196 secon dary drain age systems, 1999 V2: 70, 1999
brazin g en ds, 1998 V1: 26 V2: 79
bu ilding su bdrain s, 1998 V1: 27
Index — 10 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

Building Sy s tems Des ign, 1999 V2: 277 calciu m ch loride, 1999 V2: 283
building traps, 1998 V1: 27 calciu m hydroxide, 1999 V2: 283
buildings calciu m h ypoch lorite, 1999 V2: 245
acceptable plumbing noise levels, 1998 V1: 197 calciu m ph osph ate, 1999 V2: 283
building material acoustic insulation, 1998 V1: calciu m silicates, 1999 V2: 283
197–198 calciu m su lfate, 1999 V2: 281
defined, 1998 V1: 26 California Adminis trative Code of Regulations , 1998
essen tial facilities, 1998 V1: 193 V1: 185
isolating premises with backflow hazards, 1999 California Code of Regulations , 1998 V1: 195
V2: 145–147 California Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 34
storm-drain age systems an d, 1999 V2: 68–94 calories
type of stru ctu re an d earth qu ake protection, caloric values of natural gas, 1999 V2: 173, 1999
1998 V1: 169 V2: 212, 1999 V2: 214
bu ll h ead tees, 1998 V1: 27 converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
Bu n sen bu rn ers, 1999 V2: 176 camps, septic tank systems for, 1999 V2: 231–232
bu ried pipin g. See underground piping; under- can pu mps, 1998 V1: 31
ground piping Can adian Stan dards Association (CSA), 1998 V1:
burners, defined, 1999 V2: 213 60
burning methane, 1998 V1: 132 can delas (cd), 1998 V1: 41
burst pressure, 1998 V1: 27 can delas per meter squ ared (cd/ m 2), 1998 V1: 41
bushels, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 can tilevered drin kin g fou n tains, 1998 V1: 106
bushings, 1998 V1: 27 CAP (College of American Pathologists), 1999 V2:
butane, 1999 V2: 194, 1999 V2: 213. See als o fuel- 279, 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2: 319
gas piping systems CAP/ Electron ic Sweet’s, 1998 V1: 80
butt welding capacitan ce, measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
butt-weld end connections, 1998 V1: 31 capacity. See flow rates
butt weld joints, 1998 V1: 27 capillaries, 1998 V1: 27
butt weld pipes, 1998 V1: 27 caps on ends of pipes, 1998 V1: 13
radioactive drainage systems, 1999 V2: 341 capture-type vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 259
butterfly valves (BFV), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 27 car traffic, 1999 V2: 11, 1999 V2: 223
BV (ball valves), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 car-washing facilities, 1999 V2: 147
V2: 332 carbohydrazide, 1999 V2: 315
“by others” wordin g in specification s, 1998 V1: 67 carbon
bypass valves, 1998 V1: 27 adsorption of oil spills, 1999 V2: 347
bypasses, 1998 V1: 27 corrosion, 1998 V1: 137, 1998 V1: 141
total organic carbon, 1999 V2: 288
C in water, 1999 V2: 281
carbon 14, 1999 V2: 340
°C (celsiu s), 1998 V1: 17
carbon dioxide (CO2)
c (centi) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
decarbon ation , 1999 V2: 295
C (con du ctan ce), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 41
symbols for, 1998 V1: 11
C (cou lombs), 1998 V1: 41, 1998 V1: 135
in water, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2:
c (cu ries), 1999 V2: 339
294
C (degrees celsiu s), 1998 V1: 42
carbon filtration (absorph an ). See activated carbon
C (specific h eat). See specific heat
filtration (absorphan)
c to c, C TO C (center to center), 1998 V1: 17
carbon steel, 1998 V1: 141
C/ m3 (cou lombs per cu bic meter), 1998 V1: 41
carbon steel casings, 1999 V2: 179
CABO (Cou n cil of American Bu ilding Officials),
carbonate films, 1998 V1: 149
1998 V1: 122
carbonates, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2:
CADD programs, 1998 V1: 68
283, 1999 V2: 290
cadmiu m, 1998 V1: 140
carbonic acid, 1999 V2: 281
calciu m
carpets, vacuum calculations for, 1999 V2: 269
defined, 1999 V2: 283
cartridge filtration, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2: 305–
scale formation an d corrosion , 1999 V2: 290
306, 1999 V2: 312, 1999 V2: 323
in water, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 281
Cartwrigh t, Peter, 1999 V2: 325
calciu m 45, 1999 V2: 340
cascade waterfall aerators, 1999 V2: 293
calciu m bicarbon ate, 1999 V2: 281
casin gs
calciu m carbon ate, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283,
driven wells, 1999 V2: 241
1999 V2: 285, 1999 V2: 291
Index Index — 11

gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179 cau stic waste from regeneration cycle, 1999 V2:
jetted wells, 1999 V2: 241 304
well casings, 1999 V2: 240 cavitation
Cassidy, Victor M., 1998 V1: 133 cavitation corrosion , 1998 V1: 150
cast-alu minu m floor drains, 1999 V2: 15 defined, 1998 V1: 27, 1998 V1: 150
cast-in-place anchor bolts, 1998 V1: 165 flexible pipe con n ectors and, 1998 V1: 205
cast iron modification s to pu mp plan ts, 1998 V1: 202
in electromotive series, 1998 V1: 141 pressu re levels an d, 1998 V1: 206
in galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 redu cing n oise sou rce stren gth , 1998 V1: 204
graphitization, 1998 V1: 138 cavitation corrosion, 1998 V1: 150
cast-iron boiler su pports, 1998 V1: 163 CCB (Con stru ction Criteria Base), 1998 V1: 68
cast-iron fittings, 1999 V2: 196 CCS examin ation (Certified Constru ction Specifier),
cast-iron floor drains, 1999 V2: 16, 1999 V2: 17 1998 V1: 69
cast-iron piping, 1998 V1: 147 ccw, CCW (cou n terclockwise), 1998 V1: 18
blocking, 1999 V2: 250 cd (can delas), 1998 V1: 41
bracing, 1998 V1: 179 CD (con den sate drain s), 1998 V1: 9, 1999 V2: 13
liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: 196 cd/ m 2 , 1998 V1: 41
radioactive materials systems and, 1999 V2: 341 CD-ROM disks of specification s, 1998 V1: 68
rou ghness, 1999 V2: 122 CDA (Copper Developmen t Association ), 1998 V1:
sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 14 27
storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 89–92 CDI (con tin u ou s deionization ), 1999 V2: 306–307
tree roots an d, 1999 V2: 223 ceilin gs, pipin g in , 1998 V1: 200, 1998 V1: 206
u n dergrou n d piping, 1999 V2: 68 cell pairs, 1999 V2: 306
Cas t-iron Soil Pipe and Fittings Engineering Manual, cells, defined, 1998 V1: 150
1999 V2: 114 cellu lose acetate membranes, 1999 V2: 310, 1999
Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute (CISPI), 1998 V1: 28, V2: 311
1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 114 cellu lose tricetate membran es, 1999 V2: 310, 1999
cast-iron tank legs, 1998 V1: 165 V2: 311
catch basins celsiu s (°C), 1998 V1: 17
piping size, 1999 V2: 69 cemen t grou t, 1999 V2: 243
in site storm systems, 1999 V2: 98 cement joints, 1998 V1: 27
categories in CSI format, 1998 V1: 65–66 cemen t-lin ed pipin g, 1999 V2: 122
cath odes center to center (c to c, C TO C), 1998 V1: 17
defin ed, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 150 “centi” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
galvan ic series of metals, 1998 V1: 140 centigrade con version factors, 1998 V1: 46
cath odic, defin ed, 1998 V1: 150 centipoise, converting to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 47
cath odic corrosion, 1998 V1: 150 cen tral-water pu rification equ ipment, 1999 V2:
cath odic in h ibitors, 1998 V1: 149 323–325
cathodic poten tial (electropositive poten tial), 1998 cen trally-located vacu u m clean in g systems. See
V1: 151 vacuum cleaning systems
cath odic protection centrifugal pumps
criteria, 1998 V1: 148–149 acid wastes and, 1999 V2: 332
defined, 1998 V1: 27, 1998 V1: 150 defined, 1998 V1: 31
in trodu ction, 1998 V1: 135 shallow well discharge, 1999 V2: 247
meth ods, 1998 V1: 144–149 vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 259
cation s centrifugal separators
cation resin s, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 305 centrifugal-type vacuum separators, 1999 V2:
defin ed, 1998 V1: 150, 1999 V2: 280 268
in ion exchan ge, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2: 301, for oil spills, 1999 V2: 348
1999 V2: 302 centrifu gal vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 276
in pH valu es, 1999 V2: 329 centrifugation of oil, 1999 V2: 347
cau lked join ts on floor drain s, 1999 V2: 16 ceramic wool, 1998 V1: 198
cau lking, defin ed, 1998 V1: 27 certification of performance, 1999 V2: 155
cau ses an d effects of earth qu akes, 1998 V1: 156– Certified Construction Specifier examination, 1998
159 V1: 69
cau stic embrittlemen t, 1998 V1: 150 cesspools
cau stic soda, 1999 V2: 333, 1999 V2: 337 defined, 1998 V1: 27
irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 27
Index — 12 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

CF (contact factors), 1998 V1: 18 chilled water supply (CWS), 1998 V1: 10
CFAC, CFACT (correction factors), 1998 V1: 19 chimneys
cfm (cu bic feet per minu te). See cubic feet per defined, 1999 V2: 213
minute heights, 1999 V2: 178
CFT (cubic feet), 1998 V1: 18 chlorides, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283, 1999 V2:
cfus (colony forming units), 1999 V2: 282 302
cGMP (current good manufacturing practices), 1999 chlorimine, 1999 V2: 300
V2: 325, 1999 V2: 328 chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride (CPVC), 1998 V1: 28,
CGPM (General Conference of Weights and Mea- 1999 V2: 284
sures), 1998 V1: 40 chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride piping, 1999 V2: 284
chain-type trenching, 1998 V1: 85 chlorination
chainwheel-operated valves, 1998 V1: 27 disinfecting water systems, 1999 V2: 252
chambers (air chambers). See air chambers (AC) domestic water systems, 1999 V2: 154
Chan, Wen-Yung W., 1998 V1: 49 drinking water, 1999 V2: 245
change orders, 1998 V1: 64 gray water, 1999 V2: 27, 1999 V2: 28, 1999 V2:
changed standpipes, 1998 V1: 16 29
channels, 1998 V1: 27 wells, 1999 V2: 243
Characteris tics of Rural Hous ehold Was te Water, chlorine
1999 V2: 34 bleaches, 1999 V2: 230
chases, 1998 V1: 27 chlorine-resistant grates, 1999 V2: 15
check valves (CV) microbial control, 1999 V2: 311
aluminum check valves, 1999 V2: 177 pure water systems, 1999 V2: 323
defined, 1998 V1: 28 removing, 1999 V2: 300
on vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 268 small drinking water systems, 1999 V2: 318
symbols for, 1998 V1: 11 in water chemistry, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 284
thermal expansion compensation and, 1999 V2: chromium-iron, 1998 V1: 140
167 Church, J ames, 1999 V2: 114
vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262 Chusid, Michael, 1998 V1: 79
with vent ports, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 149 CIN (cubic inches), 1998 V1: 18
checklists cinders as backfill, 1999 V2: 222
designs and drawings, 1998 V1: 91–94, 1998 V1: circles, calculating area, 1998 V1: 5
95 circuit venting, 1998 V1: 28, 1999 V2: 43–44, 1999
field ch ecklists, 1998 V1: 96–97 V2: 64
general checklists for jobs, 1998 V1: 90 circu its (ckt, CKT), 1998 V1: 17, 1998 V1: 28
specification s, 1998 V1: 68 circu latin g water systems
chemical plan ts, 1999 V2: 147 in geoth ermal en ergy systems, 1998 V1: 132
ch emical-waste systems hot water systems, 1999 V2: 165
codes an d stan dards, 1999 V2: 345 stan dby losses in , 1998 V1: 127–128
defined, 1998 V1: 28 CISPI (Cast Iron Soil Pipe In stitu te), 1998 V1: 28,
design con sideration s, 1999 V2: 346 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 114
pipe an d join t selection , 1999 V2: 345–346 cistern s, 1999 V2: 21, 1999 V2: 247
ch emically-stabilized emu lsion s, 1999 V2: 347 city rain fall rate tables, 1999 V2: 69–78
chemicals ckt, CKT (circu its), 1998 V1: 17, 1998 V1: 28
ch emical ch aracteristics of drinking water, 1999 CL, C/ L (critical level), 1998 V1: 29
V2: 316, 1999 V2: 318 Claes, 1998 V1: 152
ch emical con trol of microbes in water, 1999 V2: clamp gate valves, 1998 V1: 28
311 clams, 1999 V2: 282
ch emical treatmen t of oil spills, 1999 V2: 347, clarification treatments for water, 1999 V2: 294,
1999 V2: 348 1999 V2: 314
laboratory vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 262 classes of service, standpipe systems, 1998 V1: 38
in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 230–231 classifications of disabilities, 1998 V1: 101
in special-waste efflu en t, 1999 V2: 328 claw type pu mps, 1999 V2: 259
ch emistry of water. See water chemistry clay pipe joints, 1999 V2: 223
children, fixtures and, 1998 V1: 101 clay pipin g
chilled drinking water recirculating (DWR), 1998 in du strial disch arge pipin g, 1999 V2: 346
V1: 9 noise insu lation , 1999 V2: 15
chilled drinking water supply (DWS), 1998 V1: 9 pipe sizin g, 1999 V2: 89–92
chilled water returns (CWR), 1998 V1: 10 su rface rou gh ness, 1999 V2: 122
Index Index — 13

u ndergrou nd piping, 1999 V2: 68 coagulation in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: 27,
clay soils, 1999 V2: 26, 1999 V2: 27 1999 V2: 28
clays coalescence and filtration of oil spills, 1999 V2: 347
in feed water, 1999 V2: 289 coalescing filters in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 260
in soil textu re, 1999 V2: 218 coarse sands, 1999 V2: 26, 1999 V2: 27, 1999 V2:
Clean Water Act, 1999 V2: 345 103
cleaning coat hooks
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154–155 accessibility in toilet and bathing rooms, 1998
radioactive waste pipin g, 1999 V2: 341 V1: 108
septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 228, 1999 V2: 229–230 ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 1998
cleanou t plu gs (CO), 1998 V1: 14 V1: 111
clean ou ts, 1998 V1: 28 coated metal
ch emical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 346 cathodic protection, 1998 V1:148
clean ing drain s, 1999 V2: 15–16 corrosion protection, 1998 V1: 143–144
man h oles, 1999 V2: 99 natu ral gas pipin g, 1999 V2: 176
radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 343 passivation , 1998 V1: 143
roof drain age, 1999 V2: 88 pipin g codes an d standards, 1998 V1: 59
roof leaders, 1999 V2: 86 septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
san itary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 9–10 storm pipin g, 1999 V2: 68
types, 1999 V2: 17–18 cocks, 1998 V1: 28
vacu u m clean in g systems, 1999 V2: 276 Code of Federal Regulations , 1999 V2: 317
cleanou ts to grade (CO), 1998 V1: 14 codes and standards
clear floor space chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 345
bathtu bs, 1998 V1: 115 codes, defined, 1998 V1: 28
drin king fou n tain s an d water coolers, 1998 V1: energy code compliance, 1998 V1: 133
106 gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 22
lau n dry equ ipment, 1998 V1: 122 hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 170
lavatories an d sin ks, 1998 V1: 113 infectious and biological waste systems, 1999 V2:
u rinal design , 1998 V1: 113 343–344
water closet an d toilet accessibility, 1998 V1: 109 plu mbin g materials and equ ipmen t, 1998 V1:
for wh eelch airs, 1998 V1: 103, 1998 V1: 104 51–59
clear space in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 228 plu mbin g stan dards for ph ysically ch allenged,
clear-water wastes 1998 V1: 99–100
defined, 1998 V1: 28 seismic protection , 1998 V1: 185–186
in roof drain s, 1999 V2: 84 special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 327–
clearan ce 328
bathtu b accessibility, 1998 V1: 114 vacu u m-cleanin g systems, 1999 V2: 266
water closet an d toilet accessibility, 1998 V1: 109 vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 262
clevelan d work, 1998 V1: 85 water analysis, treatment an d pu rification , 1999
clg load, CLG LOAD (coolin g loads), 1998 V1: 18 V2: 279, 1999 V2: 317
climate, storm-drain age systems an d, 1999 V2: 68 coeff., COEF (coefficien ts), 1998 V1: 17
clin ics, 1999 V2: 147 coefficien ts (coeff., COEF), 1998 V1: 17
clo, convertin g to SI u nits, 1998 V1: 47 coefficien ts of expan sion , 1998 V1: 28
CLOAD (coolin g loads), 1998 V1: 18 coefficien ts of performan ce (COP), 1998 V1: 133
clockwise (cw, CW), 1998 V1: 17 coefficien ts of permeability (K factor), 1999 V2: 100–
cloggin g in leach ing tren ches, 1999 V2: 222 101, 1999 V2: 104–105, 1999 V2: 242
close nipples, 1998 V1: 28 coefficients of tran smissibility (Q factor), 1999 V2:
closed-circu it coolin g systems, 1998 V1: 149, 1999 101–102
V2: 243 coefficien ts of valve flow (Cv, Cv, CV), 1998 V1: 17
cloth es washers. See laundry systems and washers coffee sin ks, 1999 V2: 25. See als o sinks and wash
CMPR (compressors). See compressors basins
cndct, CNDCT (conductivity), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 cogeneration systems, waste heat usage, 1998 V1:
V1: 41 128
CO (cleanout plugs), 1998 V1: 14 coherent unit systems, 1998 V1: 40
CO (yard cleanouts or cleanouts to grade). See coils (COIL), 1998 V1: 17
cleanouts; cleanouts to grade cold water (CW), 1998 V1: 9
CO2 (carbon dioxide). See carbon dioxide cold-water systems
coagulants in clarification, 1999 V2: 294 backflow prevention, 1999 V2: 144–149
Index — 14 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

excess water pressu re, 1999 V2: 152–154 common vents, 1998 V1: 28, 1999 V2: 41, 1999
in adequ ate water pressu re, 1999 V2: 149–152 V2: 64. See als o dual vents
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 115 community bathhouses, 1999 V2: 235
pipe sizin g, 1999 V2: 121–131, 1999 V2: 133– compacted fill, building sewers and, 1999 V2: 15
142, 1999 V2: 136 companion flanges, 1998 V1: 28
referen ces, 1999 V2: 155 compartments in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 229
residential systems, 1999 V2: 115–116 complexity in specifications, 1998 V1: 67
testin g, clean in g, an d disin fection , 1999 V2: 154– compound water meters, 1999 V2: 115, 1999 V2:
155 116, 1999 V2: 117
water h ammer, 1999 V2: 131–132 compounds
water lin e sizin g, 1999 V2: 116–131 plumbing fixture standards, 1998 V1: 59
coliform grou p of bacteria, 1998 V1: 28 in water, 1999 V2: 281
coliform organ ism tests, 1999 V2: 155 compressed air (A, X#, X#A)
collectors (du g wells), 1999 V2: 240 defined, 1998 V1: 25
College of American Path ologists (CAP), 1999 V2: earthquake bracing for piping, 1998 V1: 168
279, 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2: 319 laboratory or medical compressed air, 1998 V1:
Collen tro, W.V., 1999 V2: 325 10
colloidal particles, removing, 1999 V2: 294 piping, 1999 V2: 177
colloidal silica, 1999 V2: 283 supplies to water tanks, 1999 V2: 247
colon y forming u n its (cfu s), 1999 V2: 282 symbols for, 1998 V1: 10
color Compres s ed Air and Gas Data, 1999 V2: 214
of drin kin g water, 1999 V2: 316 compressed gas. See natural gas systems
of feed water, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 287 compression fittings, 1998 V1: 32
of gray water, 1999 V2: 29, 1999 V2: 33 compression joints, 1998 V1: 28
of soils, 1999 V2: 218–219 compressors (cprsr, CMPR)
corporation cocks, 1998 V1: 28 defined, 1998 V1: 28
colu mn s in ion exch ange systems, 1999 V2: 302 earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 165
combin ation dry-pipe an d pre-action systems, 1998 symbols for, 1998 V1: 17
V1: 37 computer programs
combin ation fixtu res, defin ed, 1998 V1: 28 abbreviations in, 1998 V1: 17–23
combin ation storm-drainage and san itary sewers, compu ter-aided design an d drafting, 1998 V1: 68
1999 V2: 12, 1999 V2: 67, 1999 V2: 93 compu ter an alysis of pipin g systems, 1998 V1:
combin ation temperatu re an d pressu re relief valves, 189
1999 V2: 166 ETI (Econ omic Thickn ess of Insu lation ), 1998 V1:
combin ation vacu u m-cleanin g systems, 1999 V2: 125
266 compu ter room waste h eat u sage, 1998 V1: 128–
combin ation waste an d ven t systems, 1998 V1: 28, 131
1999 V2: 45–46, 1999 V2: 64 Computerizing Spec Practices , 1998 V1: 80
combin ed bu ildin g drain s, 1998 V1: 27 concealed sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
combu stion efficien cy, 1998 V1: 28 concentration cell attack corrosion, 1998 V1: 137–
combu stion exh au st from natu ral gas, 1999 V2: 138
177 concentration cells, defin ed, 1998 V1: 150
Commercial Energy Cons ervation Manual, 1998 V1: concentration gradien ts, 1999 V2: 308
133 concen tration polarization , 1998 V1: 150
commercial facilities concen tric redu cers, 1998 V1: 12
estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 234 concrete an ch ors
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 25 floor-mou nted equ ipmen t, 1998 V1: 165
grease interceptors, 1999 V2: 13 problems in seismic protection , 1998 V1: 191–
natural gas appliance demand, 1999 V2: 175 193
oil interceptors in drains, 1999 V2: 12–13 concrete base devices, 1998 V1: 210–211
radioactive waste drainage an d ven ts, 1999 V2: concrete covers on seepage pits, 1999 V2: 225
337 concrete embedmen ts, 1998 V1: 192–193
commercial lau n dries, 1999 V2: 121, 1999 V2: 147. concrete floors, levelin g arou n d, 1999 V2: 17
See als o laundry systems and washers concrete in ertia bases, 1998 V1: 209
Commercial Standards (CS), 1998 V1: 29 Concrete Pipe Handbook , 1999 V2: 102, 1999 V2:
Commercial Water Us e Res earch Project, 1999 V2: 114
34 concrete piping
noise insulation, 1999 V2: 15
Index Index — 15

pipe sizing, 1999 V2: 89–92 en ergy code complian ce, 1998 V1: 133
su rface rou gh ness, 1999 V2: 122 glossary, 1998 V1: 133
u n dergrou n d piping, 1999 V2: 68 hot water system improvemen ts, 1998 V1: 127
concrete roofin g drain s, 1999 V2: 82, 1999 V2: 83 in trodu ction, 1998 V1: 123
concrete san d fill, 1999 V2: 103 non depletable an d altern ate en ergy sou rces,
concrete sawin g, man -h ou rs for, 1998 V1: 85 1998 V1: 132
concrete septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 228 redu ced water flow rates, 1998 V1: 124–125
concrete sh ieldin g from radiation , 1999 V2: 339 referen ces, 1998 V1: 133
concrete tan k saddles, 1998 V1: 165 savin g u tility costs, 1998 V1: 131
concrete thru st blocks, 1999 V2: 251 stan dby losses in circu latin g systems, 1998 V1:
cond, COND (con den sers, con den sation). See 127–128
condensation; condensers th ermal in su lation th ickn ess, 1998 V1: 125–127
condensate drains (CD), 1998 V1: 9, 1999 V2: 13 waste heat u sage, 1998 V1: 128–131
condensates con serving water
corrosion inhibitors, 1998 V1: 149 air-con dition in g system water, 1999 V2: 243
defined, 1998 V1: 28, 1999 V2: 213 in stitu tion al waste-water systems, 1999 V2: 232
condensation (cond, COND) large sewage systems an d, 1999 V2: 231
corrosion and, 1998 V1: 143 constan t-speed pu mps, 1999 V2: 152
earthquakes and, 1998 V1: 170 con stan tly-u sed fixtu res, 1999 V2: 121
non-circulating hot water systems, 1998 V1: 127 Con stru cted Scien ce Research Fou n dation , 1998
protecting against, 1999 V2: 18 V1: 68
symbols for, 1998 V1: 17 con stru ction con tract docu men ts
condensers CSI format, 1998 V1: 65–66
condenser system water treatments, 1999 V2: defined, 1998 V1: 63, 1998 V1: 64
315 overview, 1998 V1: 63–65
defined, 1998 V1: 133 plu mbin g specifiers and en gin eers, 1998 V1: 69
scale deposits, 1999 V2: 289 project man u als, 1998 V1: 64–65
symbols for, 1998 V1: 17 Con stru ction Criteria Base (CCB), 1998 V1: 68
waste heat reclamation, 1998 V1: 129, 1998 V1: Cons truction Specification Writing, Principles and
130 Procedures , 1998 V1: 80
conditioning water. See water treatment Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)
ConDoc: The New Sy s tem for Formatting and Inte- address, 1998 V1: 80
grating Cons truction Documentation, 1998 V1: continuing education programs, 1998 V1: 69
79 CSI format, 1998 V1: 65–66
conductance (C), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 41 gen eral con dition s docu men ts, 1998 V1: 64
conductivity (cndct, CNDCT, K) Manual of Practice, 1998 V1: 63
measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 MASTERFORMAT, 1998 V1: 71–74, 1998 V1: 79
mho (specific conductivity), 1999 V2: 287 section shell ou tlin e, 1998 V1: 75–79
symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 consu mption . See demand
conductors contact corrosion, defined, 1998 V1: 150
defined, 1998 V1: 28 contact factors (CF), 1998 V1: 18
number of, 1998 V1: 18 contact time for microbial control, 1999 V2: 311
conduits Containment Control in Biotechnology Environments ,
defined, 1998 V1: 28 1999 V2: 350
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 155 containment of biological wastes, 1999 V2: 343
cones containment pipes and gas piping, 1999 V2: 176
calculating volume, 1998 V1: 5 contamination issues
of depression, 1999 V2: 242 backflow prevention, 1999 V2: 144–149
“Con ference Gen erale de Poids et Measu res,” 1998 bored wells, 1999 V2: 241
V1: 40 con tamin ators, defin ed, 1998 V1: 28
conflu ent ven ts, 1998 V1: 28, 1999 V2: 51, 1999 du g wells, 1999 V2: 240
V2: 52 gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26
conn ected loads, defin ed, 1999 V2: 214 well protection , 1999 V2: 243
conserving energy contin u ing edu cation programs, 1998 V1: 69
Bern ou lli’s equ ation , 1998 V1: 6–7 con tin u ou s acid-waste treatmen t systems, 1999 V2:
domestic water temperatu res, 1998 V1: 123 338
efficien cy of h ot-water storage equ ipmen t, 1998 contin u ou s deion ization (CDI), 1999 V2: 306–307
V1: 132–133 contin u ou s flow. See steady flow
Index — 16 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

continu ou s vents, defined, 1998 V1: 28, 1999 V2: in galvan ic series, 1998 V1: 140
64 copper alloy pipin g, 1999 V2: 14
continu ou s waste, 1998 V1: 28 copper-copper su lfite h alf-cells, 1998 V1: 140
contract docu ments. See construction contract Copper Developmen t Association (CDA), 1998 V1:
documents 27, 1999 V2: 65
contraction of pipes copper joints, 1999 V2: 222
calculating, 1998 V1: 4 copper-n ickel alloys, 1998 V1: 140
protecting against, 1999 V2: 18 copper pipin g
contractors, defined, 1998 V1: 64 abovegrou n d pipin g, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 68
Control of Pipeline Corros ion, 1998 V1: 152 con servin g en ergy, 1998 V1: 126
control panels (fire alarm), 1998 V1: 15 copper K pipin g, 1999 V2: 262
control systems in geothermal energy systems, copper L piping, 1999 V2: 262
1998 V1: 132 fu el-gas pipin g, 1999 V2: 196
controlled-flow storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: gas pipin g, 1999 V2: 176
88, 1999 V2: 93–94 radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 341
controlled-su bstan ce spills, 1999 V2: 277 rou gh n ess, 1999 V2: 122
controllers, defin ed, 1998 V1: 28 sizin g, 1999 V2: 133
controls copper rings over join ts, 1999 V2: 223
in accessible sh ower compartmen ts, 1998 V1: Copper Sovent Single-s tack Plumbing Sy s tem Hand-
117 book Supplement, 1999 V2: 65
in bath tu bs, 1998 V1: 114 copper sulfate, 1999 V2: 223
con trol valves on vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 268 copper-sulfate electrodes, 1998 V1:148
defined, 1998 V1: 28 Copson, H.R., 1998 V1: 152
gau ges for vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 260 corona-discharge generators, 1999 V2: 312
on gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182 correction factors, 1998 V1: 19
on water h eaters, 1999 V2: 160 corroded end of galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140
convergin g seismic plates, 1998 V1: 156 corrosion
conversion factors an d con vertin g backflow preventers and, 1999 V2: 149
fah ren h eit an d cen tigrade, 1998 V1: 46 boilers, 1999 V2: 314
feet of h ead to pou nds per squ are in ch , 1998 V1: calcium carbonate and, 1999 V2: 291
2 cathodic protection, 1998 V1: 144–149
fu el gas, 1999 V2: 212 cau ses, 1999 V2: 289–290
IP an d SI, 1998 V1: 47–48, 1999 V2: 256 coatin gs, 1998 V1: 143–144
measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 40 con trol of, 1998 V1: 142–149, 1999 V2: 18, 1999
meters of h ead to pressu re in kilopascals, 1998 V2: 244
V1: 2 coolin g towers, 1999 V2: 316
vacu u m acfm an d scfm, 1999 V2: 256, 1999 V2: corrosion cells an d sacrificial anodes, 1998 V1:
257 146
vacu u m pressu res, 1999 V2: 254 corrosion mitigation , 1998 V1: 150
water impu rity measu remen ts, 1999 V2: 285 corrosion poten tial, 1998 V1: 150
cooling loads (clg load, CLG LOAD, CLOAD), 1998 corrosion -resistan t materials, 1998 V1: 142–143,
V1: 18 1999 V2: 15
coolin g-tower water corrosion -resistan t sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
con stan t u se an d, 1999 V2: 121 corrosive wastes, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 14
exclu sion from gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 21 deaeration an d, 1999 V2: 294
Legion ella pneu moph ila, 1999 V2: 169 defin ed, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 150
u se of gray water in , 1999 V2: 21 electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140
waste h eat u sage, 1998 V1: 128 factors in rate of, 1998 V1: 140–142
water deman d, 1999 V2: 243 fatigu e, 1998 V1: 150
water treatmen ts, 1999 V2: 315–316 fatigu e limits, 1998 V1: 150
coolin g water corrosion in h ibitors, 1998 V1: 149 fu n damental corrosion cells, 1998 V1: 135–136
coordin ation disabilities, 1998 V1: 103 glossary, 1998 V1: 149–152
coordin ation with oth er design ers, 1999 V2: 79, hot-water relief valves, 1999 V2: 166
1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 84 in h ibitors, 1998 V1: 149
COP (coefficien t of performan ce), 1998 V1: 133 in trodu ction, 1998 V1: 135
copper natu ral gas pipin g, 1999 V2: 176
corrosion , 1998 V1: 137 passivation , 1998 V1: 143
in electromotive series, 1998 V1: 141 plastic water pipes, 1999 V2: 252
Index Index — 17

predicting water deposits and corrosion, 1999 CRIP (critical pressure), 1998 V1: 21
V2: 290–292 critical flows, defined, 1998 V1: 2
preven tion , 1998 V1: 150 critical level, defined, 1998 V1: 29
referen ces, 1998 V1: 152 critical pressure, 1998 V1: 21
total organ ic carbon an d, 1999 V2: 288 cross connections
types of, 1998 V1: 137–139 backflow prevention, 1999 V2: 144–149
Corros ion, 1998 V1: 152 defined, 1998 V1: 29
Corros ion and Res is tance of Metals and Alloy s , 1998 takin g precau tion s again st, 1999 V2: 32
V1: 152 types of preven tion devices, 1999 V2: 144–145
Corros ion Caus es and Prevention, 1998 V1: 152 cross-cou n try pipe lin es, 1998 V1: 147
corrosion cells, 1998 V1: 146 cross-flow filter media, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 300
Corros ion Control, 1998 V1: 152 cross-section s of drain s, 1999 V2: 2, 1999 V2: 3,
Corros ion Engineering, 1998 V1: 152 1999 V2: 4
corrosion fatigue, 1998 V1: 150 cross valves, 1998 V1: 29
corrosion fatigue limits, 1998 V1: 150 crosses
Corros ion Handbook , 1998 V1: 152 defined, 1998 V1: 29
corrosion mitigation, 1998 V1: 150 join ts in , 1998 V1: 82
corrosion potential, 1998 V1: 150 crossovers, 1998 V1: 29
corrosion prevention, 1998 V1: 150 crown ven ts, 1998 V1: 29
Corros ion Prevention for Practicing Engineers , 1998 crown s, 1998 V1: 29
V1: 152 cru d traps, 1999 V2: 290, 1999 V2: 341, 1999 V2:
corrosion-resistant materials, 1998 V1: 142–143, 343
1999 V2: 15 cru tch es, 1998 V1: 103
corrosion -resistan t sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37 CS (Commercial Stan dards), 1998 V1: 29
corrosive wastes, 1999 V2: 14 CSA (Canadian Stan dards Association), 1998 V1:
corru gated steel pipin g, 1999 V2: 122 60
cosmic radiation , 1999 V2: 339 CSI an d CSI format. See Construction Specifica-
costs. See economic concerns tions Institute (CSI)
coulombs (C) CU FT (cubic feet), 1998 V1: 18
corrosion, 1998 V1: 135 CU IN (cubic inches), 1998 V1: 18
SI units, 1998 V1: 41 cubes, calculating volume, 1998 V1: 5
coulombs per cubic meter (C/ m3 ), 1998 V1: 41 cubic feet (ft 3 , CU FT, CUFT, CFT), 1998 V1: 18
Cou n cil of American Bu ildin g Officials (CABO), cu bic feet per min u te (cfm, CFM)
1998 V1: 122 defined, 1999 V2: 213
cou nter-e.m.f.s, 1998 V1: 152 scfm (standard free air at atmosph eric pressu re)
cou nterclockwise (ccw, CCW), 1998 V1: 18 (scfm, SCFM), 1998 V1: 18, 1999 V2: 255,
cou ple action . See galvanic corrosion 1999 V2: 257, 1999 V2: 263
couples, defined, 1998 V1: 150 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
couplings vacu u m exh au sters an d, 1999 V2: 274–275
defined, 1998 V1: 28 vacu u m measu remen ts, 1999 V2: 253, 1999 V2:
nonrigid couplings, 1998 V1: 189 255
course vacuum, 1999 V2: 253 cu bic feet per secon d, stan dard (scfs, SCFS), 1998
covers on seepage pits, 1999 V2: 225 V1: 18
cp, cp, CP (sp h t at con stan t pressu re), 1998 V1: 22
cprsr (compressors). See compressors
CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride), 1998 V1: 28,
1999 V2: 284
cracking, defined, 1998 V1: 150
crawl space installation man-hour estimates, 1998 cu bic inch es (in 3 , CU IN, CUIN, CIN), 1998 V1: 18
V1: 84 cu bic meters, 1998 V1: 41
Craytor, J ., 1999 V2: 34 cu bic meters per kilogram, 1998 V1: 41
creep, pipe supports and, 1999 V2: 14 cu bic meters per second, 1998 V1: 41
crevice-attack corrosion CUFT (cu bic feet), 1998 V1: 18
crud traps in radioactive-waste piping, 1999 V2: CUIN (cu bic in ch es), 1998 V1: 18
341, 1999 V2: 343 cu lvert pipes, 1999 V2: 99
defined, 1998 V1: 137, 1998 V1: 150, 1999 V2: cu rb boxes, 1998 V1: 29
290 cu ries (c), 1999 V2: 339
reducing, 1998 V1: 143 cu rren t
Index — 18 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

cathodic protection, 1998 V1: 144 DCBP (dou ble-ch eck backflow preven ters), 1998 V1:
in corrosion, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 140 12
electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140 DCVA (dou ble-check valve assemblies), 1999 V2:
large anode cu rrent requ irements, 1998 V1: 147 144, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 149
measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 DE (deion ized water), 1998 V1: 9
cu rrent good manu factu ring practices (cGMP), 1999 deactivation, defin ed, 1998 V1: 150
V2: 325, 1999 V2: 328 dead-end service in pressu re-regu lated valves, 1999
cu rve radii for water pipes, 1999 V2: 250 V2: 152
Cutting and Welding Proces s es , 1999 V2: 214 dead en ds, defin ed, 1998 V1: 29
cutting oils, 1999 V2: 13 dead legs in pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 324
cv, cv, CV (sp h t at con stant volu me), 1998 V1: 22 dead loads on roof, 1999 V2: 79
Cv, Cv, CV (valve flow coefficien ts), 1998 V1: 17 deaerators
CV (ch eck valves). See check valves boiler feed water, 1999 V2: 314
CVBs (check valves with vent ports), 1999 V2: 145, deaeration water treatment, 1999 V2: 294–295
1999 V2: 149 soven t deaerators, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 46,
CVOL (specific volume). See specific volume 1999 V2: 54, 1999 V2: 56, 1999 V2: 60,
cw, CW (clockwise), 1998 V1: 17 1999 V2: 61, 1999 V2: 62
CW (cold water), 1998 V1: 19 dealkalizin g treatmen t, 1999 V2: 295
CWR (chilled water return), 1998 V1: 10 dealloyin g, defined, 1998 V1: 150
CWS (chilled water supply), 1998 V1: 10 decarbon ation, 1999 V2: 295
cycle of concentration in cooling towers, 1999 V2: “deci” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
315 decibel (A) scale (dB(A)), 1998 V1: 215
cycling of pumps, 1999 V2: 151 decibels (dB, DB)
cylinder snubbers, 1998 V1: 167 defined, 1998 V1: 215
cylinders, calculating volume, 1998 V1: 5 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
deck drain s, 1999 V2: 69
D decomposition poten tial, 1998 V1: 151
decon taminatin g radioactive waste pipin g, 1999 V2:
d (deci) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
341
D (difference or delta), 1998 V1:18
decorative pools, gray water an d, 1999 V2: 22
D (drains). See drains
deep-bed san d filtration, 1999 V2: 298, 1999 V2:
D (indirect drains), 1998 V1: 9
300
da (deka) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
deep chambers, 1999 V2: 149
damage. See bedding and settlement; corrosion;
deep (dp, DP, DPTH). See depth
creep; hazards; scaling; seismic protection
deep fill, building sewers and, 1999 V2: 15
damped, single-leaf barriers, 1998 V1: 197
deep-seal p-traps, 1999 V2: 13, 1999 V2: 84
dampen, defined, 1998 V1: 29
deep wells, 1999 V2: 240, 1999 V2: 245
damping
deg., °, DEG (degrees), 1998 V1: 18
in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 160–161
degasification , 1999 V2: 295
sou n d dampin g, 1998 V1: 200
degradation of pu re water, 1999 V2: 323
dampin g in earthqu akes, 1998 V1: 185, 1998 V1:
degrees (deg., °, DEG), 1998 V1: 18
189
degrees celsiu s, 1998 V1: 42
Darcy-Weisbach formu la, 1999 V2: 7, 1999 V2: 40
DEHA (diethylh ydroxylamin e), 1999 V2: 315
Darcy’s friction formu la, 1998 V1: 2–3, 1998 V1: 3
deion ization, 1999 V2: 300
Darcy’s law, 1999 V2: 242
deion ized water (DE), 1998 V1: 9
Dau gherty, Robert L., 1999 V2: 19
“deka” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
Dawson , F.M., 1999 V2: 4, 1999 V2: 19
delivery pressu re in natu ral gas systems, 1999 V2:
daylights, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2: 105
183
dB, DB (decibels), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 215
delta (diff., , DIFF, D, DELTA), 1998 V1: 18
DB (dry-bu lb temperatu re), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1:
delta t (temperature differential), 1998 V1: 133
30
DELTP (pressure drops or differences). See pressure
dB(A) (decibel (A) scale), 1998 V1: 215
drops or differences
dbt, DBT (dry-bu lb temperatu re), 1998 V1: 30
deluge systems, 1998 V1: 37
dbt, DBT (effective temperatu re), 1998 V1: 18
deluge valves, 1998 V1: 16
dc, DC (direct cu rren t), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 144,
demand
1999 V2: 306
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 121
DC cu rren t, 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 144, 1999 V2:
defined, 1999 V2: 213
306
domestic hot water systems, 1998 V1: 133
Index Index — 19

drinking water, 1999 V2: 243–244, 1999 V2: 245 dezin cification of brass, 1998 V1: 138
h ot water, 1999 V2: 157 DFRAD (diffu se radiation ), 1998 V1: 18
h ydropn eu matic-tan k systems, 1999 V2: 150 dfu (drainage fixtu re u n its), 1998 V1: 32, 1999 V2:
n atu ral gas, 1999 V2: 175, 1999 V2: 177 64
water conservation an d paybacks, 1998 V1: 125 DHEC (Departmen t of Health and En viron men tal
water h eater types and, 1999 V2: 160 Con trol), 1999 V2: 170
water su pply pipin g an d, 1999 V2: 249 DI (deion ization ), 1999 V2: 300
water treatmen t meth ods an d, 1999 V2: 308 dia., DIA (diameters). See diameters
demin eralizer systems, 1999 V2: 295, 1999 V2: 300 diagnostic facilities, 1999 V2: 340
Denon cou rt, 1999 V2: 325 diameters (dia., DIA)
den s, DENS (den sity). See density defined, 1998 V1: 29
density (dens, DENS, RHO) inside (ID), 1998 V1: 18
measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 outside (OD), 1998 V1: 18
of natural gas, 1999 V2: 180 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 diaphragm gauges, 1999 V2: 260
department connections, 1998 V1: 15 diaphragm pumps, 1999 V2: 259
departments having jurisdiction, 1998 V1: 29 diaphragm valves, 1998 V1: 29, 1999 V2: 332
depolarization, defined, 1998 V1: 151 diaphragms, defined, 1998 V1: 29
depolarizing cathodes, 1998 V1: 142 diatomaceous earth filtration, 1999 V2: 318
deposition corrosion, defined, 1998 V1: 151 dielectric fittings, 1998 V1: 29
deposits from feed water, 1999 V2: 289–290. See dielectric insulation, 1998 V1: 143, 1998 V1:148
als o scaling; sediment; slime; slu dge diesel fuel, 1999 V2: 13
depth (dp, DP, DPTH) diethylhydroxylamine, 1999 V2: 315
of leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 222 diff., DIFF (difference or delta), 1998 V1: 18
of liquids in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 difference (diff., (, DIFF, D, DELTA), 1998 V1: 18
of septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228 differential aeration cells, 1998 V1: 151
of soils, 1999 V2: 219 differential environmental conditions, corrosion by,
symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 1998 V1: 138–139
of water pipes, 1999 V2: 251 differen tial movemen t in earth qu akes, 1998 V1:
of wells, 1999 V2: 240 162
depth filters, 1999 V2: 308 differen tials, defined, 1998 V1: 29
derived units of measurement, 1998 V1: 41 diffu se radiation (DFRAD), 1998 V1: 18
design diffu sion aerators, 1999 V2: 293, 1999 V2: 318
for physically challenged individuals, 1998 V1: diffu sion wells, 1999 V2: 105
101–107 digestion, 1998 V1: 29
redu cing corrosion, 1998 V1: 143 digits, 1998 V1: 40
seismic, 1998 V1: 159–162, 1998 V1: 191 dikes for leach in g trench es, 1999 V2: 223
design flow in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182 dilu tion air, defin ed, 1999 V2: 213
Des ign of Hoffman Indus trial Vacuum Cleaning dimen sion s
Sy s tems , 1999 V2: 277 defined, 1998 V1: 40
desktop publishing and project manuals, 1998 V1: wh eelch airs, 1998 V1: 102
68 DIN 52218, 1998 V1: 198
desolver tanks, 1999 V2: 307 dir radn, DIR RADN (direct radiation), 1998 V1: 18
destruction phase in ozonation, 1999 V2: 313 DIRAD (direct radiation), 1998 V1: 18
destructive forces in pipes. See water hammer direct-count epifluorescent microscopy, 1999 V2:
detector-check water meters, 1999 V2: 116 282
detectors, smoke, 1998 V1: 29 direct current (dc, DC)
detention systems for storm water, 1999 V2: 105– cathodic protection, 1998 V1: 144
107, 1999 V2: 107 in deionization, 1999 V2: 306
detention times for treated water, 1999 V2: 294 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
detergen ts direct-filtration package plants, 1999 V2: 318
factors in trap seal loss, 1999 V2: 36 direct-operated pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2:
in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 153
ven tin g for, 1999 V2: 36–37, 1999 V2: 39 direct radiation (dir radn, DIR RADN, DIRAD), 1998
developed len gth , 1998 V1: 29 V1: 18
deviation s in measu rements, 1998 V1: 40 directly-heated, automatic storage water heaters,
dew-poin t temperatu re (dpt, DPT), 1998 V1: 18 1999 V2: 160
dewpoints, 1998 V1: 29 dirt cans for vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 268
Index — 20 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

dirt in feed water, 1999 V2: 289 natu ral gas systems, 1999 V2: 176–177, 1999
disabled individu als. See physically challenged V2: 194, 1999 V2: 195
individuals in vacu u m sizin g calcu lations, 1999 V2: 263
disc water meters, 1999 V2: 116 in vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 262–263
discharge characteristic fixture curves, 1999 V2: 3 divinyl ben zene, 1999 V2: 302
discharge coefficients, 1998 V1: 6 division in SI u n its, 1998 V1: 42
discharge piping for vacuum cleaning systems, Division s in specification s
1999 V2: 274 Division 1, 1998 V1: 67
discharge-type check valves, 1999 V2: 179 Division 2, 1998 V1: 74
discs, defined, 1998 V1: 29 Division 15, 1998 V1: 63, 1998 V1: 74
dishwashers listing, 1998 V1: 71–74
acoustic ratings of, 1998 V1: 199 DL (distilled water), 1998 V1: 9, 1999 V2: 295,
defined, 1998 V1: 29 1999 V2: 299
fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3 DN (n omin al diameter), 1999 V2: 253
disinfecting DNA materials, 1999 V2: 344
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154–155 docks, 1999 V2: 147
decontamin ating in fectiou s wastes, 1999 V2: dolomite limeston e chips, 1999 V2: 334
344–345 dome grates in sh ower rooms, 1999 V2: 11
drin kin g water, 1999 V2: 245 dome roof drains, 1999 V2: 80
feed water, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 311–313 dome strain ers, 1999 V2: 82
gray water, 1999 V2: 23, 1999 V2: 27 domestic sewage, 1998 V1: 29
septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 domestic spaces, acou stic plu mbin g design for,
small drin kin g water systems, 1999 V2: 318 1998 V1: 201
water systems, 1999 V2: 252 domestic systems. See residential systems
Dis infection of Es cherichia Coli by Us ing Water Domes tic Water Heating Des ign Manual, 1999 V2:
Dis s ociation Effect on Ion Exchange Mem- 166
branes , 1999 V2: 325 doors, accessibility and, 1998 V1: 108, 1998 V1:
disintegrations per second (dps), 1999 V2: 338, 110, 1998 V1: 111
1999 V2: 339 dope, pipe, 1999 V2: 284
disk filters, 1999 V2: 308 dormitories, acoustic plumbing design for, 1998 V1:
dispersed oil, 1999 V2: 347 201
displacement doses of radiation, 1999 V2: 339
defined, 1998 V1: 29 dosimeters, 1999 V2: 339
in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 159 dosing tanks, 1998 V1: 29
displacement water meters, 1999 V2: 117 dou ble. See als o entries beginning with dual-,
disposal fields (sewage). See leaching trenches multiple-, or two-; entries beginning w ith
(leach fields) dual-, multiple-, or two-
disposal wells in geothermal energy, 1998 V1: 132 double-acting altitude valves, 1999 V2: 249
disposers. See garbage disposers double-check backflow preventers (DCBP), 1998 V1:
dissolved elements and materials in water 12
dissolved gases, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 294, double-check valve assemblies, 1999 V2: 144, 1999
1999 V2: 314 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 149
dissolved inorganics, 1999 V2: 288 double-contained piping systems, 1999 V2: 345,
dissolved minerals, 1999 V2: 314 1999 V2: 346
dissolved oil, 1999 V2: 347 double discs, 1998 V1: 29
dissolved organics, 1999 V2: 300 double-leaf barriers, 1998 V1: 197
dissolved solids, 1999 V2: 288 dou ble offsets, 1998 V1: 30
distilled water (DL) double-ported valves, 1998 V1: 30
distillation treatment, 1999 V2: 295–298, 1999 double-seated pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2:
V2: 299, 1999 V2: 299 152
symbols for, 1998 V1: 9 double-side-entry fittings, 1999 V2: 62
distribu tion boxes, 1999 V2: 223, 1999 V2: 231 double-sweep tees, 1998 V1: 30
distribu tion of materials, man-h ou r estimates, 1998 double-wall piping, 1999 V2: 327
V1: 84 double wedges, 1998 V1: 30
distribu tion system in seepage beds, 1999 V2: 224 double wyes, common vents and, 1999 V2: 43
ditch installation man-h ou r estimates, 1998 V1: 84 Dow Chemical Corp., 1999 V2: 325
diversity factor down, defined, 1998 V1: 30
defined, 1999 V2: 213 downspouts and leaders. See als o vertical stacks
Index Index — 21

defined, 1998 V1: 30, 1998 V1: 34 drinking fountains

roof drainage systems, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: access to, 1998 V1: 107–108
85–88 in stallation man -h ou r estimates, 1998 V1: 83
roof expan sion an d, 1999 V2: 85 wh eelch air approach es, 1998 V1: 106
roof leaders, 1999 V2: 87 drin kin g water
sizin g, 1999 V2: 81 drin kin g water su pply (DWS), 1998 V1: 9
down stream, defined, 1998 V1: 30 drinkin g water su pply recircu latin g (DWR), 1998
dp, DP (depth ). See depth V1: 9
dps (disintegrations per second), 1999 V2: 338, drinkin g water systems. See private water
1999 V2: 339 systems
dpt, DPT (dew-point temperatu re), 1998 V1: 18 potable water, 1998 V1: 35
DPTH (depth). See depth treatments for, 1999 V2: 316–317, 1999 V2: 318
draft hoods on appliances, 1999 V2: 178, 1999 V2: drive impellers in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179
213 drive points, 1999 V2: 241
drafting, 1998 V1: 69 driven wells, 1999 V2: 241
drain, waste, and vent, defined, 1998 V1: 30 droop, 1998 V1: 30
drain, waste, and vent branches (DWV), 1999 V2: drop elbows, 1998 V1: 30
19, 1999 V2: 54, 1999 V2: 60 drop n ipples on pen dan t sprin klers, 1998 V1: 16
drain, waste, and vent stacks (DWV) drop tees, 1998 V1: 30
DWV pattern schedule 40 plastic piping, 1999 drops, 1998 V1: 13, 1998 V1: 30
V2: 14 dross, 1998 V1: 30
DWV piping, 1999 V2: 68 dry, u prigh t sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
DWV stacks, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 54, 1999 dry (DRY), 1998 V1: 18
V2: 60 dry-bu lb temperatu re (dbt, DBT, DB), 1998 V1: 18,
drain bodies. See sumps and sump pu mps 1998 V1: 30
drain cleaners in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 dry h ose station s, 1998 V1: 16
drain-down times, 1999 V2: 94 dry pen den t sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37
drain fields. See leaching trenches (leach fields) dry-pipe systems, 1998 V1: 37
drain outlets, types of, 1999 V2: 17–18 dry-pipe valves, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 30
drain tiles, 1999 V2: 221 dry stan dpipes, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 38
drain age, waste, an d ven ts (DWV). See drain, waste, dry-storage water soften ers, 1999 V2: 307
and vent dry su rfaces, 1998 V1: 22
drainage channels, irrigation systems and, 1999 dry-vacu u m cleanin g systems (DVC), 1998 V1: 11,
V2: 26 1999 V2: 266, 1999 V2: 268, 1999 V2: 275–
drainage (corrosion), defined, 1998 V1: 151 276
drainage fittings, 1998 V1: 30 dry ven ting, redu ced-size ven tin g an d, 1999 V2: 49
drainage fixture units (dfu), 1998 V1: 32, 1999 V2: dry-weath er flows, 1998 V1: 30
64 dry wells, 1998 V1: 34. See als o leaching wells
drainage inlets in site storm systems, 1999 V2: 98 du Moulin, G.C., 1999 V2: 325
drainage piping dual. See als o entries beginning w ith double-,
acoustic ratings of fixtures, 1998 V1: 198–199 multiple-, or two-
join ts in , 1998 V1: 82 dual-bed deionization (two-step), 1999 V2: 302,
drain age systems. See als o s pecific ty pes of drain- 1999 V2: 303
age s y s tems dual-gas booster systems, 1999 V2: 181
defined, 1998 V1: 30, 1999 V2: 1 dual vents, 1998 V1: 28. See als o common vents
drains (D). See als o building drains; horizontal ductile action of building systems, 1998 V1: 185
drains; s pecific ty pes of drains ductile iron fittings, 1999 V2: 196
defined, 1998 V1: 30 ductile iron grates, 1999 V2: 15
symbols for, 1998 V1: 14 ductile iron piping, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 89–92,
drawdowns (wells), 1999 V2: 242, 1999 V2: 245 1999 V2: 250, 1999 V2: 341
drawings, plumbing. See plumbing drawings du cts. See vents and venting systems
drawoff installations. See s pecific k inds of intercep- dug wells, 1999 V2: 240
tors Dumfries Triangle and Occoquan-Woodbridge
drench equipment for emergencies, 1999 V2: 332 Sanitary District, 1999 V2: 34
drift. See als o wander Dunleavy, M., 1999 V2: 325
defined, 1998 V1: 30 duplex. See als o entries beginning w ith double-,
problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 192 dual-, or two-
drilled anchor bolts, 1998 V1: 165, 1998 V1: 193
Index — 22 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

du plex su mp pu mp systems, 1999 V2: 9, 1999 V2: hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 157
69, 1999 V2: 105 ion -exch an ge cartridges, 1999 V2: 306, 1999 V2:
du plex vacu u m pu mp arrangements, 1999 V2: 262, 323
1999 V2: 263 ion -exch an ge resin s, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2:
du ration of rainfall, 1999 V2: 69–78 305
Du rham systems, 1998 V1: 30 laboratory acid-waste drainage, 1999 V2: 334
du rion , 1998 V1: 30 life-cycle costs, 1998 V1: 133
DVC (dry vacu u m cleaning), 1998 V1: 11, 1999 V2: redu ced-size ven tin g, 1999 V2: 50
266, 1999 V2: 268, 1999 V2: 275–276 san itary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 1
dwellin gs, 1998 V1: 30. See als o buildings savin g u tility costs, 1998 V1: 131
DWR (drinking water supply recirculating), 1998 seismic protection costs, 1998 V1: 155, 1998 V1:
V1: 9 185
DWS (drinking water supply), 1998 V1: 9 sin gle septic tank in stallation s, 1999 V2: 231
DWV. See drain, waste, and vent stacks (DWV) soven t sin gle-stack plu mbin g systems, 1999 V2:
dyes in gray water, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 29, 1999 54
V2: 33 soven t system fittings, 1999 V2: 62
dynamic head, 1999 V2: 245 special-waste drain age systems, 1999 V2: 328
dynamic pressure, 1998 V1: 21 su bsu rface site drain age, 1999 V2: 100
dynamic properties of piping, defined, 1998 V1: 193 vacu u m system pipin g, 1999 V2: 262
dynamic response (K) to ground shaking, 1998 V1: water distillers, 1999 V2: 298
159, 1998 V1: 162 wet ven tin g, 1999 V2: 49
dynamic viscosity Economic Thick nes s of Ins ulation, 1998 V1: 125
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 Eddy, 1999 V2: 238
measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 edge distances, problems in seismic protection,
dyne, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 1998 V1: 193
edr, EDR (equivalent direct radiation), 1998 V1: 18,
E 1998 V1: 47
educating public on gray-water systems, 1999 V2:
E-33.08B (Plumbing Nois e), 1998 V1: 198
33
E (exa) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
eff, EFF (efficiency). See efficiency
E (roughness), 1998 V1: 21. See als o roughness
effective openings, 1998 V1: 30
E (volts). See volts
effective temperature (ET*, ET), 1998 V1: 18
earth loads
effectiveness (EFT), 1998 V1: 18
on water pipes, 1999 V2: 250
effects in multi-effect distillation, 1999 V2: 298
protecting against, 1999 V2: 18
effects of earthquakes, 1998 V1: 156–159
earthquake protection of plumbing equipment. See
efficien cy (eff, EFF)
seismic protection
fin (FEFF), 1998 V1: 18
Earthquak e Res is tance of Buildings , 1998 V1: 195
hot-water storage equ ipment, 1998 V1: 132–133
Earthquak e Res is tant Des ign Requirements Hand-
su rface (SEFF), 1998 V1: 18
book , 1998 V1: 195
symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
Eaton, Herbert N., 1999 V2: 4, 1999 V2: 19, 1999
th ermal, 1998 V1: 133
V2: 38
efflu en t
eccentric fittings, 1998 V1: 30
chemicals in special-waste efflu en t, 1999 V2: 328
eccentric redu cers, 1998 V1: 12
defined, 1998 V1: 30
eccentricity in connections, 1998 V1: 194
estimatin g sewage qu an tities, 1999 V2: 233–238
Eclat Electronic Catalog Library, 1998 V1: 68, 1998
layers of in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 227
V1: 80
samples of radioactive waste efflu en t, 1999 V2:
economic concerns
342
cathodic protection costs, 1998 V1:148, 1998
special-waste drain age systems, 1999 V2: 327
V1:149
temperatu re of special-waste efflu en t, 1999 V2:
controlled-flow systems, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2:
328
93
treatment of sewage efflu en t, 1999 V2: 227–228
corrosion resistant materials, 1998 V1: 143
EFT (effectiven ess), 1998 V1: 18
cost estimating introduction, 1998 V1: 81–89
Egozy, 1999 V2: 325
driven wells, 1999 V2: 241
EJ (expan sion join ts). See expansion joints
forms for cost estimates, 1998 V1: 87–89
EJ CDC (Engineers J oint Contracts Document
galvan ic cathodic protection costs, 1998 V1: 147
Committee), 1998 V1: 65
gas booster location , 1999 V2: 180
ejectors
gray-water system costs, 1999 V2: 29–32
Index Index — 23

fixtu re-u nit valu es, 1999 V2: 9 elevated water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247
in sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 9 elevation (elev., EL, ELEV)
EL (elevation). See elevation adjustments for vacuum, 1999 V2: 257, 1999
elastic rebound theory, 1998 V1: 156–158, 1998 V2: 275
V1: 159 altitude valves, 1999 V2: 249
elastic u n its, 1998 V1: 31 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
elastic vibration in pipes, 1998 V1: 7 ellipses, calculating area, 1998 V1: 5
elastomeric seals or gaskets, 1999 V2: 341 ells (elbows)
elbows defined, 1998 V1: 31
ells, 1998 V1: 31 joints in, 1998 V1: 82
risers u p or down , 1998 V1: 13 elutriation, 1998 V1: 31
elderly embedments, problems in seismic protection, 1998
aging disabilities, 1998 V1: 103 V1: 192–193
fixtu res and, 1998 V1: 101 emergen cy equ ipment for acid spills, 1999 V2: 332,
electric capacitan ce measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 1999 V2: 333
electric charge den sity measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 e.m.f. series, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 151
electric in du ctance, 1998 V1: 41 emitters in irrigation systems, 1999 V2: 27
electric-operated, solen oid valve trap primers, 1999 empirical tank capacity equ ation , 1999 V2: 151
V2: 14 emptying noises, acou stic design an d, 1998 V1:
electric permeability measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41 200
electric permittivity measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41 emu lsion s, 1999 V2: 347
electric resistan ce, 1998 V1: 41 enameled floor drains, 1999 V2: 16
electric resistivity measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41 enameled sediment bu ckets, 1999 V2: 14
electric water-h eater h eat recovery, 1999 V2: 158– enclosu res for sh owers, 1998 V1: 118
159 end conn ection s, 1998 V1: 31
electrical compon en ts in gas boosters, 1999 V2: end-su ction pu mps, 1998 V1: 31
179 en d-u se restriction s
electrical ph ases, 1998 V1: 21 con servin g en ergy, 1998 V1: 123
electricity redu ced water u sage, 1998 V1: 124
con version factors, 1998 V1: 43 end ventin g, 1999 V2: 41
measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41 endotoxin s, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 288
electroch emical equ ivalents in corrosion , 1998 V1: en ergy
135–137 con version factors, 1998 V1: 43
Electrochemical Society, 1998 V1: 151 defined, 1998 V1: 133
electrodeion ization, 1999 V2: 306–307 En ergy Efficien cy Act, 1998 V1: 124
electrodes, defin ed, 1998 V1: 151 measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
electrolysis, 1998 V1: 31, 1998 V1: 33. See als o non -SI u n its, 1998 V1: 42
galvanic action non depletable, 1998 V1: 132, 1998 V1: 133
electrolytes recovered, 1998 V1: 133
defined, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 151, 1999 V2: en ergy con servation . See conserving energy
280 energy efficiency. See conserving energy
specific resistance, 1999 V2: 285–287 Energy Efficiency Act, 1998 V1: 124
electromagn etic radiation , 1999 V2: 338 Energy Saving and the Plumbing Sy s tem, 1998 V1:
electromotive force (emf, EMF) 133
cou n ter-e.m.f.s, 1998 V1: 152 Engineered Plumbing Des ign, 1998 V1: 49, 1999 V2:
electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140 114
measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41 engineered plumbing systems, 1998 V1: 31
symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 Engineering Manual of the War Department, 1999
electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: V2: 97, 1999 V2: 114
151 Engineers J oint Contracts Document Committee
electron egative poten tial, 1998 V1: 150 (EJ CDC), 1998 V1: 65
Electronic Sweet’s, 1998 V1: 80 engines, earthquake protection for, 1998 V1: 165
electron ics-grade water, 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2: entering (entr, ENT), 1998 V1: 18
320 enthalpy (H), 1998 V1: 18
electropositive poten tial, 1998 V1: 151 entr (entering), 1998 V1: 18
electroregen eration , 1999 V2: 307 entropy (S)
elemen ts in water, 1999 V2: 281 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
elev., ELEV (elevation). See elevation symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
Index — 24 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

environmental conditions, corrosion by, 1998 V1: NFPA formu la, 1999 V2: 186, 1999 V2: 187,
138–139 1999 V2: 188, 1999 V2: 189
En vironmen tal Protection Agen cy. See US Environ- Oh m’s Law, 1998 V1: 140
mental Protection Agency pipe expansion an d con traction , 1998 V1: 4
environs (facilities with radiation), 1999 V2: 339 poten tial energy, 1998 V1: 3
EPA. See US Environmental Protection Agency Pran dtl-Colebrook equ ation , 1999 V2: 60
epicenters of earthquakes, 1998 V1: 160 pu mp affin ity laws, 1998 V1: 7–8
epicyclic gears, 1998 V1: 201 pu mp efficien cy, 1998 V1: 8
epm (equivalents per million), 1999 V2: 285 pu mp noise levels, 1998 V1: 203
epoxy coatings, 1998 V1: 144 rate of corrosion , 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141
EQFT (equivalent feet), 1998 V1: 18 rate of flow, 1998 V1: 1
EQIN (equivalent inches), 1998 V1: 18 Ration al Method formu las, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2:
eqiv ft, EQIV FT (equivalent feet), 1998 V1: 18 95–98
eqiv in, EQIV IN (equivalent inches), 1998 V1: 18 referen ces, 1998 V1: 49
equations Reyn old’s n u mber, 1998 V1: 2
anode expected life, 1998 V1: 146–147 site storm drain age, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2: 95–
areas and volu mes, 1998 V1: 4–6 98, 1999 V2: 107–108
Bern ou lli’s equ ation , 1998 V1: 6–7 soil resistivity, 1998 V1: 147
calcu latin g seismic forces, 1998 V1: 186–189 Spitzglass formu la, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 183,
Darcy-Weisbach formu la, 1999 V2: 7 1999 V2: 210–211
Darcy’s friction formu la, 1998 V1: 2–3, 1998 V1: stack termin al velocity an d len gth , 1998 V1: 3
3 steady-state heat balance equ ation s, 1999 V2:
Faraday’s Law, 1998 V1: 141 158
flow at ou tlets, 1998 V1: 3, 1998 V1: 6 storm drainage, 1998 V1: 8
flow capacity in vertical stacks, 1999 V2: 4 tank capacity empirical equ ation, 1999 V2: 151
flow from ou tlets, velocity of, 1998 V1: 7 tank capacity ru le of th u mb equ ation , 1999 V2:
friction head, 1998 V1: 7 151
friction head loss, 1998 V1: 2–3 termin al velocity an d terminal len gth , 1999 V2: 1
gas laws, 1999 V2: 179 velocity h ead, 1998 V1: 6
gravity circu lation, 1998 V1: 6 ven t pipin g len gth , 1998 V1: 3
Hazen-Williams formu la, 1998 V1: 2, 1999 V2: 7, water flow in pipes, 1998 V1: 2 colu mn
1999 V2: 116, 1999 V2: 118, 1999 V2: water hammer, 1998 V1: 203
119, 1999 V2: 121 well equ ilibriu m equ ations, 1999 V2: 242–243
h ot-water systems, 1999 V2: 158 Weymou th formu la, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 183,
h ydrau lic sh ock, 1998 V1: 7 1999 V2: 190, 1999 V2: 191, 1999 V2:
J ou kowsky’s formu la, 1999 V2: 132 198 1999 V2: 209
kin etic en ergy, 1998 V1: 3 equ ilibriu m equ ation s for wells, 1999 V2: 242–243
Man n in g formu la equ ipmen t
altern ative sewage-disposal systems, 1999 V2: acou stic con cern s in selection , 1998 V1: 205–206
226 defined, 1998 V1: 195
open -chan nel flow, 1998 V1: 1, 1999 V2: 7, seismic protection , 1998 V1: 164–168
1999 V2: 8 equ ivalent direct radiation (edr, EDR)
ru noff an d, 1999 V2: 97 EDR h ot water, 1998 V1: 47
site drainage and, 1999 V2: 98 EDR steam, 1998 V1: 47
slopin g drain s, 1999 V2: 8 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
storm-drain age pipes, 1999 V2: 88 equ ivalen t feet (eqiv ft, EQIV FT, EQFT), 1998 V1:
su bsu rface drain age rates, 1999 V2: 105 18
mixing flows of water, 1998 V1: 124 equ ivalen t inch es (eqiv in , EQIV IN, EQIN), 1998
n atu ral gas systems V1: 18
n atu ral gas equ ivalen t len gth , 1999 V2: 184 equ ivalent len gth
NFPA formu la, 1999 V2: 186, 1999 V2: 187, defined, 1999 V2: 214
1999 V2: 188, 1999 V2: 189 natu ral gas equ ation s, 1999 V2: 184
Spitzglass formu la, 1999 V2: 183, 1999 V2: equ ivalen t static force, calcu latin g, 1998 V1: 185
210–211 equ ivalen t weigh t, 1999 V2: 280, 1999 V2: 281
Weymou th formu la, 1999 V2: 183, 1999 V2: equ ivalen ts per million , 1999 V2: 285
190, 1999 V2: 191, 1999 V2: 198, 1999 erosion , 1998 V1: 31
V2: 209 erosion corrosion , 1999 V2: 290
essen tial facilities, defin ed, 1998 V1: 193
Index Index — 25

estates, septic tank systems for, 1999 V2: 231–232 roofs, 1999 V2: 79, 1999 V2: 87
estimating costs. s ee economic concerns symbols for, 1998 V1: 12
Es timating Plumbing Cos ts , 1998 V1: 79 th ermal expansion an d, 1999 V2: 18
ET*, ET (effective temperature), 1998 V1: 18 expansion loops
ETI (Economic Thickness of Insulation), 1998 V1: bracin g an d, 1998 V1: 173
125 defined, 1998 V1: 31
evap, EVAP. See evaporation; evaporators protectin g again st th ermal expansion , 1999 V2:
evaporation (evap, EVAP) 18
staged, 1999 V2: 298 explosion s
symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 explosion -proof (XP) con stru ction , 1999 V2: 179
evaporative coolers. See cooling-tower water explosion -relief devices for vacu u ms, 1999 V2:
evaporators (evap, EVAP), 1998 V1: 18 268
evapotranspiration hot-water h eaters, 1999 V2: 157
defined, 1998 V1: 31 nitric acid, 1999 V2: 333
sewage treatment, 1999 V2: 227 exten ded-coverage sidewall sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37
“exa” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 exterior pipin g for storm drain age, 1999 V2: 98
exact con version s, 1998 V1: 40 extin gu ish in g systems, 1998 V1: 15
exams, 1998 V1: 69 extra-h azard occu pancies, 1998 V1: 37
excess air, defin ed, 1999 V2: 213 extra-h eavy pipin g, 1998 V1: 31
excess pressu re pu mps, 1998 V1: 31 extra-strength vitrified clay pipin g, 1999 V2: 68
excess water pressu re, 1999 V2: 152–154 eyewashes for emergen cies, 1999 V2: 332
exchan ge capacity of resin s, 1999 V2: 302
exchan gers in distillers, 1999 V2: 298 F
Execu tion section in specification s, 1998 V1: 66,
°F, F (fah ren heit), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 46
1998 V1: 78
F (farads), 1998 V1: 41
exhau st
f (femto) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
filters on vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 262
F (fire protection water su pply). See fire protection
n atu ral gas combu stion waste, 1999 V2: 177
systems
pressu re loss in vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 274
f to f, F TO F (face to face), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1:
vacu u m exhau st pipe sizin g, 1999 V2: 263
31
vacu u m system pipin g, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2:
F/ m (farads per meter), 1998 V1: 41
274
face area (fa, FA), 1998 V1: 19
exhau sted cartridges in ion exch ange, 1999 V2:
face-entry fittings on sovent systems, 1999 V2: 62
305–306
face to face (f to f, F TO F)
exh au sters (vacu u m)
face-to-face dimensions, defined, 1998 V1: 31
air-bleed controls, 1999 V2: 268–269
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
defin ed, 1999 V2: 266–269, 1999 V2: 268
face velocity (fvel, FVEL, FV), 1998 V1: 19
locating, 1999 V2: 270
Facility Piping Sy s tem Handbook , 1999 V2: 277,
sizing, 1999 V2: 272, 1999 V2: 274–275
1999 V2: 325, 1999 V2: 350
existin g work, 1998 V1: 31
factors
exp, EXP (expan sion). See expansion
correction factors (CFAC, CFACT), 1998 V1: 19
expanded air in vacuums, 1999 V2: 256
friction factors (FFACT, FF), 1998 V1: 19
expansion (exp, EXP, XPAN)
Factory Mutual (FM) Los s Prevention Data Sheet,
calculating pipe expansion, 1998 V1: 4
1999 V2: 177
enlargement of water systems, 1999 V2: 249
Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM)
hot-water systems and, 1999 V2: 167–168
gas-train vents, 1999 V2: 177
plastic pipe th ermal expansion , 1999 V2: 251
seismic protection recommendations, 1998 V1:
protectin g again st pipe expan sion , 1999 V2: 18
186
roof drain s an d, 1999 V2: 85, 1999 V2: 87
fahrenheit (°F, F)
san itary drain age systems, 1999 V2: 18
con version factors, 1998 V1: 46
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
th ermal expan sion tan ks, 1999 V2: 167
Fails afe Neutralization of Was tew ater Effluent, 1999
water pipes an d, 1999 V2: 251–252
V2: 350
expan sion ben ds, 1999 V2: 18
failure values of anchors, 1998 V1: 193
expan sion joints (EJ )
Fair Hous ing Acces s ibility Guidelines , 1998 V1: 100
defined, 1998 V1: 31
fairly-rough piping, 1999 V2: 141
plastic water pipes, 1999 V2: 251
fairly-smooth piping, 1999 V2: 140
roof expan sion an d, 1999 V2: 85
fall-off pressure, 1999 V2: 122, 1999 V2: 152
Index — 26 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

fan-cooled electric motors, 1998 V1: 201 FHR (fire h ose racks), 1998 V1: 13
fans (FAN) FI (film coefficien ts), 1998 V1: 19
pu lsation from, 1998 V1: 201 fiber pipin g, 1999 V2: 122
silencers, 1998 V1: 202 fiberglass-rein forced plastic, 1999 V2: 284
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19 fiberglass-rein forced storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 323
Faraday’s Law, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 141 fiberglass sealan ts, 1998 V1: 198
farads, 1998 V1: 41 fiberglass septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 228
farads per meter, 1998 V1: 41 field checklists, 1998 V1: 96–97
fasten ers, sou n d dampin g, 1998 V1: 200 field orders, 1998 V1: 64
fats in kitchens. See grease fill
faucets fill layers, 1999 V2: 104
accessible shower compartments, 1998 V1: 117 leach in g tren ches, 1999 V2: 223
acoustic design and pressure, 1998 V1: 206 sewers, 1999 V2: 15
reduced water usage, 1998 V1: 125 su bsu rface drain age pipes, 1999 V2: 102, 1999
sinks, 1998 V1: 114 V2: 103
faults and fault zones, 1998 V1: 156–158 types of, arou n d bu ildin g sewers, 1999 V2: 15
FC (flexible con n ectors). See flexible connectors water pipes, 1999 V2: 250
FCO (floor cleanouts), 1998 V1: 14 film coefficien ts
FD (floor drains with p-traps), 1998 V1: 14 in side (FI, HI), 1998 V1: 19
FDA (Food and Drug Administration), 1999 V2: ou tside (FO, HO), 1998 V1: 19
279, 1999 V2: 321, 1999 V2: 324, 1999 V2: films
328 carbon ate, 1998 V1: 149
features, defined, 1998 V1: 40 film formation in rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 142
fecal matter. See black water systems; effluent sodiu m hexametaph osph ate, 1998 V1: 149
federal agencies, 1999 V2: 327. See als o s pecific sodiu m silicate, 1998 V1: 149
agencies under “US” filter alu m, 1999 V2: 294
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, 1999 V2: filters and filtration
317 defined, 1998 V1: 31
Federal Specifications, General Services Adminis- filter bags on vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 268
tration (FS), 1998 V1: 60 filter elemen ts or media, 1998 V1: 31
federal specifications (FS), 1998 V1: 33, 1998 V1: gray water, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 23, 1999 V2:
60 27, 1999 V2: 28, 1999 V2: 29
feed-gas treatment units in ozone generators, 1999 in fectiou s waste systems, 1999 V2: 345
V2: 312 membran e filtration an d separation, 1999 V2:
feed water 308–311
defined, 1999 V2: 280 microorgan isms, 1999 V2: 312
pure-water systems, 1999 V2: 320 oil spills, 1999 V2: 347, 1999 V2: 348
feet (ft, FT) pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 322–323
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 small drin kin g water systems, 1999 V2: 318
feet per minute (fpm, FPM), 1998 V1: 19 su bsu rface drain age, 1999 V2: 102, 1999 V2:
feet per second (fps, FPS), 1998 V1: 19 103–104
foot-pounds (ft-lb, FT LB), 1998 V1: 19 u tility water, 1999 V2: 314
of head, converting, 1998 V1: 2 vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 268
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19 water qu ality and, 1999 V2: 244
FEFF (efficiency, fin). See efficiency, fin water systems, 1999 V2: 125
felt, 1998 V1: 200 water treatment, 1999 V2: 299, 1999 V2: 300
female threads, 1998 V1: 31 fin efficien cy (FEFF), 1998 V1: 18
“femto” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 fin e san ds
ferric h ydroxide, 1999 V2: 281 fill above su bsu rface drain age pipes, 1999 V2:
ferric iron , 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283 103
ferrou s bicarbon ate, 1999 V2: 283 gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26,
ferrou s iron, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283 1999 V2: 27
ferrou s pipe an d fittin g codes an d stan dards, 1998 fin e vacu u m, 1999 V2: 254
V1: 51–52 fin ish coats, 1998 V1: 144
FF (friction factors), 1998 V1: 19 fin ish in spection , 1998 V1: 97
FF (fu ll-flow con dition s), 1998 V1: 1 Fin nemore, E. J oh n , 1999 V2: 19
FFACT (friction factors), 1998 V1: 19 fire protection systems
FHC (fire hose cabin ets), 1998 V1: 14 alarms
Index Index — 27

fire alarm control panels, 1998 V1: 15 recessed sprin klers, 1998 V1: 38
fire alarm systems, 1998 V1: 31 residen tial sprin klers, 1998 V1: 38
codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59 sediment bu ckets in drain s, 1999 V2: 12
extingu ishers seismic protection an d, 1998 V1: 186
fire extingu ishers, 1998 V1: 16 sidewall sprin klers, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 38
fire extingu ishing systems, 1998 V1: 15 special sprin klers, 1998 V1: 38
fire department connections, 1998 V1: 15, 1998 sprin kler types, 1998 V1: 37
V1: 31 water deman ds, 1999 V2: 243–244
fire hazards water su pply for
defined, 1998 V1: 31 firefightin g water systems, 1999 V2: 249, 1999
flammable or volatile liqu ids, 1999 V2: 13, V2: 250
1999 V2: 347–349 symbols for water su pply (F), 1998 V1: 10
fire lines water deman ds, 1999 V2: 243–244, 1999 V2:
defin ed, 1998 V1: 31 247
fire-lin e water meters, 1999 V2: 116 fire-rated sealan ts, 1998 V1: 198
fire protection first-degree bu rn s, 1999 V2: 169
defin ed, 1999 V2: 18 fittin gs. See als o s pecific ty pes of fittings
symbols, 1998 V1: 15–16 acoustic ratings, 1998 V1: 198
termin ology, 1998 V1: 24–39 codes and standards, 1998 V1: 51–59
fire pu mps, 1998 V1: 15, 1998 V1: 31 compression , 1998 V1: 32
firefigh ting equ ipmen t, 1998 V1: 16 defined, 1998 V1: 32
firefigh ting water drainage, 1999 V2: 346–347 earth qu ake damage, 1998 V1: 163
h ose cabinets an d racks earth qu ake protection , 1998 V1: 168
h ose racks (FHR), 1998 V1: 13 flan ge, 1998 V1: 32
recessed cabin ets (FHC), 1998 V1: 14 friction loss an d, 1999 V2: 128
su rface-mou nted cabin ets (FHC), 1998 V1: 14 grab bars, 1998 V1: 119
h ydran ts liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: 196
distan ce between , 1999 V2: 250 natu ral gas fitting sizes, 1999 V2: 184
flow tests, 1999 V2: 122 nu mber of joins in , 1998 V1: 82
pressu re drop an d, 1999 V2: 249 pressu re drops in water systems and, 1999 V2:
pu blic h ydrants, 1998 V1: 15 125, 1999 V2: 126, 1999 V2: 127
valves, 1998 V1: 31 radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 343
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 186 screwed fittin gs, 1998 V1: 163
sprin kler systems vacu u m clean in g systems, 1999 V2: 269
au tomatic sprin kler system types, 1998 V1: 37 welded, 1998 V1: 32
concealed sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37 Fitzgerald, 1998 V1: 152
corrosion -resistan t sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37 fixed, floor-mou n ted equ ipmen t, 1998 V1: 165
drop n ipples on pen den t sprin klers, 1998 V1: fixed, su spen ded equ ipment, 1998 V1: 165
16 fixed sh ower h eads, 1998 V1: 117
dry, pen dent sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37 fixtu re branch es, 1998 V1: 32
dry, u prigh t sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37 fixtu re carrier fittings, 1998 V1: 32
earthqu ake damage to, 1998 V1: 163 fixtu re carriers, 1998 V1: 32
exten ded-coverage sidewall sprin klers, 1998 fixtu re drain s
V1: 37 defined, 1998 V1: 32
firefigh tin g water drain age, 1999 V2: 346–347 disch arge characteristics, 1999 V2: 3
flu sh sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37 flow in , 1999 V2: 2
fu lly-sprin klered spaces, 1998 V1: 15 flow rate in , 1998 V1: 3–4
h eads, 1998 V1: 16 simu ltan eou s u se of fixtu res, 1999 V2: 3, 1999
in termediate-level sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 V2: 4
large-drop sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37 fixtu re su pplies, 1998 V1: 32
n ippled-u p sprin klers, 1998 V1: 16 fixtu re-u nit valu es
n on sprinklered spaces, 1998 V1: 15 cold-water system deman d, 1999 V2: 121
occu pan cy classification , 1998 V1: 37 con version to gpm, 1999 V2: 120, 1999 V2: 124,
open sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37 1999 V2: 126
ornamen tal sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37 deman d weigh t of fixtu res, 1999 V2: 123
partially-sprin klered spaces, 1998 V1: 15 drain age ven ts an d, 1999 V2: 40–41
pen den t sprin klers, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 37 fixtu re u nits (fu ) defin ed, 1999 V2: 64
qu ick-respon se sprin klers, 1998 V1: 38
Index — 28 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

maximu m for vertical stacks, 1999 V2: 4, 1999 flat roof drain s, 1999 V2: 80
V2: 5 flexible con n ectors (FC)
pipe sizing and, 1999 V2: 133–142, 1999 V2: acou stics an d, 1998 V1: 205
136 illu strated, 1998 V1: 210, 1998 V1: 216
redu ced-size ventin g an d, 1999 V2: 50 symbols for, 1998 V1: 12
san itary drainage system loads, 1999 V2: 3 vibration con trol devices, 1998 V1: 208, 1998 V1:
slope of drain s, 1999 V2: 7, 1999 V2: 9 211–212
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 57–59, 1999 V2: 63 flexible gas h oses, 1999 V2: 196
steady flow in h orizon tal drain s, 1999 V2: 9 float-type level con trols, 1999 V2: 249
water h ammer an d, 1999 V2: 144 float valves, 1998 V1: 32
fixtu re u n its floatation devices for oil spills, 1999 V2: 348
drainage fixtu re u n its (dfu ), 1998 V1: 32, 1999 floatation of oil in spills, 1999 V2: 347
V2: 64 floatin g screeds, sou n d-proofin g, 1998 V1: 201
su pply fixtu re u n its (sfu ), 1998 V1: 32 floc, 1999 V2: 294
fixtu res floccu lation, 1999 V2: 294
batteries of fixtu res, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 V2: 64 flood level rims, 1998 V1: 32
codes an d stan dards, 1998 V1: 56–57 flooded
cold-water system deman d, 1999 V2: 121 defin ed, 1998 V1: 32
defined, 1998 V1: 35 floor clean ou ts (FCO), 1998 V1: 14
demand weigh t of, 1999 V2: 123 floor drains (FD)
fixtu re traps an d vents, 1999 V2: 40 acid-resistan t floor drain s, 1999 V2: 16
flow an d pressu re requ irements, 1999 V2: 129 ch emical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 346
govern in g fixtu res, 1999 V2: 125, 1999 V2: 129 compon en ts, 1999 V2: 11
in spection , 1998 V1: 97 en d ven tin g, 1999 V2: 41
in stallation man-h ou r estimates, 1998 V1: 83 fire-su ppression drain age an d, 1999 V2: 347
laboratory acid-waste drain age systems, 1999 fixtu re-u nit loads, 1999 V2: 3
V2: 334 floor levelin g arou n d, 1999 V2: 17
plu mbin g fixtu res, defin ed, 1998 V1: 32 grate open areas, 1999 V2: 10
redu ced water u sage, 1998 V1: 125 in fectiou s and biological waste systems, 1999 V2:
resilien t-mou ntin g design, 1998 V1: 212, 1998 345
V1: 213 kitch en areas, 1999 V2: 16–17, 1999 V2: 17
resiliently mou nted plu mbin g fixtu res, 1998 V1: with p-traps (FD), 1998 V1: 14
212, 1998 V1: 213 radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 342
sizin g vents, 1999 V2: 50 san itary drain age systems, 1999 V2: 10
su pply-water trap primers, 1999 V2: 14 types, 1999 V2: 17–18
vibration of, 1998 V1: 212 waterproofin g, 1999 V2: 17
waste-water trap primers, 1999 V2: 14 floor-mou n ted equ ipmen t, vibration -isolated, 1998
water-savin g fixtu res, 1998 V1: 131 V1: 165–167
flammable or volatile liqu ids, 1999 V2: 13, 1999 floor-mou n ted pu mps, 1998 V1: 212
V2: 347–349 floor sin ks, 1999 V2: 10, 1999 V2: 16
flan ged end con n ections, 1998 V1: 31 floors
flan ges design consideration s in seismic protection , 1998
bonn ets, 1998 V1: 32 V1: 191
defined, 1998 V1: 32 floor pen etrations of pipes, 1998 V1: 206, 1998
fittin gs, 1998 V1: 32 V1: 207
flan ge en ds, 1998 V1: 32 levelin g, 1999 V2: 17
flan ge faces, 1998 V1: 32 motion s in earth qu akes, 1998 V1: 161
problems in seismic protection , 1998 V1: 192 sh akin g in earth qu akes, 1998 V1: 162
flap valves, 1998 V1: 32 flotation vibration isolation , 1998 V1: 165
flare n u ts, frost proof, 1999 V2: 196 flow
flash poin ts, 1998 V1: 32 at ou tlet, 1998 V1: 3
flash tu bes for liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: bu ildin g drain s, 1999 V2: 2
197 critical flows, defin ed, 1998 V1: 2
flash in g flan ges, 1999 V2: 17 fixtu re drain s, 1998 V1: 3–4, 1999 V2: 2
flash in g L flanges, 1999 V2: 17 gravity an d sheet action s, 1999 V2: 12
flash in g rin gs, 1999 V2: 12, 1999 V2: 17, 1999 V2: hydrau lic ju mps in, 1999 V2: 2, 1999 V2: 6
80 open -ch an n el flow, 1998 V1: 1, 1999 V2: 7
flat-area leach in g tren ch es, 1999 V2: 223–224 ou tlet velocity, 1998 V1: 7
Index Index — 29

overland flow for sites, 1999 V2: 96 defined, 1999 V2: 213
rate of flow, calcu lating, 1998 V1: 1 temperatu res, 1999 V2: 178
stacks, 1999 V2: 1–2 flu es, 1998 V1: 32
steady flow, 1999 V2: 6–7 flu id flow rates, 1998 V1: 19
su rgin g flows, 1999 V2: 5 Fluid Mechanics w ith Engineering Applications , 1999
symbols for, 1998 V1: 14 V2: 19
velocity an d water hammer, 1998 V1: 203 flu oride, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: 284
velocity of u niform flow, 1998 V1: 1 flu orine, 1999 V2: 281
water flow in pipes, calcu lating, 1998 V1: 2 flush controls
flow-con trol storm devices, 1999 V2: 94 urinals, 1998 V1: 113
flow equ alization in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: water closet and toilet accessibility, 1998 V1: 110
27 water closet requirements, 1998 V1: 113
flow indicators for portable meters, 1998 V1: 13 flush sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
flow in dicators for station ary meters (orifices), 1998 flush tanks, acoustic design, 1998 V1: 200
V1: 13 flush valves
flow pressu re, 1998 V1: 32 defined, 1998 V1: 33
flow rates sanitation and, 1999 V2: 16
acou stic ratin gs an d, 1998 V1: 198, 1998 V1: water closet acoustic design, 1998 V1: 205
206 flushing
air flow in vacu u m pressu re, 1999 V2: 253 acoustic ratings of toilets, 1998 V1: 198–199
air flow rates (QAR, QAIR), 1998 V1: 19 acou stic ratin gs of u rin als, 1998 V1: 199
altitu de and, 1999 V2: 258 cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154
at ou tlets, 1998 V1: 6 resin beds, 1999 V2: 305
capacity, 1998 V1: 27, 1998 V1: 41 water systems, 1999 V2: 252
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 115, 1999 V2: 121, flu shin g rims, 1999 V2: 16
1999 V2: 153 flu sh ing-type floor drain s, 1998 V1: 33
con servin g en ergy, 1998 V1: 124–125 flu shometer valves, 1998 V1: 33, 1999 V2: 14
con version factors, 1998 V1: 45 flu x
fixtu re drains, 1998 V1: 3–4 membran e produ ctivity, 1999 V2: 321
fixtu re requ irements, 1999 V2: 129 natu ral osmosis, 1999 V2: 308
flu ctu ating flows in h orizontal drain s, 1999 V2: 5 FM. See Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM)
flu id (QFL), 1998 V1: 19 FM standards, 1998 V1: 51–59. See als o Factory
fu el-gas systems an d boosters, 1999 V2: 178 Mutual Research Corporation (FM)
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179, 1999 V2: 180, 1999 FMRC (Factory Mutual). See Factory Mutual
V2: 182 Research Corporation (FM); Factory Mutual
gas flow rates (QGA, QGAS), 1998 V1: 19, 1999 Research Corporation (FM)
V2: 173 FO (film coefficients), 1998 V1: 19
measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41, 1999 V2: 253 foaming in gray water, 1999 V2: 29
n atu ral gas systems, 1999 V2: 183 fog nozzles, 1999 V2: 332
pu mp capacity, 1998 V1: 7 Fontana, Mars G., 1998 V1: 152
rate of flow, calcu latin g, 1998 V1: 1 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 1999 V2:
redu ced-pressu re backflow devices, 1999 V2: 148 279, 1999 V2: 321, 1999 V2: 324, 1999 V2:
resin bead regen eration , 1999 V2: 305 328
roof drain age in h orizon tal branch es, 1999 V2: food dyes in gray water, 1999 V2: 33
88 food-processing areas and kitchens
special-waste drain age systems, 1999 V2: 329 drains, 1999 V2: 16–17
vacu u m clean in g systems, 1999 V2: 270, 1999 grease in terceptors, 1999 V2: 13
V2: 271 natu ral gas an d, 1999 V2: 174
vacu u m exhau ster sizin g, 1999 V2: 274 rates of sewage flows, 1999 V2: 237
vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 255–256, 1999 V2: san itation , 1999 V2: 16
262 sewage estimates, 1999 V2: 235
water fou n tains, 1998 V1: 107 typical gray-water deman d, 1999 V2: 25
water h eater types an d, 1999 V2: 160 food-processing plan ts
flow restrictors, 1998 V1: 127 cross-flow h azards, 1999 V2: 147
flow switch es (FS), 1998 V1: 13 pu re water an d, 1999 V2: 317
flowin g su bsu rface water, 1999 V2: 100 foot or feet. See feet
flu ctu atin g flows in h orizon tal drain s, 1999 V2: 5 foot-pounds (ft-lb, FT LB), 1998 V1: 19
flu e gases foot valves, 1998 V1: 33
Index — 30 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

footing drains (SSD), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 38 Fren ch , J oh n L., 1999 V2: 38
footings of bu ildings fren ch drain s, 1998 V1: 33. See als o rubble drains
defined, 1998 V1: 33 frequencies (Hz, HZ)
water pipes and, 1999 V2: 251 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
FOR (fu el oil retu rn), 1998 V1: 10 symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
force frequ ency of ion regeneration cycles, 1999 V2: 305
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 43, 1998 V1: 44 fresh-air inlets, 1998 V1: 33
measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 friction connectors, 1998 V1: 194
in seismic design, 1998 V1: 192 friction factors, 1998 V1: 19
force factors in seismic force calcu lations, 1998 V1: friction head, calculating, 1998 V1: 7
185–186 friction losses in flow
forced distortion s of pipin g, 1998 V1: 162 calculating friction head loss, 1998 V1: 2–3
forced drain age (corrosion ), defin ed, 1998 V1: 151 Hazen -Williams formu la, 1998 V1: 2, 1999 V2:
forcin g fu n ction s in earthqu akes, 1998 V1: 160 116, 1999 V2: 118, 1999 V2: 119, 1999
formazin tu rbidity u nit, 1999 V2: 287 V2: 121
forms natu ral gas systems, 1999 V2: 183
cost estimates, 1998 V1: 87–89 pipe pressu re an d, 1999 V2: 122–132
forms of agreement, 1998 V1: 64 pressu re an d, 1999 V2: 125, 1999 V2: 130
storm-drain age calcu lations, 1999 V2: 109–113 sizin g of bran ch es, 1999 V2: 127
formu las. See equations vacu u m clean in g systems, 1999 V2: 271, 1999
forward approaches and reaches V2: 272–274, 1999 V2: 274, 1999 V2: 275
approaches for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 104 vacu u m exh au ster sizin g, 1999 V2: 274
drinking fountains and water coolers, 1998 V1: valves an d th readed fittin gs, 1999 V2: 128
107 water su pply pipin g an d, 1999 V2: 249
reach for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 103, 1998 V1: well pu mps, 1999 V2: 245
105 front-en d docu men ts, 1998 V1: 64
FOS (fuel oil supply), 1998 V1: 10 frost. See freezing temperatures
fouling of water, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 316 frost proof flare nuts, 1999 V2: 196
foundations of bu ildings, 1999 V2: 103, 1999 V2: frostproof closets, 1998 V1: 33
231 FRP (fiberglass-reinforced plastic), 1999 V2: 284
foundations of pumps, 1999 V2: 243, 1999 V2: 245 FS (federal specifications), 1998 V1: 33, 1998 V1:
fountains, gray water in, 1999 V2: 22 60
FOV (fuel oil vents), 1998 V1: 10 FS (flow switches), 1998 V1: 13
fp, FP (freezing points), 1998 V1: 19 ft, FT (feet). See feet
fpm, FPM (feet per minute), 1998 V1: 19 ft-lb, FT LB (foot-pounds), 1998 V1: 19
fps, FPS (feet per second), 1998 V1: 19 ft 3 (cu bic feet), 1998 V1: 18
Frankel, Michael, 1999 V2: 114, 1999 V2: 277, FTUs (formazin tu rbidity u n its), 1999 V2: 287
1999 V2: 325, 1999 V2: 350 fu valu es. See fixture-unit values
Franzini, J oseph B., 1999 V2: 19 Fuel Gas Piping, 1999 V2: 214
Frederick, Ralph H., 1999 V2: 114 fuel-gas piping systems
free air, 1998 V1: 25 conversion factors, 1999 V2: 212
free oil, 1999 V2: 347 fuel gas, defined, 1999 V2: 213
free-standing siamese fire department connections, glossary, 1999 V2: 213–214
1998 V1: 15 liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: 194, 1999 V2:
free vibration, 1998 V1: 160 196–197
Freehof, J ames N., 1998 V1: 79 meth ane, 1998 V1: 132
“freezin g,” preven ting in clean ou ts, 1999 V2: 9 natu ral gas systems, 1999 V2: 173–194
freezin g poin ts (fp, FP), 1998 V1: 19 valu es of fu el gas, 1999 V2: 212
freezin g temperatu res fu el oil
backflow preven ters an d, 1999 V2: 149 fu el oil retu rn (FOR), 1998 V1: 10
bu ried water pipes an d, 1999 V2: 251 fu el oil su pply (FOS), 1998 V1: 10
gas pipin g an d, 1999 V2: 196 fu el oil ven ts (FOV), 1998 V1: 10
ice inside water storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 247 pipe bracin g, 1998 V1: 168, 1998 V1: 169
leach ing trench es and, 1999 V2: 222 fu ll-flow con ditions (FF), 1998 V1: 1
redu ced-size ventin g an d, 1999 V2: 50 fu lly-sprin klered spaces, 1998 V1: 15
testing of cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154 fu me h oods, 1999 V2: 334, 1999 V2: 342
water meters an d, 1999 V2: 115 fu mes, h azardou s, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 332,
well h eads an d, 1999 V2: 243 1999 V2: 333. See als o gases
Index Index — 31

fu ming grade su lfu ric acid, 1999 V2: 332 gamma ray radiation , 1999 V2: 337, 1999 V2: 338,
The Function of Reference Standards in Cons truction 1999 V2: 339
Specifications , 1998 V1: 79 garbage disposers
fundamental corrosion cells, defined, 1998 V1: acou stic ratin gs of, 1998 V1: 199
135–136 defined, 1998 V1: 29
Fundamentals of Underground Corros ion Control, disch arges from, 1999 V2: 237
1998 V1: 152 fixtu re-u nit loads, 1999 V2: 3
fungi, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 289 garnet in filters, 1999 V2: 300
funnel-type collectors for backflow devices, 1999 gas boosters
V2: 148 design con sideration s, 1999 V2: 180–182
funnel-type drains in chemical plants, 1999 V2: gas laws, 1999 V2: 179
346 glossary, 1999 V2: 182–183
furring-out requirements for roofs, 1999 V2: 79, heat exch anger loop systems, 1999 V2: 181,
1999 V2: 81 1999 V2: 182
future expansion of water systems, 1999 V2: 249 high -rise bu ildin gs, 1999 V2: 180
FV (face velocity), 1998 V1: 19 materials an d componen ts, 1999 V2: 179
fvel, FVEL (face velocity), 1998 V1: 19 overview, 1999 V2: 178–183
simplex an d du al gas booster systems, 1999 V2:
G 181
sizing, 1999 V2: 182–183
g, G (gravitational constants), 1998 V1: 19
gas flow rates, 1998 V1: 19, 1999 V2: 173
G (giga) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
gas laws, 1999 V2: 179
G (low-pressure gas), 1998 V1: 10
gas logs, defin ed, 1999 V2: 213
ga, GA (gauges). See gauges
gas pipin g systems. See als o fuel-gas piping sys-
GACs (granulated carbon filters), 1999 V2: 318,
tems; liquefied petroleum gas; natural gas
1999 V2: 323. See als o activated carbon
systems
filtration
bracing, 1998 V1: 169
gages (ga, GA, GAGE), 1998 V1: 19. See als o gauges
defined, 1998 V1: 195
gal, GAL (gallons). See gallons
gas cocks, 1998 V1: 11
gallons (gal, GAL)
gas line earthquake-sensitive valves, 1998 V1:
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
164
gallons per day (gpd, GPD), 1998 V1: 19
gas main inspection checklist, 1998 V1: 96
gallons per hour (gph, GPH), 1998 V1: 19, 1998
gas pressure regulators, defined, 1999 V2: 214
V1: 47
gas stops (gas cocks), 1998 V1: 11
gallons per minute (gpm), 1999 V2: 120, 1999
gas-train vents, 1999 V2: 177, 1999 V2: 213
V2: 124, 1999 V2: 126, 1999 V2: 240
gas trains, 1999 V2: 213
grains per gallon (gpg), 1999 V2: 285
gas turrets, 1999 V2: 177
standard gallons per hour (std gph, SGPH), 1998
gas vents (GV), 1998 V1: 10, 1999 V2: 213
V1: 19
high-pressure (HG), 1998 V1: 10
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
low-pressure (G), 1998 V1: 10
galvanic action, 1998 V1: 33. See als o electrolysis
medium-pressure (MG), 1998 V1: 10
galvanic anodes, 1998 V1: 144–147
Spitzglass formula, 1998 V1: 8
galvan ic cells, defin ed, 1998 V1: 151
gas stripping, 1999 V2: 288
galvan ic corrosion , 1998 V1: 137–138, 1998 V1:
gas-transfer vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 259
151, 1999 V2: 290
gas water heaters, 1998 V1: 131
galvanic series of metals
gases. See als o fuel-gas piping systems; liquefied
defined, 1998 V1: 151
petroleum gas; natural gas systems
dielectric insu lation an d, 1998 V1: 143
dissolved gases in water, 1999 V2: 284
listing, 1998 V1: 140
forcing u pward through terminal stack, 1999 V2:
galvan ized iron join ts, 1999 V2: 222
36
galvan ized iron piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 136
hazardous, 1999 V2: 332
galvan ized steel pipin g
nitrous fumes, 1999 V2: 333
abovegrou n d pipin g, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 68
preventing concentration with vents, 1999 V2: 35
liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: 196
sulfuric acid, 1999 V2: 333
vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 262
volatile organic compounds, 1999 V2: 284
galvanizin g
gaskets
coatin gs for corrosion preven tion, 1998 V1: 144
materials, 1998 V1: 55–56
defined, 1998 V1: 33
special-waste systems, 1999 V2: 328
galvomag alloy, 1998 V1: 141
Index — 32 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

gasoline, 1999 V2: 13 governin g fixtu res, 1999 V2: 125, 1999 V2: 129
gate valves (GV), 1998 V1: 11, 1999 V2: 332 gpd, GPD (gallons per day), 1998 V1: 19
gau ges (ga, GA, GAGE) gpg (grains per gallon), 1999 V2: 285
gau ge pressu re, 1999 V2: 253, 1999 V2: 254 gph, GPH (gallon s per h ou r), 1998 V1: 19
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19 gph, stan dard (std gph, SGPH), 1998 V1: 19
vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 260 gpm (gallons per min u te), 1999 V2: 120, 1999 V2:
gear jou rnals, 1998 V1: 201 124, 1999 V2: 126, 1999 V2: 240
gear pu mps, 1999 V2: 247 gr, GR (grains). See grains
gearbox silencing enclosu res, 1998 V1: 202 grab bars
gears, acou stic problems, 1998 V1: 201 ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 1998
Geiger-Mu eller cou nters, 1999 V2: 339 V1: 111
general conditions in contract docu ments, 1998 V1: bathtub accessibility, 1998 V1: 114
63, 1998 V1: 64 clearance, 1998 V1: 121
General Conditions of the Contract for Cons truction, shower stalls, 1998 V1: 117, 1998 V1: 118
1998 V1: 64 standards for, 1998 V1: 119–121
General Conference of Weights and Measures water closet an d toilet accessibility, 1998 V1: 110
(CGPM), 1998 V1: 40 grades, defin ed, 1998 V1: 33
general corrosion, 1998 V1: 151, 1999 V2: 289–290 gradin g, defin ed, 1998 V1: 85
gen eral laboratory-grade water, 1999 V2: 317 grain s (gr, GR)
General Requ iremen ts section in specification s, con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 47
1998 V1: 67 grain s per gallon , 1999 V2: 285
General section in specification s, 1998 V1: 66, symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
1998 V1: 75 granu lated carbon filters, 1999 V2: 318, 1999 V2:
gen erally accepted stan dards, defined, 1998 V1: 33 323. See als o activated carbon filtration
Geogeh egan , R.F., 1999 V2: 350 graphic conventions in plumbing drawings, 1998
geological stability of sites, 1999 V2: 26 V1: 102
geoth ermal energy, 1998 V1: 132 graphite, 1998 V1: 140
geothermal h eat pu mps, 1999 V2: 243 graphite anodes, 1998 V1: 147
Get Your Proces s Water to Come Clean, 1999 V2: graphitic corrosion, 1998 V1: 151
325 graphitization
“giga” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 cast iron, 1998 V1: 138
glass borosilicate pipin g, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 15, defined, 1998 V1: 151
1999 V2: 122 grate-type inlets in site storm systems, 1999 V2: 98
glass pipin g, 1999 V2: 334, 1999 V2: 341 grates
Glidden , R., 1999 V2: 277 buffing, 1999 V2: 11
globe valves (GLV), 1998 V1: 11 grate open areas for floor drains, 1999 V2: 10
glossaries materials for, 1999 V2: 14
acou stics in plu mbing systems, 1998 V1: 215– sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 10–12
217 gravels
con servin g en ergy, 1998 V1: 133 fill above su bsu rface drain age pipes, 1999 V2:
corrosion , 1998 V1: 149–152 103
fu el-gas systems, 1999 V2: 213–214 gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26,
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182–183 1999 V2: 27
measu remen t u n its, 1998 V1: 40 gravimetric measu remen t of solids, 1999 V2: 287
plu mbing termin ology, 1998 V1: 24–39 gravitation al con stants (g, G), 1998 V1: 19
pressu re-regu latin g valves, 1999 V2: 152 gravity
referen ces for, 1998 V1: 49 acceleration of water, 1999 V2: 1–2
seismic protection , 1998 V1: 193–195 forces in earth qu akes, 1998 V1: 189
ven ts an d venting, 1999 V2: 64 loads, 1998 V1: 155
glove boxes, 1999 V2: 342, 1999 V2: 343 gravity circu lation , 1998 V1: 6
GLSP (good large-scale produ ction ), 1999 V2: 343 gravity drain age for special waste systems, 1999
glu es, 1999 V2: 284 V2: 329
GLV (globe valves), 1998 V1: 11 gravity-flu sh valve fixtu res, 1998 V1: 200
gold, 1998 V1: 140 gravity separators in oil spills, 1999 V2: 348
golf clu bs, 1999 V2: 237 gravity sewers, 1999 V2: 226
gravity tan k systems, 1999 V2: 150–152, 1999 V2:
good large-scale produ ction (GLSP), 1999 V2: 343 248, 1999 V2: 249
Gorry, M., 1999 V2: 325 gravity ven ts for gas applian ces, 1999 V2: 178
Index Index — 33

gravity water filters, 1999 V2: 244 A Guide to Airborne, Impact and Structure-Borne
Gray, G.D., 1999 V2: 34 Nois e Control in Multifamily Dw ellings , 1998
gray-water systems V1: 204
amou nt of generated gray water, 1999 V2: 23 guide-vane tips, acoustic modifications, 1998 V1:
benefits of water reu se, 1998 V1: 131 202
codes and standards, 1999 V2: 22 Guidelines for Seis mic Res traints of Mechanical
designing for su pply and consu mption, 1999 V2: Sy s tems , 1998 V1: 195
23–27 Guides and Manual as Reference Standard, 1998
econ omic an alysis of, 1999 V2: 29–32 V1: 80
in trodu ction , 1999 V2: 21 gutters
precau tion s, 1999 V2: 32–33 sizing roof gutters, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 86
pu blic con cern s an d acceptan ce, 1999 V2: 33 street gutters, 1999 V2: 99
reasons for u sing, 1999 V2: 21 Guzey, Onkal K., 1998 V1: 79
referen ces, 1999 V2: 34 GV (gas vents), 1998 V1: 10, 1999 V2: 213
system description and componen ts, 1999 V2: GV (gate valves), 1998 V1: 11, 1999 V2: 332
22–23 gypsu m board, lining with lead, 1999 V2: 340
treatment systems, 1999 V2: 27–29
Gray -w ater Sy s tems , 1999 V2: 34 H
grease
H (enthalpy), 1998 V1: 18
exclusion from gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 21
h (hecto) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
fats in kitchens, 1999 V2: 13
H (henrys), 1998 V1: 41
grease traps, defined, 1998 V1: 33
h (hou rs), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 42
horizontal wet-vented systems and, 1999 V2: 46
h (velocity head), 1998 V1: 6
interceptors, 1998 V1: 33, 1999 V2: 13, 1999 V2:
H-I alloy, 1998 V1: 141
230, 1999 V2: 232, 1999 V2: 235, 1999
H/ m (henrys per meter), 1998 V1: 41
V2: 336
ha (hectares), 1998 V1: 42
greatest temperature difference (GTD), 1998 V1: 19
half-fu ll conditions (HF), 1998 V1: 1
green sands, 1999 V2: 302
half lives, defined, 1999 V2: 340
Greene, Norbert D., 1998 V1: 152
halon 1301, 1998 V1: 33
grinder pumps
halon system types, 1998 V1: 33
defined, 1998 V1: 33
hammer. See water hammer
in sewage tanks, 1999 V2: 226
hand-grading, defined, 1998 V1: 85
Grossel, S.F., 1999 V2: 350
hand-held shower heads, 1998 V1: 117
ground failure, 1998 V1: 158
hand tools for vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2:
ground floor space. See clear floor space
269–270
ground-motion time history, 1998 V1: 161
h and tren chin g, 1998 V1: 85
ground-mounted water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247
Handbook for Mechanical Engineers , 1998 V1: 3,
ground ruptures, 1998 V1: 158
1998 V1: 6
ground shaking, 1998 V1: 158, 1998 V1: 159, 1998
Handbook of Chlorination, 1999 V2: 155
V1: 162
Handbook of Fundamentals , 1998 V1: 2 column,
ground space for wheelchairs. See clear floor space
1998 V1: 6, 1998 V1: 7, 1998 V1: 49
ground water
Handbook s (ASHRAE), 1999 V2: 214
defined, 1999 V2: 282
handicapped individuals. See physically challenged
determining quantities, 1999 V2: 100–101
individuals
disposal of, 1999 V2: 105
hangers. See supports and hangers
feed water for pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 321
hard conversions, 1998 V1: 40
gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26
hard-temper copper tubes, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2:
private water systems, 1999 V2: 239
68
storm-drain age systems, 1999 V2: 67
hardness of water
wickin g in to bu ildin gs, 1999 V2: 99
boiler feed water, 1999 V2: 314
grou n dspace for wh eelchairs. See clear floor space
degrees of hardness, 1999 V2: 283
grouts in wells, 1999 V2: 243
ion exchange treatment, 1999 V2: 300
GSA Guide Specification Number 3-1515-71 (Public
pH and alkalinity, 1999 V2: 293
Building Service), 1998 V1: 204
private water systems, 1999 V2: 244
GTD (greatest temperature difference, 1998 V1: 19
water softener treatments, 1999 V2: 307–308
guaranty bonds, 1998 V1: 64
Harris, Cyril M., 1998 V1: 79
Harris, Nigel, 1999 V2: 277
Hartman , Robert, 1998 V1: 80
Index — 34 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

Hastelloy C, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141 water-heater heat recovery, 1999 V2: 158–159
Hasteloy B, 1999 V2: 333 Heat Exch an ge In stitu te, 1999 V2: 265
hazards h eat exch an gers an d exch an ge systems, 1998 V1:
accidental acid spills, 1999 V2: 332 131
backflow prevention, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: corrosion in h ibitors, 1998 V1: 149
146 heat exchanger loop gas booster systems, 1999
classes of hazard occu pancies, 1998 V1: 37 V2: 181, 1999 V2: 182
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 115 vibration isolation , 1998 V1: 212–214
controlled su bstance spills, 1999 V2: 277 waste heat u sage, 1998 V1: 128
exposed piping and accessibility, 1998 V1: 114 h eat exch an ges in geoth ermal en ergy, 1998 V1: 132
fire hazards, 1998 V1: 31 h eat-fu sed socket join ts, 1999 V2: 334
flammable and volatile liqu ids, 1999 V2: 347– h eat gain (HG, HEATG)
349 laten t (LHG, HGL), 1998 V1: 19
gas applian ces, 1999 V2: 178 sen sible (SHG, HGS), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 22
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179 symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
gases in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 230 h eat loss (HL, HEATL), 1998 V1: 19
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 32–33 h eat pu mps, waste h eat u sage, 1998 V1: 128–131
h azardou s gases, 1999 V2: 332 h eat reclamation systems, 1998 V1: 128–131
h ot-water systems, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 V2: 169– h eat-trace systems, 1999 V2: 165–166
170 h eat tran sfer (Q)
liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: 194, 1999 V2: heat tran sfer coefficien ts (U, U), 1998 V1: 19
197 symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
radiation , 1999 V2: 337–338 heated water. See hot-water systems
radioactive waste-drain age systems, 1999 V2: heaters (HTR), 1998 V1: 19. See als o water heaters
341 HEATG (heat gain). See heat gain
san itary precau tions for wells, 1999 V2: 243 heating feed water
types of acids, 1999 V2: 332–334 efficiency of hot-water storage equipment, 1998
vacu u m cleanin g system issu es, 1999 V2: 276 V1: 132–133
Hazen -Williams formu la, 1998 V1: 2, 1999 V2: 7, for microbial control, 1999 V2: 312
1999 V2: 116, 1999 V2: 118, 1999 V2: 119, for pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 322
1999 V2: 121 h eating h ot water retu rn (HHWR), 1998 V1: 10
HB (h ose bibbs), 1998 V1: 12, 1999 V2: 121 h eating h ot water su pply (HHWS), 1998 V1: 10
h ead (h d, HD) h eating valu es of n atu ral gas, 1999 V2: 173, 1999
acou stic design for water pipes, 1998 V1: 200 V2: 212, 1999 V2: 214
friction head, 1998 V1: 7 HEATL (h eat loss), 1998 V1: 19
h ead measu remen ts, 1999 V2: 4 h eavy equ ipmen t earth qu ake recommen dation s,
pu mp affin ity laws, 1998 V1: 7 1998 V1: 163
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19 h ectares, 1998 V1: 42
velocity head (h ), 1998 V1: 6 “h ecto” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
h ead loss h eel in lets on traps, 1999 V2: 16
calcu latin g, 1998 V1: 2 h eel-proof grates, 1999 V2: 10
friction loss of h ead, 1999 V2: 118, 1999 V2: h eel-proof strainers, 1999 V2: 80
119, 1999 V2: 121 h eigh t (hgt, HGT, HT)
san itary drain age, 1999 V2: 2 grab bars for accessibility, 1998 V1: 119
h ead measu remen ts, 1999 V2: 4 lau n dry equ ipment, 1998 V1: 122
h ead pressu re, 1999 V2: 9, 1999 V2: 86 sin ks, 1998 V1: 114
h ead walls on cu lverts, 1999 V2: 99 symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
h eader systems, 1999 V2: 127 toilet seats, 1998 V1: 110, 1998 V1: 111
h eaders in CSI format, 1998 V1: 66 Hein eman , Tom, 1998 V1: 80
h ealth hazards. See hazards Henriqu es, F.C., J r., 1999 V2: 169, 1999 V2: 170
hearing disabilities, 1998 V1: 101 h en rys, 1998 V1: 41
heat (HT) h en rys per meter, 1998 V1: 41
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44 HEPA filters, 1999 V2: 268, 1999 V2: 345
latent, 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 133 h erbicides, 1999 V2: 230
measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 h ermetic gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179
protecting against, 1999 V2: 19 h ertz, 1998 V1: 41, 1998 V1: 215
sensible, 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1: 133 Hesser, Hen ry H., 1999 V2: 277
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19 h exametaph osph ate, 1999 V2: 244
Index Index — 35

HF (half-fu ll conditions), 1998 V1: 1 cross-section s of, 1999 V2: 2

Hg, HG (mercu ry), 1998 V1: 20 fixtu re loads, 1999 V2: 7, 1999 V2: 9
HG (heat gain). See heat gain flow in , 1999 V2: 2
HG (high-pressure gas), 1998 V1: 10 hydrau lic ju mps in , 1999 V2: 6
HGL (latent heat gain), 1998 V1: 19 min imu m slope of pipin g, 1999 V2: 7
HGS (sensible heat gain), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 22 slopin g drain s in san itary drainage systems,
hgt, HGT (height). See height 1999 V2: 5–9
HHWR (heating hot water return), 1998 V1: 10 steady flow in , 1999 V2: 6–7
HHWS (heating hot water supply), 1998 V1: 10 h orizon tal loads of pipin g, 1998 V1: 186, 1998 V1:
HI (film coefficients), 1998 V1: 19 187–188
Hicks, Tyler G., 1999 V2: 114 h orizontal pressu re-media filters, 1999 V2: 300
high-capacity wells, 1999 V2: 240 h orizon tal pu mps, 1998 V1: 32
high-energy beta radiation, 1999 V2: 337 h orizon tal split-case pu mps, 1998 V1: 32
high-level water tank alarms, 1999 V2: 151 h orizon tal wet-ven ted systems, 1999 V2: 45–46
high-pressure condensate (HPC), 1998 V1: 11 h orsepower (h p, HP)
high-pressure gas (HG), 1998 V1: 10 air horsepower (ah p, AHP), 1998 V1: 17
high-pressu re steam (hps, HPS), 1998 V1: 19 brake h orsepower (bhp, BHP), 1998 V1: 7, 1998
high-pressure steam supply (HPS), 1998 V1: 11 V1: 17
high-purity water. See water purification con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 47
high-radiation areas, 1999 V2: 339, 1999 V2: 341 in dicated h orsepower (ihp, IHP), 1998 V1: 20
high-rise buildings, 1999 V2: 180, 1999 V2: 195 shaft h orsepower (sft h p, SFT HP, SHP), 1998 V1:
High-ris e Plumbing, 1999 V2: 114 22
high-silicas cast iron piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
15 h ose bibbs (HB), 1998 V1: 12, 1999 V2: 121
high-silicon iron anodes, 1998 V1: 147 h ose cabin ets and racks
high-suds detergents, 1999 V2: 36–37, 1999 V2: 39 hose racks (FHR), 1998 V1: 13
h igh -temperatu re h ot water (h th w, HTHW), 1998 recessed cabin ets (FHC), 1998 V1: 14
V1: 19 su rface-mou nted cabin ets (FHC), 1998 V1: 14
h igh -temperatu re withstan d, 1999 V2: 166 h ose ou tlets, 1998 V1: 15
h igh -to-low pressu re loss in vacu u m systems, 1999 h ose station s, dry, 1998 V1: 16
V2: 263 h oses
h igh vacu u m, 1999 V2: 262 flexible gas h oses, 1999 V2: 196
h igh -velocity fixtu res, acou stic design an d, 1998 vacu u m clean in g hose capacity, 1999 V2: 270
V1: 200 vacu u m cleaning systems. See tubing
h igh -velocity jetted well digging, 1999 V2: 241 hospitals, 1999 V2: 16, 1999 V2: 147
Hillman , 1998 V1: 195 hot vapor atmospheric vents, 1998 V1: 11
h istory of earth qu ake damage, 1998 V1: 162–164 hot water recirculating (HWR), 1998 V1: 9
HL (heat loss), 1998 V1: 19 hot water retu rn, 1998 V1: 10
HO (film coefficien ts), 1998 V1: 19 hot water supply (HW)
Hodn ott, Robert M., 1998 V1: 195 heating hot water supply, 1998 V1: 10
Hoffman In du stries, 1999 V2: 277 symbols for, 1998 V1: 9
h oistin g, labor u n its for, 1998 V1: 84 hot-water systems
h oles avoiding standby losses, 1998 V1: 127–128
in coatin gs, 1998 V1: 144 circu lation systems, 1999 V2: 165
for perc tests, 1999 V2: 219 codes an d stan dards, 1999 V2: 170
h olidays in coatin gs, 1998 V1: 144 componen ts, 1999 V2: 166
h ollow-fiber modu les con servin g en ergy, 1998 V1: 123, 1998 V1: 126,
in cross-flow filtration , 1999 V2: 311 1998 V1: 127
in reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 309 corrosion rates, 1998 V1: 142
h omogen eity in rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 142 defined, 1998 V1: 133
h orizontal bran ch es earth qu ake damages, 1998 V1: 163
bran ch in tervals, 1999 V2: 64 efficien cy of h ot-water storage equ ipmen t, 1998
defined, 1999 V2: 64 V1: 132–133
laboratory gas piping, 1999 V2: 177 equ ations, 1999 V2: 158
roof drain age, 1999 V2: 88 exposed pipin g an d accessibility, 1998 V1: 114
soven t systems, 1999 V2: 57–60 hot water properties, 1999 V2: 168
storm drain age calcu lation form, 1999 V2: 110 hot water temperatu res, 1998 V1: 117, 1999 V2:
h orizontal drain s 159, 1999 V2: 161–165
Index — 36 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

insu lation, 1999 V2: 166 Hunter’s cu rve for peak load, 1999 V2: 60
introdu ction, 1999 V2: 157–158 Hu rrican e filters, 1999 V2: 300
main tainin g temperatu res, 1999 V2: 165 HVAC equ ipmen t roof drain s, 1999 V2: 83
mixed-water temperatu res, 1999 V2: 159–160 HVAC exh au st du cts, 1999 V2: 274
n atu ral gas h eatin g, 1999 V2: 174 HW (hot water su pply), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 10
pipe vibration isolation , 1998 V1: 212–214 HWR (h ot water recircu latin g), 1998 V1: 9
relief valves, 1999 V2: 166–167 h ydran ts
safety an d h ealth con cern s, 1999 V2: 169–170 distance between, 1999 V2: 250
scaldin g water, 1999 V2: 169–170 flow tests, 1999 V2: 122
th ermal efficien cy, 1999 V2: 169 pressu re drop an d, 1999 V2: 249
th ermal expansion , 1999 V2: 167–168 pu blic h ydran ts, 1998 V1: 15
waste heat u sage, 1998 V1: 128–131 valves, 1998 V1: 31
water h eater h eat recovery, 1999 V2: 158–159 wall h ydran ts, 1998 V1: 12, 1998 V1: 15
water h eaters, 1999 V2: 160–165 h ydrau lic ju mps in flow, 1999 V2: 2, 1999 V2: 6,
h ot water temperatu res 1999 V2: 67
accessible sh ower compartmen ts, 1998 V1: 117 h ydrau lic mean depth of flow, 1998 V1: 1–2
ch arts, 1999 V2: 161–164 h ydrau lic radii (R), 1998 V1: 1–2
h igh -temperatu re h ot water, 1998 V1: 19 h ydrau lic shock, calcu latin g, 1998 V1: 7
main tainin g temperatu res, 1999 V2: 165 h ydrau lic soil con dition s, 1999 V2: 217–220
h otels h ydrau lics of wells, 1999 V2: 241–243
acou stic plu mbin g design for, 1998 V1: 201 h ydrazine, 1999 V2: 315
septic tan k/ soil-absorption systems for, 1999 V2: h ydrobromic acid, 1999 V2: 333
231–232 h ydroch loric acid, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 295,
vacu u m calcu lation s for, 1999 V2: 269 1999 V2: 305, 1999 V2: 333
h ou rs (h , HR), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 42 h ydrodyn amic n oise gen eration , 1998 V1: 201
h ou se drain s. See building drains h ydrogen , 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2:
housed-spring mountings, 1998 V1: 210 329
houses. See bu ildings h ydrogen embrittlement, 1998 V1: 151
housing project sewers, 1999 V2: 231–232 h ydrogen film bu ildu p, 1998 V1: 135
h ou sin gs for gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179 h ydrogen overvoltage, 1998 V1: 151
How to Des ign Spencer Central Vacuum Cleaners , h ydrogen peroxide, 1999 V2: 311
1999 V2: 277 h ydrogen su lfide, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 292,
hp, HP (horsepower). See horsepower 1999 V2: 294
HPC (high-pressure condensate), 1998 V1: 11 h ydropn eu matic-tan k systems, 1999 V2: 150, 1999
hps, HPS (high-pressure steam), 1998 V1: 19 V2: 247
HPS (high-pressure steam supply), 1998 V1: 11 h ydroqu in on e, 1999 V2: 315
HR (hours), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 42 h ydrostatic pressu re in pipes, 1999 V2: 4
HT (heat). See heat h ydroxides, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 282
HT (height). See height h ydroxyl, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2: 313, 1999 V2:
hthw, HTHW (high-temperature hot water), 1998 329
V1: 19 Hz, HZ (frequ encies), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 41
HTR (heaters), 1998 V1: 19. See als o water heaters Hz (h ertz), 1998 V1: 41, 1998 V1: 215
hub-and-spigot piping and joints. See als o bell-and-
spigot joints and piping I
defined, 1998 V1: 33
IAPMO (International Association of Plu mbing and
sanitary piping, 1999 V2: 14
Mechanical Officials), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2:
hubless piping
34, 1999 V2: 214
bracing cast-iron pipe, 1998 V1: 179
ICBO (International Conference of Bu ilding Offi-
hubless, defined, 1998 V1: 33
cials), 1998 V1: 60, 1998 V1: 185, 1998 V1:
riser bracing for hubless pipes, 1998 V1: 180
195
sanitary piping, 1999 V2: 14
ice. See freezing temperatures
HUD. See US Department of Housing and Urban
icfm (inlet cubic feet per minute), 1999 V2: 256
Development
ID (inside diameters), 1998 V1: 18
humidity
ideal water-system sizing method, 1999 V2: 127
humidity ratios (W, W), 1998 V1: 20
identifying parts of gray-water systems, 1999 V2:
relative (rh, RH), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 21
22, 1999 V2: 33
Hunter, Roy B., 1999 V2: 3, 1999 V2: 4, 1999 V2:
ihp, IHP (indicated horsepower), 1998 V1: 20
49, 1999 V2: 65, 1999 V2: 155
illegal connections to water meters, 1999 V2: 115
Index Index — 37

illu minance contin u ou s acid-waste treatmen t systems, 1999

conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44 V2: 338
measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 defined, 1999 V2: 332
Illus trated National Plumbing Code Des ign Manual, health an d safety con cern s, 1999 V2: 332
1999 V2: 114 large facilities, 1999 V2: 336
imaging-science facilities, 1999 V2: 340 types of acids, 1999 V2: 332–334
immersion-type vacuum separators, 1999 V2: 268 in du strial chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 345–
immiscible liquids, 1999 V2: 280 346
impaired individu als. See physically challenged in du strial facilities
individuals firefigh ting water drain age, 1999 V2: 346–347
impellers radiation in , 1999 V2: 340
acoustic modifications for blades, 1998 V1: 202 In du strial Risk In su rers (IRI), 1999 V2: 177
pump impeller diameters, 1998 V1: 7–8 in du strial waste, defin ed, 1998 V1: 34
sou rces of n oise in pu mps, 1998 V1: 201 in ertia
impingemen t attack corrosion, 1998 V1: 138, 1998 con version factors, 1998 V1: 44
V1: 151 measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
importan ce of equ ipmen t or systems in seismic in fectiou s an d biological waste systems. See als o
force calcu lation s, 1998 V1: 186 disinfecting; microorganisms
impressed cu rren t systems, 1998 V1: 144, 1998 biosafety levels, 1999 V2: 343–344
V1: 147 codes an d stan dards, 1999 V2: 343–344
impu rities in water, 1999 V2: 280–284 componen ts, 1999 V2: 345
in . Hg (in ch es of mercu ry), 1999 V2: 254, 1999 V2: in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 343
257 liqu id-waste decontamin ation systems, 1999 V2:
in -lin e pu mps, 1998 V1: 32 344–345
in -plan t isolation , 1999 V2: 145–147 in filtration rates
in -wall pipin g, acou stic design an d, 1998 V1: 200 pipes, 1999 V2: 102
in 3 (cu bic in ch es), 1998 V1: 18 soils, 1999 V2: 96, 1999 V2: 104
in adequ ate water pressu re, 1999 V2: 149–152 in frequ ently-u sed fixtu res, 1999 V2: 121
in ch-pou n d u n its (IP) In gersoll-Ran d Compan y, 1999 V2: 214
con vertin g, 1999 V2: 256 in hibitors (corrosion ), 1998 V1: 149, 1998 V1: 151
n atu ral gas piping sizin g, 1999 V2: 197 in itial pressu re in n atu ral gas systems, 1999 V2:
u se of, 1999 V2: 253 193, 1999 V2: 194
in ches, con vertin g to SI u nits, 1998 V1: 47 in itial vacu u m pressu re, 1999 V2: 272
in ches of mercu ry (in . Hg) in let cu bic feet per min u te (icfm), 1999 V2: 256
con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 47 in lets. See als o outlets
pressu re drops, 1999 V2: 257 gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179
vacu u m pressu re measu rements, 1999 V2: 254 inlet filters on vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 260
in ciden t an gles (INANG), 1998 V1: 20 inlet inverts on septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
in cin eration systems, 1998 V1: 132 inlet pressure in cold-water systems, 1999 V2:
in con el, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141 153
in cru station in water, 1999 V2: 244 inlet pressure in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182
in dicated horsepower (ih p, IHP), 1998 V1: 20 number of in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262
in direct drain s (D), 1998 V1: 9 for storage tanks, 1999 V2: 248
in direct waste pipes, 1998 V1: 33 for storm drainage, 1999 V2: 98
in direct waste receptors, 1999 V2: 16, 1999 V2: 17. for vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 268,
See als o floor sinks 1999 V2: 269–270, 1999 V2: 272, 1999
individual aerobic waste treatment plants, 1999 V2: V2: 274
232–233 in vacu u m sizin g calcu lations, 1999 V2: 263
Individual Home Was te-w ater Characterization and in pu t motion of earth qu akes, 1998 V1: 160
Treatment, 1999 V2: 238 in sanitary, defin ed, 1998 V1: 34, 1999 V2: 64
individual vents, 1998 V1: 33. See als o revent pipes in side-cau lk ou tlets, 1999 V2: 17
indoor gas boosters, 1999 V2: 180 in side diameters (ID), 1998 V1: 18
indoor gas hose connectors, 1999 V2: 196 in side film coefficien ts, 1998 V1: 19
induced siphonage, 1998 V1: 33, 1999 V2: 36, in specting. See als o cleanouts
1999 V2: 39–40 checklists, 1998 V1: 96–97
in du strial acid-waste drainage systems drain s in san itary drain age systems, 1999 V2: 9
acid-waste treatmen t, 1999 V2: 334–337 septic tanks, 1999 V2: 229–230
sewage-disposal systems, 1999 V2: 238
Index — 38 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

installing in verts
anchor bolts, seismic problems, 1998 V1: 193 defined, 1998 V1: 34
backflow preventers, 1999 V2: 148–149 on septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
grab bars, 1998 V1: 119 An Inves tigation of the Adequacy of Performance of
pressu re-regu lated valves, 1999 V2: 153–154 Reduced-s ize Vents Ins talled on a Ten-Story
redu ced-size ven tin g, 1999 V2: 52 Drain, Was te and Vent Sy s tem, 1999 V2: 65
soven t systems, 1999 V2: 62 iodine 131, 1999 V2: 340
water system pipes, 1999 V2: 250–252 ion-exchange and removal systems, 1999 V2: 300–
in stantan eou s water h eaters, 1999 V2: 160 308
in stitu tions con tin u ou s deion ization , 1999 V2: 306
estimatin g sewage qu antities, 1999 V2: 234 design con sideration s, 1999 V2: 308
septic tan k systems for, 1999 V2: 231–232 regen erable ion exch an ge, 1999 V2: 301
in stru ction s to bidders, 1998 V1: 64 regen eration cycle, 1999 V2: 302–305
in su lation resin s, 1999 V2: 301
airborn e sou n d, 1998 V1: 197–198 service deionization , 1999 V2: 305
codes an d stan dards, 1998 V1: 59 small drin kin g water systems, 1999 V2: 318
dielectric insu lation , 1998 V1: 143 total dissolved solids an d, 1999 V2: 288
in geoth ermal en ergy systems, 1998 V1: 132 water soften in g, 1999 V2: 307
h ot-water systems, 1998 V1: 127, 1999 V2: 166 ion s
n oise in su lation , 1999 V2: 15 defined, 1998 V1: 151
pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 324 in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140
roof drain age, 1999 V2: 85 in pH valu es, 1999 V2: 329
sh ort-circu iting in stallations, 1998 V1:148 IP u n its, 1999 V2: 197, 1999 V2: 253, 1999 V2:
th ickn ess an d en ergy con servation , 1998 V1: 256
125–127 IPC (In ternation al Code Cou ncil), 1998 V1: 60
in take su mp acou stic problems, 1998 V1: 202 ips, IPS (iron pipe sizes), 1998 V1: 20
in tegral ch eck valves on gas tu rrets, 1999 V2: 177 IPS (Intern ation al Pipe Stan dard), 1998 V1: 20
in ten sity (lu minou s), 1998 V1: 41 IPS ou tlets, 1999 V2: 18
in terceptors, 1998 V1: 34. See als o s pecific k inds of IRI (In du strial Risk Insu rers), 1999 V2: 177
interceptors iron
intergranular corrosion, 1999 V2: 290 corrosion , 1998 V1: 137
interlocking, gas boosters and, 1999 V2: 182 in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141
intermediate coats, 1998 V1: 144 in galvan ic series, 1998 V1: 140
intermediate-level sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 removing, 1999 V2: 292
intermittent flow in roof drainage, 1999 V2: 88 slu dge an d, 1999 V2: 289
intermittent sand filters, 1999 V2: 232 in soils, 1999 V2: 219
International Association of Plumbing and Mechani- in water, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2:
cal Officials (IAPMO), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283
34, 1999 V2: 214 iron bacteria, 1999 V2: 282
International Code Council (IPC), 1998 V1: 60 iron coagu lan ts, 1999 V2: 294
International Conference of Building Officials iron oxide, 1998 V1: 135
(ICBO), 1998 V1: 60, 1998 V1: 185, 1998 V1: iron oxide films, 1998 V1: 142
195 iron pipin g
International Organization for Standardization corrosion , 1998 V1: 135
(ISO), 1998 V1: 198 iron pipe sizes (ips, IPS), 1998 V1: 20
International Pipe Standard (IPS), 1998 V1: 20 irradiation treatmen t of water, 1999 V2: 245, 1999
International Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 39 V2: 311–312, 1999 V2: 318, 1999 V2: 323,
International System of Units (SI) 1999 V2: 324
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 48 irrigation
converting, 1998 V1: 47, 1999 V2: 256 gray-water deman d, 1999 V2: 26–27
listing, 1998 V1: 40–48 gray-water systems and, 1999 V2: 21, 1999 V2:
n atu ral gas piping sizin g, 1999 V2: 197 22, 1999 V2: 30
n on -SI u nits, 1998 V1: 42 water deman d, 1999 V2: 243
prefixes an d symbols, 1998 V1: 42 ISO (In tern ation al Organization for Stan dardiza-
style an d u se, 1998 V1: 42, 1999 V2: 253 tion ), 1998 V1: 198
in terru ption of water service, 1999 V2: 239 isoascorbic acid, 1999 V2: 315
in vertebrates, 1999 V2: 282 isolating premises with backflow h azards, 1999 V2:
in verted-membran e roofs, 1999 V2: 82 145–147
Index Index — 39

isolating valves, 1999 V2: 149 tu bin g, 1999 V2: 196

isolation, vibration welded join ts in radioactive waste systems, 1999
dishwasher isolation mou nts, 1998 V1: 199 V2: 341
flexibility and, 1998 V1: 205 J ou kowsky’s formu la, 1999 V2: 132
isolation hangers, 1998 V1: 208, 1998 V1: 209 jou les, 1998 V1: 41
isolation springs, 1998 V1: 165 jou les per kelvin, 1998 V1: 41
isolators within hangers, 1998 V1: 167–168 jou les per kg per kelvin , 1998 V1: 41
in pipin g systems, 1998 V1: 207–214 jou rn eyman plu mbers, 1998 V1: 34
problems in seismic protection , 1998 V1: 191– J TUs (J ackson tu rbidity u n its), 1999 V2: 287
193, 1998 V1: 194, 1998 V1: 214
types of vibration con trol devices, 1998 V1: 208– K
212
k, K (thermal conductivity), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1:
wash in g machine isolation mou n ts, 1998 V1:
41
199–200
K (conductivity), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 41
isosceles trian gles, calcu lating area, 1998 V1: 5
K (dynamic response to ground shaking), 1998 V1:
isotopes, 1999 V2: 337, 1999 V2: 340
159, 1998 V1: 162
K factor (coefficient of permeability), 1999 V2: 100–
J 101, 1999 V2: 104–105, 1999 V2: 242
J (jou les), 1998 V1: 41 K (kelvin), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 42
J / K (jou les per kelvin), 1998 V1: 41 k (kilo) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
J / kg K (jou les per kg per kelvin), 1998 V1: 41 Kalinske, A.A., 1999 V2: 19
J ackson, T., 1999 V2: 65 Kaminsky, G., 1999 V2: 350
J ackson tu rbidity u nits (J TUs), 1999 V2: 287 KE (kin etic en ergy), 1998 V1: 3, 1998 V1: 6
J anoschek, R., 1999 V2: 325 kelvin (K), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 41
J ayawardena, N., 1999 V2: 325 kerosen e, 1999 V2: 13
jet pu mps, 1999 V2: 241 kg (kilograms). See kilograms
jetted wells, 1999 V2: 241 kg/ m (kilograms per meter), 1998 V1: 41
job preparation checklists, 1998 V1: 90–91 kg m 2 (kilograms per meter squ ared), 1998 V1: 41
jockey pu mps, 1998 V1: 32, 1998 V1: 131 kg/ m 3 (kilograms per meter cu bed), 1998 V1: 41
join t compou n ds, 1999 V2: 223 kg ms (kilogram-meters per secon d), 1998 V1: 41
join ts kg/ s (kilograms per secon d), 1998 V1: 41
acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 334 kill tan ks, 1999 V2: 344–345
bon ded join ts an d cath odic protection , 1998 “kilo” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
V1:148 kilocalories, con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 47
cau lked joints on floor drains, 1999 V2: 16 kilograms (kg)
ch emical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 345–346 defined, 1998 V1: 41
clay pipe join ts, 1999 V2: 223 kilograms per cu bic meter, 1998 V1: 41
copper join ts, 1999 V2: 222 kilograms per meter, 1998 V1: 41
copper rin gs over join ts, 1999 V2: 223 kilograms per meter squ ared, 1998 V1: 41
earth qu ake damage to, 1998 V1: 163 kilograms per secon d, 1998 V1: 41
earth qu ake protection and, 1998 V1: 169 kilometers (kg)
expan sion joints, 1999 V2: 18, 1999 V2: 79, con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48
1999 V2: 85, 1999 V2: 87, 1999 V2: 251 kilometers per h ou r, 1998 V1: 42
fill and pipe joints, 1999 V2: 15 kilopascals (kPa)
galvan ized iron join ts, 1999 V2: 222 con vertin g meters of h ead loss to, 1998 V1: 2
h eat-fu sed socket joints, 1999 V2: 334 vacu u m pu mp ratin gs, 1999 V2: 257
in stallation man-h ou r estimates, 1998 V1: 83 vacu u m work forces, 1999 V2: 254
join t compou n ds, 1999 V2: 223 kilopon ds, con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48
liqu efied petroleu m gas an d, 1999 V2: 196 kilowatt h ou rs (kWh , KWH), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1:
materials, 1998 V1: 55–56 42
mechan ical clay pipe join ts, 1999 V2: 223 kilowatts (kW, KW), 1998 V1: 20
mortar join ts on septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 228 kin ematic viscosity
n u mber of in fittings, 1998 V1: 82 con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 47
plastic join ts, 1999 V2: 222 measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
in plu mbin g cost estimates, 1998 V1: 81 water temperatu re variation s, 1999 V2: 121
radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 341 kinetic energy (KE)
screwed mech anical join ts, 1999 V2: 334 calcu latin g, 1998 V1: 3
special-waste drain age systems, 1999 V2: 328 velocity h ead an d, 1998 V1: 6
Index — 40 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

kip, KIP (thou sand pou nds), 1998 V1: 22 Sy s tems w ith Reduced-s ize Vents , 1999 V2:
kip ft, KIP FT (thou sand foot-pou nds), 1998 V1: 22 65
KIPFT (thou sand foot-pou nds), 1998 V1: 22 Laboratory Tes ting on the Nois e Emitted by Valves ,
kitchens. See food-processing areas and kitchens Fittings , and Appliances Us ed in Water Supply
km/ h (kilometers per hour), 1998 V1: 42 Ins tallations, 1998 V1: 198
knee space for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 103 Laboratory Tes ts on Nois e Emis s ion by Appliances
knockout pots in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 260 and Equipment Us ed in Water Supply Ins talla-
Konen, Thomas K., 1999 V2: 34, 1999 V2: 65 tions , 1998 V1: 198
kPa (kilopascals). See kilopascals laboratory vacuum (LV), 1998 V1: 11
Kullen, Howard P., 1998 V1: 152 lagging (pipe wrappings), 1998 V1: 200, 1998 V1:
kW, KW (kilowatts), 1998 V1: 20 206–206, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 196
kWh, KWH (kilowatt hours), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: lagoon s, 1999 V2: 232
42 lakes, 1999 V2: 26, 1999 V2: 27
LAL test, 1999 V2: 282
L lamin ar flow in pipes, 1998 V1: 2
lan dscapin g irrigation. See irrigation
L (length). See length
landslides, 1998 V1: 158
L (liters). See liters
Langelier, W.F., 1999 V2: 291
L-shaped bath seats, 1998 V1: 121
Langelier saturation index (LSI), 1999 V2: 291–292
LA (laboratory compressed air), 1998 V1: 10
Laqu e, F.L., 1998 V1: 152
labeled, defined, 1998 V1: 34
large bu ildin gs
labeling
acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 336
parts of gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 22, 1999
enlargemen t of water systems, 1999 V2: 249
V2: 33
fixtu re drain age loads, 1999 V2: 3
piping, labor units to perform, 1998 V1: 84
large private sewage-disposal systems, 1999 V2:
piping system codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59
231–232
labor and materials payment bonds, 1998 V1: 64
soven t sin gle-stack plu mbin g systems, 1999 V2:
labor costs in estimates, 1998 V1: 81
19
labor units
large-drop sprin klers, 1998 V1: 37
estimating, 1998 V1: 84
large-scale bioh azard facilities, 1999 V2: 343
forms, 1998 V1: 87–89
lat, LAT (leavin g air temperatu re), 1998 V1: 20
laboratories
laten t heat (LH, LHEAT), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1:
acid-waste drain age systems, 1999 V2: 332
133
acid-waste treatmen t, 1999 V2: 334–337
laten t h eat gain , 1998 V1: 19
con tin u ou s acid-waste treatmen t systems,
lateral an d lon gitu din al sway bracin g, 1998 V1:
1999 V2: 338
183–184, 1998 V1: 187–188
h ealth an d safety con cern s, 1999 V2: 332
lateral force
large facilities, 1999 V2: 336
calcu lating for seismic protection, 1998 V1: 185
piping and join t material, 1999 V2: 334
defined, 1998 V1: 195
system design con siderations, 1999 V2: 334
problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 194
types of acids, 1999 V2: 332–334
lateral sewers, 1998 V1: 34
fixtu res an d pipe sizin g, 1999 V2: 328
lateral stability of su spen ded equ ipmen t, 1998 V1:
gas systems, 1999 V2: 176–177
165
isolatin g, 1999 V2: 147
laterals in leach in g fields, 1999 V2: 221
lab an imals, 1999 V2: 344
lau n dry systems an d wash ers
pu re water systems for, 1999 V2: 317–325
accessibility, 1998 V1: 122
radioactive isotopes in , 1999 V2: 337
acou stic ratin gs of machin es, 1998 V1: 199–200
vacu u m systems
cloth es wash er fixtu re-u n it loads, 1999 V2: 3
codes an d stan dards, 1999 V2: 262
lau ndry tray fixtu re-u n it loads, 1999 V2: 3
leakage, 1999 V2: 265, 1999 V2: 267
lau ndry tray installation man -h ou r estimates,
pipin g, 1999 V2: 262
1998 V1: 83
pu mp assemblies, 1999 V2: 261
natu ral gas an d, 1999 V2: 174
sizin g, 1999 V2: 262–266
rates of sewage flows, 1999 V2: 237
water systems
sou n d damping materials, 1998 V1: 200
filtration for, 1999 V2: 300
su ds problems, 1999 V2: 37, 1999 V2: 39
laboratory compressed air (LA), 1998 V1: 10
typical gray-water su pply an d deman d, 1999 V2:
Laboratory Studies of the Hy draulic Performance of
25
One-s tory and Split-level Res idential Plumbing
u se of gray water in prerin se, 1999 V2: 22
Index Index — 41

waste heat u sage, 1998 V1: 128 drin kin g fou n tain s an d water coolers, 1998 V1:
lavatories. See als o sinks and wash basins 106
accessibility, 1998 V1: 113–114 toilet an d bathin g rooms, 1998 V1: 108
fixtu re-u nit loads, 1999 V2: 3 Legion ella pn eu moph ila, 1999 V2: 144, 1999 V2:
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 22 169
in stallation man-h ou r estimates, 1998 V1: 83 legislation regarding physically ch allen ged
redu ced water u sage, 1998 V1: 125 in dividu als, 1998 V1: 100–101
soven t systems, 1999 V2: 62 legs on tan ks
typical gray-water su pply, 1999 V2: 25 cast-iron tan k legs, 1998 V1: 165
typical u se, 1999 V2: 25 problems in seismic protection , 1998 V1: 191–
ven ts, 1999 V2: 37 193, 1998 V1: 194
lawn sprin kler su pply (LS), 1998 V1: 10 Lehr, Valen tin e A., 1999 V2: 34
layer-type dezin cification, 1998 V1: 138 len gth (lg, LG, L)
layers of efflu en t in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 227 con version factors, 1998 V1: 44
layers of fill, 1999 V2: 15 in measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
layou t plan n in g, labor u nits for, 1998 V1: 84 of stacks, 1998 V1: 3
lb, LBS (pou n ds). See pounds symbols for, 1998 V1: 20
leaching trenches (leach fields) of ven t pipin g, 1998 V1: 3
choosing absorption systems, 1999 V2: 220 Les s -than-full Specifications , 1998 V1: 80
construction of, 1999 V2: 222–223 levels in water tanks, 1999 V2: 249
drain fields defin ed, 1998 V1: 30 levels of radiation, 1999 V2: 339
flat areas, 1999 V2: 223–224 Lewis, G.N., 1998 V1: 151
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 221–224 LF (linear feet), 1998 V1: 20
serial distribu tion , 1999 V2: 223–224 lg, LG (length). See length
slopin g area tren ch es, 1999 V2: 224 LH (latent heat), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 133
leach in g wells, 1998 V1: 34. See als o dry wells LHEAT (latent heat), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 133
lead LHG (latent heat gain), 1998 V1: 19
corrosion, 1998 V1: 137 life-cycle costs, 1998 V1: 133
in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141 lifts of fill, 1999 V2: 15
in galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 light conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44
lead-caulked, cast-iron piping, 1999 V2: 223 light hazard occupancies, 1998 V1: 37
lead-lined concrete blocks, 1999 V2: 340 lime-soda method of water softening, 1999 V2: 244,
lead-lined lath for plaster, 1999 V2: 340 1999 V2: 307
lead piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: limestone chips, 1999 V2: 334
122 limiting conditions in seismic protection, 1998 V1:
lead shielding on radioactive drainage systems, 192, 1998 V1: 194
1999 V2: 339–340 limulus amoebocyte lysate test, 1999 V2: 282
lead-tin solders, 1998 V1: 140 Lin, S.H., 1999 V2: 325
leaders. See downspouts and leaders; vertical lin ft (linear feet), 1998 V1: 20
stacks linear acceleration
leakage detection conversion factors, 1998 V1: 48
chemical wastes, 1999 V2: 345, 1999 V2: 346 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
infectious waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 344 linear feet (lin ft, LF), 1998 V1: 20
ion exchange systems, 1999 V2: 308 linear velocity measurements, 1998 V1: 41
special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 327 lining materials
leakage tests for dug wells, 1999 V2: 240
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154 for seepage pits, 1999 V2: 225
liquefied petroleum gas systems, 1999 V2: 197 Linstedt, K.C., 1999 V2: 238
private water systems, 1999 V2: 252 liq, LIQ (liquid). See liquids
vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 265, 1999 V2: 267 liquefaction, 1998 V1: 158
leaking oil into water, 1999 V2: 347–349 liquefied petroleum gas. See als o fuel-gas piping
least mean temperatu re differen ce (LMTD), 1998 systems
V1: 20 codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59
least temperatu re difference (LTD), 1998 V1: 20 defined, 1999 V2: 214
leavin g air temperatu re (lat, LAT), 1998 V1: 20 flexible gas hoses, 1999 V2: 196
leavin g water temperatu re (lwt, LWT), 1998 V1: 20 gas boosters, 1999 V2: 178–183
leg clearan ces glossary, 1999 V2: 213–214
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 194
Index — 42 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

storage, 1999 V2: 194 lon g ru n s in vacu u m clean ing systems, 1999 V2:
system materials, 1999 V2: 196 274–275
warnings, 1999 V2: 197 lon g-term th ermal stability for h ot-water systems,
liqu id oxygen (LOX), 1998 V1: 10 1999 V2: 166
liqu id ring pu mps, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2: 260, lon g-tu rn tee-wyes, 1999 V2: 4
1999 V2: 262 lon gitu din al bracin g
liqu id waste defined, 1998 V1: 195
decontamination systems, 1999 V2: 344–345 lon gitu din al and tran sverse bracin g, 1998 V1:
defined, 1998 V1: 34 182
liqu ids (liq, LIQ) lon gitu din al brace poin ts, 1998 V1: 169
levels in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 228–229 lon gitu din al-on ly bracing, 1998 V1: 182
symbols for, 1998 V1: 20 seismic protection, 1998 V1: 174
vacu u min g, 1999 V2: 266 sway bracin g, 1998 V1: 187–188
listed, defin ed, 1998 V1: 34 lon gitu din al forces, 1998 V1: 195
listin g agen cies, 1998 V1: 34 Look ing to Treat Was tew ater? Try Ozone, 1999 V2:
liters 325
con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48 loop systems for fire hydrants, 1999 V2: 249
liters per min u te (Lpm), 1999 V2: 253 loop vents, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 43–44, 1999 V2:
liters per secon d, 1999 V2: 124, 1999 V2: 126 64
n on -SI u nits, 1998 V1: 42 LOV (lu bricatin g oil ven ts), 1998 V1: 10
live loads on roof, 1999 V2: 79 low-fire in pu t in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182
lm (lu mens), 1998 V1: 41 low-flu sh toilets an d water closets
LMTD (least mean temperatu re differen ce), 1998 acou stic design , 1998 V1: 200
V1: 20 con serving water in , 1999 V2: 232
ln , LN (logarithms, n atu ral), 1998 V1: 20 low-flow water closets, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2:
LO (lu bricatin g oil), 1998 V1: 10, 1999 V2: 13 232
loading tables u ltra-low-flow water closets, 1999 V2: 19
fixtu re-u n it valu es in drainage systems, 1999 V2: water closets, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 232
3 low-level water tan k alarms, 1999 V2: 151
soven t systems, 1999 V2: 63 low-pressu re air test codes an d stan dards, 1998
su bsu rface pipin g loads, 1999 V2: 102 V1: 59
vertical stacks, 1999 V2: 4 low-pressu re con den sate (LPC), 1998 V1: 11
loads low-pressu re gas (G), 1998 V1: 10
compu ter analysis of loads, 1998 V1: 189 low-pressu re n atu ral gas systems, 1999 V2: 173–
con n ected loads, defined, 1999 V2: 214 194, 1999 V2: 192, 1999 V2: 194
design consideration s in seismic protection , 1998 low-pressu re steam (lps, LPS), 1998 V1: 20
V1: 191 low-pressu re steam su pply (LPS), 1998 V1: 11
earth load on water pipes, 1999 V2: 250 low-temperatu re hot water (lth w, LTHW), 1998 V1:
h orizon tal loads of pipin g, 1998 V1: 186 20
live loads on roof, 1999 V2: 79 low-water pressu re, 1999 V2: 149–152
load factors, defin ed, 1998 V1: 34 Lowther plate u n its, 1999 V2: 313
settlement loads, 1998 V1: 189 LOX (liqu id oxygen ), 1998 V1: 10
sway bracin g, 1998 V1: 187–188 LP-gas es at Utility Gas Plants , 1999 V2: 214
vertical seismic load, 1998 V1: 189 LPC (low-pressure condensate), 1998 V1: 11
vibration con trol materials, 1998 V1: 208 lpg. See liquefied petroleum gas
local application systems (h alon ), 1998 V1: 33 Lpm (liters per minute), 1999 V2: 253
local au th orities, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 327 lps, LPS (low-pressure steam), 1998 V1: 20
local barometric pressu re in vacu u ms, 1999 V2: LPS (low-pressu re steam supply), 1998 V1: 11
254 LS (lawn sprinkler supply), 1998 V1: 10
local rainfall rate tables, 1999 V2: 69–78 LSI (Langelier saturation index), 1999 V2: 291–292
localized corrosion, 1999 V2: 289–290 LTD (least temperatu re differen ce), 1998 V1: 20
location of pipin g, earthqu ake protection an d, 1998 lth w, LTHW (low-temperatu re h ot water), 1998 V1:
V1: 169 20
Loeven gu th, 1998 V1: 195 lu bricatin g oil (LO), 1998 V1: 10, 1999 V2: 13
log, LOG (logarith m to base 10), 1998 V1: 20 lu bricatin g oil ven ts (LOV), 1998 V1: 10
logarith ms lu men s, 1998 V1: 41
logarith m to base 10 (log, LOG), 1998 V1: 20 lu min ance measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
n atu ral (ln , LN), 1998 V1: 20 lu minou s flu x, 1998 V1: 41
Index Index — 43

lu minou s measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 examples, 1998 V1: 82

lu mp copper su lfate, 1999 V2: 223 in stallation estimates, 1998 V1: 83
lu x, 1998 V1: 41 tren ch ing, 1998 V1: 85
LV (laboratory vacu u m), 1998 V1: 11 Management of Small Was te Flow s , 1999 V2: 34
LWDS (liqu id-waste decontamination systems), Manas, Vincent T., 1999 V2: 65, 1999 V2: 114,
1999 V2: 344–345 1999 V2: 155
LWT (leaving water temperatu re), 1998 V1: 20 manganese, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: 292
lx (lu x), 1998 V1: 41 manholes
acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 334, 1999 V2: 335
M chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 346
septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228, 1999 V2: 229
M alkalinity, 1999 V2: 282
storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2:
M (mega) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
99
m (meters). See meters (measurements)
Manning formula
m (milli) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
alternative sewage-disposal systems, 1999 V2:
m/ s (meters per second), 1998 V1: 41
226
m/ s 2 (meters per secon d squ ared), 1998 V1: 41
open-channel flow, 1998 V1: 1, 1999 V2: 7, 1999
m 2 (meters squ ared), 1998 V1: 41
V2: 8
m 2 / s (meters squ ared per second), 1998 V1: 41
runoff and, 1999 V2: 97
m 3 , 1998 V1: 41
site drainage and, 1999 V2: 98
m 3 / kg, 1998 V1: 41
sloping drains, 1999 V2: 8
m 3 / s, 1998 V1: 41
storm-drainage pipes, 1999 V2: 88
MA (medical compressed air), 1998 V1: 10
subsurface drainage rates, 1999 V2: 105
Mach n u mbers (Mach , MACH), 1998 V1: 20
Manual of Practice, 1998 V1: 79
MacHatton, J .G., 1999 V2: 238
Division 1 in specifications, 1998 V1: 67
magn esiu m
introduction, 1998 V1: 63
corrosion , 1998 V1: 137
MASTERFORMAT organization, 1998 V1: 66
in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141
section shell outline, 1998 V1: 75–79
in galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140
Manual of Septic Tank Practice, 1999 V2: 237, 1999
lifespan of anodes, 1998 V1: 147
V2: 238
sacrificial an odes, 1998 V1: 144
Manual on the Des ign and Cons truction of Sanitary
in water, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283
and Storm Sew ers , 1999 V2: 95, 1999 V2:
zeolite process an d, 1999 V2: 244
114
magn esiu m alloys, 1998 V1: 140
manual trap primers, 1999 V2: 10, 1999 V2: 14
magn esiu m bicarbon ate, 1999 V2: 283
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve
magn esiu m carbon ate, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2:
and Fittings Industry, Inc. (MSS), 1998 V1:
283, 1999 V2: 290
34, 1998 V1: 60
magn esiu m ch loride, 1999 V2: 283
maps
magn esiu m hydroxide, 1999 V2: 281
seismic risk maps, 1998 V1: 155, 1998 V1: 156,
magn esiu m su lfate, 1999 V2: 281
1998 V1: 157
magn etic field pu lsation, 1998 V1: 201
soils, 1999 V2: 218
magn etic field stren gth measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
margins in CSI format, 1998 V1: 66
magn etic flu x den sity, 1998 V1: 41
marinas, 1999 V2: 147
magn etic flu x measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
Mark, 1998 V1: 1, 1998 V1: 3, 1998 V1: 6
magn etism, con version factors, 1998 V1: 43
markets, sanitation in, 1999 V2: 16
main ven ts, 1998 V1: 34
markings, corrosion and, 1998 V1: 143
main s
Marks, Lionel S., 1998 V1: 49
defined, 1998 V1: 34
mass
pipe, 1998 V1: 15
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44
main ten an ce bon ds, 1998 V1: 64
mass law in acoustics, 1998 V1: 197
main ten an ce h ot-water temperatu res, 1999 V2: 166
mass per unit area measurements, 1998 V1: 41
makeu p, defin ed, 1998 V1: 133
mass per unit length measurements, 1998 V1:
mall (malleable), 1998 V1: 34
41
malleable
in measurements, 1998 V1: 41
defined, 1998 V1: 34
non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42
iron fittings, 1999 V2: 196
mass flow, 1999 V2: 255
malls, 1999 V2: 25
mass flow rates (mfr, MFR)
man -hou rs
measurements, 1998 V1: 41
backfillin g, 1998 V1: 86
Index — 44 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

symbols for, 1998 V1: 20 mechanical rooms, earthquake protection, 1998 V1:
Massey, Howard C., 1998 V1: 79 168
massive soil stru ctu re, 1999 V2: 218 mechanical rotary-type vacuum pumps, 1999 V2:
master plu mbers, 1998 V1: 34 259
master specifications, 1998 V1: 67–68 mechanically-dispersed oil, 1999 V2: 347
MASTERFORMAT, 1998 V1: 79 Meckler, Milton, 1998 V1: 49
categories, 1998 V1: 71–74 medical cabinets, 1998 V1: 109
organ ization , 1998 V1: 66 medical compressed air (MA), 1998 V1: 10
plu mbin g work section titles, 1998 V1: 74 medical gas piping earthquake bracing, 1998 V1:
MASTERFORMAT Numbers are for More than Specs , 168
1998 V1: 80 medical vacuum (MV), 1998 V1: 11
MASTERSPEC, 1998 V1: 68 medical waste systems. See infectious and biologi-
materials. See s pecific materials or s y s tem fixtures cal waste systems
maximum (max., MAX), 1998 V1: 20 medium-pressure condensate (MPC), 1998 V1: 11
maximum capacity rating (MCR), 1999 V2: 182 medium-pressure gas (MG), 1998 V1: 10
maximum design flow, 1999 V2: 182 medium-pressure natural gas systems, 1999 V2:
maximum discharge rates, 1998 V1: 6 173–194
maximum outlet pressure in gas boosters, 1999 V2: mediu m-pressu re steam (mps, MPS), 1998 V1: 20
183 mediu m-pressu re steam su pply (MPS), 1998 V1: 11
maximum resistance values, 1999 V2: 286 mediu m-temperatu re h ot water (mth w, MTHW),
Maybeck, Edward M., 1998 V1: 79 1998 V1: 20
mbars (millibars), 1999 V2: 254 mediu m vacu u m, 1999 V2: 254
mc (millicuries), 1999 V2: 339 “mega” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
McClelland, Nina I., 1999 V2: 238 megaoh m-cm, 1999 V2: 285
Mcf, MCF (thousand cubic feet), 1998 V1: 22 Meier, Hans W., 1998 V1: 80
Mcm, MCM (thousand circular mils), 1998 V1: 22 membran e filtration
MCR (maximum capacity rating), 1999 V2: 182 cross-flow filters, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2: 310–
McSweeney, D.P., 1999 V2: 277 311
mean effective temperatures (MET), 1998 V1: 20 gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 27
mean temperature difference (MTD), 1998 V1: 20 membrane flu x, 1999 V2: 309
measurement units membran e produ ctivity, 1999 V2: 321
earthquake measurement, 1998 V1: 159–162 membrane selection in reverse osmosis, 1999 V2:
flow rates, 1999 V2: 255–256 310, 1999 V2: 311
In ternation al System of Un its, 1998 V1: 40–48 overview, 1999 V2: 308–311
labor u n its, 1998 V1: 84 pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 321
microorgan isms, 1999 V2: 282 reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 308–309
n on -SI u nits, 1998 V1: 42 tan gen tial-flow filters, 1999 V2: 300
radiation , 1999 V2: 338–339 total dissolved solids an d, 1999 V2: 288
types of con version s, 1998 V1: 40 membran e flu x, 1999 V2: 309
u n its and symbols, 1998 V1: 41 membran e produ ctivity, 1999 V2: 321
u sage of, 1999 V2: 253 Membrane Technologies in the Pow er Indus try , 1999
vacu u m pressu re, 1999 V2: 254–256 V2: 325
water impu rities, 1999 V2: 285 membranes in waterproofing, 1999 V2: 17
Meas uring Water Purity by Specific Res is tance, 1999 mercury (Hg, HG), 1998 V1: 20
V2: 325 mercury vapor lamps, 1999 V2: 312
mechanical aerators, 1999 V2: 293, 1999 V2: 294 Mermel, H., 1999 V2: 350
mechanical areas Meslar, H.W., 1999 V2: 350
grates and strainers, 1999 V2: 10 MET (mean effective temperatures), 1998 V1: 20
sediment buckets, 1999 V2: 12 metal flashing on roof drains, 1999 V2: 79
trap primers in drains, 1999 V2: 13 metal-plating plants, 1999 V2: 147
mechanical clay pipe joints, 1999 V2: 223 metals. See als o s pecific metals
mechanical cross-connection protection devices, corrosion losses, 1998 V1: 137
1999 V2: 144 galvanic series table, 1998 V1: 140
Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, 1999 V2: metallic coatings, 1998 V1: 144
214 metallic piping, 1998 V1: 84
mechanical joints, earthquake protection and, 1998 Metcalf, 1999 V2: 238
V1: 169 meter set assemblies, 1999 V2: 214
meters (measurements)
Index Index — 45

meters, 1998 V1: 41 millirems (mrem), 1999 V2: 339

meters of head, 1998 V1: 2 min., MIN (minimu m), 1998 V1: 20
meters per second, 1998 V1: 41 min (min u tes), 1998 V1: 42
meters per second squ ared, 1998 V1: 41 mineral salts, 1999 V2: 288, 1999 V2: 290
meters squ ared, 1998 V1: 41 mineral solids, 1999 V2: 289
meters squ ared per second, 1998 V1: 41 mineral wool, 1998 V1: 198
meters (water), 1999 V2: 115–116, 1999 V2: 117, minimu m (min., MIN), 1998 V1: 20
1999 V2: 123, 1999 V2: 127, 1999 V2: 233 minimu m design flow, 1999 V2: 182
methan e. See fuel-gas piping systems minimu m inlet pressu re in gas boosters, 1999 V2:
Methods of Es timating Loads in Plumbing Sy s tems , 182
1999 V2: 155 minor backflow h azard, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2:
methyl orange alkalinity, 1999 V2: 282 146
Metric Conversion Act, 1998 V1: 40 minu tes, 1998 V1: 42
metric tons, 1998 V1: 42 mirrors, 1998 V1: 108, 1998 V1: 109
metric units. See International System of Units misalign ed wells, pu mps for, 1999 V2: 245
Meyers, Vance A., 1999 V2: 114 misin terpretation of specification s, 1998 V1: 67
Meyrick, C.E., 1999 V2: 325 Mis s ing Link , 1998 V1: 80
mfr, MFR (mass flow rates), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: mist eliminators, 1999 V2: 295
41 MIUS Technology Evaluation: Collection, Treatment
mg/ L (milligrams per liter), 1999 V2: 285 and Dis pos al of Liquid Was tes , 1999 V2: 238
MG (medium-pressure gas), 1998 V1: 10 mixed-bed deionization (single-step), 1999 V2: 302,
mho (specific conductivity), 1999 V2: 287 1999 V2: 303, 1999 V2: 304, 1999 V2: 305
“micro” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 mixing flows of water
microbial growth an d con trol. See als o bacteria; conserving energy, 1998 V1: 124
microorganisms; viruses in feed water mixed-water temperatures, 1999 V2: 159–160
cooling towers, 1999 V2: 316 moderate backflow hazard, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2:
drinking water, 1999 V2: 316–317, 1999 V2: 318 146
feed water, 1999 V2: 321 Modern Vacuum Practice, 1999 V2: 277
pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 323 modified header systems, 1999 V2: 127
u tility water, 1999 V2: 314 modular iron piping, 1999 V2: 196
water soften ers, 1999 V2: 307, 1999 V2: 308 Moffat, R., 1999 V2: 277
water treatmen ts, 1999 V2: 311–313 mole (mol), 1998 V1: 41
microbiological fou lin g of water, 1999 V2: 289, molecular weights of elements, 1999 V2: 281
1999 V2: 316 moments of inertia
microbiological laboratories, 1999 V2: 343. See als o conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44
laboratories measurements, 1998 V1: 41
micromhos, 1999 V2: 287 momentum measurements, 1998 V1: 41
microns monel, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 mop sinks, 1999 V2: 25
vacuum units, 1999 V2: 254 morgues and mortuaries, 1999 V2: 16, 1999 V2:
microorganisms. See als o bacteria; microbial growth 147
and control; viruses in feed water Moritz, A.R., 1999 V2: 169, 1999 V2: 170
infectious waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 343 mortar joints on septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
pure water systems, 1999 V2: 323 motels
water analysis of, 1999 V2: 282 acoustic plumbing design, 1998 V1: 201
water treatments, 1999 V2: 311–313, 1999 V2: septic tanks, 1999 V2: 231–232
318 motion in earth qu akes, 1998 V1: 159
miles motor-operated filter bag shakers, 1999 V2: 268
con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48 motor-operated valves, 1998 V1: 12
miles per h ou r (mph , MPH), 1998 V1: 20 motors
Millepore filters, 1999 V2: 288–289 earth qu ake protection , 1998 V1: 165
“milli” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 fan acou stic problems, 1998 V1: 202
millibars (mbar) motor jou rn als, 1998 V1: 201
con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48 in pu mps, 1998 V1: 201
vacu u m u n its, 1999 V2: 254 rotor acou stic modification s, 1998 V1: 202
millicu ries (mc), 1999 V2: 339 mou n d soil-absorption systems, 1999 V2: 220,
milligrams per liter (mg/ L), 1999 V2: 285 1999 V2: 226
millimeters, con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48 MPC (mediu m-pressu re con den sate), 1998 V1: 11
Index — 46 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

mph, MPH (miles per hou r), 1998 V1: 20 NAPHCC (Nation al Association of Plu mbin g-Heat-
mps, MPS (mediu m-pressu re steam), 1998 V1: 20 ing-Coolin g Con tractors), 1998 V1: 81, 1999
MPS (mediu m-pressu re steam su pply), 1998 V1: 11 V2: 65
mrem (millerems), 1999 V2: 339 n aph th a, 1999 V2: 13
MSS (Manu factu rers Standardization Society of the Nation al Association of Corrosion En gineers (NACE),
Valve and Fittings Indu stry, Inc.), 1998 V1: 1998 V1: 148, 1998 V1: 152
34, 1998 V1: 60 National Association of Home Bu ilders Research
MTD (mean temperatu re difference), 1998 V1: 20 Fou n dation , 1999 V2: 65
mthw, MTHW (mediu m-temperatu re hot water), Nation al Association of Plu mbin g-Heatin g-Coolin g
1998 V1: 20 Contractors (NAPHCC), 1998 V1: 81, 1999
MU (viscosity), 1998 V1: 2, 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: V2: 65
41 National Board of Boiler an d Pressu re Vessel
mu ds in feed water, 1999 V2: 289 Inspectors (NBBPVI), 1999 V2: 166
mu lti-effect distillation, 1999 V2: 298, 1999 V2: Nation al Bu reau of Stan dards
299 electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 151
mu lti-graded sand filtration, 1999 V2: 298 pu blication s, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 65, 1999
mu ltimedia filtration, 1999 V2: 298, 1999 V2: 300, V2: 155
1999 V2: 322–323 redu ced-size ven tin g, 1999 V2: 49
mu ltiple. See als o entries beginning w ith double-, stack capacities stu dy, 1999 V2: 4
multiple-, or two- National Coarse of US Th read, 1998 V1: 24
multiple-compartment septic tanks, 1999 V2: 229 Nation al Committee for Clin ical Laboratory Stan -
multiple-degree-of-freedom systems, 1998 V1: 161 dards, In c. (NCCLS), 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2:
multiple gas-train vents, 1999 V2: 177 317, 1999 V2: 319
multiple pressure-regulated valve installation, 1999 National Easter Seal Society, 1998 V1: 99
V2: 153 National Electrical Code (NEC), 1999 V2: 170
multiple-tray waterfall aerators, 1999 V2: 293 National Fire Protection Association, Inc., 1998 V1:
multiplication in SI units, 1998 V1: 42 34
multistage pressure breakdown systems for pump address, 1998 V1: 60
plants, 1998 V1: 202 fire h ydran ts, 1999 V2: 249
multistory buildings. See large buildings firefigh tin g water tan ks, 1999 V2: 247
mureatic acid, 1999 V2: 305, 1999 V2: 333 fu el-gas pipe sizin g, 1999 V2: 184
mussels, 1999 V2: 282 gas storage standards, 1999 V2: 194
MV (medical vacuum), 1998 V1: 11 hot-water system standards, 1999 V2: 170
pu blication s, 1998 V1: 49, 1998 V1: 195, 1999
N V2: 214
sprin kler piping, 1998 V1: 186
n c, N C (normally closed), 1998 V1: 20
National Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54), 1999 V2: 177,
n i c, N I C (not in contract), 1998 V1: 20
1999 V2: 183, 1999 V2: 184, 1999 V2: 194,
N m (newton-meters), 1998 V1: 41
1999 V2: 214
n (nano) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
National Ground Water Association (NGWA), 1999
N (newtons), 1998 V1: 41
V2: 252
N (nitrogen), 1998 V1: 11, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2:
National Institute of Building Services (NIBS), 1998
284
V1: 80
N (nu mbers), 1998 V1: 20
National Institu tes of Health, 1999 V2: 262, 1999
n o, N O (normally open), 1998 V1: 20
V2: 343
N2O (nitrou s oxide), 1998 V1: 11
National Insulation Contractors’ Association (NICA),
n a, N/ A (n ot applicable), 1998 V1: 20
1998 V1: 125
NACE Bas ic Corros ion Cours e, 1998 V1: 152
National Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 65, 1999 V2:
NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers),
114, 1999 V2: 155
1998 V1: 148, 1998 V1: 152
National Sanitation Foundation (NSF), 1998 V1: 60,
NACE Standard RP-01, 1998 V1: 148
1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 170, 1999 V2: 232
nails, protecting against, 1999 V2: 19
National Sanitation Foundation Testing Laboratory
Nalco Chemical Co., 1999 V2: 325
(NSFTL), 1998 V1: 34
Nalco Water Handbook , 1999 V2: 325
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE),
“n ano” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
1998 V1: 64
n anofilter membranes, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2:
National Standard Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 37,
300, 1999 V2: 308–311, 1999 V2: 310
1999 V2: 65
natural drainage (corrosion), 1998 V1: 151
Index Index — 47

natu ral frequ ency of vibration control materials, net positive suction head (NPSH), 1998 V1: 204,
1998 V1: 208 1998 V1: 215, 1999 V2: 247
natu ral gas. See fuel-gas piping systems; natural neutralizing acid in waste water, 1999 V2: 332,
gas systems 1999 V2: 333, 1999 V2: 334–337
natural gas systems n eu tron s, 1999 V2: 337
appliances, 1999 V2: 175, 1999 V2: 177–178 n ewton-meters, 1998 V1: 41
bottled gas, 1999 V2: 174 n ewton s, 1998 V1: 41
design con siderations, 1999 V2: 173–176 NF n omographs, 1999 V2: 317
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 178–183 NFPA. See National Fire Protection Association
gas train ven ts, 1999 V2: 177 NFPA 13: Standard for the Ins tallation of Sprink ler
glossary, 1999 V2: 213–214 Sy s tems , 1998 V1: 186, 1998 V1: 195
h igh-rise bu ildin gs an d, 1999 V2: 180 NFPA 54: National Fuel Gas Code, 1999 V2: 177,
laboratory gas systems, 1999 V2: 176–177 1999 V2: 184, 1999 V2: 194
low an d mediu m pressu re systems, 1999 V2: NFPA 99: Health Care Facilities , 1999 V2: 262
173–194 NFPA 170, 1998 V1: 49
pipe sizin g, 1999 V2: 183–194 NFPA formulas in natural gas systems, 1999 V2:
pressu re drops and sizin g, 1999 V2: 192, 1999 186, 1999 V2: 187, 1999 V2: 188, 1999 V2:
V2: 193 189
sizin g by NFPA formu la, 1999 V2: 186, 1999 V2: NGWA (National Ground Water Association), 1999
187, 1999 V2: 188, 1999 V2: 189 V2: 252
sizin g by Spitzglass formu la, 1999 V2: 183, 1999 ni-resist cast iron, 1998 V1: 141
V2: 210–211 ni-resist ions, 1998 V1: 140
sizin g by Weymou th formu la, 1999 V2: 183, NIBS (National Institute of Building Sciences), 1998
1999 V2: 190, 1999 V2: 191, 1999 V2: V1: 80
198, 1999 V2: 209 NICA (National Insulation Contractors’ Association ),
n atu ral gas water heaters 1998 V1: 125
con servin g en ergy, 1998 V1: 123 n ickel
n et efficien cy of, 1998 V1: 131 corrosion , 1998 V1: 137
n atu ral logarith ms, 1998 V1: 20 electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141
n atu ral osmosis, 1999 V2: 308 galvan ic series, 1998 V1: 140
n atu ral period of vibration, 1998 V1: 160 n ickel-bronze grates, 1999 V2: 15, 1999 V2: 16
n atu ral water. See feed water n ippled-u p sprin klers, 1998 V1: 16
naturally-vented, multiple tray aerators, 1999 V2: n itrates, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283
293 n itric acid, 1999 V2: 333
naval rolled brass, 1998 V1: 141 n itrifyin g bacteria, 1999 V2: 282
NBBPVI (National Board of Boiler and Pressure n itrogen gas blankets in water tan ks, 1999 V2: 324
Vessel Inspectors), 1999 V2: 166 n itrogen (N), 1998 V1: 11, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2:
NBS (National Bureau of Standards). See National 284
Bu reau of Standards n itrou s fu mes, 1999 V2: 333
NC (noise criteria), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 215 n itrou s oxide (N2 O), 1998 V1: 11
NC (number of circuits), 1998 V1: 20 n o., NO (n u mbers), 1998 V1: 20
NCCLS (National Committee for Clinical Laboratory n o-flow pressu re in pressu re-regu lated valves, 1999
Standards, Inc.), 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: V2: 152
317, 1999 V2: 319 n o-h u b joints, earth qu ake protection an d, 1998 V1:
NEC (National Electrical Code), 1999 V2: 170 169
negative gauge pressu re, 1999 V2: 254 n o-h u b ou tlets, 1999 V2: 18
negative pressure. See vacuum n o-man zon es arou n d bu ildin g footers, 1999 V2:
NEMA 4 listing, 1999 V2: 179 103
NEMA 4X listing, 1999 V2: 166 NOAA, National Weather Service 5-60 Minute Precipi-
NEMA 12 listing, 1999 V2: 179 tation Frequency for the Eas tern and Central
NEMA Class 1, Division 1, Group D listing, 1999 United States , 1999 V2: 114
V2: 179 noble potential, defined, 1998 V1: 152
neoprene floor and hanger mounts, 1998 V1: 209, noise. See acoustics in plumbing systems
1998 V1: 212 noise criteria (NC), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 215
neoprene seal plugs in cleanouts, 1999 V2: 9 noise criteria (NC) curves, 1998 V1: 215. See als o
nephelometric test, 1999 V2: 287 preferred noise criteria (PNC) curves
nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs), 1999 V2: 287 nominal diameter (DN), 1999 V2: 253
nominal pipe size (NPS), 1999 V2: 253
Index — 48 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

nominal valu es, 1998 V1: 40 numerals in measurements, 1998 V1: 40

nomographs, 1999 V2: 31–32 Nussbaum, O.J ., 1999 V2: 325
n on -agreemen t states, 1999 V2: 340
n on -ambu latory disabilities, 1998 V1: 101 O
n on -circu lar grab bars, 1998 V1: 119
oa, OA (ou tside air), 1998 V1: 21
n on -circu latin g water systems, 1998 V1: 127–128
obstru ctions to wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 105, 1998
n on -con tin u ou s joints, 1998 V1:148
V1: 106
n on -depletable en ergy sou rces, 1998 V1: 133
occu pancy classification (sprinkler systems), 1998
n on -electrolytes, 1999 V2: 280
V1: 37
n on -ferrou s pipes and fittings, 1998 V1: 52–53
Occu pational Safety and Health Administration
n on -metallic coatin gs, 1998 V1: 144
(OSHA), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 333
n on -metallic pipe, 1998 V1: 52–55
occu pied domestic spaces, acou stic plu mbing
n on -oxidizin g ch emicals in microbial control, 1999
design for, 1998 V1: 201
V2: 311
ocean water, irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26
n on -oxidizin g pipin g, 1999 V2: 341
octave-band sou nd levels, 1998 V1: 198
n on -porou s pipin g, 1999 V2: 341
octaves, 1998 V1: 216
n on -potable water systems. See gray-water systems
OD (ou tside diameters), 1998 V1: 18
non-pumping wells, 1999 V2: 241–243
odor control in drinking water, 1999 V2: 245, 1999
n on -pu n ctu ring membran e flash in g, 1999 V2: 17
V2: 316
n on -reactive silica, 1999 V2: 283
off-peak power, 1998 V1: 131
n on -rigid cou plin gs, 1998 V1: 189
Office of Statewide Health Planning and Develop-
n on -SI u n its, 1998 V1: 42
ment (OSHPD), 1998 V1: 195
n on -sprin klered spaces, 1998 V1: 15
offset stacks
Non-s tructural Damage to Buildings , 1998 V1: 195
defined, 1999 V2: 64
non-tilting grates, 1999 V2: 11
sizing, 1999 V2: 5, 1999 V2: 6
Nondis crimination on the Bas is of Dis ability by Public
venting, 1999 V2: 44–45
Accommodations and in Commercial Facilities ,
offsets, defin ed, 1998 V1: 34
1998 V1: 101
offsh ore facilities, 1998 V1: 147
normally closed (n c, N C), 1998 V1: 20
ohm-meters, 1998 V1: 41
normally open (n o, N O), 1998 V1: 20
ohms, 1998 V1: 41
nose pieces in deaerators, 1999 V2: 56
Ohm’s Law, 1998 V1: 140
not applicable (na, N/ A), 1998 V1: 20
OHMS (resistance or resistors), 1998 V1: 21
not in contract (n i c, N I C), 1998 V1: 20
oil
not to scale (NTS), 1998 V1: 20
as seal liqu id in liqu id rin g pu mps, 1999 V2: 260
nozzles, 1998 V1: 37
in tercepting in acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 336
NPS (nominal pipe size), 1999 V2: 253
in tercepting in san itary drain age systems, 1999
NPSH (net positive suction head), 1998 V1: 204,
V2: 12–13
1998 V1: 215, 1999 V2: 247
spills an d con tainmen t, 1999 V2: 347–349
NRC (Nuclear Regulatory Commission), 1999 V2:
storm-drain age systems an d, 1999 V2: 67
339, 1999 V2: 340
vegetable oil, 1999 V2: 10
NSF (National Sanitation Foundation), 1998 V1: 34,
oil draw-off pipes, 1999 V2: 13
1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 170,
oil interceptors, 1999 V2: 12–13, 1999 V2: 349
1999 V2: 232
oil-mist filters in vacu u ms, 1999 V2: 260
NSPE (National Society of Professional Engineers),
oil-wet solids, 1999 V2: 347
1998 V1: 64
oilless pu mps, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2: 262
NT (number of tubes), 1998 V1: 20
oleu ms, 1999 V2: 332, 1999 V2: 333
NTS (not to scale), 1998 V1: 20
on -site facility treatment systems. See special-waste
NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units), 1999 V2: 287
drainage systems
nuclear power plants
on-site storm-water detention systems, 1999 V2:
nuclear reactors, 1999 V2: 147
105–107
regulatory requirements, 1999 V2: 337
On Site Was te-w ater Facilities for Small Communities
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 156
and Subdivis ions , 1999 V2: 238
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1999 V2: 339,
on-site water reclamation. See gray-water systems
1999 V2: 340
one-pipe, heat-trace systems, 1999 V2: 165
number of circuits (NC), 1998 V1: 20
one-pipe systems (Philadelphia systems), 1999 V2:
number of tubes (NT), 1998 V1: 20
46, 1999 V2: 47, 1999 V2: 48
numbering in CSI format, 1998 V1: 66
open-channel flow, 1998 V1: 1, 1999 V2: 7
numbers (no., NO, N), 1998 V1: 20
open-circuit potential, defined, 1998 V1: 152
Index Index — 49

open-joint piping, 1999 V2: 102 overtu rn in g, preven tin g, 1998 V1: 164, 1998 V1:
open spring floor and hanger mou nts, 1998 V1: 194
209, 1998 V1: 210 overvoltage, defin ed, 1998 V1: 152
open sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 OX (oxygen ). See oxygen
open-type base pu mps, 1999 V2: 243 oxidation, defined, 1998 V1: 152
open-web steel joists in pipe bracing, 1998 V1: 178 oxidized sewage, 1998 V1: 34
openings for tool access, 1999 V2: 9. See als o oxidizing chemicals in microbial control, 1999 V2:
cleanouts 311
operating hot-water temperatures, 1999 V2: 166 oxygen concentration cells, 1998 V1: 152
operators of vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 269 Oxy gen-fuel Gas Sy s tems for Weldings and Cuttings ,
orbital welding process, 1999 V2: 341 1999 V2: 214
ordinary hazard occupancies, 1998 V1: 37 oxygen (OX)
ordinary lobe pumps, 1999 V2: 259 corrosion process, 1999 V2: 284
organic free water, 1999 V2: 317 oxygen content in rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 142
organic polyelectrolytes, 1999 V2: 294 oxygen depletion and gas appliances, 1999 V2:
organisms in water, 1999 V2: 282. See als o micro- 178
organisms oxygenation of drinking water, 1999 V2: 245
orifices on stationary meters, 1998 V1: 13 removing, 1999 V2: 294
ornamental sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 saturation with, 1999 V2: 292–294
orthotolidin tests, 1999 V2: 154 symbols for, 1998 V1: 10
oscillation in pumps, 1998 V1: 206 in water, 1999 V2: 281
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administra- oxygen scaven gers, 1999 V2: 314, 1999 V2: 315
tion), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 333 oz, OZ (ou n ces), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 48
OSHPD (Office of Statewide Health Planning and ozonation
Development), 1998 V1: 195 coolin g tower water, 1999 V2: 316
osmosis, defined, 1999 V2: 308 pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 323
osmotic pressure, 1999 V2: 308 small drin kin g water systems, 1999 V2: 318
Otis, Richard J ., 1999 V2: 238 water treatments, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: 312–
OTO pumps, 1999 V2: 259 313
Otten, Gerald, 1999 V2: 325 ozone generators, 1999 V2: 313
Otto plate units, 1999 V2: 313
ounces (oz, OZ) P
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48
P alkalinity, 1999 V2: 282
symbols for, 1998 V1: 20
P (peta) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
outdoor gas booster installation, 1999 V2: 180
p (pico) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
outdoor gas hose connectors, 1999 V2: 196
P (pressu re). See pressure
outfall sewers, 1998 V1: 34
p-traps
outlets. See als o inlets
floor drains with, 1998 V1: 14
flow at outlet, 1998 V1: 3
storm drainage systems, 1999 V2: 84
flow rates at outlets, 1998 V1: 6
Pa (pascals), 1998 V1: 41
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179, 1999 V2: 183
PA (pipe anchors), 1998 V1: 12
pressure in cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 153
Pa s (pascal-seconds), 1998 V1: 41
septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
packed-bed, activated-carbon filters, 1999 V2: 300,
symbols for, 1998 V1: 14
1999 V2: 301
velocity of flow from ou tlets, 1998 V1: 7
packed tower aeration, 1999 V2: 318
outside air (oa, OA), 1998 V1: 21
packing material
outside diameters (OD), 1998 V1: 18
in seepage beds, 1999 V2: 224
outside film coefficients, 1998 V1: 19
sound damping, 1998 V1: 200
overall system thermal efficiency, 1998 V1: 133
in vacuum deaerators, 1999 V2: 295
overflow storm drains. See secondary storm-
padding for vibration control, 1998 V1: 208, 1998
drainage systems
V1: 210
overhead in cost estimates, 1998 V1: 82
page formatting in CSI format, 1998 V1: 66
overhead piping, man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 84
pain, thresholds of, 1999 V2: 169
overheating vacuum exhausters, 1999 V2: 268–269
paints in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230
overlan d flow times for sites, 1999 V2: 96, 1999 V2:
panels, lining with lead, 1999 V2: 340
97, 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 111
paper towel clogs, 1999 V2: 11, 1999 V2: 231
overlap in toilet accessibility, 1998 V1: 109
paraffin, 1999 V2: 13
paragraph numbering in CSI format, 1998 V1: 66
Index — 50 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

parallel approaches for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 104, petroleu m-processin g plants, 1999 V2: 147
1998 V1: 107 PG (pressu re gau ges with gau ge cocks), 1998 V1:
parallel installation of pressu re-regu lated valves, 13
1999 V2: 153 pH
parallel-shaft gears, 1998 V1: 201 acid wastes, 1999 V2: 334–337
parapet wall scu ppers, 1999 V2: 79, 1999 V2: 82 adju stmen ts to waste, 1999 V2: 328
Parekh, B.S., 1999 V2: 325 alkalin ity an d, 1999 V2: 283
partially-sprinklered spaces, 1998 V1: 15 boiler feed water, 1999 V2: 314
particu late radiation, 1999 V2: 339 in corrosion rates, 1998 V1: 141
particu late silica, 1999 V2: 283 defined, 1998 V1: 152
particu lates in water, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 287– feed water for pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 322
288 measu rin g, 1999 V2: 285
parts per million (ppm, PPM), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 predictin g water deposits, 1999 V2: 290
V2: 285 satu ration , 1999 V2: 291, 1999 V2: 293
pascal-secon ds, 1998 V1: 41 valu es in waste, 1999 V2: 329
pascals, 1998 V1: 41 ph , PH (ph ases, electrical), 1998 V1: 21
passivation, 1998 V1: 143 pH Control of Chemical Was te, 1999 V2: 350
passive, defin ed, 1998 V1: 152 pharmaceutical pure water, 1999 V2: 317–325,
path ogen ic organ isms, 1999 V2: 282 1999 V2: 320, 1999 V2: 322
path s of acou stic problems, 1998 V1: 204 Pharmaceutical Water, 1999 V2: 325
paved area storm drain age, 1999 V2: 67 phases, electrical (ph, PH), 1998 V1: 21
PB (polybu tylen e), 1998 V1: 34 phenolphthalein alkalinity, 1999 V2: 282
PCT (percentages), 1998 V1: 21 Philadelphia venting system, 1999 V2: 46, 1999 V2:
PCUs (platin u m cobalt u n its), 1999 V2: 287 47, 1999 V2: 48
PD (pressu re drops or differen ces). See pressure phosphates, 1998 V1: 149, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2:
drops or differences 282
PD (pump discharge lines), 1998 V1: 9 phosphoric acid, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 333
PDI (Plumbing and Drainage Institute), 1998 V1: 34 phosphorus, 1999 V2: 281
address, 1998 V1: 60 phosphorus 32, 1999 V2: 340
PDI symbols for water hammer arresters, 1999 photographic badges for radiation levels, 1999 V2:
V2: 143 339
PDI symbols for water hammer arresters, 1999 V2: photolytic oxidation, 1999 V2: 288
144 phrasing in specifications, 1998 V1: 67
PE (polyethylene), 1998 V1: 34 physical characteristics of drinking water, 1999 V2:
PE (potential energy), 1998 V1: 3, 1998 V1: 6 316, 1999 V2: 318
Peabody, A.W., 1998 V1: 152 physically challenged individuals
peak consumption in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182 ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 1998
pendent sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 37 V1: 111
percentages (%, PCT), 1998 V1: 21 ANSI A117.1-1988, 1998 V1: 107–122
perched water, 1999 V2: 100 bath in g rooms, 1998 V1: 108
perchloric acid, 1999 V2: 333–334 bath tu b an d sh ower seats, 1998 V1: 121
percolation bath tu b design , 1998 V1: 114–115
defined, 1998 V1: 34 codes an d stan dards, 1998 V1: 59
rates for soils, 1999 V2: 217–220, 1999 V2: 219– design for, 1998 V1: 101–107
220, 1999 V2: 238 drin kin g fou n tain s an d water coolers, 1998 V1:
perfect vacu u ms, 1999 V2: 254 107–108
perforated pipin g, 1999 V2: 102 exposed pipin g an d accessibility, 1998 V1: 114
performance bon ds, 1998 V1: 64 grab bars, 1998 V1: 119–121
Performance of Reduced-s ize Venting in Res idential history of design an d con stru ction standards,
Drain, Was te and Vent Sy s tem, 1999 V2: 65 1998 V1: 99–100
permeability in trodu ction to plu mbing for, 1998 V1: 99
coefficient of (K factor), 1999 V2: 100–101, 1999 lau n dry equ ipment, 1998 V1: 122
V2: 104–105, 1999 V2: 242 lavatories and sinks, 1998 V1: 113–114
con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48 legislation , 1998 V1: 100–101
permeable strata in soils, 1999 V2: 219 referen ces, 1998 V1: 122
permean ce, con verting to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48 shower compartmen ts, 1998 V1: 115–119
pesticides in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 230 u rin al design , 1998 V1: 113
“peta” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
Index Index — 51

water closets and toilets, 1998 V1: 108, 1998 V1: pitch down or up, 1998 V1: 14
109–113 radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 342
ph ysics laboratories, 1999 V2: 262. See als o special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 329
laboratories vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 276
“pico” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 pitless adapters, 1999 V2: 243
piers, 1999 V2: 147 pitting, defined, 1998 V1: 152
pilot-operated pressu re-regu lated valves, 1999 V2: pitting corrosion, 1998 V1: 137, 1999 V2: 290
153 plain air chamvers, 1999 V2: 132, 1999 V2: 143
pints, con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48 plane angles, 1998 V1: 41, 1998 V1: 44
pipe an ch ors (PA), 1998 V1: 12 planning jobs, labor units for, 1998 V1: 84
pipe dope, 1999 V2: 284 plans. See construction contract documents;
pipe glu e, 1999 V2: 284 plumbing drawings
pipe gu ides, 1998 V1: 12 plant noise, 1998 V1: 202
pipe h angers. See supports and hangers planting area drains, 1999 V2: 83
pipe joints plaster, lining with lead, 1999 V2: 340
acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 334 plastic joints, 1999 V2: 222
chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 345–346 plastic piping
clay pipe join ts, 1999 V2: 223 corrosion, 1999 V2: 252
copper join ts, 1999 V2: 222 gas piping, 1999 V2: 176, 1999 V2: 196
estimating work costs, 1998 V1: 82 sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 14
fill an d, 1999 V2: 15 storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2:
galvan ized iron join ts, 1999 V2: 222 89–92
h eat-fu sed socket joints, 1999 V2: 334 th ermal expansion an d, 1999 V2: 251
liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: 196 plastic-wrapped steel pipin g, 1999 V2: 196
mechan ical clay pipe join ts, 1999 V2: 223 plate an d frame modu les in reverse osmosis, 1999
pipe join in g material codes an d stan dards, 1998 V2: 309, 1999 V2: 310
V1: 55–56 plate tecton ics, 1998 V1: 156–158
plastic join ts, 1999 V2: 222 platin u m, 1998 V1: 140
plastic pipe expan sion joints, 1999 V2: 251 platin u m cobalt u n its (PCUs), 1999 V2: 287
radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 341 platy soils, 1999 V2: 218
screwed mech anical join ts, 1999 V2: 334 plot plan s, irrigation systems an d, 1999 V2: 26
special-waste drain age systems, 1999 V2: 328 plu g-type dezincification, 1998 V1: 138
th ermal expan sion an d, 1999 V2: 18 plu g valves (PV), 1998 V1: 11
welded join ts, 1999 V2: 341 plu mbing, defin ed, 1998 V1: 34–35
pipe sleeves Plu mbin g an d Drain age In stitu te (PDI), 1998 V1:
acou stic design , 1998 V1: 206, 1998 V1: 207 34, 1998 V1: 60
earth qu ake recommen dation s, 1998 V1: 164 Plu mbin g an d Pipin g In du stry Cou ncil (PPIC), 1998
pipe solven ts, 1999 V2: 284 V1: 172, 1998 V1: 195
pipe su pports. See supports and hangers plu mbin g applian ces, 1998 V1: 35
pipe wrappings, 1998 V1: 200, 1998 V1: 206–207, plu mbin g appu rten an ces, 1998 V1: 35
1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 196 Plumbing Des ign and Ins tallation Reference Guide,
pipes an d pipin g. See als o sizing; s pecific k inds of 1999 V2: 114
piping or piping functions Plumbing Des ign Manual, 1999 V2: 114
computer analysis of piping systems, 1998 V1: plumbing designs, 1998 V1: 91–94, 1998 V1: 95
189 Plu mbin g Drain age In stitu te (PDI), 1998 V1: 34,
installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 1998 V1: 60
labor unit estimation forms, 1998 V1: 87 plu mbin g drawin gs
pipes (PIPE), 1998 V1: 21 abbreviation s, 1998 V1: 17–23
piping codes and standards, 1998 V1: 51–59 ch ecklists, 1998 V1: 91–94, 1998 V1: 95
pipin g symbols, 1998 V1: 9–14 graph ic con ven tion s, 1998 V1: 102
seismic protection , 1998 V1: 155, 1998 V1: 168– in trodu ction, 1998 V1: 63
184 Plumbing Efficiency through Gray -w ater Recy cling,
Piping Handbook , 1999 V2: 214 1999 V2: 34
Piping Sy s tems Fundamentals and Application, 1999 plumbing engineering
V2: 155 defined, 1998 V1: 35
pit type fire department connections, 1998 V1: 15 plumbing engineers, 1998 V1: 69
pitch plumbing fixtures. See fixtures
defined, 1998 V1: 34 plumbing inspectors, 1998 V1: 35
Index — 52 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

Plumbing Manual, 1999 V2: 155 pon din g

Plumbing Nois e, 1998 V1: 198 on roofs, 1999 V2: 79
plumbing specifications slow-release storm-water systems, 1999 V2: 106
additional information and addresses, 1998 V1: storm water ponds, 1999 V2: 68
80 pon ds, stabilization , 1999 V2: 232
administration of specifications, 1998 V1: 68 pools, 1998 V1: 35
bibliography, 1998 V1: 80 pore size in filter membran es, 1999 V2: 310
drawings, 1998 V1: 63 porou s pipin g, 1999 V2: 102
introduction, 1998 V1: 63 portable fire extin gu ish ers, 1998 V1: 16
master specifications, 1998 V1: 67–68 portable meters, 1998 V1: 13
MASTERFORMAT section titles, 1998 V1: 74 positive attach ments, defin ed, 1998 V1: 195
plu mbin g specifiers an d en gin eers, 1998 V1: 69 positive-displacemen t water meters, 1999 V2: 115
referen ces, 1998 V1: 79–80 positive pressu re, backflow an d, 1999 V2: 144
software, 1998 V1: 68 potable water. See drinking water; private water
writin g specification s, 1998 V1: 66–67 systems; wells
Plumbing Specifications , 1998 V1: 79 potash alum, 1999 V2: 294
plumbing specifiers and engineers, 1998 V1: 69 potassium, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283
plumbing symbols, 1998 V1: 9–14 potassium bicarbonate, 1999 V2: 283
plu mbin g systems, defin ed, 1998 V1: 35 potassium carbonate, 1999 V2: 283
plu mbin g systems designers, 1998 V1: 69 potassium chloride, 1999 V2: 283
plu mbin g terminology, 1998 V1: 24–39 potassium hydroxide, 1999 V2: 230
PNC (preferred n oise criteria cu rves), 1998 V1: 215 potassium permanganate, 1999 V2: 245
pn eu matic pressu res potential energy (PE)
con trollin g in du ced siph on age, 1999 V2: 40 calculating, 1998 V1: 3
san itary drain s, 1999 V2: 2–3 velocity head and, 1998 V1: 6
POC (poin ts of con n ect), 1998 V1: 14 potentiometric surfaces of aquifers, 1999 V2: 241
point-of-u se u ltrafiltration, 1999 V2: 300 POU filtration, 1999 V2: 300
point-of-u se water h eatin g, 1998 V1: 127 pounding forces in water. See water hammer
poin ts of con nect (POC), 1998 V1: 14 pounds (lb, LBS)
polarization converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48
defined, 1998 V1: 152 pounds per square foot (psf, PSF), 1998 V1: 21
h ydrogen film bu ildu p, 1998 V1: 135 pounds per square inch (psi, PSI), 1998 V1: 2,
polish in g deion izers, 1999 V2: 301, 1999 V2: 302, 1998 V1: 21
1999 V2: 307 pounds per square inch absolute (psia), 1999 V2:
polish in g water in pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 254
321 pounds per square inch gauge (psig), 1999 V2:
pollu tion 254
dispersion from gas appliances, 1999 V2: 178 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
san itary precau tions for wells, 1999 V2: 243 power
polyamide membran es, 1999 V2: 310, 1999 V2: conversion factors, 1998 V1: 45
311 converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
polybu tylen e (PB), 1998 V1: 34 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
polyelectrolytes, 1999 V2: 294 power control self-regulating index, 1999 V2: 166
polyeth ylen e (PE), 1998 V1: 34 power piping codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59
polyeth ylen e pipin g, 1999 V2: 284 power steam, 1999 V2: 298
polyeth ylen e storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 323 power usage, economizing on, 1998 V1: 131
polymer membran es, 1999 V2: 310, 1999 V2: 311 Pow ered Indus trial Truck s , 1999 V2: 214
polymeric silica, 1999 V2: 283 PPIC (Plumbing and Piping Industry Council), 1998
polymers, 1998 V1: 35 V1: 172, 1998 V1: 195
polypropylen e pipin g, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 15, ppm, PPM (parts per million), 1998 V1: 21, 1999
1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 324, 1999 V2: 334 V2: 285
polypropylen e storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 323 Practical Des ign of a High-purity Water Sy s tem, 1999
polysu lfone membran es, 1999 V2: 310, 1999 V2: V2: 325
311 Practical Plumbing Des ign Guide, 1999 V2: 114
polyvin yl ch loride (PVC), 1998 V1: 36 Prandtl-Colebrook equation, 1999 V2: 60
polyvin yl ch loride pipin g, 1999 V2: 284 pre-action systems, 1998 V1: 37
polyvin yl-flu oridine (PVDF), 1998 V1: 36 pre-action valves, 1998 V1: 16
polyvin ylidene flu oride pipin g, 1999 V2: 324 pre-bid information, 1998 V1: 64
Index Index — 53

pre-filters for feed water, 1999 V2: 289 static (sp, SP), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 22
precast septic tanks, 1998 V1: 59, 1999 V2: 228 static pressu re loss, 1999 V2: 123
precast water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247 storm-drain age stacks, 1999 V2: 67
precipitates in water, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: 291 su ds pressu re zon es, 1999 V2: 37, 1999 V2: 38,
precipitation. See rainwater and precipitation 1999 V2: 39
precision in measurements, 1998 V1: 40 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
precompressed, glass-fiber pads, 1998 V1: 210 vacu u m clean in g system requ iremen ts, 1999 V2:
predicting water deposits and corrosion, 1999 V2: 270
290–292 vacu u m defin ed, 1999 V2: 253
prefabricated roofin g drains, 1999 V2: 82 vacu u m pressu re measu remen t, 1999 V2: 254–
prefabricated septic tan ks, 1998 V1: 59, 1999 V2: 256
228 vapor (vap pr, VAP PR, VAP), 1998 V1: 21
prefabricated water storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 247 velocity of water in pipes an d, 1999 V2: 122–132
preferred n oise criteria (PNC) cu rves, 1998 V1: 215 water pressu re, 1999 V2: 149–152
prefixes in SI u nits, 1998 V1: 42 water su pply pipin g an d, 1999 V2: 249
preparing for jobs, ch ecklists, 1998 V1: 90–91 pressu re differentials
PRES (pressu re). See pressure fittings, 1998 V1: 198
President’s Committee on Employmen t of th e pressu re-differen tial-actu ated valve trap primers,
Handicapped, 1998 V1: 99 1999 V2: 14
PRESS (pressu re). See pressure pressu re droop in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182
pressure (PRESS, PRES, P). See als o pressure drops pressu re drops or differen ces (PD, DELTP)
acoustic design for water pipes, 1998 V1: 200 average pressu re drops in water systems, 1999
barometric (baro pr, BARO PR, BP). See baromet- V2: 125, 1999 V2: 126, 1999 V2: 127
ric pressure defined, 1999 V2: 214
bottled gas, 1999 V2: 174 fire h ydran ts an d, 1999 V2: 249
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 115 gas meters an d, 1999 V2: 176
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 45 liqu efied petroleu m gas storage, 1999 V2: 194
critical (CRIP), 1998 V1: 21 natu ral gas systems, 1999 V2: 174, 1999 V2:
discharge pressure from gas boosters, 1999 V2: 183, 1999 V2: 192, 1999 V2: 193
178 sizin g vacu u m pipin g, 1999 V2: 263
dynamic (velocity) (vp, VP), 1998 V1: 21 static pressu re loss, 1999 V2: 123
eliminating with vents, 1999 V2: 35 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
fall-off pressure, 1999 V2: 122 vacu u m clean in g systems, 1999 V2: 272–274,
fixture requirements, 1999 V2: 129 1999 V2: 274
flow and air, 1999 V2: 2 vacu u m exh au ster sizin g, 1999 V2: 274
friction head loss and, 1998 V1: 2 vacu u m pressu res, 1999 V2: 258, 1999 V2: 263
friction loss and, 1999 V2: 130 pressu re-equ alizin g lin es in soven t systems, 1999
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 178–183 V2: 60
h ot-water system pressu res, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 pressu re gau ge measu remen ts, 1999 V2: 254
V2: 166–167 pressu re gau ges with gau ge cocks (PG), 1998 V1:
h ydrau lic sh ock, 1998 V1: 7 13
h ydrostatic pressu re, 1999 V2: 4 pressu re loss. See pressure drops
in du ced siph on age, 1999 V2: 40 pressu re maintenance (jockey] pumps, 1998 V1: 32
low-pressu re switch es on gas boosters, 1999 V2: pressure media filters, 1999 V2: 300
179 pressure piping, joints in, 1998 V1: 82
measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41, 1999 V2: 253 pressure-regulating or reducing valves (PRV)
n atu ral gas pressu re, 1999 V2: 173, 1999 V2: acoustic design and pressure, 1998 V1: 206
174, 1999 V2: 183 glossary, 1999 V2: 152–154
pn eu matic pressu res in san itary drain s, 1999 symbols for, 1998 V1: 12
V2: 2–3 types of, 1999 V2: 153–154
pressu re-regu latin g valves, 1999 V2: 152–154 pressu re regu lators
pressu re su rges, 1999 V2: 35 cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 122
pressu re-volu me relation ships (gas laws), 1999 gas train vents, 1999 V2: 177
V2: 179 natu ral gas systems, 1999 V2: 174, 1999 V2:
pressu re waves. See water hammer 214
relief valves, 1999 V2: 166–167, 1999 V2: 167 ou tlet pressu re protection in gas boosters, 1999
residu al pressu re, 1999 V2: 123, 1999 V2: 131 V2: 183
stack flow capacity an d, 1999 V2: 4 water storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 248–249
Index — 54 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

pressu re-relief lines in sovent systems, 1999 V2: 61 sizing, 1999 V2: 272, 1999 V2: 274–275
pressu re-relief ou tlets in deaerators, 1999 V2: 56 produ ct water. See treated water
pressu re-relief valves (RV), 1998 V1: 12 production wells in geothermal energy, 1998 V1:
Pres s ure Sew er Demons tration at the Borough of 132
Phoenixville, Penns y lvania, 1999 V2: 238 Products section in specifications, 1998 V1: 66,
pressure sewers, 1999 V2: 226 1998 V1: 77
pressure surges, 1999 V2: 35 profits in cost estimates, 1998 V1: 82
pressure switches (PS), 1998 V1: 13 project manuals, 1998 V1: 64–65
pressure vacuum breakers, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: admin istration of specification s, 1998 V1: 68
148 CSI format, 1998 V1: 65–66
pressure-volume relationships (gas laws), 1999 V2: division s, 1998 V1: 71–74
179 docu men t categories, 1998 V1: 65–66
pressure water filters, 1999 V2: 244 master specifications, 1998 V1: 67–68
pressure waves. See water hammer plu mbin g specifiers and en gin eers, 1998 V1: 69
pretreatment in pure water systems, 1999 V2: 321 software, 1998 V1: 68
pri, PRI (primary), 1998 V1: 21 writin g specification s, 1998 V1: 66–67
PRIM (primary), 1998 V1: 21 promen ade drain s, 1999 V2: 83
primary (pri, PRI, PRIM), 1998 V1: 21 propagation velocity, 1998 V1: 7
primary barriers for infectious wastes, 1999 V2: propan e, 1999 V2: 194, 1999 V2: 214. See als o
343 fuel-gas piping systems
primers, 1998 V1: 144 propeller water meters, 1999 V2: 116
prism-like soils, 1999 V2: 218 prophylactic additives to water, 1999 V2: 245
private sewage-disposal systems proportions of septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
aerobic waste-water treatment plants, 1999 V2: protected end of galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140
232–233 protective coatings, 1998 V1: 143–144. See als o
collection and treatmen t altern atives, 1999 V2: coated metal
226–227 protective potential, defined, 1998 V1: 152
defined, 1998 V1: 35 PRV (pressure-regulating or reducing valves). See
distribu tion boxes, 1999 V2: 231 pressure-regulating or reducing valves
estimatin g sewage qu an tities, 1999 V2: 233–238 prying actions in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 191–
in spection , 1999 V2: 238 193
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 217 PS (pressu re switch es), 1998 V1: 13
large systems, 1999 V2: 231–232 pseu do-dyn amic elastic an alysis, 1998 V1: 161–162
primary collection an d treatmen t systems, 1999 psf, PSF (pou n ds per squ are foot)
V2: 217 psf absolu te (psfa, PSFA), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2:
septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227–231 254
soil-absorption systems, 1999 V2: 217–224 psf gage (psfg, PSFG), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2: 254
private sewers, 1998 V1: 35 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
private u se, defin ed, 1998 V1: 35 psfa, PSFA (psf absolu te), 1998 V1: 21
private water systems psfg, PSFG (psf gage), 1998 V1: 21
drin kin g water demand, 1999 V2: 243–244 psi, PSI (pou n ds per squ are in ch )
in itial operation an d main ten ance, 1999 V2: 252 psi absolu te (psia, PSIA), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2:
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 239–240 254
match ing water storage to pu mp flow, 1999 V2: psi gage (psig, PSIG), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2: 254
248 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
pipe in stallation , 1999 V2: 250–252 psia, PSIA (psi absolu te), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2:
sou rces of su pply, 1999 V2: 239–240 254
system equ ipmen t, 1999 V2: 245–250 psig, PSIG (psi gage), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2: 254
water qu ality, 1999 V2: 244–245 pu blic, edu cating on gray-water systems, 1999 V2:
wells, 1999 V2: 240–243 33
problems in seismic protection , 1998 V1: 191–193, pu blic areas
1998 V1: 194 estimatin g sewage qu an tities, 1999 V2: 236
Proceedings of the Third National Conference on heel-proof grates, 1999 V2: 10
Individual On Site Was tew ater Sy s tems , 1999 sedimen t bu ckets, 1999 V2: 12
V2: 238 Public Building Service, 1998 V1: 204
producers (vacuum) public hydrants, 1998 V1: 15
defined, 1999 V2: 266–269, 1999 V2: 268 Public Law 90-480, 1998 V1: 100
locatin g, 1999 V2: 270 Public Law 93-112, 1998 V1: 100
Index Index — 55

pu blic sewers putrefaction, 1998 V1: 35

defined, 1998 V1: 35 Putting Indus trial Vacuum to Work , 1999 V2: 277
discharging into, 1999 V2: 328 PV (plug valves), 1998 V1: 11
neu tralizing acid wastes for, 1999 V2: 334–337 PVBs (pressure vacuum breakers), 1999 V2: 145,
pu blic storm sewer systems, 1999 V2: 67, 1999 1999 V2: 148
V2: 98, 1999 V2: 105 PVC (polyvinyl chloride), 1998 V1: 36
radioactive waste systems an d, 1999 V2: 342 PVC plastic piping
pu blic u se, defin ed, 1998 V1: 35 aboveground piping, 1999 V2: 68
pu lsation noise, 1999 V2: 15
electric fan s, 1998 V1: 201 sanitary drainage, 1999 V2: 14
magnetic field pu lsation , 1998 V1: 201 sizing, 1999 V2: 89–92
pu mp bases, 1999 V2: 243, 1999 V2: 245 volatile organ ic compou n ds, 1999 V2: 284
pu mp discharge lin es (PD), 1998 V1: 9 PVDF (polyvinyl-flu oridin e), 1998 V1: 36
pu mp heads, 1999 V2: 105 PVDF pipin g, 1999 V2: 14
pu mped sewage-disposal systems, 1999 V2: 226 PW (pu re water), 1999 V2: 320. See als o water
pu mper con n ection s, 1998 V1: 15 purification
pu mpin g h ead, 1999 V2: 245 pyramids, calculating volume, 1998 V1: 5
pu mpin g septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 227, 1999 V2: 230 pyrogens, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 310
pu mpin g wells, 1999 V2: 241–243
pu mps Q
acou stics, 1998 V1: 201, 1998 V1: 202, 1998 V1:
Q factor (coefficient of transmissibility), 1999 V2:
203, 1998 V1: 206
101–102
bearin gs, 1998 V1: 202
Q (h eat transfer), 1998 V1: 19
design of, 1998 V1: 205
QAIR (air flow rates), 1998 V1: 19
earth qu ake protection , 1998 V1: 165
QAR (air flow rates), 1998 V1: 19
efficien cy, 1998 V1: 8
QFL (flu id flow rates), 1998 V1: 19
in geoth ermal en ergy systems, 1998 V1: 132
QGA, QGAS (gas flow rates), 1998 V1: 19, 1999 V2:
gravity tan k systems, 1999 V2: 150–152
173
h ydropn eu matic-tan k systems, 1999 V2: 150
qt, QT (qu arts), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 48
impellers, 1998 V1: 201
qu ads, con verting to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48
liqu id-waste decontamin ation systems, 1999 V2:
qu ality of water, 1999 V2: 33, 1999 V2: 244–245.
344
See als o water analysis; water purification
match ing water storage to pu mp flow, 1999 V2:
quarts (qt, QT)
248
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48
open -type bases, 1999 V2: 243
symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
plant n oise, 1998 V1: 202
quick-response sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38
pu lsation in, 1998 V1: 201
quick valve closure, 1999 V2: 131, 1999 V2: 132
pu mp affin ity laws, 1998 V1: 7–8
quieting pipes, 1999 V2: 15
pu mp jou rn als, 1998 V1: 201
pu mp speeds, 1998 V1: 206
pu mp su ction , 1999 V2: 249 R
static deflection for vibration, 1998 V1: 211 R, R- (refrigerants), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 149
su bmersible, 1999 V2: 243 °R, R (ran kin es), 1998 V1: 21
su lfu ric acid an d, 1999 V2: 332 R, R (thermal resistance), 1998 V1: 22
su mp pu mps in sanitary drainage systems, 1999 R (hydraulic radii), 1998 V1: 1–2
V2: 9 R (radii), 1998 V1: 21
systems for water su pplies, 1999 V2: 245–247 ra, RA (retu rn air), 1998 V1: 21
vibration isolation , 1998 V1: 212, 1998 V1: 214 rad, RAD (radian s). See radians
well pu mps, 1999 V2: 245–247 RAD (radiating or radiators), 1998 V1: 21
Pumps and Pump Sy s tems Handbook , 1998 V1: 49, RAD (radiation). See radiation
1999 V2: 152 rad/ s (radians per second), 1998 V1: 41
pure tones, 1998 V1: 216 rad/ s 2 (radian s per secon d squ ared), 1998 V1: 41
pure water. See water purification radians (RAD)
pure-water systems, 1999 V2: 279. See als o water measu remen t u nit con version s, 1998 V1: 41
purification radians per secon d, 1998 V1: 41
purified water (PW), 1999 V2: 320. See als o water radian s per secon d squ ared, 1998 V1: 41
purification symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
push-seal gasketed outlets, 1999 V2: 18 radiatin g (RAD), 1998 V1: 21
Index — 56 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

radiation (RADN, RAD) homogen eity in , 1998 V1: 142

natu re of, 1999 V2: 337–338 oxygen con tent, 1998 V1: 142
radiation equ ivalen t to man (rem), 1999 V2: 339 temperatu re, 1998 V1: 142
rads (radioactive dosage), 1999 V2: 339 velocity in , 1998 V1: 142
symbols for, 1998 V1: 21 rate of flow. See flow rates
treatment facilities, 1999 V2: 340 rated vacuum levels, 1999 V2: 257–258
radiators (RAD), 1998 V1: 21 Rational Meth od, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 95–98,
radicals (ion s), 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 151, 1999 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 107
V2: 329 raw sewage, 1998 V1: 36
radii (R), 1998 V1: 21 raw water. See feed water
radioactive waste drainage an d ven ts RCIR (recirculate), 1998 V1: 21
allowable radiation levels, 1999 V2: 339 RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act),
approval process an d applications, 1999 V2: 340 1999 V2: 345
dilu ting radwaste, 1999 V2: 342 rcvr, RCVR (receivers), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 204,
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 337 1999 V2: 260, 1999 V2: 262
measu ring radiation , 1999 V2: 338–339 reaction forces in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 189
n atu re of radiation , 1999 V2: 337–338 reactive silica, 1999 V2: 283
pipe selection , 1999 V2: 341–342 reagent grade water, 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2: 319
radioactive-material-processin g plan ts, 1999 V2: rear wall grab bars, 1998 V1: 110
147 REC (receivers), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 204, 1999
radioactive materials, 1999 V2: 340 V2: 260, 1999 V2: 262
sh ieldin g systems, 1999 V2: 339–340 receivers (rcvr, RCVR, REC)
system design criteria, 1999 V2: 340–343 receivers of noise, 1998 V1: 204
radioactivity symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
defined, 1999 V2: 337 in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 260, 1999 V2: 262
radioactive h alf lives, 1999 V2: 340 receptors, 1998 V1: 36
radioactive isotopes, 1999 V2: 337, 1999 V2: 340 recessed-box hose bibbs, 1998 V1: 12
radiological ch aracteristics of drinkin g water, 1999 recessed fire-hose cabinets, 1998 V1: 14
V2: 284, 1999 V2: 317 recessed sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38
Radiological Safety Officers, 1999 V2: 340 rechargeable air chambers, 1999 V2: 132, 1999 V2:
radiu m 226, 1999 V2: 340 143
RADN (radiation). See radiation recharging aquifers, 1999 V2: 240
radon gas in water, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 317 reciprocating (rotary) piston pumps, 1999 V2: 259
radwaste (waterborne radioactive waste), 1999 V2: recirculate (recirc., RECIRC, RCIR, RECIR), 1998
337 V1: 21
Raeber, J ohn A., 1998 V1: 80 recirculating sand filter sewage systems, 1999 V2:
rainwater and precipitation 227, 1999 V2: 232
cisterns, 1999 V2: 247 recircu lation systems for hot water, 1999 V2: 165
flow rates, 1999 V2: 68 reclaimed water. See gray-water systems
in gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 21 Recommendations for a New ADAAG, 1998 V1: 122
precipitation, 1998 V1: 35 Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing
rainfall rates, 1999 V2: 69–78, 1999 V2: 97 in Dw ellings and Similar Buildings , 1999 V2:
rain water drain s (SD, ST). See storm-drainage 65
systems recovered energy, 1998 V1: 133
slow-release storm-water systems, 1999 V2: 106 recovering heat from water heaters, 1999 V2: 158–
storing in controlled flow systems, 1999 V2: 93– 159
94 recovery in reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 309
storm-drain age systems, 1999 V2: 67–68, 1999 recreation al establish men ts
V2: 95–107 estimatin g sewage qu an tities, 1999 V2: 235,
su bsu rface water an d, 1999 V2: 99–105 1999 V2: 237
ramp-drain grates, 1999 V2: 11 septic tank/ soil-absorption systems for, 1999 V2:
ran kin es (°R, R), 1998 V1: 21 231–232
rapid sand/ direct filtration package plants, 1999 rectangles, calcu latin g area, 1998 V1: 4
V2: 318 rectan gu lar bath seats, 1998 V1: 121
rate of corrosion rectan gu lar gu tters, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 86
acidity, 1998 V1: 141 rectangu lar leaders, 1999 V2: 81
Faraday’s Law, 1998 V1: 141 rectangu lar solids, calcu latin g volu me, 1998 V1: 5
film formation , 1998 V1: 142 rectifiers, 1998 V1: 147, 1998 V1: 149
Index Index — 57

recycled water systems. See gray-water systems Relative Importance of Time and Surface Temperature
red brass, 1998 V1: 141 in the Caus ation of Cutaneous Burns , 1999
reduced noise transmission, 1999 V2: 15 V2: 170
reduced pressure relief valves
conditions in water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 248 hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 166–167
in pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2: 152 liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: 197
reduced-pressure backflow preventers, 1999 V2: sizin g, 1999 V2: 167
115, 1999 V2: 144, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 water storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 248
V2: 148, 1999 V2: 149 relief ven ts
reduced-size venting circu it an d loop ven tin g, 1999 V2: 43
confluent vent sizing, 1999 V2: 51 defined, 1998 V1: 36, 1999 V2: 64
example, 1999 V2: 53, 1999 V2: 54 soil an d waste stacks, 1999 V2: 44, 1999 V2: 45
installation, 1999 V2: 52 soven t systems, 1999 V2: 61
introduction, 1999 V2: 49 remote earth (remote electrodes), 1998 V1: 152
reduced size vents, defined, 1998 V1: 36 remote electrodes, 1998 V1: 152
sizing, 1999 V2: 50–53 remote-readou t water meters, 1999 V2: 116
Reduced-s ize Venting Des ign, 1999 V2: 65 Remove Organics by Activated Carbon Ads orption,
reduced water flow rates, 1998 V1: 124–125 1999 V2: 325
redu ced zon e backflow preven ters (RZBP), 1998 V1: rems (radiation equivalent to man), 1999 V2: 339
12 Report on Hy draulics and Pneumatics of Plumbing
redu cers, defin ed, 1998 V1: 36 Drainage Sy s tems , 1999 V2: 19
referen ces res, RES (resistance or resistors), 1998 V1: 22
cold water systems, 1999 V2: 155 RES (thermal resistance), 1998 V1: 22
con servin g en ergy, 1998 V1: 133 research facilities, radiation in, 1999 V2: 340
designing for ph ysically ch allenged in dividu als, reservoirs, private, 1999 V2: 239
1998 V1: 122 residential sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38
formu lae, symbols, an d terminology, 1998 V1: 49 residential systems
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 34 cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 115–116, 1999 V2:
plu mbin g specification s, 1998 V1: 79–80, 1998 154–155
V1: 80 estimatin g sewage qu an tities, 1999 V2: 233
san itary drain age systems, 1999 V2: 19 fixtu re drain age loads, 1999 V2: 3
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 195 hot-water systems. See hot-water systems
special-waste drain age systems, 1999 V2: 350 liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 194
vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 277 natural gas appliance demand, 1999 V2: 175
ven ts, 1999 V2: 65 reduced-size venting, 1999 V2: 50
water treatmen t an d pu rification, 1999 V2: 325 sewage-disposal systems. See private sewage-
reflectin g pools, 1998 V1: 36 disposal systems
refrigeran ts (R, R-), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 149 typical gray-water supply and demand, 1999 V2:
refrigeration mech an ical rooms, 1998 V1: 168 25
refrigeration systems residual pressure, 1998 V1: 36, 1999 V2: 123,
h eat reclamation , 1998 V1: 131 1999 V2: 131
waste h eat u sage, 1998 V1: 128, 1998 V1: 129 residual radiation, 1999 V2: 341
refu se bin s, 1998 V1: 201 resilient mounts
refu se disposal installations, sou n dproofin g, 1998 illustrated, 1998 V1: 213
V1: 201 noise and vibration control, 1998 V1: 204, 1998
regen erable ion exch an ge, 1999 V2: 301 V1: 212
regen eran ts, dealkalizin g an d, 1999 V2: 295 pipe run installations, 1998 V1: 215
regen eration cycle seismic danger and, 1998 V1: 214
in dealkalizin g, 1999 V2: 295 resilient pipe supports, 1998 V1: 204, 1998 V1:
in deion izin g, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2: 304 214
in ion exchan ge, 1999 V2: 305 resin beads, 1999 V2: 304–305
in water soften ers, 1999 V2: 307 resin s, ion -exch an ge
regional au thorities, 1999 V2: 327 con tin u ou s deion ization , 1999 V2: 306
regu lators. See s pecific ty pes of regulators defined, 1999 V2: 300
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (93-112), 1998 V1: 100 in dilu ting compartmen ts, 1999 V2: 307
reject stream from reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 309 overview, 1999 V2: 301–302
relative humidity (rh, RH), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: regen eratin g, 1999 V2: 304
21 stron g-acid an d weak-acid, 1999 V2: 302
Index — 58 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

volatile organic compou nds in, 1999 V2: 284 ring-securing methods around drains, 1999 V2: 17
resistance (res, RES, OHMS), 1998 V1: 21 rinsing in regeneration cycle, 1999 V2: 304, 1999
resistivity V2: 305
defined, 1998 V1: 152 riser clamps, 1999 V2: 86
soil, 1998 V1: 147 risers
resistors (res, RES, OHMS), 1998 V1: 21 bracing, 1998 V1: 173
Resou rce Conservation and Recovery Act, 1999 V2: bracing for hubless pipes, 1998 V1: 180
345 defined, 1998 V1: 36
response in pressu re-regu lated valves, 1999 V2: earthquake protection and joints, 1998 V1: 169
152 riser down (elbows), 1998 V1: 13
response spectru m in earthqu akes, 1998 V1: 160– riser up (elbows), 1998 V1: 13
162, 1998 V1: 189 symbols for, 1998 V1: 15
restau ran ts, 1999 V2: 231–232. See als o food- rises or drops, 1998 V1: 13
processing areas and kitchens risk cabinets, 1999 V2: 344
restrained-spring mountings, 1998 V1: 210 riveted steel piping, 1999 V2: 122
restraint systems for earthquakes, 1998 V1: 168, rock fill in seepage beds, 1999 V2: 224
1998 V1: 194 rock salt, 1999 V2: 307
restricted areas (facilities with radiation), 1999 V2: Roentgens, 1999 V2: 339
339 roll-in shower compartments, 1998 V1: 116, 1998
return air (ra, RA), 1998 V1: 21 V1: 117
return circuits, 1998 V1: 135 roof design considerations in seismic protection,
return offsets, 1998 V1: 36 1998 V1: 191
return periods in rainfall history, 1999 V2: 69–78 roof drainage, 1999 V2: 79–94
reu sin g water. See gray-water systems adjacen t bu ildin gs and su rfaces, 1999 V2: 80
rev, REV (revolutions), 1998 V1: 21 avoiding septic tan k disposal, 1999 V2: 231
revent pipes, 1998 V1: 36. See als o individual vents codes an d stan dards, 1998 V1: 59
reverse osmosis con trolled flow systems, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2:
cartridges, 1999 V2: 289 93–94
continuous deionization and, 1999 V2: 307 coordin ation with oth er designers, 1999 V2: 79,
defined, 1999 V2: 308–309 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 84
membran e con figu ration s, 1999 V2: 309 drain location s, 1999 V2: 79–80
membrane selection , 1999 V2: 310 drain types and compon en ts, 1999 V2: 80–81
polymer membran es, 1999 V2: 311 expan sion , 1999 V2: 85, 1999 V2: 87
silica an d, 1999 V2: 283 Form 4-1, 1999 V2: 109
small drin kin g water systems, 1999 V2: 318 gu tters an d down spou ts, 1999 V2: 81
VOCs in membran es, 1999 V2: 284 horizon tal bran ch es, 1999 V2: 88
Revers e Os mos is and Nanofiltration Sy s tem Des ign, in su lation , 1999 V2: 85
1999 V2: 325 leaders, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 87
reversible potential, defined, 1998 V1: 152 pipin g system design , 1999 V2: 81
revolutions (rev, REV) roof drain sizes, 1999 V2: 69
defined, 1998 V1: 21 roof drains, defined, 1998 V1: 36
revolutions per minute (rpm, RPM), 1998 V1: 21 scu ppers, 1999 V2: 93
revolutions per second (rps, RPS), 1998 V1: 21 sizin g pipes, 1999 V2: 85, 1999 V2: 89–92
Reynold’s n u mber for tu rbu len ce, 1998 V1: 2, 1999 storm-drain age systems an d, 1999 V2: 67
V2: 41 root problems in leach ing trench es, 1999 V2: 222
rgh , RGH (rou gh n ess), 1998 V1: 21. See als o Rosen , Harold J ., 1998 V1: 80
roughness rotary lobe (roots) pu mps, 1999 V2: 259
rh, RH (relative humidity), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: rotary piston pu mps, 1999 V2: 259
21 rotary van ce, on ce-throu gh -oil pu mps, 1999 V2:
RHO (density). See density 259
rhomboids, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4 rotors
rhombuses, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4 in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179
RI (Ryzner stability index), 1999 V2: 292 in pu mp en gin es, 1998 V1: 202
Richardson, D.W., Sr., 1999 V2: 325 rou gh vacu u m, 1999 V2: 253
right-angle triangles, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4 rou gh ing in, 1998 V1: 36
rims rou ghn ess (rgh , RGH, E), 1998 V1: 21
defined, 1998 V1: 36 rou gh n ess of pipes
on urinals, 1998 V1: 113 factors in , 1999 V2: 88
Index Index — 59

fairly rou gh pipe, 1999 V2: 141 Safe Handling of Acids , 1999 V2: 350
fairly smooth pipe, 1999 V2: 140 safety. See als o hazards
galvanized fairly rou gh pipe, 1999 V2: 136 controlled substance spills, 1999 V2: 277
rou gh pipe, 1999 V2: 142 flammable and volatile liquids, 1999 V2: 347–
smooth pipe, 1999 V2: 139 349
tu rbu lence and, 1999 V2: 41 gas applian ces, 1999 V2: 178
types of pipes and, 1999 V2: 122 gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179
rou nd leaders, 1999 V2: 81 gases in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230
RPBDs (redu ced-pressu re backflow preventers) hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 V2: 169–
as cross-connection control devices, 1999 V2: 170
144 liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: 194, 1999 V2:
at bu ilding meters, 1999 V2: 115 197
degrees of protection, 1999 V2: 145 radioactive waste-drain age systems, 1999 V2:
flow rates, 1999 V2: 148 341
installation, 1999 V2: 148–149 Radiological Safety Officers, 1999 V2: 340
rpm, RPM (revolu tions per minu te), 1998 V1: 21 safety factors (sf, SF), 1998 V1: 21
rps, RPS (revolu tion s per secon d), 1998 V1: 21 san itary precau tion s for wells, 1999 V2: 243
RSOs (Radiological Safety Officers), 1999 V2: 340 types of acids, 1999 V2: 332–334
ru bber-in -shear isolators, 1998 V1: 165 vacu u m clean in g system issu es, 1999 V2: 276
ru bber isolation devices safety cabinets, 1999 V2: 344
con crete bases an d, 1998 V1: 211 safety shu t-off devices, 1999 V2: 214
defined, 1998 V1: 210 salt splitting, 1999 V2: 295
dish wash ers, 1998 V1: 199 salts (ion s in reverse osmosis), 1999 V2: 280
redu cin g water h ammer, 1998 V1: 203 samples
vibration control, 1998 V1: 208 in fectiou s waste systems, 1999 V2: 345
ru bble drain s, 1998 V1: 33. See als o french drains pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 324
rule of thumb tank capacity equation, 1999 V2: 151 radioactive waste efflu ent, 1999 V2: 342
runoff San Diego Gas & Electric Company, 1998 V1: 133
calculation sheet, 1999 V2: 111 San Francisco Earthqu ake, 1998 V1: 163–164
coefficients in site storm drains, 1999 V2: 95 SAN (san itary sewers), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 36.
diversion ditches for leaching trenches, 1999 V2: See als o sanitary drainage systems
223 sand filtration
Rational method for calculating, 1998 V1: 8, drinking water, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 318
1999 V2: 95, 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 107 earthquake damages to filters, 1998 V1: 163
slow-release storm-water systems, 1999 V2: 106 laboratory water, 1999 V2: 300
weighted runoff coefficients, 1999 V2: 97 pure water systems, 1999 V2: 322–323
runways, piping underneath, 1999 V2: 250 san d filters defined, 1998 V1: 36
rust sewage treatmen t, 1999 V2: 227, 1999 V2: 232
formation in iron pipes, 1998 V1: 135 san d poin ts, 1999 V2: 241
rusting, defined, 1998 V1: 152 san ds
RV (pressure-relief valves), 1998 V1: 12. See als o backfillin g arou n d water system pipes, 1999 V2:
pressure-regulating or reducing valves 250
Ryzner stability index (RI), 1999 V2: 292 fill above su bsu rface drain age pipes, 1999 V2:
RZBP (reduced zone backflow preventers), 1998 V1: 103
12 gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26,
1999 V2: 27
S in soil textu re, 1999 V2: 218
san itary bu ildin g drain s, 1998 V1: 27. See als o
s, SEC (seconds), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1: 41
sanitary drainage systems
S (entropy), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 41
sanitary drainage systems
s (seconds), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1: 41
building sewers (house drains), 1999 V2: 15
S (siemens), 1998 V1: 41
components, 1999 V2: 9–14
S (soil sewers), 1998 V1: 9
defined, 1999 V2: 1
S (su rfaces), 1998 V1: 22
drain age loads, 1999 V2: 3
s traps (u nvented traps), 1999 V2: 46
fixtu re disch arge characteristics, 1999 V2: 3
sa, SA (su pply air), 1998 V1: 22
floor levelin g arou n d drain s, 1999 V2: 17
sacrificial anodes, 1998 V1: 144
flow in, 1999 V2: 1–2
Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, 1999 V2: 244,
gray-water systems an d, 1999 V2: 22
1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: 316
Index — 60 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

joining methods, 1999 V2: 17–18 natural gas piping, 1999 V2: 177
kitch en areas, 1999 V2: 16–17 schools
materials for, 1999 V2: 14–15 septic tank systems for, 1999 V2: 231–232
pn eu matic pressu res in , 1999 V2: 2–3 shower room grates, 1999 V2: 11
protection from damage, 1999 V2: 18–19 vacu u m calcu lation s for, 1999 V2: 269
research , 1999 V2: 19 screen in g
san itary sewers (SAN, SS), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: in down spou ts, 1999 V2: 81
36 in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: 27
san itation an d clean in g, 1999 V2: 16 vacu u m exh au st pipin g, 1999 V2: 274
sloping drain capacities, 1999 V2: 5–9 screw pu mps, 1999 V2: 259
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 20 screw th reads, 1998 V1: 24
stack capacities, 1999 V2: 3–5 screwed fittin gs, 1998 V1: 163
storm-drain age systems an d, 1999 V2: 67 screwed mech an ical join ts, 1999 V2: 334
th ermal expan sion, 1999 V2: 18 “scu ff-bu ff” grates, 1999 V2: 11
waterproofin g, 1999 V2: 17 scu m in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 227, 1999 V2: 228,
san itary tees 1999 V2: 229, 1999 V2: 230
common vents an d, 1999 V2: 43 scu ppers, 1999 V2: 79, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2: 93
flow capacity an d, 1999 V2: 4 SD (storm or rainwater drains). See storm-drainage
san itation . See als o cleanouts systems
feed water, 1999 V2: 289 SDI (silt density index), 1999 V2: 288–289
precau tions for wells, 1999 V2: 243 sea level (sl, SL, SE)
sanitary seals on wells, 1999 V2: 240 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
water softeners, 1999 V2: 308 vacu u m ratin gs, 1999 V2: 257
Sansone, J ohn T., 1999 V2: 114 sealing grou ts in wells, 1999 V2: 243
saturation (sat., SAT) seals
of soils, 1999 V2: 219 acou stic pipe-pen etration seals, 1998 V1: 207
symbols for, 1998 V1: 21 flash ing rin gs, 1999 V2: 12
of water with calcium carbonate, 1999 V2: 291 floor drain s in in fectiou s waste systems, 1999
Saybolt seconds Furol (ssf, SSF), 1998 V1: 21 V2: 345
Saybolt seconds Universal (ssu, SSU), 1998 V1: 21 seal liqu ids in vacu u m pu mps, 1999 V2: 260
SAZ (solar azimuth), 1998 V1: 17 sou n d in su lation , 1998 V1: 198
SBCCI (Southern Building Code Congress Interna- trap seals in floor drain s, 1999 V2: 10
tional, Inc.), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 114 well fixtu res, 1999 V2: 243
SC (shading coefficients), 1998 V1: 22 seasonable con den sate drain s, 1999 V2: 13
scalding water, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 V2: 169–170 seats
scalin g accessible sh ower compartmen ts, 1998 V1: 117
boilers, 1999 V2: 314 bath tu b and sh ower seats, 1998 V1: 114, 1998
ch lorides and su lfates, 1999 V2: 283 V1: 115, 1998 V1: 121
coolin g towers, 1999 V2: 316 secondary con tain ment of in fectiou s wastes, 1999
h ardness and, 1999 V2: 283 V2: 343
Lan gelier satu ration in dex, 1999 V2: 291–292 secon dary storm-drain age systems
magnesiu m an d, 1999 V2: 283 con trolled-flow systems, 1999 V2: 94
predictin g water deposits an d corrosion , 1999 pipe sizin g, 1999 V2: 69
V2: 290–292 pipin g systems, 1999 V2: 81
removin g with water soften ing, 1999 V2: 307 plan n in g for in design, 1999 V2: 70
Ryzner stability in dex, 1999 V2: 292 rain fall frequ ency an d, 1999 V2: 79
total dissolved solids an d, 1999 V2: 288 scu ppers, 1999 V2: 93
water deposits an d corrosion , 1999 V2: 289–290 types of, 1999 V2: 88
water pipin g systems, 1999 V2: 244 secon ds (s, SEC), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1: 41
scan n in g electron microscopy, 1999 V2: 282 section n u mbers in MASTERFORMAT, 1998 V1: 66
scfh (stan dard cfh ), 1999 V2: 180 section s in Man u al of Practice, 1998 V1: 75–79
scfm, SCFM (stan dard free air at atmospheric section s of pu mp equ ipmen t, 1999 V2: 245
pressu re), 1998 V1: 18, 1999 V2: 255–256, sediment
1999 V2: 257, 1999 V2: 263 removing, 1999 V2: 294
scfs, SCFS (cu bic feet per second), 1998 V1: 41 in water, 1999 V2: 282
school laboratories. See als o laboratories sediment bu ckets
diversity factor calculations for vacuums, 1999 kitch en drain s, 1999 V2: 16
V2: 263 materials, 1999 V2: 14
Index Index — 61

in oil collectors, 1999 V2: 13 self-ven tin g in soven t systems, 1999 V2: 19, 1999
in sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 12 V2: 54
sediment pits, 1999 V2: 105 semi-in stan tan eou s water h eaters, 1999 V2: 160
sedimentation SEMI (Semicon du ctor Equ ipment Manu factu rers
in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: 27 Institu te), 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: 317
in water treatment, 1999 V2: 294 semiambu latory in dividu als
seepage beds, 1999 V2: 217, 1999 V2: 220, 1999 semiambu latory disabilities, 1998 V1: 101
V2: 224–225, 1999 V2: 232 water closet requ iremen ts, 1998 V1: 113
seepage flan ges, 1999 V2: 17 semicircu lar gu tters, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 86
seepage pits, 1998 V1: 36, 1999 V2: 27, 1999 V2: Semicon du ctor Equ ipmen t Man u factu rers In stitu te,
220, 1999 V2: 225–226 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: 317
SEFF (su rface efficien cy), 1998 V1: 18 Sen delbach , M.G., 1999 V2: 325
seich es, 1998 V1: 158 sensible h eat (SH)
seismic, defin ed, 1998 V1: 195 defined, 1998 V1: 133
Seis mic Des ign for Buildings , 1998 V1: 185, 1998 sen sible h eat gain (SHG), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1:
V1: 195 22
seismic joints, crossing, 1998 V1: 163 sen sible heat ratio (SHR), 1998 V1: 22
seismic protection symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
calculating seismic forces, 1998 V1: 186–189 sensitivity in pressu re-regu lated valves, 1999 V2:
cau ses and effects of earth qu akes, 1998 V1: 152
156–159 separatin g systems
codes an d stan dards, 1998 V1: 185–186 for acid waste, 1999 V2: 329, 1999 V2: 334
compu ter analysis of pipin g systems, 1998 V1: for oil, 1999 V2: 347–349
189 separators in vacu u m clean in g systems
damage from earth qu akes, 1998 V1: 158–159 kin ds of materials, 1999 V2: 275
design con sideration s, 1998 V1: 191 location, 1999 V2: 270
earth qu ake measu remen t an d seismic design , pressu re loss, 1999 V2: 274
1998 V1: 159–162 types of systems, 1999 V2: 266, 1999 V2: 268
equ ipmen t protection , 1998 V1: 164–168 septic tan ks
glossary, 1998 V1: 193–195 biological treatment of sewage in , 1999 V2: 227
in trodu ction, 1998 V1: 155–157 ch emicals in, 1999 V2: 230–231
learn in g from past earth qu akes, 1998 V1: 162– clean ing, 1999 V2: 229–230
164 cloggin g materials, 1999 V2: 231
pipe restrain ts, 1998 V1: 168–184, 1999 V2: 14, codes an d stan dards, 1998 V1: 59
1999 V2: 19 compartmen ts, 1999 V2: 229
poten tial problems, 1998 V1: 191–193, 1998 V1: defined, 1998 V1: 36
194 estimatin g sewage qu an tities, 1999 V2: 233–238
referen ces, 1998 V1: 195 grease in terceptors, 1999 V2: 230
seismic loads, defin ed, 1998 V1: 155 in stitu tion al an d recreation al establishments,
seismic risk maps, 1998 V1: 155, 1998 V1: 156, 1999 V2: 231–232
1998 V1: 157 liqu id discharge from, 1999 V2: 217
vibration isolation an d, 1998 V1: 214 percolation rates an d, 1999 V2: 238
Seis mic Res traint Manual Guidelines for Mechanical sin gle septic tan k in stallation s, 1999 V2: 231
Sy s tems , 1998 V1: 195 sizin g, 1999 V2: 227
selective attack corrosion, 1998 V1: 138 solids removal, 1999 V2: 227–228
selectivity coefficients, 1999 V2: 302 specification s, 1999 V2: 228–229
self-bracing problems in seismic protection, 1998 u sefu ln ess an d area served, 1999 V2: 231
V1: 192 ven tin g, 1999 V2: 231
self-contained breathing units, 1999 V2: 332, 1999 septu m filters, 1999 V2: 318
V2: 333 serial distribu tion of leach in g tren ch es, 1999 V2:
self-jetting well points, 1999 V2: 241 223–224
self-regulating heat-trace systems, 1999 V2: 165– service cocks, 1999 V2: 154
166 service deion ization, 1999 V2: 305–306
self-scou ring traps, 1999 V2: 36 set open in g pressu re, relief valves an d, 1999 V2:
self-siph on age 167
defined, 1999 V2: 36 set pressu re in pressu re-regu lated valves, 1999 V2:
in fixtu re drain s, 1999 V2: 2 152
tests, 1999 V2: 38 settlemen t. See bedding and settlement; creep
Index — 62 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

severe backflow hazard, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: enclosures, 1998 V1: 118
146 fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3
sewage, defined, 1998 V1: 36. See als o effluent grab bars, 1998 V1: 118
sewage-disposal systems. See private sewage- grates in school shower rooms, 1999 V2: 11
disposal systems; public sewers gray-water supply and demand, 1999 V2: 25
sewage effluent. See effluent installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83
sewage ejectors, 1998 V1: 36 rates of sewage flows, 1999 V2: 237
sewage treatment plants, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: reduced water usage, 1998 V1: 125
24, 1999 V2: 147 resilient-mounting design, 1998 V1: 212
sewer video equipment, 1999 V2: 10 seats, 1998 V1: 121
sewers. See building sewers; private sewage- shower compartment accessibility, 1998 V1:
disposal systems; public sewers; s pecific 115–119
ty pes of s ew ers shower h ead acou stic ratin gs, 1998 V1: 199
sf, SF (safety factors), 1998 V1: 21 spray u nits, 1998 V1: 114, 1998 V1: 117
sft hp, SFT HP (shaft horsepower), 1998 V1: 22 th resholds, 1998 V1: 118
sfu (supply fixture units), 1998 V1: 32 SHP (sh aft h orsepower), 1998 V1: 22
SGPH (standard gallons per hour), 1998 V1: 19 SHR (sen sible h eat ratio), 1998 V1: 22
SH (sensible heat), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 22, 1998 Sh reir, L.L., 1998 V1: 152
V1: 133 Sh rive, Ch arles A., 1998 V1: 80
shading coefficients (SC), 1998 V1: 22 Sh u man n , Eu gen e R., 1999 V2: 114
shaft horsepower (sft hp, SFT HP, SHP), 1998 V1: shu t-off devices, defin ed, 1999 V2: 214
22 sh u t-off valves
shafts, piping and acoustic design for, 1998 V1: earth qu ake-sensitive valves, 1998 V1: 164
200 gas h ose con n ectors, 1999 V2: 196
shaking vacuum filter bags, 1999 V2: 268 natu ral gas, 1999 V2: 176
“shall” in specifications, 1998 V1: 67 SI u n its. See International System of Units
shallow fill, bu ildin g sewers and, 1999 V2: 15 siamese fire department connections, 1998 V1: 15
shallow septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 228 siamese fittings, 1998 V1: 36. See als o fire protec-
shallow wells, 1999 V2: 240, 1999 V2: 247 tion systems
shear motions, preven tin g, 1998 V1: 164, 1998 V1: side reach for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 106, 1998 V1:
193, 1998 V1: 194 107
Sh eet Metal and Air Con dition in g Con tractors’ side vents, 1998 V1: 36
Nation al Association (SMACNA), 1998 V1: side wall grab bars, 1998 V1: 110
172, 1998 V1: 195 sidesway prevention, 1998 V1: 194
Sh eet Metal Indu stry Fu n d of Los An geles, 1998 V1: sidewalk fire department connections, 1998 V1: 15
195 sidewall sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 38
shell-an d-tu be h eat exch an gers, 1998 V1: 132 Siegrist, R., 1999 V2: 34
shelvin g siemens, 1998 V1: 41
accessibility in toilet and bathing rooms, 1998 sight disabilities, 1998 V1: 101
V1: 108 significant digits, 1998 V1: 40
ambu latory accessible toilet compartmen ts, 1998 silencers on vacuu m systems, 1999 V2: 268
V1: 111 silica, 1999 V2: 283
Sh erlin , G.C., 1999 V2: 65 silicates, 1999 V2: 282
SHG (sen sible h eat gain ), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 22 silicon, 1999 V2: 281
shieldin g on radioactive drain age systems, 1999 V2: silicon iron piping, 1999 V2: 15
339–340 silt
sh in e. See radiation removing, 1999 V2: 294
shock absorbers. See water hammer arresters silt density index, 1999 V2: 288–289
shock intensity of water hammer, 1999 V2: 132 in soil textu re, 1999 V2: 218
shopping centers, 1999 V2: 25 in water, 1999 V2: 282
short-circuiting installations, 1998 V1:148 silt den sity in dex (SDI), 1999 V2: 288–289
Short-form s pecs , 1998 V1: 80 silver, 1998 V1: 137, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141
shot-in concrete anchors, 1998 V1: 165, 1998 V1: silver solder, 1998 V1: 140
193 A Simple Method for Retention Bas in Des ign, 1999
showers V2: 114
acoustic ratings of, 1998 V1: 199 simplex gas booster systems, 1999 V2: 181
emergency showers, 1999 V2: 332, 1999 V2: simultaneous operators of vacuum systems, 1999
333, 1999 V2: 344 V2: 269, 1999 V2: 272
Index Index — 63

single-acting altitu de valves, 1999 V2: 249 natu ral gas piping, 1999 V2: 174–176, 1999 V2:
single-compartment septic tanks, 1999 V2: 229 183–194, 1999 V2: 197–211
single-degree-of-freedom systems, 1998 V1: 160, by NFPA formu la, 1999 V2: 186, 1999 V2:
1998 V1: 161 187, 1999 V2: 188, 1999 V2: 189
single-seated pressu re-regu lated valves, 1999 V2: by Spitzglass formu la, 1999 V2: 210–211
152 by Weymou th formu la, 1999 V2: 190, 1999
single-side-entry fittings in sovent systems, 1999 V2: 191, 1999 V2: 198, 1999 V2: 209
V2: 62 pressu re drops an d, 1999 V2: 192, 1999 V2:
single-stage distillation, 1999 V2: 295 193
single-step deionization (mixed bed), 1999 V2: 302, nomin al pipe size, 1999 V2: 253
1999 V2: 303, 1999 V2: 305 pressu re an d temperatu re relief valves, 1999 V2:
sink-disposal u nits. See garbage disposers 167
sinks and wash basins. See als o lavatories pressu re-regu lated valves, 1999 V2: 153–154
accessibility, 1998 V1: 113–114 roof drain age systems, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2:
fixtu re-u nit loads, 1999 V2: 3 85, 1999 V2: 89–92
gray-water su pply an d deman d, 1999 V2: 25 septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 227
in fectiou s waste drainage, 1999 V2: 344 special-waste system pipes, 1999 V2: 328–329,
in stallation man-h ou r estimates, 1998 V1: 83 1999 V2: 329, 1999 V2: 330, 1999 V2: 331
laboratory sink drain age rates, 1999 V2: 337 storm drain age calcu lation form, 1999 V2: 110
n eu tralizing acid from, 1999 V2: 336 su bsu rface pipes, 1999 V2: 104
rates of sewage flows, 1999 V2: 237 su mp pits for LSDS systems, 1999 V2: 344
sou n d damping materials, 1998 V1: 200 toilet compartmen ts, 1998 V1: 110
su ds problems, 1999 V2: 37, 1999 V2: 39 vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 262–266
ven ts, 1999 V2: 37 vacu u m clean in g in lets, tools, an d tu bing,
siph on age 1999 V2: 269–270
elimin ating with ven ts, 1999 V2: 35 vacu u m clean in g piping n etwork, 1999 V2:
factors in trap seal loss, 1999 V2: 36 270–274, 1999 V2: 274
redu cin g trap seal losses, 1999 V2: 39–40 vacu u m cleanin g system separators, 1999 V2:
water closets an d, 1999 V2: 36 275–276
site storm drain age, 1999 V2: 95–107 vacu u m exhau st pipes, 1999 V2: 263
equ ations, 1999 V2: 107–108 vacu u m pipin g, 1999 V2: 263
exterior pipin g and in lets, 1999 V2: 98–99 vacu u m produ cers (exh au sters), 1999 V2: 272
Ration al Method formu las, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: vacu u m pu mps, 1999 V2: 263–264
95–98, 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 107 ven ts, 1999 V2: 41–43, 1999 V2: 50–63
storm-water deten tion , 1999 V2: 105–107 vertical stacks, 1999 V2: 5, 1999 V2: 6
su bsu rface drain age, 1999 V2: 99–105, 1999 V2: water h ammer arresters, 1999 V2: 143–144
100 water meters, 1999 V2: 116
sites water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247–248
geological stability of, 1999 V2: 26 wells, 1999 V2: 240
overland flow times for sites, 1999 V2: 96, 1999 sl, SL (sea level), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2: 257
V2: 97, 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 111 slabs
site con ditions and storm drain age, 1999 V2: 69 below-slab drain age, 1999 V2: 103
slope of site, 1999 V2: 101, 1999 V2: 224 in radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 342
sizin g slack cables in earth qu ake protection , 1998 V1:
acid-waste drain age system pipes, 1999 V2: 334 167–168
bu ilding storm-drain age systems, 1999 V2: 69 slau ghterh ou ses, 1999 V2: 16
clean ou ts, 1999 V2: 9 sliding motion s
cold-water system pipes, 1999 V2: 116–131, preven ting for pipes or equ ipmen t, 1998 V1: 164
1999 V2: 121–131, 1999 V2: 133–142, of seismic plates, 1998 V1: 156
1999 V2: 136 slidin g van e pu mps, 1999 V2: 262
floor drain s, 1999 V2: 10 slime, 1999 V2: 289
friction loss basis for pipes, 1999 V2: 127 slime bacteria, 1999 V2: 282
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182–183 slope of sites, 1999 V2: 26, 1999 V2: 101, 1999 V2:
gas pipin g, 1998 V1: 8 224
grab bars, 1998 V1: 119 slopin g drain s
gu tters, 1999 V2: 86 fixtu re loads, 1999 V2: 7, 1999 V2: 9
h ot-water circu lation systems, 1999 V2: 165 Man n in g formu la, 1998 V1: 1
n atu ral gas fittin gs, 1999 V2: 184 minimu m slope of pipin g, 1999 V2: 7
Index — 64 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 5 in dividu al waste-water treatmen t plan ts, 1999
steady flow in, 1999 V2: 6–7 V2: 232
slow-release storm-water detention systems, 1999 in spection , 1999 V2: 238
V2: 105–107 in stitu tion al an d recreation al establishments,
slow san d filtration , 1999 V2: 318 1999 V2: 231–232
slu dge leach in g tren ches, 1999 V2: 220
defined, 1998 V1: 36, 1999 V2: 289 location s, 1999 V2: 220
from water softeners, 1999 V2: 244 mou n d systems, 1999 V2: 226
in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 227, 1999 V2: 228, percolation rates for soils, 1999 V2: 219–220
1999 V2: 229, 1999 V2: 230 seepage beds, 1999 V2: 224–225
slu gs of water, 1999 V2: 2, 1999 V2: 4, 1999 V2: seepage pits, 1999 V2: 225–226
38, 1999 V2: 226 selectin g systems, 1999 V2: 220–221
SMACNA (Sh eet Metal and Air Con dition in g Con - Soil Con servation Service, 1999 V2: 107, 1999 V2:
tractors’ Nation al Association ), 1998 V1: 172, 114
1998 V1: 195 soil pipes, 1998 V1: 36
small bore pipes, 1999 V2: 341 soil sewers (S, SS), 1998 V1: 9
small-diameter gravity sewers, 1999 V2: 226 soil ven ts. See stack vents
Smith , Dan a K., 1998 V1: 80 soils
smoke detectors, 1998 V1: 29 color, 1999 V2: 218–219
smooth pipin g, 1999 V2: 139 depth , 1999 V2: 219
sniffer systems for gas, 1999 V2: 197 gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26,
sn u bbin g devices for earth qu ake protection , 1998 1999 V2: 27
V1: 165, 1998 V1: 166, 1998 V1: 167, 1998 in filtration rates, 1999 V2: 96
V1: 189 K factors of, 1999 V2: 101, 1999 V2: 104–105
soaps maps of, 1999 V2: 218
in gray water, 1999 V2: 29 in seismic force calcu lation s, 1998 V1: 185
in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 soil percolation tests, 1999 V2: 219–220
socket welding soil resistivity, 1998 V1: 147
defined, 1999 V2: 341 stru ctu re, 1999 V2: 218
socket-weld en d con n ection s, 1998 V1: 31 swellin g ch aracteristics, 1999 V2: 219
sodiu m, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283 textu re, 1999 V2: 218
sodiu m alu minate, 1999 V2: 294 SOL (solar), 1998 V1: 22
sodiu m bicarbon ate, 1999 V2: 283 solar (SOL), defin ed, 1998 V1: 22
sodiu m bisu lfate, 1999 V2: 245 solar azimu th (SAZ), 1998 V1: 17
sodiu m carbon ate, 1999 V2: 283 solar en ergy, 1998 V1: 132, 1998 V1: 133
sodiu m ch loride, 1999 V2: 283 soldering
sodiu m cycle ion exch ange, 1999 V2: 307 corrosion an d, 1998 V1: 143
sodiu m h exametaph osph ate, 1998 V1: 149, 1999 soldered join ts an d earth qu ake protection , 1998
V2: 244 V1: 169
sodiu m h ydroxide, 1999 V2: 230, 1999 V2: 305 solenoid valves
sodiu m hypoch lorite, 1999 V2: 245 solen oid valve trap primers, 1999 V2: 14
sodiu m silicate, 1998 V1: 149 symbols for, 1998 V1: 12
sodiu m su lfate, 1999 V2: 281 solid an gles, 1998 V1: 41
sodiu m th iosu lfate, 1999 V2: 245 solid waste disposal
soft conversion s, 1998 V1: 40 as energy sou rce, 1998 V1: 132
soft water (SW), 1998 V1: 9. See als o water soften- solid waste in cineration systems, 1998 V1: 132
ers solids removal in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 227–228
softening water. See water softeners solids, rectan gu lar
softness of vibration control materials, 1998 V1: calcu lating volu me, 1998 V1: 5
208 solids in water, 1999 V2: 288
software. See computer programs solu ble silica, 1999 V2: 283
soil-absorption sewage systems, 1999 V2: 217–224 solu te. See treated water
allowable rates of sewage application , 1999 V2: sound power
237 defined, 1998 V1: 216
estimatin g sewage qu an tities, 1999 V2: 233–238 levels, 1998 V1: 198, 1998 V1: 216
estimatin g soil absorption potential, 1999 V2: sound pressure, 1998 V1: 216, 1998 V1: 217
217–220 sounds. See acoustics in plumbing systems
source water. See feed water
Index Index — 65

sou rces, vacu u m, 1999 V2: 259–261, 1999 V2: referen ces, 1999 V2: 350
262, 1999 V2: 263–264 separatin g systems, 1999 V2: 329
sou rces of acou stic problems, 1998 V1: 204 sizin g pipin g, 1999 V2: 328–329, 1999 V2: 329,
Sou thern Bu ilding Code Congress Internation al, 1999 V2: 330, 1999 V2: 331
Inc. (SBCCI), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 114 special wastes defin ed, 1998 V1: 36
soven t aerators, 1999 V2: 54–56, 1999 V2: 60, system approval requ irements, 1999 V2: 328
1999 V2: 62 specific con du ctan ce, 1999 V2: 287
soven t deaerators, 1999 V2: 54, 1999 V2: 56, 1999 specific en ergy, convertin g to SI u nits, 1998 V1: 47
V2: 60, 1999 V2: 61, 1999 V2: 62 specific gravity (SG)
sovent sin gle-stack plu mbing systems defined, 1999 V2: 214
bu ildin g drain con n ection s, 1999 V2: 60–61 fu el gases, 1999 V2: 212
compon en ts an d sizin g, 1999 V2: 54–63 natu ral gas, 1999 V2: 173, 1999 V2: 185
illu strated, 1999 V2: 20 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
in stallation , 1999 V2: 62 specific h eat (sp h t, SP HT, C)
in trodu ction , 1999 V2: 19 measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
pressu re-equ alizing lin es, 1999 V2: 60 sp h t at constan t pressu re (cp, cp, CP), 1998 V1:
sizin g, 1999 V2: 57–62 22
ven tin g, 1999 V2: 46–47 sp h t at constan t volu me (cv, cv, CV), 1998 V1: 22
sp, SP (static pressu re), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 22 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
sp h t, SP HT (specific heat) specific resistan ce in water, 1999 V2: 285–287
measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41 specific volu me (sp vol, SP VOL, V, CVOL)
sp h t at con stant pressu re (cp, cp, CP), 1998 V1: measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
22 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
sp h t at con stant volu me (cv, cv, CV), 1998 V1: 22 Specifications , 1998 V1: 79
symbols for, 1998 V1: 22 specifications (spec, SPEC). See als o construction
SP (static pressu re), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 22 contract documents; project manuals
sp vol, SP VOL (specific volu me). See specific additional information and addresses, 1998 V1:
volume 80
space heating with natural gas, 1999 V2: 174 administration of, 1998 V1: 68
spacing bibliography, 1998 V1: 80
grab bars for accessibility, 1998 V1: 119 CSI sections, 1998 V1: 66
of leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 222 labor units, 1998 V1: 84
of vacuum inlets, 1999 V2: 269 master specifications, 1998 V1: 67–68
spec, SPEC (specifications). See specifications plu mbin g specifiers and en gin eers, 1998 V1: 69
Spec is a Four-Letter Word, 1998 V1: 80 referen ces, 1998 V1: 79–80
Spec Writing Made Eas ier, 1998 V1: 80 software, 1998 V1: 68
special conditions in contract documents, 1998 V1: “specification s” as in correct term, 1998 V1: 64
63 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
special sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38 writin g specification s, 1998 V1: 66–67
special-waste drainage systems Specifications for Mak ing Buildings and Facilities
acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 329, 1999 V2: Us able by the Phy s ically Handicapped, 1998
332–334 V1: 99
ch emical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 345–346 SPECSystem, 1998 V1: 68, 1998 V1: 80
codes an d stan dards, 1999 V2: 327–328 SPECTEXT, 1998 V1: 68
fire-su ppression water drain age, 1999 V2: 346– speed of pumps, 1998 V1: 7–8
347 Speller, Fran k N., 1998 V1: 152
flammable and volatile liqu ids, 1999 V2: 347– Spencer Tu rbine Co., 1999 V2: 277
349 sph erical soil stru ctu re, 1999 V2: 218
fu tu re growth of systems, 1999 V2: 329 spigot ou tlets, 1999 V2: 18
gen eral design con siderations, 1999 V2: 329 spills
in fectiou s an d biological waste systems, 1999 V2: acids, 1999 V2: 332
343–345 con trolled su bstan ces, 1999 V2: 277
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 327 oil, 1999 V2: 347–349
pH valu es in waste, 1999 V2: 329 spiral wou nd modu les
pipin g an d joint selection , 1999 V2: 328 in cross-flow filtration , 1999 V2: 311
plann ing for larger systems, 1999 V2: 329 in reverse osmosis (SWRO), 1999 V2: 289, 1999
radioactive waste drainage an d vents, 1999 V2: V2: 309
337–343
Index — 66 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

Spitzglass formu la, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 183, 1999 stages in pump equipment, 1999 V2: 245
V2: 210–211 stainless steel
splash screen s for backflow devices, 1999 V2: 148 electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141
split-case, horizon tal, en d-su ction pu mps, 1999 V2: passivation, 1998 V1: 143
245 stainless steel drains, 1999 V2: 342
sply., SPLY (su pplies), 1998 V1: 22 stainless steel grates, 1999 V2: 16
spon ge ru bber isolators, 1998 V1: 210 stainless steel piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 262,
spou t location on water fou n tain s, 1998 V1: 107 1999 V2: 324, 1999 V2: 341
spray n ozzle waterfall aerators, 1999 V2: 293 stainless steel storage tanks, 1999 V2: 323
spray u nits stairwell drains, 1999 V2: 69
in bath tu bs, 1998 V1: 114 stale sewage, 1998 V1: 38
in sh owers, 1998 V1: 117 standard (std, STD), 1998 V1: 22
spring isolators standard air, 1998 V1: 25
con crete bases an d, 1998 V1: 211 standard atmospheric pressure in vacuums, 1999
problems in seismic protection , 1998 V1: 191– V2: 254
193, 1998 V1: 194 standard cartridge depth filtration, 1999 V2: 300
pu mp isolation and, 1998 V1: 212 standard cfh (scfh), 1999 V2: 180
stored energy in, 1998 V1: 165 standard fire protection symbols, 1998 V1: 15–16
sprin g-operated, dou ble-ch eck valve devices, 1999 Standard for Health Care Facilities , 1999 V2: 262
V2: 149 Standard for Hy pochlorites , 1999 V2: 155
spring-operated, pressu re-regu latin g devices, 1999 Standard for Liquid Chlorine, 1999 V2: 155
V2: 122 Standard for the Ins tallation of Sprink ler Sy s tems ,
sprin g su pports, 1998 V1: 189 1998 V1: 195
sprinkler systems standard free air
defined, 1998 V1: 36–37 adjusting, 1999 V2: 257
firefigh ting water drainage, 1999 V2: 346–347 at atmospheric pressure (scfm), 1998 V1:18,
lawn sprinklers, 1999 V2: 121 1999 V2: 255–256, 1999 V2: 257, 1999
sedimen t bu ckets in drains, 1999 V2: 12 V2: 263
seismic protection an d, 1998 V1: 186 in vacu u m sizin g calcu lations, 1999 V2: 263
sprin kler types, 1998 V1: 37 standard gallon s per hou r, 1998 V1: 19
water deman ds, 1999 V2: 243–244 Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers , 1998
squ ares (sq., SQ) V1: 1, 1998 V1: 49
calcu latin g area, 1998 V1: 4 standard plumbing and piping symbols, 1998 V1:
con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48 9–14
symbols for, 1998 V1: 22 Standard Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 79, 1999 V2:
sr (steradian s), 1998 V1: 41 114
SS (san itary sewers), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 36. See standard time meridian (STM), 1998 V1: 22
als o sanitary drainage systems standards. See codes and standards
SSD (subsoil or footing drains), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 standby losses in circulating systems, 1998 V1:
V1: 38 127–128
ssf, SSF (Saybolt seconds Furol), 1998 V1: 21 standpipe systems, 1998 V1: 38
ssu, SSU (Saybolt seconds Universal), 1998 V1: 21 stan dpipes
ST (storm or rainwater drains). See storm-drainage defined, 1998 V1: 38
systems flat lan d storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 247
stability index (Ryzner), 1999 V2: 292 stan dpipe air chambers, 1999 V2: 132, 1999 V2:
stabilization ponds, 1999 V2: 232 143
stack groups, 1998 V1: 38 stan dpipe systems defin ed, 1998 V1: 31
stack inlets in deaerators, 1999 V2: 56 symbols for, 1998 V1: 16
stack vents system classes of service, 1998 V1: 38
air in, 1999 V2: 2 system types, 1998 V1: 38
defined, 1998 V1: 38, 1999 V2: 64 startu p con dition s for gas applian ces, 1999 V2: 178
fixtu res and, 1999 V2: 41, 1999 V2: 43 state agen cies, 1999 V2: 327, 1999 V2: 340
overview, 1999 V2: 47–49 state rainfall rate tables, 1999 V2: 69–78
sizin g, 1999 V2: 50 static deflection for pu mp vibration , 1998 V1: 211
stack ven tin g defin ed, 1998 V1: 38 static h ead, 1999 V2: 245
ven t headers, 1999 V2: 45 calcu latin g, 1998 V1: 2
stacks. See vertical stacks velocity h ead an d, 1998 V1: 6
staged evaporation, 1999 V2: 298 static pressu re (SP), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 22
Index Index — 67

static pressu re loss, 1999 V2: 123 of rain water, 1999 V2: 93–94
static wells, 1999 V2: 241–243 of sewage in septic tan ks, 1999 V2: 228–229
stationary meter flow indicators, 1998 V1: 13 storage plan ts, 1999 V2: 147
std, STD (stan dard), 1998 V1: 22 storage tanks. See tanks
std gph (stan dard gallon s per h ou r), 1998 V1: 19 storm building drains. See storm-drainage systems
steady flow Storm Drainage Des ign and Detention us ing the
in horizontal drain s, 1999 V2: 6–7, 1999 V2: 9 Rational Method, 1999 V2: 114
roof drain age, 1999 V2: 88 storm-drainage systems
steady-state h eat balan ce equ ation s, 1999 V2: 158 building drainage systems, 1999 V2: 68–94
steam con trolled-flow systems, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2:
distillin g water from, 1999 V2: 295–298 93–94
geoth ermal, 1998 V1: 132 equ ations, 1999 V2: 107–108
h igh-pressu re steam su pply, 1998 V1: 11 forms for calcu lation s, 1999 V2: 109–113
low-pressu re steam, 1998 V1: 20 in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 67–68
low-pressu re steam su pply, 1998 V1: 11 materials, 1999 V2: 68
mediu m-pressu re steam, 1998 V1: 20 rain fall rate tables, 1999 V2: 69–78
mediu m-pressu re steam su pply, 1998 V1: 11 Ration al meth od, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 95, 1999
steam atmospheric ven ts, 1998 V1: 11 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 107
steam traps, 1998 V1: 14 sewer in spection ch ecklist, 1998 V1: 96
waste h eat u sage of con den sate, 1998 V1: 128 site drain age, 1999 V2: 95–107
steam deaerators, 1999 V2: 294 storm drain s (SD, ST), 1998 V1: 9
steam plan ts, 1999 V2: 147 storm sewers defin ed, 1998 V1: 38
steel, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141. See als o stain- Storm Water Retention Methods , 1999 V2: 114
less steel STPs (sewage treatment plants), 1999 V2: 22, 1999
steel beam connections in pipe bracing, 1998 V1: V2: 24, 1999 V2: 147
177, 1998 V1: 178 strain, defined, 1998 V1: 38
steel fittings, 1999 V2: 196 strainers
steel floor decks in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 169 backflow preventers, 1999 V2: 149
steel piping. See als o galvanized steel piping; downspouts, 1999 V2: 81
stainless steel piping roof drains, 1999 V2: 80, 1999 V2: 82
liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 196 sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 10–12
radioactive wastes, 1999 V2: 341 sedimen t bu ckets, 1999 V2: 12
sizing, 1999 V2: 89–92 symbols for, 1998 V1: 12
su rface rou gh ness, 1999 V2: 122 strata of sites, 1999 V2: 101
water systems, 1999 V2: 250 stratification in water h eaters, 1999 V2: 160, 1999
steel roofin g drain s, 1999 V2: 82 V2: 165
steel slabs, 1998 V1: 208 stray cu rren t corrosion , 1998 V1: 138–139, 1998
steel sprin gs, 1998 V1: 210 V1: 152
steel su bstrate roofin g drain s, 1999 V2: 82 streamlin e fittin gs (avoidin g su ds formation ), 1999
steel water tan ks, 1999 V2: 247 V2: 37
Steele, Alfred, 1998 V1: 49, 1998 V1: 80, 1999 V2: streams, irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 27
114 street gu tters, 1999 V2: 99
Sten zel, Mark H., 1999 V2: 325 street in lets in site storm systems, 1999 V2: 98
steradian s, 1998 V1: 41 stress
sterilization con version factors, 1998 V1: 45
feed water, 1999 V2: 289 measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
in fectiou s waste systems, 1999 V2: 345 stress-accelerated corrosion , 1998 V1: 152
pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 324 stress corrosion , 1998 V1: 152
Steven s In stitu te of Tech nology, 1999 V2: 65 stress-corrosion crackin g, 1998 V1: 138, 1999 V2:
Stevens’s Bu ildin g Tech n ology Research Laboratory, 290
1999 V2: 49 strip-chart recorder water meters, 1999 V2: 116
stills, 1999 V2: 295–298 stron g-base regen eration , 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2:
STM (stan dard time meridian), 1998 V1: 22 305
stop valves, 1998 V1: 38 strongbacks, 1998 V1: 165
storage stron tiu m 90, 1999 V2: 340
of gray water, 1999 V2: 23, 1999 V2: 26, 1999 stru ctu ral angle bracing, 1998 V1: 173
V2: 27 stru ctu ral ch ann el bracin g, 1998 V1: 173
of pu re water, 1999 V2: 323–324 stru ctu ral stren gth
Index — 68 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

bath and shower seats, 1998 V1: 121 ground water disposal, 1999 V2: 105
grab bars, 1998 V1: 119 liquid-waste decontamination systems, 1999 V2:
stru ctu re-borne sou nd, 1998 V1: 201, 1998 V1: 344
204 roof drainage and, 1999 V2: 79, 1999 V2: 80,
stru t bracing, 1998 V1: 175, 1998 V1: 177 1999 V2: 88
su b-micron cartridge filtration, 1999 V2: 300 sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 9
su bdrains, bu ilding, 1998 V1: 27 storm drains and, 1999 V2: 69
su bmain sewers, 1998 V1: 38 subsurface water disposal, 1999 V2: 106
su bmersible pu mps, 1999 V2: 243, 1999 V2: 245, sump pumps defined, 1998 V1: 38
1999 V2: 247 sumps defined, 1998 V1: 38
su bsoil drains (SSD), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 38 vibration isolation, 1998 V1: 214
su bstances, amou nt (moles), 1998 V1: 41 Sun, T.Y., 1998 V1: 195
su bsu rface drainage sunlight, protecting against, 1999 V2: 19
determining qu antities of water, 1999 V2: 100 SUP (supplies), 1998 V1: 22
filter materials, 1999 V2: 103–104 supercritical flow, 1999 V2: 67. See als o hydraulic
grou nd water disposal, 1999 V2: 105 jumps in flow
site drain age, 1999 V2: 99–105 SuperSpec, 1998 V1: 68, 1998 V1: 80
site in vestigation , 1999 V2: 100 superstrut bracing, 1998 V1: 172
tren chin g, 1999 V2: 102–103 supervisory (tamper) switches, 1998 V1: 38
types of piping, 1999 V2: 102 supplementary conditions, 1998 V1: 64
su bsu rface drip irrigation systems, 1999 V2: 27 supplementary u nits of measurement, 1998 V1: 41
su bsu rface waste-disposal systems. See soil- supplies (sply., SPLY, SUP), 1998 V1: 22
absorption sewage systems supply air (sa, SA), 1998 V1: 22
subsurface water. See ground water supply fixture units, 1998 V1: 32
SUC (suction), 1998 V1: 22 supports and hangers
successive leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 223–224 alternate attachment to hangers, 1998 V1: 176
su ct., SUCT (su ction ), 1998 V1: 22 defined, 1998 V1: 38
su ction (su ct., SUCT, SUC), 1998 V1: 22 hanger rod connections in bracing, 1998 V1: 179
su ction in lets in storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 248 hanger rod gravity forces in earthquakes, 1998
su ction pipin g, 1998 V1: 207, 1998 V1: 208, 1999 V1: 189
V2: 248, 1999 V2: 249 installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83
su ction -type pu mps, 1999 V2: 241, 1999 V2: 245 isolation hangers, 1998 V1: 208
su ds materials, 1998 V1: 55–56
factors in trap seal loss, 1999 V2: 36 natu ral gas pipes, 1999 V2: 176
pressu re zon es, 1999 V2: 37, 1999 V2: 38, 1999 pipe han gers, 1998 V1: 16
V2: 39 resilien t pipe h angers, 1998 V1: 204
relief ven ts, 1999 V2: 37, 1999 V2: 39 roof drain age, 1999 V2: 88
soven t sin gle-stack plu mbing systems and, 1999 in san itary drain age systems, 1999 V2: 14
V2: 54 symbols for, 1998 V1: 16
ven tin g, 1999 V2: 36–37, 1999 V2: 39 vacu u m clean in g tu bin g, 1999 V2: 269
su lfate-redu cin g bacteria, 1999 V2: 282 SUR (su rfaces), 1998 V1: 22
su lfates, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283, 1999 V2: SURD (su rfaces, dry), 1998 V1: 22
302 su rface abrasion s
su lfites, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 315 corrosion an d, 1998 V1: 143
su lfu r, 1999 V2: 281 grab bars, 1998 V1: 119
su lfu r-based joint compou n d, 1999 V2: 223 su rface efficien cy (SEFF), 1998 V1: 18
su lfu ric acid, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 305, 1999 su rface fau lt slips, 1998 V1: 158
V2: 332–333 su rface-mou n ted fire h ose cabin ets, 1998 V1: 14
su lfu rou s acid, 1999 V2: 281 su rface-mou n ted pu mps, 1999 V2: 245
SUM (su mmary, su mmation ), 1998 V1: 22 su rface ru noff. See runoff
Sum of the Parts , 1998 V1: 80 surface water
summary, summation (SUM), 1998 V1: 22 as feed water for pure water systems, 1999 V2:
sump pits, 1999 V2: 344 321
sumps and sump pumps defined, 1999 V2: 282
acoustic problems, 1998 V1: 202 private water systems, 1999 V2: 239
duplex sump pump systems, 1999 V2: 9 pumps for, 1999 V2: 245
fixture-unit values, 1999 V2: 9 Surface Water Treatment Rule, 1999 V2: 316
floor drains and, 1999 V2: 10 surfaces (SUR, S)
Index Index — 69

dry (SURD), 1998 V1: 22 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22

symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
wet (SURW), 1998 V1: 22 T
su rge loads in wet-vented systems, 1999 V2: 45–46
t, TD (temperature differences), 1998 V1: 22,
su rge pressu re. See water hammer
1998 V1: 133
surge tanks, irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 27
t (metric tons), 1998 V1: 42
surges
T STAT (thermostats), 1998 V1: 22
in horizontal drains, 1999 V2: 5
T (temperature). See temperature
pressure surges, 1999 V2: 35
T (tera) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
vacuum surges, 1999 V2: 35
T (teslas), 1998 V1: 41
surgical vacuum (SV), 1998 V1: 11
T (time). See time
SURW (surfaces, wet), 1998 V1: 22
T-Y fittings, 1999 V2: 61
suspended equipment
tab, TAB (tabulation), 1998 V1: 22
fixed suspended equipment, 1998 V1: 165
tablespoons, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48
vibration-isolated, suspended equipment, 1998
tabulation (tab, TAB), 1998 V1: 22
V1: 167–168
Tak e the Gues s w ork out of Demineralizer Des ign,
su spen ded piping, earthqu ake recommen dation s,
1999 V2: 325
1998 V1: 163
takeoff lists, 1998 V1: 81
su spen ded solids
tamper switches, 1998 V1: 38
defined, 1999 V2: 280
tamping fill
filtration , 1999 V2: 298
leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 223
removing, 1999 V2: 294
man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 84
total su spen ded solids, 1999 V2: 287–288
sewers, 1999 V2: 16
tu rbidity, 1999 V2: 282
subsurface drainage pipes, 1999 V2: 102, 1999
su spen ded tan ks, 1998 V1: 164
V2: 103
su spen sion , defin ed, 1999 V2: 280
water pipes, 1999 V2: 250
SV (su rgical vacu u m), 1998 V1: 11
Tanaka, T., 1999 V2: 325
SW (soft water), 1998 V1: 9
tangential-flow filtration, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2:
swamp gas, 1999 V2: 284
308
sway bracin g
tank farms, 1998 V1: 147
acceptable types, 1998 V1: 190
tank refilling acoustics, 1998 V1: 198–199
h orizontal loads for, 1998 V1: 187–188
tan ks. See als o septic tanks
lateral an d lon gitu din al, 1998 V1: 183–184, 1998
design considerations in seismic protection, 1998
V1: 187
V1: 191
lon gitu din al and tran sverse, 1998 V1: 181–182
determining demand and capacity, 1999 V2: 151
poten tial problems, illu strated, 1998 V1: 194
drinking water storage, 1999 V2: 247–248
sway in pipin g, 1998 V1: 163
earth qu ake damage, 1998 V1: 162, 1998 V1: 163
Sweet Search electron ic in dex, 1998 V1: 68, 1998
earth qu ake protection , 1998 V1: 165, 1998 V1:
V1: 80
191–193, 1998 V1: 194
swellin g ch aracteristics of soils, 1999 V2: 219
gravity tan k systems, 1999 V2: 150–152
swimmin g pools
holdin g tan ks for firefightin g drain age, 1999 V2:
defined, 1998 V1: 39
347
grate materials, 1999 V2: 15
holdin g tan ks for radioactive wastes, 1999 V2:
swin g ch eck valves, 1999 V2: 249
342
SWRO (spiral wou n d modu les), 1999 V2: 289, 1999
hydropn eu matic-tan k systems, 1999 V2: 150
V2: 309
kill tan ks, 1999 V2: 344–345
symbols
liqu efied n atu ral gas tan ks, 1999 V2: 194
fire protection, 1998 V1: 15–16
pu re water storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 323–324
referen ces, 1998 V1: 49
su spen ded, 1998 V1: 165
stan dardized plu mbing an d pipin g symbols, 1998
th ermal expan sion tan ks, 1999 V2: 167
V1: 9–14
vibration isolation , 1998 V1: 212–214
water h ammer arresters, 1999 V2: 143, 1999 V2:
water storage tan ks, 1999 V2: 239
144
tappin g illegally in to water lin es, 1999 V2: 115
syn th etic resins, 1999 V2: 302
taste of drin kin g water, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2:
SYS (systems), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1: 133
316
Systeme In tern ation al and d’Unites, 1998 V1: 40
TAU (tran smissivity), 1998 V1: 23
systems (SYS)
tc, TC (th ermocou ple), 1998 V1: 22
defined, 1998 V1: 133
TCPL (thermocou ple), 1998 V1: 22
Index — 70 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

TD (temperatu re differences), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 temperature-pressure-relief valves (TPV), 1998 V1:
V1: 133 12, 1999 V2: 166, 1999 V2: 167
TD (tu rndown ratio), 1999 V2: 182 tempered water
TDIF (temperatu re differences), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 defined, 1998 V1: 39
V1: 133 tempered hot water (TEMP. HW, TW), 1998 V1: 9
TDS (total dissolved solids), 1999 V2: 288, 1999 V2: tempered hot water recirculating (TEMP. HWR,
316 TWR), 1998 V1: 9
TE (temperatu re entering), 1998 V1: 22 templates for specifications, 1998 V1: 67–68
technetiu m 99, 1999 V2: 340 Ten sion 360 bracin g, 1998 V1: 171
tectonic plates, 1998 V1: 156–158 ten sion problems in seismic protection , 1998 V1:
tee-wyes, flow capacity an d, 1999 V2: 4 193
tees (TEE) TENT (temperatu re en terin g), 1998 V1: 22
join ts in , 1998 V1: 82 Tentative Provis ions for the Development of Seis mic
symbols for, 1998 V1: 12, 1998 V1: 22 Regulations for Buildings , 1998 V1: 185, 1998
Teflon, 1999 V2: 341 V1: 195
TEM (total en ergy managemen t), 1998 V1: 123 “tera” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
temp., TEMP (temperatu res). See temperature terminal elemen ts, defin ed, 1998 V1: 133
TEMP. HW (tempered hot water), 1998 V1: 9 terminal len gth , defin ed, 1999 V2: 1
TEMP. HWR (tempered hot water recirculating), termin al velocity
1998 V1: 9 defined, 1999 V2: 1
temperature (temp., TEMP, T) stack capacities an d, 1999 V2: 4
bathtub water notes, 1998 V1: 115 stack termin al velocity, 1998 V1: 3
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 45, 1998 V1: 46 termin al ven ts. See vent stack terminals
deaeration water temperatures, 1999 V2: 294 tertiary treatment of gray water, 1999 V2: 28, 1999
feed water temperature and deposits, 1999 V2: V2: 29
291, 1999 V2: 312, 1999 V2: 321–322 teslas, 1998 V1: 41
flu e gas temperatu res, 1999 V2: 178 test block conditions in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182
h igh -temperatu re withstan d for hot-water test headers, 1998 V1: 15
systems, 1999 V2: 166 test station cathodic protection, 1998 V1:148
h ot water properties, 1999 V2: 168 testing
h ot water relief valves, 1999 V2: 166–167 acoustic ratings of fixtures and appliances, 1998
h ot water temperatu res, 1999 V2: 159, 1999 V2: V1: 198–200
161–165, 1999 V2: 165 cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154
main ten ance hot-water temperatu res, 1999 V2: hot-water relief valves, 1999 V2: 166
166 hydrau lic soil con ditions, 1999 V2: 217–220
measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41 liqu efied petroleu m gas systems, 1999 V2: 197
microbial con trol in water, 1999 V2: 312 percolation rates for soils, 1999 V2: 219–220
mixed-water temperatu res, 1999 V2: 159–160 pipes for radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2:
n atu ral gas, 1999 V2: 179, 1999 V2: 180 342
n on -SI u nits, 1998 V1: 42 welders for radioactive pipe systems, 1999 V2:
operatin g h ot-water temperatu res, 1999 V2: 166 342
pipe expansion an d con traction , 1998 V1: 4 wells, 1999 V2: 243
rate of corrosion , 1998 V1: 142 text, abbreviation s in , 1998 V1: 17–23
scaldin g water, 1999 V2: 169–170 textu re of soils, 1999 V2: 218
sh ower compartmen ts, 1998 V1: 117 th eaters, vacu u m calcu lation s for, 1999 V2: 269
special-waste efflu en t, 1999 V2: 328 th eft of backflow preventers, 1999 V2: 149
specific resistan ce an d, 1999 V2: 286 th erm, convertin g to SI u nits, 1998 V1: 48
symbols for, 1998 V1: 22 th ermal con du ctivity (k , K)
temperatu re differen ces (TD, t, TDIF), 1998 V1: measurements, 1998 V1: 41
22, 1998 V1: 133 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
temperature differentials, 1998 V1: 124 thermal efficiency
temperature entering (TE, TENT), 1998 V1: 22 defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1998 V1: 133
temperature leaving (TL, TLEA), 1998 V1: 22 water heaters and, 1999 V2: 169
thermal support systems and earthquakes, 1998 thermal expansion
V1: 170 converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
water heaters, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 V2: 160 hot-water systems and, 1999 V2: 167–168
Temperature Limits in Service Hot Water Sy s tems , plastic pipe th ermal expansion , 1999 V2: 251
1999 V2: 170 san itary drain age systems, 1999 V2: 18
Index Index — 71

thermal expansion coefficients (TXPC), 1998 V1: toilet compartmen ts. See als o water closets
22 accessibility, 1998 V1: 108, 1998 V1: 110
thermal expansion tanks, 1999 V2: 167 ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 1998
water pipes and, 1999 V2: 251–252 V1: 111
th ermal expansion loops, 1998 V1: 163 trap primers in, 1999 V2: 13
th ermal insu lation toilet paper
codes an d stan dards, 1998 V1: 59 dispensers, 1998 V1: 110
th ickness, 1998 V1: 125–127 in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 231
th ermal movemen t, sou n d in su lation and, 1998 V1: toilets. See als o water closets
198 accessibility design, 1998 V1: 109–113
th ermal resistan ce (R, R, RES), 1998 V1: 22 acou stic ratin gs of, 1998 V1: 198–199
thermal-shock protection, 1998 V1: 117 con serving water in , 1999 V2: 232
thermal stability for hot-water systems, 1999 V2: in stallation man -h ou r estimates, 1998 V1: 83
166 rates of sewage flows, 1999 V2: 237
thermal support systems, earthquakes and, 1998 typical gray-water deman d, 1999 V2: 25
V1: 170 typical u se, 1999 V2: 25
thermocompression distillation, 1999 V2: 295–298 toleran ce, 1998 V1: 40
th ermocou ple (tc, TC, TCPL), 1998 V1: 22 ton s (TON)
th ermometers, 1998 V1: 13 con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 48
th ermostats (T STAT), 1998 V1: 22 symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
th ickn ess (th kn s, THKNS, THK) ton s of refrigeration (ton s, TONS), 1998 V1: 23
of soils, 1999 V2: 219 tools
symbols for, 1998 V1: 22 tool access in clean ou ts, 1999 V2: 9
THK (thickn ess), 1998 V1: 22, 1999 V2: 219 for vacu u m clean ing systems, 1999 V2: 269–270
th kn s, THKNS (th ickness), 1998 V1: 22, 1999 V2: top coats, 1998 V1: 144
219 top-en try fittings in sovent systems, 1999 V2: 62
th ou san d circu lar mils (Mcm, MCM), 1998 V1: 22 torqu e
th ou san d cu bic feet (Mcf, MCF), 1998 V1: 22 con version factors, 1998 V1: 43
th ou san d foot-pou nds (kip ft, KIP FT, KIPFT), 1998 con vertin g to SI u n its, 1998 V1: 47
V1: 22 measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
th ou san d pou n ds (kip, KIP), 1998 V1: 22 torrs, 1999 V2: 254
th readed end con n ections, 1998 V1: 31 TOT (total), 1998 V1: 123
th readed join ts, 1998 V1: 169 TOT HT (total h eat), 1998 V1: 23
th readed ou tlets, 1999 V2: 18 total (TOT), 1998 V1: 23
th resh olds in sh ower compartmen ts, 1998 V1: 118 total alkalin ity, 1999 V2: 283
th ru st bearin gs, 1998 V1: 201 total dissolved solids (TDS), 1999 V2: 288, 1999 V2:
th ru st blocks, 1999 V2: 250–251 316
“tigh t” pipin g systems, 1998 V1: 169 total dynamic h ead, 1999 V2: 245
tiles in leach in g trenches, 1999 V2: 221 total energy managemen t, 1998 V1: 123
time (T) total floodin g systems, 1998 V1: 33
of concen tration in ru n off, 1999 V2: 97 total h ead, 1999 V2: 245
in tervals in hydrau lic sh ock, 1998 V1: 7 total heat (tot h t, TOT HT), 1998 V1: 23
in measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41 total organ ic carbon (TOC), 1999 V2: 288
n on -SI u nits, 1998 V1: 42 total pu mpin g h ead, 1999 V2: 245
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 total su spen ded solids, 1999 V2: 287–288
time h istory total work force in vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 259
compu ter an alysis, 1998 V1: 189 T&P valves (temperatu re an d pressu re relief), 1999
earthqu akes, 1998 V1: 159, 1998 V1: 160 V2: 166, 1999 V2: 167
tin TPV (temperatu re-pressu re-relief valves), 1998 V1:
corrosion , 1998 V1: 137 12, 1999 V2: 166, 1999 V2: 167
galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 trace elemen ts in water, 1999 V2: 283–284
tin pipin g, 1999 V2: 122 Trace Level Analy s is of High Purity Water, 1999 V2:
tippin g preven tion , 1998 V1: 194 325
titan iu m, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141 tractor-type grates, 1999 V2: 11
TL (temperatu re leavin g), 1998 V1: 22 traffic loads
TLEA (temperatu re leaving), 1998 V1: 22 automotive traffic and grates, 1999 V2: 11
TOC (total organ ic carbon ), 1999 V2: 288 cleanouts and, 1999 V2: 9
toe clearan ce in toilet compartmen ts, 1998 V1: 110 grates and strainers, 1999 V2: 10
Index — 72 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

trailer parks tren ch es. See als o leaching trenches

septic tank systems for, 1999 V2: 231–232 absorption trenches, 1999 V2: 220
sewers, 1998 V1: 39 man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83, 1998 V1: 85
tran fer-type sh owers, 1998 V1: 116, 1998 V1: 119 near water pipes, 1999 V2: 250
tran smissibility, coefficient of (Q factor), 1999 V2: in subsurface drainage, 1999 V2: 102–103
101 Trends in Formats , 1998 V1: 80
transmission loss (sou n d), 1998 V1: 217 Trends in Plumbing Specifications , 1998 V1: 79
transmission of n oise, 1998 V1: 204 Tri-Services Manual, 1998 V1: 185
transmissivity (TAU), 1998 V1: 23 triangles, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4–6
tran sverse bracing, 1998 V1: 169, 1998 V1: 173, tribu tary areas for ru n off, 1999 V2: 97
1998 V1: 195 trihalometh an es, 1999 V2: 311
transverse sway bracin g, 1998 V1: 181 triplex vacu u m pu mp arran gemen ts, 1999 V2: 263
trap arms trisodiu m phosph ate, 1999 V2: 13
defined, 1999 V2: 64 TROs (tu bu lar modu les in reverse osmosis), 1999
fixtu re ven ts an d, 1999 V2: 38, 1999 V2: 39 V2: 309, 1999 V2: 310
length of, 1999 V2: 50 tru ss-type bracin g, 1998 V1: 192
trap primers, 1999 V2: 13–14 tsu n amis, 1998 V1: 158
trap seals tu be bu n dles, 1998 V1: 131
con trollin g in du ced siph on age, 1999 V2: 40 tu be ozon e u n its, 1999 V2: 313
defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 64 tu bercu lation , 1998 V1: 152
factors in trap seal loss, 1999 V2: 36 tu bin g
floor drain s, 1999 V2: 10 join ts, 1999 V2: 196
main taining, 1999 V2: 14 liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: 196
redu ced-size ventin g an d, 1999 V2: 49 vacu u m clean in g hose capacity, 1999 V2: 270
redu cin g trap seal losses, 1999 V2: 39–40 vacu u m clean in g systems, 1999 V2: 269–270
stack ventin g an d, 1999 V2: 47 tu bu lar-bag separators, 1999 V2: 268
trap siph on age and, 1999 V2: 35 tu bu lar modu les in reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 309,
ven ts and, 1999 V2: 36 1999 V2: 310
trapeze tu rbidity
bracin g pipes on trapeze, 1998 V1: 177, 1998 clarification of, 1999 V2: 294
V1: 180 defined, 1999 V2: 282
poten tial problems in bracin g, 1998 V1: 194 drin kin g water, 1999 V2: 316
trapeziu ms, calcu lating area, 1998 V1: 4 measu rin g, 1999 V2: 287–288
trapezoids, calcu lating area, 1998 V1: 4 removin g, 1999 V2: 244
traps tu rbine pu mps, 1999 V2: 246, 1999 V2: 247
bu ildin g traps, defined, 1998 V1: 27 tu rbine water meters, 1999 V2: 115, 1999 V2: 116,
defined, 1998 V1: 39 1999 V2: 117
elimin ating siphon age with ven ts, 1999 V2: 35 tu rbo pu mps, 1999 V2: 259
fixtu re traps an d vents, 1999 V2: 40 tu rbu len ce
roof drains, 1999 V2: 84 defined, 1998 V1: 39
special-waste drain age systems, 1999 V2: 328 measu remen ts, 1999 V2: 41
u n vented traps, 1999 V2: 46 in rate of corrosion , 1998 V1: 142
ven ts and, 1999 V2: 36 tu rbu len t flow in pipes, 1998 V1: 2
TRC (tu bu lar modu les in reverse osmosis), 1999 V2: tu rn down ratio (TD), 1999 V2: 182
309, 1999 V2: 310 tu rrets, gas, 1999 V2: 177
treated water. See als o water treatment TW (tempered h ot water), 1998 V1: 9
defined, 1999 V2: 280 two. See als o entries beginning w ith double-, dual-,
from reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 309 or multiple-
systems. See gray-water systems two-compartment septic tanks, 1999 V2: 229
Treating Cooling Water, 1999 V2: 325 two-pipe venturi suction pumps, 1999 V2: 241
treatment of black water, 1999 V2: 28, 1999 V2: two-stage reduction, 1999 V2: 153
227, 1999 V2: 232–233 two-step deionization (dual-bed), 1999 V2: 302,
treatmen t of gray water, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 23, 1999 V2: 303
1999 V2: 27–29, 1999 V2: 28 two-valve parallel pressure-regulated valves, 1999
treatmen t of oil in water, 1999 V2: 347–349 V2: 153
tree root problems in leach in g tren ch es, 1999 V2: TWR (tempered hot water recirculating), 1998 V1: 9
222 TXPC (thermal expansion coefficients), 1998 V1: 22
tren ch drain s in chemical plan ts, 1999 V2: 346 Type A gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 31–32
Index Index — 73

Type B gas vents, 1999 V2: 213 in horizontal drains, 1999 V2: 6–7
Type B gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 31–32 Man n in g formu la, 1998 V1: 1
Type B-W gas vents, 1999 V2: 213 Uniform Location of Subject Matter, 1998 V1: 65
Type K copper, 1999 V2: 196 Uniform Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 34,
Type L copper, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 133, 1999 1999 V2: 214
V2: 196 unions
Type L gas ven ts, 1999 V2: 214 flanged, 1998 V1: 12
screwed, 1998 V1: 12
U United States agencies and departments. See US
agencies and departments
U, U (heat transfer coefficients), 1998 V1: 19
United States Pharmacopoeia. See US Pharmaco-
U-factor (U), 1998 V1: 23
poeia (USP)
UF membranes, 1999 V2: 284
units (UNIT)
UFAS, 1998 V1: 100
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
Uhlig, Herbert H., 1998 V1: 152
units of measurement. See measurement units
UL listings
universities. See als o laboratories
address for Underwriters Laboratories, 1998 V1:
diversity factor calculations for vacuums, 1999
60
V2: 263
gas booster components, 1999 V2: 179
natural gas piping, 1999 V2: 177
hot-water components, 1999 V2: 166, 1999 V2:
“u nless otherwise specified” in specification s, 1998
170
V1: 67
ultra-high vacuum, 1999 V2: 254
u n obstru cted reach for wheelch airs, 1998 V1: 105,
ultra-low-flow water closets, 1999 V2: 19
1998 V1: 106
ultra-pure water systems, 1999 V2: 317
u n occu pied bu ildin gs, con servin g en ergy in , 1998
ultrafilters and ultrafiltration
V1: 127
cross-flow filtration, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2:
u n restricted areas (facilities with radiation), 1999
310–311
V2: 339
membran e filters, 1999 V2: 308–311
u n sanitary, defin ed, 1999 V2: 64
oil spills, 1999 V2: 347
u n treated sewage. See raw sewage
Ultraviolet Dis infection in Biotechnology : My th vs .
unvented traps (s traps), 1999 V2: 46
Practice, 1999 V2: 325
unventilated spaces and gas systems, 1999 V2: 176
ultraviolet radiation treatment of water, 1999 V2:
uplifting of buildings, 1999 V2: 99
245, 1999 V2: 311–312, 1999 V2: 318, 1999
upright fire sprinkler heads, 1998 V1: 13
V2: 323, 1999 V2: 324
upright sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 37, 1998
u n balan ced motors in pu mps, 1998 V1: 201
V1: 38
u n con solidated aqu ifers, 1999 V2: 241
upstream, defined, 1998 V1: 39
u n damped mech an ical systems, 1998 V1: 161
Urban Hy drology for Small Waters heds , 1999 V2:
u n der-film corrosion , 1998 V1: 152
114
u n dergrou n d inspections, 1998 V1: 96
urinals. See als o toilets; water closets
u n dergrou n d pipin g, 1998 V1: 39
accessibility design, 1998 V1: 113
acid-waste pipin g, 1999 V2: 334
acoustic ratings of, 1998 V1: 199
coatin gs, 1998 V1: 144
exclusion from gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 21
cost estimates, 1998 V1: 89
gray water in, 1999 V2: 21, 1999 V2: 25
materials for, 1999 V2: 14–15
installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83
n atu ral gas systems, 1999 V2: 176
typical use, 1999 V2: 25
storm-drain age systems, 1999 V2: 68
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Manual, 1999 V2: 214
water pipes, 1999 V2: 251
US Architectural and Transportation Barriers
u n dergrou n d site drain age, 1999 V2: 99–105
Compliance Board (ATBCB), 1998 V1: 100,
Un derwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)
1998 V1: 101
address, 1998 V1: 60
US Army Corps of Engineers, 1998 V1: 68
gas booster componen ts, 1999 V2: 179
US Department of Commerce, National Information
h ot-water compon en ts, 1999 V2: 166, 1999 V2:
Services, 1999 V2: 34
170
US Department of Defense, 1998 V1: 161, 1998 V1:
u n iform attack corrosion, 1998 V1: 137
185, 1998 V1: 195
Uniform Building Code (UBC), 1998 V1: 185, 1998
US Department of Health and Environmental
V1: 195
Control, 1999 V2: 170
Uniform Federal Accessibility Standard, 1998 V1:
100
uniform flow
Index — 74 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

US Department of Hou sing and Urban Develop- components, 1999 V2: 266–269, 1999 V2: 268
ment, 1998 V1: 60, 1998 V1: 99, 1998 V1: friction losses, 1999 V2: 272–274, 1999 V2: 274
100 in let location s and spacin g, 1999 V2: 269
US Department of the Army, 1999 V2: 114 piping, 1999 V2: 269
US Department of Transportation, 1999 V2: 194 separators, 1999 V2: 275–276
US Environmental Protection Agency simu ltan eou s operators, 1999 V2: 269
address, 1998 V1: 60 sizin g exh au sters, 1999 V2: 272, 1999 V2: 274–
aggressiveness index, 1999 V2: 292 275
chemical waste system codes and, 1999 V2: 345 types, 1999 V2: 266
potable water treatment technologies, 1999 V2: Vacuum Cleaning Sy s tems , 1999 V2: 277
279 vacu um deaerators, 1999 V2: 294, 1999 V2: 295
pu blications, 1999 V2: 238 vacuum levels
Safe Drinking Water Act and, 1999 V2: 244 defined, 1999 V2: 253–254
special waste drainage codes and, 1999 V2: 328 in exhau ster sizin g, 1999 V2: 274
US Federal Hou sing Administration, 1998 V1: 204 vacu u m produ cers (exh au sters), 1999 V2: 266–269,
US Federal Specifications (FS), 1998 V1: 33, 1998 1999 V2: 268, 1999 V2: 270, 1999 V2: 272,
V1: 60 1999 V2: 274–275
US Food and Dru g Administration, 1999 V2: 279, vacu u m pu mps, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2: 263–264
1999 V2: 321, 1999 V2: 324, 1999 V2: 328 vacu u m relief valves, 1998 V1: 39
US General Services Administration, 1998 V1: 195, Vacuum Sew age Collection, 1999 V2: 238
1998 V1: 204, 1999 V2: 34 vacuu m sewers, 1999 V2: 226
US Naval Facilities Command, 1998 V1: 68 vacu um sources, 1999 V2: 259–261, 1999 V2: 262,
US Occu pational Safety and Health Administration, 1999 V2: 263–264
1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 333 Vacuum Sources , 1999 V2: 277
US Pharmacopoeia (USP) vacu um systems, 1999 V2: 266–277. See als o
USP nomographs, 1999 V2: 317 vacuum cleaning systems
USP pu rified water, 1999 V2: 320, 1999 V2: 321 altitude adjustments, 1999 V2: 257
water treatment standards, 1999 V2: 279 codes and standards, 1999 V2: 262
US Pu blic Health Service, 1999 V2: 238 fundamentals, 1999 V2: 253–254
US Veterans Administration, 1998 V1: 195 in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 253
US War Department, 1999 V2: 114 laboratory systems, 1999 V2: 262–266
USP. See US Pharmacopoeia (USP) leakage, 1999 V2: 265, 1999 V2: 267
utility costs, lowering, 1998 V1: 131 piping, 1999 V2: 262
utility gas. See fuel-gas piping systems pressu re drop, 1999 V2: 258
utility water treatment, 1999 V2: 313–314 pressu re measu remen t, 1999 V2: 254–256
UV treatmen t of water, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: pu mp cu rves, 1999 V2: 258
311–312, 1999 V2: 318, 1999 V2: 323, 1999 referen ces, 1999 V2: 277
V2: 324 sizing, 1999 V2: 262–266
su rges, 1999 V2: 35
V time to reach rated vacu u m, 1999 V2: 257–258
vacu u m-pressu re gau ges, 1999 V2: 260
v, V (valves). See valves
vacu u m reservoirs, 1999 V2: 262
V (specific volume). See specific volume
vacu u m sou rces, 1999 V2: 259–261, 1999 V2:
V (velocity of uniform flow), 1998 V1: 1
262, 1999 V2: 263–264
V (velocity). See velocity
velocity calcu lation s, 1999 V2: 258–259
V (vents). See vents and venting systems
work forces, 1999 V2: 259
V (volts). See volts
valen ce, 1999 V2: 280, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 302
v/ v (volume to volume), 1999 V2: 285
valved zon es in irrigation systems, 1999 V2: 26
VA (volt amperes), 1998 V1: 23
valves (v, V, VLV). See als o s pecific ty pes of valves
vac, VAC (vacuum). See vacuum
acoustic problems, 1998 V1: 202
VAC (vacuum). See vacuum
acoustic ratings, 1998 V1: 198
vacuum (vac, VAC)
closing quickly, 1999 V2: 131
defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 253
codes and standards, 1998 V1: 57–58
symbols for, 1998 V1: 10, 1998 V1: 23
friction loss in , 1999 V2: 128
vacuum breakers. See backflow preventers
in fectiou s waste systems, 1999 V2: 345
vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 266–277. See
join ts in , 1998 V1: 82
als o vacuum systems
pu re water systems, 1999 V2: 324
cleanouts, 1999 V2: 276
in risers, 1998 V1: 13
codes and standards, 1999 V2: 266
Index Index — 75

sizing natu ral gas fittings, 1999 V2: 184 vent stacks
su lfu ric acid and, 1999 V2: 332 air in, 1999 V2: 2
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 64
valve flow coefficients, 1998 V1: 17 ven t h eaders, 1999 V2: 45
in yard boxes (YB), 1998 V1: 12 ventilated sleeves an d gas piping, 1999 V2: 176
vandalism ven ts an d ven tin g systems (V, ven t, VENT). See als o
backflow preventers, 1999 V2: 149 vent stack terminals; vent stacks
fasteners on grates and strainers, 1999 V2: 11 acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 332, 1999 V2: 334
protecting against, 1999 V2: 19 arterial vents, 1999 V2: 52
VAP (vapor pressu re), 1998 V1: 21 chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 346
vap pr, VAP PR (vapor pressu re), 1998 V1: 21 chimney heights, 1999 V2: 178
vap prf, VAP PRF (vaporproof), 1998 V1: 23 circuit and loop venting, 1999 V2: 43–44
vapor-compression distillation, 1999 V2: 295–298 combin ation waste and vent systems, 1999 V2:
vapor pressu re, 1998 V1: 21 45–46
vaporproof (vap prf, VAP PRF), 1998 V1: 23 common ven ts, 1999 V2: 41
vapors, h azardou s, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 332, con flu ent ven ts, 1999 V2: 51
1999 V2: 333 du ct seismic protection , 1998 V1: 155
var, VAR (variables), 1998 V1: 23 en d ven tin g, 1999 V2: 41
variable air volu me (VAV), 1998 V1: 23 factors in trap seal loss, 1999 V2: 36
variable-speed mu ltiple pu mps, 1998 V1: 131 fire-su ppression drain age an d, 1999 V2: 347
variables (var, VAR), 1998 V1: 23 fixtu re u n its, 1999 V2: 40–41
varn ish es in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 fixtu re ven ts, 1999 V2: 37–39
VAV (variable air volu me), 1998 V1: 23 glossary of terms, 1999 V2: 64
vegetable oil, 1999 V2: 10 gravity ven ts for gas applian ces, 1999 V2: 178
veh icu lar traffic in fectiou s waste systems, 1999 V2: 345
grates an d, 1999 V2: 11 in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 35
leach ing tren ch es an d, 1999 V2: 223 loop ven tin g, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 64
vel., VEL (velocity). See velocity natu ral gas applian ce ven ts, 1999 V2: 177–178
velocity (vel., VEL, V). See als o dynamic pressure; offsets, 1999 V2: 44–45
velocity of flow oil separators, 1999 V2: 349
acoustic pump problems, 1998 V1: 201 Ph iladelph ia system, 1999 V2: 46, 1999 V2: 47,
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 45 1999 V2: 48
defined, 1998 V1: 39 pu rposes, 1999 V2: 35
earthqu akes, 1998 V1: 159 redu ced-size ven tin g, 1999 V2: 49, 1999 V2: 53,
measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 1999 V2: 54
non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42 referen ces, 1999 V2: 65
propagation velocity, 1998 V1: 7 relief ven ts, 1999 V2: 44, 1999 V2: 45
in rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 142 septic tan k ven ts, 1999 V2: 231
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 sewer vents, 1999 V2: 35
wind (w vel., W VEL), 1998 V1: 23 sizes an d len gth s, 1998 V1: 3, 1999 V2: 41–43,
velocity head (h), 1998 V1: 6 1999 V2: 50–63
velocity of flow sovent systems, 1999 V2: 46–47, 1999 V2: 54–63
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 121–122 special-waste drain age systems, 1999 V2: 328
flow from ou tlets, 1998 V1: 7 storm-drain age stacks, 1999 V2: 67
open-ch an n el flow, 1998 V1: 1 su ds ventin g, 1999 V2: 36–37, 1999 V2: 39
site storm drain age, 1999 V2: 98 su mps, 1999 V2: 105
sizin g meth od for pipes, 1999 V2: 131 symbols for, 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 23
terminal velocity, defin ed, 1999 V2: 1 traps an d trap seals, 1999 V2: 36, 1999 V2: 39–
vacu u m clean in g systems, 1999 V2: 270–272 40
vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 258–259 ven t h eaders, 1999 V2: 45
water h ammer and, 1998 V1: 203, 1999 V2: 144 ven ted inlet tees in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
water su pply pipin g an d, 1999 V2: 249 wet ven ts, 1999 V2: 43, 1999 V2: 49
vent con n ectors, defin ed, 1999 V2: 214 ventu ri-meters, 1998 V1: 202
vent gases, defin ed, 1999 V2: 214 ventu ri su ction pu mps, 1999 V2: 241
ven t stack termin als vertical (vert., VERT), 1998 V1: 23
defined, 1999 V2: 35–36, 1999 V2: 64 vertical forces, 1998 V1: 194
liqu efied petroleu m gas, 1999 V2: 197 vertical leaders, 1999 V2: 85–88, 1999 V2: 109
n atu ral gas, 1999 V2: 177 vertical pipes, 1998 V1: 39
Index — 76 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

vertical pressu re media filters, 1999 V2: 300 vitrified sewer pipes, 1998 V1: 39
vertical risers for vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 269 VLV (valves). See valves
vertical seismic load, 1998 V1: 189 VOCs (volatile organic compounds), 1999 V2: 284,
vertical shaft tu rbine pu mps, 1998 V1: 32 1999 V2: 292
vertical stacks vol., VOL (volume). See volume
calcu lating terminal velocity and length, 1998 volatile liquids, 1999 V2: 13, 1999 V2: 347–349
V1: 3 volatile organ ic compou nds (VOCs), 1999 V2: 284,
defined, 1998 V1: 38 1999 V2: 292
fittings, 1999 V2: 1 volcan oes, 1998 V1: 156
flow in, 1999 V2: 1–2 volts (V, E, VOLTS)
h ydrau lic ju mps an d, 1999 V2: 2 decomposition poten tial defin ed, 1998 V1: 151
loadin g tables, 1999 V2: 4 measu remen t con version s, 1998 V1: 41
maximu m fixtu re-u n it valu es, 1999 V2: 4, 1999 symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
V2: 5 volt amperes (VA), 1998 V1: 23
mu ltistory stacks, 1999 V2: 5 volu me (vol., VOL)
pn eu matic pressu re in , 1999 V2: 2 calcu latin g, 1998 V1: 4–6
sizin g, 1999 V2: 5, 1999 V2: 6 con version factors, 1998 V1: 45
soven t systems, 1999 V2: 57 measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
stack capacities, 1999 V2: 3–5 non -SI u n its, 1998 V1: 42
storm-drain age stacks, 1999 V2: 67 symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
vertical tu rbine pu mps, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: volu me flow rate measu rements, 1998 V1: 41
246, 1999 V2: 247 volu me to volu me (v/ v), 1999 V2: 285
VFR (volu metric flow rates), 1998 V1: 23 volu metric flow measu rements, 1999 V2: 255
viable-cou n t essays, 1999 V2: 282 volu metric flow rates (VFR), 1998 V1: 23
vibratin g fill above sewers, 1999 V2: 16 vortexes
vibration an d vibration isolation in drain s, 1999 V2: 38
defined, 1998 V1: 217 from pu mps, 1998 V1: 201
earth qu akes from su mps, 1998 V1: 202
earthqu ake vibration periods, 1998 V1: 160 vp, VP (dyn amic pressu re or velocity), 1998 V1: 21
floor-mou n ted equ ipmen t, 1998 V1: 165–167
isolators an d, 1998 V1: 214 W
pipin g an d, 1998 V1: 169
W, W (humidity ratios), 1998 V1: 20
su spen ded equ ipmen t, 1998 V1: 167–168
W (walls). See walls
equ ipmen t vibration criteria, 1998 V1: 206
W (waste sewers), 1998 V1: 9
fixtu res, isolating, 1998 V1: 212, 1998 V1: 213
W (watts). See watts
n atu ral or free vibration, 1998 V1: 160
W/ m K (watts per meter per kelvin), 1998 V1: 41
n oise an d vibration control, 1998 V1: 204–205
w vel., W VEL (velocity, wind), 1998 V1: 23
pipin g, 1998 V1: 169. See als o water hammer
w/ w (weight to weight), 1999 V2: 285
pumps, 1998 V1: 211, 1998 V1: 212, 1998 V1:
wafer butterfly valves, 1999 V2: 268
214
wages in cost estimates, 1998 V1: 82
static deflection for pump vibration, 1998 V1:
WAL (walls). See walls
211
wall azimuth (WAZ), 1998 V1: 17
types of vibration control devices, 1998 V1: 208–
wall cleanouts (WCO), 1998 V1: 14
212
wall hydrants (WH), 1998 V1: 12, 1998 V1: 15
vibration isolation mou n ts, 1998 V1: 163, 1998
walls (W, WAL)
V1: 164
piping and acoustic design, 1998 V1: 200
vibration isolators, 1998 V1: 204
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
video equ ipmen t, 1999 V2: 10
wall penetrations of pipes, 1998 V1: 206
vin yl coatin gs, 1998 V1: 144
wander. See als o drift
viru ses in feed water, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 311–
drift defined, 1998 V1: 30
313
Warren, Alan W., 1999 V2: 114
visc., VISC (viscosity), 1998 V1: 2, 1998 V1: 23,
wash basins. See sinks and wash basins
1998 V1: 41
washing floors with gray water, 1999 V2: 22
viscosity (visc, VISC, MU)
washing machines. See laundry systems and
calcu lating valu es of, 1998 V1: 2
washers
measu remen ts, 1998 V1: 41
waste, defined, 1998 V1: 39
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
waste brines, 1999 V2: 231, 1999 V2: 307
vitrified clay pipin g, 1999 V2: 122, 1999 V2: 346
waste-disposal units. See garbage disposers
Index Index — 77

waste heat u sage, 1998 V1: 127, 1998 V1: 128–131 defined, 1999 V2: 279
waste oil (WO), 1998 V1: 10 water-conditioning or treating devices, 1998 V1:
waste oil vents (WOV), 1998 V1: 10 39
waste or soil vents. See stack vents water conservation. See conserving water
waste pipes, 1998 V1: 39 water coolers
waste sewers (W), 1998 V1: 9 access to, 1998 V1: 107–108
Was te-w ater Engineering: Treatment/ Dis pos al/ central water cooler systems, 1998 V1: 131
Reus e, 1999 V2: 238 gray-water ou tpu t, 1999 V2: 25
waste-water heat recovery, 1998 V1: 130 in stallation man -h ou r estimates, 1998 V1: 83
waste-water management. See als o gray-water wh eelch air space arou nd, 1998 V1: 106
systems; private sewage-disposal systems water deposits, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 290–292
individual aerobic waste-water treatment, 1999 Water Dis tributing Sy s tems for Buildings , 1999 V2:
V2: 232–233 155
treatmen t of gray water, 1999 V2: 27–29 water-distribution pipes and systems. See als o cold-
WAT (watts). See watts water systems; hot-water systems
Water: Us e of Treated Sew age on Ris e in State, 1999 acoustic design, 1998 V1: 200
V2: 34 defined, 1998 V1: 39
water (WTR). See als o water analysis; water chemis- weight of water-filled pipes, 1998 V1: 186
try water-distribution systems
as seal liquid in liquid ring pumps, 1999 V2: 260 water supply and distribution symbols, 1998 V1:
density, 1999 V2: 116 15
kinematic viscosity, 1999 V2: 121 water supply systems, 1998 V1: 39
samples of, 1999 V2: 155 water for injection (WFI), 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2:
subsurface water, 1999 V2: 99–105 320, 1999 V2: 321, 1999 V2: 324
water an alysis water glass, 1998 V1: 149
aggressiveness in dex, 1999 V2: 292 water hammer
codes an d stan dards, 1999 V2: 279 acoustic control of, 1998 V1: 206
example report, 1999 V2: 286 air locks, 1998 V1: 207
in trodu ction , 1999 V2: 284–285 controlling water hammer, 1999 V2: 132, 1999
pH, 1999 V2: 285, 1999 V2: 291 V2: 143
predictin g water deposits an d corrosion , 1999 defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 131–144
V2: 290–292 flow velocity an d water h ammer, 1998 V1: 203
referen ces, 1999 V2: 325 shock in ten sity, 1999 V2: 132
Ryzn er stability in dex, 1999 V2: 292 sizin g of arresters, 1999 V2: 143–144
silt density in dex, 1999 V2: 288–289 symbols on arresters, 1999 V2: 143
specific con du ctan ce, 1999 V2: 287 system protection an d control, 1999 V2: 132,
total dissolved solids, 1999 V2: 288 1999 V2: 143–144
total organ ic carbon , 1999 V2: 288 velocity and, 1999 V2: 121
total su spen ded solids, 1999 V2: 287–288 water hammer arresters (WHA)
water ch emistry acou stic design in water pipes, 1998 V1: 200
elemen ts, acids, an d radicals in water, 1999 V2: as protection an d con trol, 1999 V2: 132
281 defined, 1998 V1: 39
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 280–284 flow velocity an d, 1998 V1: 203
water impu rities, 1999 V2: 280–284 sh ock absorbers, 1998 V1: 203, 1998 V1: 206
water closets. See als o toilets; urinals sizin g, 1999 V2: 143–144
accessibility design, 1998 V1: 109–113 symbols, 1998 V1: 13, 1999 V2: 143
acou stic design , 1998 V1: 205, 1998 V1: 206 water heaters. See als o hot-water systems
acou stic ratin gs of, 1998 V1: 198–199 avoiding standby losses, 1998 V1: 127–128
con serving water in , 1999 V2: 232 booster water h eaters, 1998 V1: 124, 1998 V1:
exclu sion from gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 21 127
fixtu re-u nit loads, 1999 V2: 3 con servin g en ergy, 1998 V1: 123, 1998 V1: 126
gray water u sage, 1999 V2: 21, 1999 V2: 25 earth qu ake damages, 1998 V1: 163
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 59, 1999 V2: 62 earth qu ake protection , 1998 V1: 164, 1998 V1:
typical u se, 1999 V2: 25 165
u ltra-low-flow, 1999 V2: 19 “en ergy efficien t,” 1998 V1: 131
Water Conditional Manual, 1999 V2: 325 explosion s, 1999 V2: 157
water conditioning. See als o water purification; gas water h eaters, 1998 V1: 123, 1998 V1: 131
water softeners; water treatment heat recovery, 1999 V2: 158
Index — 78 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

overview, 1999 V2: 160–165 water-seal, self-scouring traps, 1999 V2: 36

stratification in water heaters, 1999 V2: 160, water-service pipes, defined, 1998 V1: 39
1999 V2: 165 water softeners
temperatu re, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 V2: 160
th ermal efficien cy, 1999 V2: 169 hardness of water, 1999 V2: 283
water impu rities ion-exchange, 1999 V2: 300
alkalinity, 1999 V2: 282–283 leakage, 1999 V2: 308
an alysis an d measu remen t, 1999 V2: 284–289 pressure losses and, 1999 V2: 125
biological fou lin g, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 316 pure water systems, 1999 V2: 323
dissolved gases, 1999 V2: 284 types of, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 307–308
h ardn ess, 1999 V2: 283 u tility water, 1999 V2: 314
microorgan isms, 1999 V2: 282 waste brin es, 1999 V2: 231
specific resistan ce, 1999 V2: 285–287 water-storage tanks
su spen ded solids, 1999 V2: 282 earth qu ake damage, 1998 V1: 163
treatment meth ods, 1999 V2: 292–313 pipe in stallation, 1999 V2: 250–252
volatile organ ic compou n ds, 1999 V2: 284 piping, 1999 V2: 249–250
water main s pressu re regu lators, 1999 V2: 248–249
defined, 1998 V1: 39 private water systems, 1999 V2: 239
in spection ch ecklist, 1998 V1: 96 types of, 1999 V2: 247–248
Water Management: A Comprehens ive Approach for water-air ratio in tan ks, 1999 V2: 150
Facility Managers , 1999 V2: 34 water levels in , 1999 V2: 151, 1999 V2: 248
water meters water su pply systems. See cold-water systems; hot-
domestic water meters, 1999 V2: 115–116 water systems; private water systems;
estimatin g sewage disposal from, 1999 V2: 233 water-distribution systems; wells
flow-pressu re loss averages, 1999 V2: 117 Water Sy s tems for Pharmaceutical Facilities , 1999
friction losses, 1999 V2: 127 V2: 325
loss of pressu re, 1999 V2: 123 water tables in wells, 1999 V2: 241–243
water pressu re Water Tank s for Fire Protection, 1999 V2: 247
booster-pu mp system, 1999 V2: 152 water-to-water heat exchanges, 1998 V1: 132
excess water pressu re, 1999 V2: 152–154 water treatment
gravity-tan k systems, 1999 V2: 150–152 aeration, 1999 V2: 292–294
h ydropn eu matic-tan k systems, 1999 V2: 150 boiler feed water, 1999 V2: 314–315
in adequ ate water pressu re, 1999 V2: 149–152 clarification , 1999 V2: 294
pressu re-regu latin g devices, 1999 V2: 122 codes an d stan dards, 1999 V2: 279
water h ammer an d, 1999 V2: 144 cooling towers, 1999 V2: 315–316
water pu rification corrosion in h ibitors, 1998 V1: 149
cen tral pu rification equ ipmen t, 1999 V2: 323– deaeration , 1999 V2: 294–295
325 dealkalizin g, 1999 V2: 295
codes an d stan dards, 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: decarbon ation , 1999 V2: 295
317 defined, 1999 V2: 279
feed water, 1999 V2: 320 distillation , 1999 V2: 295–298
ph armaceu tical systems, 1999 V2: 320 drin kin g water, 1999 V2: 316–317, 1999 V2: 318
polish ers an d, 1999 V2: 308 filtration , 1999 V2: 298, 1999 V2: 300
pu re-water systems defin ed, 1999 V2: 279 ion -exchan ge an d removal, 1999 V2: 300–308
referen ces, 1999 V2: 325 membran e filtration an d separation, 1999 V2:
specific resistan ce of pu re water, 1999 V2: 286 300, 1999 V2: 308–311
system design , 1999 V2: 321 microbial con trol, 1999 V2: 311–313
water impu rities, 1999 V2: 280–284 referen ces, 1999 V2: 325
water qu ality u tility water treatment, 1999 V2: 313–314
grades of laboratory water, 1999 V2: 317 water impu rities, 1999 V2: 280–284
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 33 water pu rification , 1999 V2: 317–325
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 244 water soften in g, 1999 V2: 307
referen ces, 1999 V2: 325 Water Treatment for HVAC and Potable Water
water resistivity meters, 1999 V2: 286 Sy s tems , 1999 V2: 325
water reu se systems, 1998 V1: 131. See als o gray- Water Us e in Office Buildings , 1999 V2: 34
water systems Water Us es Study , 1999 V2: 34
water risers, 1998 V1: 39 water wells. See wells
water-saving fixtures, 1998 V1: 131
Index Index — 79

waterborne radioactive waste (radwaste), 1999 V2: pu mps, 1999 V2: 245–247
337 system equ ipmen t, 1999 V2: 245–250
waterfall aerators, 1999 V2: 293 water demand an d, 1999 V2: 243–244
waterfront facilities, 1999 V2: 147 water qu ality, 1999 V2: 244–245
waterproofing drains, 1999 V2: 17, 1999 V2: 79 wet-bu lb temperatu re (wbt, WBT), 1998 V1: 23
watt-hou rs (Wh, WH), 1998 V1: 23 wet bu lbs (wb, WB), 1998 V1: 23
watts (W, WAT) wet floors in ch emical plants, 1999 V2: 346
converting to SI u nits, 1998 V1: 48 wet-pipe systems, 1998 V1: 37
measu rement conversions, 1998 V1: 41 wet stan dpipes, 1998 V1: 38
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 wet su rfaces, 1998 V1: 22
W/ m K (watts per meter per kelvin), 1998 V1: 41 wet vacu u m clean in g systems (WVC)
wave actions in water (tsu namis), 1998 V1: 158 defined, 1999 V2: 266
WAZ (wall azimu th), 1998 V1: 17 illu strated, 1999 V2: 276
wb, WB (wet bu lbs), 1998 V1: 23 pitch , 1999 V2: 277
Wb (webers), 1998 V1: 41 separators, 1999 V2: 268
wbt, WBT (wet-bu lb temperatu re), 1998 V1: 23 symbols for, 1998 V1: 11
WCO (wall cleanou ts), 1998 V1: 14 wet ventin g
WD (wind). See wind bath room grou ps, 1999 V2: 43
wdir, WDIR (wind direction), 1998 V1: 23 combin ation waste and ven t systems, 1999 V2:
weak-base regeneration, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2: 45–46
305 defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 64
weakly-acidic resins, 1999 V2: 308 illu strated, 1999 V2: 49
weakly-basic resins, 1999 V2: 308 Weymou th formu la, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 183,
webers, 1998 V1: 41 1999 V2: 190, 1999 V2: 191, 1999 V2: 198–
weep holes, 1999 V2: 17 1999 V2: 209
weight (wt, WT) WFI (water for in jection ), 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2:
horizontal loads of piping, 1998 V1: 186 320, 1999 V2: 321, 1999 V2: 324
of piping, earthquake protection and, 1998 V1: Wh , WH (watt-hou rs), 1998 V1: 23
169 WH (wall h ydran ts), 1998 V1: 12, 1998 V1: 15
in seismic force calculations, 1998 V1: 186 WHA (water h ammer arresters). See water hammer
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 arresters
weight loss in corrosion, 1998 V1: 141 What Future Role for Pres s ure Sew ers ?, 1999 V2:
weight to weight (w/ w), 1999 V2: 285 238
weighted runoff coefficients, 1999 V2: 97 wheelchairs
weirs, 1999 V2: 93 adult-sized, dimensions, 1998 V1: 102
welding anthropometrics for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 103–
corrosion and, 1998 V1: 143 107
earthquake protection techniques, 1998 V1: 169 approach es an d reach es, 1998 V1: 104
problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 192 clear space for, 1998 V1: 103
weld decay defined, 1998 V1: 152 toilet an d bathin g rooms, 1998 V1: 108
welded fittings, 1998 V1: 32 Wh ite, George Clifford, 1999 V2: 155
welded joints in radioactive waste systems, 1999 WI (width ), 1998 V1: 23
V2: 341 wide seepage beds, 1999 V2: 225
wells width (WI), 1998 V1: 23
bored wells, 1999 V2: 241 “will” in specification s, 1998 V1: 67
driven wells, 1999 V2: 241 win d (WD)
dug wells, 1999 V2: 240 direction (wdir, WDIR), 1998 V1: 23
equilibriu m equations for wells, 1999 V2: 242– gas applian ces an d, 1999 V2: 178
243 symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26 velocity, 1998 V1: 23
h ydrau lics of, 1999 V2: 241 ven t stack termin als an d, 1999 V2: 36
in itial operation an d main ten ance, 1999 V2: 252 win d pressu re (wpr, WPR, WP, WPRES), 1998 V1:
in trodu ction, 1999 V2: 240 23
jetted wells, 1999 V2: 241 with stan d for h ot-water systems, 1999 V2: 166
match ing water storage to pu mp flow, 1999 V2: WO (waste oil), 1998 V1: 10
248 wood sh rin kage, protectin g again st, 1999 V2: 19
pipe in stallation , 1999 V2: 250–252 wood stave pipin g, 1999 V2: 122
protection of, 1999 V2: 243 Woodcock, J .J ., 1999 V2: 34
Index — 80 ASPE Data Book — Volumes 1 & 2

word processors and project manu als, 1998 V1: 68 yellow brass, 1998 V1: 141
wording in specifications, 1998 V1: 67 yoke vents, 1998 V1: 39
work yr, YR (years), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 42
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 43 Yrjanainen, Glen, 1999 V2: 114
converting to SI u nits, 1998 V1: 47
measu rements, 1998 V1: 41 Z
working deionizers, 1999 V2: 301, 1999 V2: 302
z, Z (zones), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 185
working pressu re
Zelmanovich, Y., 1999 V2: 325
fu el gas, 1999 V2: 212
zeolite process, 1999 V2: 244
relief valves and, 1999 V2: 167
zeolites, 1999 V2: 302
vacu u m systems, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2: 262
zero-flow potential, 1998 V1: 152
worst case possibilities, radiation and, 1999 V2:
zeta potential, 1999 V2: 294
341
zinc
WOV (waste oil vents), 1998 V1: 10
anodes, 1998 V1: 147
WP (wind pressu re), 1998 V1: 23
corrosion, 1998 V1: 137
wpr, WPR (wind pressu re), 1998 V1: 23
electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141
WPRES (wind pressu re), 1998 V1: 23
galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140
wrapped piping
ZN (zones), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 185
plastic-wrapped steel piping, 1999 V2: 196
zones (z, Z, ZN)
sou nd damping, 1998 V1: 200, 1998 V1: 206–
in seismic force calcu lations, 1998 V1: 185
207
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
wrapped storm pipin g, 1999 V2: 68
Wrigh t, Victor E., 1998 V1: 80
writin g specification s
admin istration of specification s, 1998 V1: 68
overview, 1998 V1: 66–67
software, 1998 V1: 68
wrou gh t iron piping, 1999 V2: 122, 1999 V2: 176,
1999 V2: 196
wt, WT (weight). See weight
WVC (wet vacuum cleaning). See wet vacuum
cleaning systems
wyes
avoiding suds formation, 1999 V2: 37
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 61
Wyly, R.S., 1999 V2: 4, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 65

X
x-rays, 1999 V2: 337
X#A (compressed air). See compressed air (A, X#,
X#A)
XP explosion-proof construction, 1999 V2: 179
XP junction boxes, 1999 V2: 179
XPAN (expansion. See expansion

Y
y (years), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 42
yards (yd, YD)
converting to SI u nits, 1998 V1: 48
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
yards and lawns
storm-drainage systems and, 1999 V2: 67
yard cleanou ts (CO), 1998 V1: 14
YB (valves in yard boxes), 1998 V1: 12
yd, YD (yards), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 48
years (yr, YR), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 42
Yeh, K.L., 1999 V2: 325
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like on another system.

Using the Search command

The Search command allows you to perform a search on PDF documents. You
can search for a simple word or phrase, or you can expand your search query
by using wild-card characters and operators. You can use the search options to
further refine your search. And if document and date information were provided
for the documents you are searching, you can use that information to narrow
your search.

To perform a full-text search:

1 Launch Acrobat Reader 4.0, and choose Edit > Search > Query.
2 Type the text you want to search for in the Find Results Containing Text
box: The text that you type in can be a single word, a number, a term, or
a phrase. It can be a word, with or without wild-card characters (*, ?), or
any combination of letters, numbers, and symbols. Because you can
use Boolean operators in the text box, you must enclose any search
term that includes and, or, or not in quotes. You can also use the opera-
tors =, ~, and != with text, but only to perform exact matches, contains,
and does not contain searches, respectively. You can use comparison
operators (<, <=, >, >=) with values of the same type. For more informa-
tion, see Tips on defining search queries.
To clear the search dialog box and redefine the search, click Clear.
3 To refine your search query, select one or more of the search options:
Word Stemming, Sounds Like, Thesaurus, Match Case, or Proximity. If
the search options are not displayed in the Acrobat Search dialog box,
restore them by choosing File > Preferences > Search, and selecting
Show Options. For information on how these options affect your search
query, see Setting the search options.
4 To refine your search query using document and date information, enter
document information values in the Title, Subject, Author, and Keywords
text boxes, and enter date information in the creation and modification
date text boxes. If these text boxes are not displayed in the Acrobat
Search dialog box, restore them by choosing File > Preferences > Search,
and selecting Show Fields.
5 Select Search. The Search dialog box is hidden, and documents that
match your search query are listed in the Search Results window in
order of relevancy.
6 Double-click a document that seems likely to contain the relevant infor-
mation, probably the first document in the list. The document opens on
the first match for the text you typed.
7 Click the Search Next button or Search Previous button to go to other
matches in the document. Or choose another document to view.
Alternatively, you can redefine the query by typing new text in the Acro-
bat Search dialog box or by using other techniques to expand the search
to include more documents or to limit the search to fewer documents.
For more infor-mation, see Limiting searches.

Viewing documents returned from searches

A search returns a list of indexed documents containing items that match your
search query. The results are displayed in the Search Results window. When
you open a document in the list, you view only pages containing matches. All
the matches on a page are highlighted.

Documents more likely to contain relevant information are listed first on the list.
The relevancy ranking of each document is indicated by an icon. The degree of
fill in the circle in the icon indicates the probability that the document contains
the search information. A solid fill indicates a high proba-bility that the docu-
ment contains your search term; an empty circle indicates a low probability that
the document contains your search term.

Relevancy ranking for search results

The relevancy ranking also depends on how you defined your search query:
When you use ordinary search text, the relevancy ranking indicates how
frequently the search word appears in the document. This means both
in absolute terms and relative to the number of other words in the docu-
ment.
When you use a Boolean OR operator between two words or phrases in
a search, documents that contain both items have a higher relevancy
ranking than documents that contain just one item.
When you use the Proximity option, the closer the matches are within a
document, the higher the relevancy ranking of that document.
To view a document returned from a search:
1 Double-click the document name to open the document.
2 Use the Search buttons on the tool bar to view all the matches for your
query.
3 Review the search results that automatically appear in the text box:
To highlight the next occurrence of a match in the document, click
Search Next.
To highlight the previous occurrence of a match in a document, click
Search Previous.
To highlight the first occurrence of a match in the next document
listed or previous document listed, Shift-click Search Next or Search
Previous.
To view any other document listed, select Search Results to redisplay
the list, then double-click the document name.

Refining your searches

If your search returns too many documents or provides too many matches in
individual documents, you can pair down the search results by confining the
search to documents returned by a previous search, or you can more narrowly
define your search term, use the document and date information, and use the
general search options and the Word Assistant. Alternatively, if your search did
not provide the information you were looking for, you can broaden your search
query using the search options, for example.

Note: If the search options and document and date information text boxes are
not displayed in the Acrobat Search dialog box, restore them by choos-
ing File > Preferences > Search, and selecting Show Options.

Refining searches in progress

If you want to narrow a search further, you can refine or confine your search to
documents listed in a prior search. For example, you can first search for (and
find) all documents by an author, and then define a earch query for that subset
of documents. The result would be a subset of documents that are authored by
the specified author and that contain the search string.

To refine a search:
1 Choose Edit > Search > Query to display the Search Results window.
Select and show the results of a previous search.
2 In the Search dialog box, refine or replace the query that produced the
list of documents.
If you used a simple text string for the search query, you might consider
refining the search query by using the search options, by including docu-
ment and date information in the search, or by using Word Assistant.
For more infor-mation, see Using Word Assistant.
3 Press Ctrl (Windows) or Option (Mac OS). The button label changes
from Search to Refine.
4 Click Refine. This produces a Search Results list of documents that are
a subset of the previous list and that match the new query.
Setting the search options
You can expand your search term by using the search options Sounds Like,
Word Stemming, or Thesaurus.

To set the search options:

In the Search dialog box, select one or more of the options:
Word Stemming finds words that contain part of (a word stem) the
specified search word. It applies to single words, not phrases; does not
apply to words that contain wild-card characters (*, ?); finds words that
end in ing, ed, s, ion, and so on, but not er; and cannot be used with the
Match Case option. Word Stemming works only for indexes built with
this option.
Sounds Like finds different spellings for proper names. It applies to
single words, not phrases; does not apply to words that contain wild-
card characters; and cannot be used with the Match Case option. Sounds
Like works only for indexes built with this option.
Thesaurus finds similar words that appear in the documents you are
searching, not necessarily all the similar words you might find in a com-
plete thesaurus. It applies to single words, not phrases; does not apply
to words that contain wild-card characters; and cannot be used with the
Match Case option.
Match Case limits the results of the search by finding only those docu-
ments that contain words with the same capitalization. It can be used
with a Boolean expression and with terms that use wild-card characters.
Characters matched by wild-card characters can be either uppercase or
lowercase.
Proximity limits the results of simple AND searches to one pair of
matches per document—the pair closest together. The two matches
must be within three pages or fewer of each other. This option is useful
for locating a document that concentrates on some topic of interest.
Proximity affects relevancy ranking in searches. The closer the matches
are within a document, the higher the ranking. Proximity does work with
complex AND searches—such as, Hawaii AND (cruise OR fly). If you
want to keep the search dialog box small, you can hide (or keep hidden)
the options and type in their names in the Find Results Containing Text
box. Along with the text box names, you need to use operators such as
= (equals) and > (greater than). For the options, type in /st (stemming),
/so (sounds like), /th (thesaurus), /ca (match case), or /pr (proximity).

Expanding searches
Use wild-card characters in the search text to increase the number of
matches for the text.
Use an asterisk (*) to match zero, one, or more characters; use a ques-
tion mark (?) to match any one character.
Use wild-card characters in a term that is part of a Boolean expression.
Use wild-card characters to specify Document Info text box values. How-
ever, you cannot use wild-cards to represent separator characters such
as the hyphen (-) and the slash (/).
Use Boolean expressions in Document Info text box values.
Use a Boolean OR operator between two words to return documents
containing either word.
Use the Sounds Like, Word Stemming, and Thesaurus options to in-
crease the number of matches for the text.
Use a comma (,) or vertical bar (|) to separate items in an OR search.

Limiting searches
Use a Boolean NOT operator before a word or search term to exclude
documents containing the word or search term.
Use an exclamation point (!) as another way to specify a NOT search.
However, be sure to place a space between the exclamation point and
the search item.
Use a Boolean AND operator between two words to return only docu-
ments containing both words.
Use the Proximity option to limit AND searches. This specifies that words
must be in close proximity to each other—within three pages or fewer.
Use the Match Case option to match exact capitalization.

Using Boolean operators

To avoid building inaccurate search queries, follow these guidelines:
When NOT is used with either or both of the AND and OR operators, it
is evaluated before either the AND or OR. For example, evolution AND
NOT Darwin finds all documents that contain the word evolution but not
the word Darwin.
When you combine AND and OR in the same expression, AND is evalu-
ated before OR. For example, Darwin OR origin AND species finds all
documents that contain Darwin or that contain both origin and species.
When you use parentheses, you change the default order of evaluation
for Boolean operators. For example, (Darwin OR origin) AND species
finds all documents that contain either Darwin and species or that con-
tain origin and species. Parentheses can be nested.
When you use a literal phrase that contains an operator name, a symbol
for an operator name (such as & for AND), or parentheses, the phrase
must be enclosed in quotation marks. For example: “cats and dogs”
finds all documents that contain the phrase cats and dogs, not all docu-
ments that contain either the word cats or the word dogs. The phrase
cats & dogs also needs quotes to be interpreted literally.
In addition to and, or, not, and parentheses, the symbols that require
quotation marks are
& AND
| and, OR
! NOT
However, quoted search phrases that contain parentheses or vertical
bars can produce unexpected results.

Using operators
You can use operators in text and Document Info text boxes.
You can use =, ~, and != with text only to perform exact matches, con-
tains, and does not contain searches, respectively.
You can use comparison operators (<, <=, >, >=) with values of the
same type.

For complete instructions on using the Adobe Reader features see the Readers Guide.