Acid buret – is a glass vial with graduation Distilling Flask – used to separate

marks. It is used in the laboratory for accurately mixtures of two liquids with
measuring and dispensing liquids. different boiling points.

Dropper – used to transfer

small quantities of liquids.

Adapter – used to connect pieces of ground

glass joint glassware to each other, to a vacuum
source, or to a water aspirator. It is also used to Erlenmeyer Flask – used for storing
lead liquids from a condenser to a receiving flask and mixing of chemicals in a
during distillation. laboratory setting.

Evaporating Dish – used to

evaporate excess solvent to
produce a concentrated solution
Alkali/Base Buret – are used for base titrants. or a solid precipitate of the
Basically, this is used in titrations where the dissolved substance.
analyte is an acid.
Florence Flask – is designed for
uniform heating, boiling, distillation
and ease of swirling.
Beaker – A cylindrical borosilicate Funnel – used to channel liquid or
glass container used as a receptable fine-grained substances into
for solid and liquid substances. containers with a small opening.

Glass rod/Stirring rod – used to mix chemicals

Buret clamp – a clamp and liquids for laboratory purposes.
which is used to secure
a buret on a stand.
Graduated Cylinder – used for measuring
Volumes (amounts) of liquids accurately.

Clay shield – used to insulate Iron clamp/Test tube clamp

the Bunsen burner flame from – used to hold test tubes in
the surroundings. It is also used place during heating
to support materials when operations and/or reactions.
heating.
Iron Ring – used to hold or
Clay triangle – used in conjunction Support beakers during
with the clay shield to create a stable experiments while connected
framework in which to place a to the iron stand.
substance while it is heated to
a high temperature. Iron stand – supports the iron ring
when heating substances or mixtures
Condenser – used in the laboratory to condense in a flask or beakers.
hot vapors into liquids during distillation.
Pipette – used in chemistry to
transport a measured volume of liquid,
often as a media dispenser.

Crucible Tong – It is used to safely handle hot

materials at a very high temperature.
Pipettor/ Aspirator- used to
draw liquids in pipettes.
Test tube – are containers for heating Alcohol lamp –
small amounts of liquids or solids with
a Bunsen burner or alcohol burner.

Test tube brush – used for cleaning test tubes

and narrow-mouthed laboratory glassware, such
as beakers and flask.

Test tube holder - used for holding a test tube in

place when the tube is hot or should not be
touched.

Test tube rack – used to hold upright multiple

test tubes at the same time.
Commonly used when
various different solutions
are needed to work
simultaneously.

Thermometer – used to measure temperatures

or temperature changes with a high degree of
precision.

Water bath – used to incubate samples in water

at a constant temperature over a long period of
time. Also used to enable certain chemical
reactions to occur.

Watch glass – is used to evaporate a liquid, to

hold solids while being weighed, for heating a
small amount of substance and as a cover for a One of the common operations in the laboratory
beaker. is the use of a Bunsen burner. It produces a
single open flame which is used for heating
and combustion. Combustion is commonly
called burning. The substance that burns is
usually referred to as fuel. Sufficient air or
Wire gauze – is placed on the support ring that is oxygen is needed for the complete combustion of
attached to the retort stand between the Bunsen a fuel.
burner and the beakers or other glassware or
flasks during heating.
1. Bunsen Burner
Note the gas inlet and the nozzle or gas spud
 Complete combustion of a fuel yields at the base of the burner.
carbon dioxide and water vapor. This
reaction typically gives off heat and a
non-luminous flame. The general  Before lighting the Bunsen burner, make
equation for a complete combustion sure that the gas regulator is closed and
reaction is the airholes are open.
 Open the gas regulator slightly.
fuel + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g) + heat  Light a matchstick and hold it just slightly
above the mouth of the burner.
 Incomplete combustion occurs when  Slowly open the gas cock until you have a
the supply of air or oxygen is poor. It flame of about ten cm high.
yields carbon monoxide and pure  Open and close the air holes and note the
carbon aside from carbon dioxide and difference in the color of the flame.
water vapor. This pure carbon is called
soot. The flame produced is a luminous  Put out the flame by turning off the gas
one. cock and close the gas regulator. NEVER
BLOW OUT THE GAS FLAME.
fuel + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
+ CO(g) + C(s) + heat
2. Measurement of volume of liquids.
Parts of a bunsen burner:
In reading the volume, place the graduated
cylinder on a flat surface and keep the eye at
level with the lower meniscus of the liquid

Record the volumes of liquids in approximately

two decimal places.

NOTE: For reading the volume of colored liquids,

keep the eye level with the upper
meniscus.

3. Transferring Liquids

- Hold the beaker with water with one hand

and a glass rod with the other.
- Hold the glass rod against the lip of the
beaker containing the water and put the
free end of the rod into an empty 250 mL
beaker.
- Carefully pour the water and let it glide
down the glass rod into the empty
Parts of a Bunsen Burner and Their Functions:
beaker
 Barrel - where the fuel and air mixes
 Air hole – entrance of the air 4. Heating liquids in test tubes
 Mouth – place of ignition
 Gas inlet – entrance of the fuel gas - Hold the test tube with a test tube holder
 Gas regulator – valve that controls the and position it at a 45˚ angle.
fuel gas coming into the gas spud - Heat the liquid by moving the test tube
 Gas spud – regulates/controls the amount slowly back and forth through the flame
of fuel gas to be combusted in such a manner that the top of the flame
 Collar – movable part that is near the top of the liquid but does
regulates/controls the amount of air not touch the empty part of the test
coming in and to close and open the air tube.
holes
 Base – supports the Bunsen burner 5. Investigating odors
 Rubber tubing – attached to the gas inlet
and connected to the gas source - Many substances have characteristic
odors. Some have agreeable odors
while others have disagreeable or Heat energy is transferred from a hot metal to
irritating odors. water until the metal and the water have
- Be cautious in investigating odors. Some reached the same temperature. This transfer is
vapors, when inhaled, can be lethal. done in an insulated container to minimize heat
- Never take a direct sniff of the vapor at losses to the surroundings. It is safe to assume
the mouth of the container where the that all the heat lost by the metal (Qx) is absorbed
concentration of the vapor is high. by the water and is equal to the heat gained by
- When it is necessary to smell chemicals in the water, (Qw).
the laboratory, cup your hand above the
container and WAFT OR FAN THE This relationship can be used to calculate specific
VAPOR towards your face. heat of a metal because both the mass of the
- Try not to breathe in through your nose metal and its temperature change can be
but bring in just enough to detect the measured.
smell.

The bottom of the test tube should be at least one

CALORIMETRY – half inch above the
bottom of the beaker.
 Calorimetry is the science of measuring a
quantity of heat. Fill the beaker with tap water so that the height of
 Heat is a form of energy associated with the water in the beaker is about two
the motion of atoms or molecules of a inches higher than the top of the metal sample.
substance. There should be no water inside the test
 Heat, Q, is measured in energy units such tube.
as joules (J) or calories (cal).
 Temperature, T, is measured in degrees The nested cups with the cardboard cover and
Celsius,°C. the thermometer are referred to as a calorimeter.
 Temperature and heat are related to
each other by the specific heat, cp, of a It is important that the transfer takes place
substance, defined as the quantity of heat quickly and carefully to minimize heat loss to
needed to raise the temperature one gram the surroundings and to avoid splashing.
of a substance by one degree Celsius
(J/g-°C). the specific heat of the metal versus the atomic
 The relationship between quantity of heat mass of the scorresponding metal. THE
(Q), specific heat (cp), mass (m) and SPECIFIC HEAT IS INVERSELY
temperature change (∆T) is PROPORTIONAL TO THE ATOMIC MASS OF
mathematically expressed by the THE METAL.
equation:
Q = mcp∆ T or Joules = (g)(J/g -°C)(°C)

The amount of heat needed to raise the

temperature of 1 g of water by 1 degree Celsius is
the basis of the calorie.
Thus, the specific heat of water is exactly 1.00
cal/g∙0C. The SI unit of energy is the joule and it
is related to the calorie by: 1 calorie = 4.184 J.
Thus, the specific heat of water is also 4.184
J/g∙0C. The specific heat of a substance
relates to its capacity to absorb heat energy.

The higher the specific heat of a substance

the more energy required to change its
temperature.

In this experiment, calorimetry is used to

determine the specific heat of a metal.
HEAT OF COMBUSTION

 The combustion of organic compounds

like alcohols produces large quantities
of energy.

 Ethanol is a commonly used fuel in motor

cars and its usage is increasing because it
is a form of renewable energy.

 A good fuel is any substance which gives

out large amounts of energy when it is
burnt. In most cases, fuels are burnt in
oxygen (air), i.e., they are oxidized.

This experiment aims to investigate the

relationship between the number of carbon atoms
in an alcohol chain and its standard enthalpy
change of combustion. what relationship can be drawn between the
number of carbon atoms and their standard
The heat of combustion (standard enthalpy enthalpies of combustion? – They are directly
change of combustion) is the enthalpy change proportional to each other.
when one mole of the compound undergoes
complete combustion in excess oxygen under 5 types of combustion and define each type.
standard conditions. 1. Complete - ccurs in an unlimited supply of
It is given the symbol ΔH˚comb and standard air, oxygen in particular. Also, complete
conditions simply refer to room conditions with a combustion is also known as clean
temperature of 298K and a pressure of 1 atm. combustion.
2. Incomplete - takes place when the air is
The combustion of alcohol is an exothermic in limited supply. And as opposed to
process. It releases heat to the surrounding complete combustion it is otherwise
resulting to a negative value. known as dirty combustion. Due to lack of
oxygen, the fuel will not react completely.
3. Rapid - Rapid energy needs external heat
NOTE: Alcohols are organic substances that are energy for the reaction to occur. The
flammable and easily catch fire when combustion produces a large amount of
exposed to naked flames. It is a fire hazard. Care heat and light energy and does so rapidly.
must be taken to ensure that any The combustion will carry on as long as
spills are being cleaned up immediately. Safety the fuel is available.
goggles must be worn while 4. Spontaneous - it requires no external
performing this experiment. A fire extinguisher energy for the combustion to start. It
should also be kept close by in case happens due to self-heating. A substance
of emergencies. with low-ignition temperatures gets heated
and this heat is unable to escape.
5. Explosive - when the reaction occurs very
rapidly. The reaction occurs when
something ignites to produce heat, light
and sound energy, The simple way to
describe is it to call it an explosion.

Examples of combustion in everyday life

- Burning of Wood or Coal to heat your

home
- Burning of Petrol or Diesel to run your Car
- Combustion of Natural Gas or LPG to
cook for on your stovetop
- For the production of energy in thermal LABORATORY SAFETY & HAZARDS
power plantt
- Fireworks Do (What to do in a Laboratory….)

Ethanol (C2H6O)  Wear appropriate eye protection, and

Propanol (C3H8O) inform teacher if one wears contact
Butanol (C4H10O) lenses.
 Observe safety when handling sharp
objects.
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION REACTIONS  Wash your hands before you leave the
laboratory
Reduction reaction refers to the gain of  Be aware of all the safety devices. Should
electrons by a chemical particle while oxidation know where to find the first aid kit, the
is the loss of electron by another chemical chemical spill kit, the eye wash and the
particle. safety shower
 Keep clutter to a minimum. Clean spillage
The particle that loses electrons is said to be of chemicals, and maintain general
oxidized and that one that gains these hygiene immediately after every work.
electrons is said to be reduced. Redox is the  Report all spills, injuries, or broken
term that comes from the combination of the equipment to your teacher. Immediately
two words “reduction” and “oxidation”. after a spill or breakage occurs, it must be
reported to your teacher. No matter how
Oxidation and reduction always occur small it may seem.
simultaneously. That is, if one element is  Use mitts or tongs with hot materials to
oxidized by losing electron then another element prevent burns.
has to be reduced by taking/ gaining those  Work with volatile chemicals under a fume
electrons. hood.
 Check glassware for stars or cracks.
 Label all chemicals and close the
containers tightly.
 Use the appropriate PPEs including hand
METAL AND SOME ASPECTS OF gloves and chemical splash safety
CORROSION googles for the chemicals handled.
 All contaminated wastes must be collected
and disposed appropriately as per
Metals are composed of atoms which easily disposal procedure.
lose electrons and form cations. They possess
a lustrous appearance, have high thermal and Don’t (Things to Avoid in a Laboratory…)
electrical conductivities and are malleable and
ductile.  Do not touch any equipment, chemicals,
or other materials until told to do so.
Corrosion is a general term applied to the  Do not eat or drink, and do not chew gum
process in which uncombined metals, when left in the laboratory.
exposed, eventually combine with the elements  When heating liquid, the opening of the
surrounding them (e.g. oxygen from the air) to test tube must NEVER be pointed towards
form compounds. another person or to yourself.
 Never blew out the gas flame in the
In this special case of iron, the corrosion Bunsen burner
process is called rusting because the compound  Do not put pieces of lab equipment in your
formed is a rust, Fe2O3∙H2O. mouth.
 Do not pipet solutions by mouth
 Do not use the phone or computer with
gloves on your hands to avoid getting
contaminations.
 Never take a direct sniff of the vapor at the
mouth of the container where the
concentration of the vapor is high.
 Never leave a heat source unattended
 DON’T transfer used chemicals back into
primary container.
 DO NOT work with chemicals until you are Lab-safe Refrigerators - Laboratory fridges
sure of their safe handling. This includes are designed to store samples, specimens,
some awareness of their flammability, vaccines and medicines at a very specific
reactivity, toxicity, and disposal. temperature range. They are used to cool
samples or specimens for preservation. inside of
Laboratory Safety Equipment & Personal a lab-safe fridge has no sources of ignition, and
Protective Equipment (PPE) has no internal electrical components which could
trigger an explosion.
Eye Wash Stations - are paramount for every lab.
There should be multiple eyewash stations so
they can be quickly accessed during Laboratory Safety Symbols or Signage
emergencies. Eyewash stations are designed to
flush the eye and face area only. There are
combination units available that contain both
features: a shower and an eyewash.

Safety Goggles - Goggles can be used to protect

the eye against particles, chemicals, water, glare
and from things striking the eyes

Fire Extinguisher - Fires can occur whenever

electrical equipment, and flammable materials
and chemicals are being handled. A fire
extinguisher should be kept in an easily accessed
location, and all laboratory personnel should
know how to use it properly.

Protective Gloves - Laboratory gloves reduce

contamination and protect you while working with
germs, pathogens, or other potentially hazardous
samples.

Lab Coats and Aprons - When there are chemical

spills, these will help prevent dangerous liquids
and particles from ruining clothes and chemical
contact to the skin.

Safety Showers - In the case of hazardous

chemicals coming into contact with skin, it is
extremely important to promptly rinse off the
substances.

First Aid Kits - First aid kits are important to have

initial treatments and care during emergencies.
They can be use to properly sterilize and cover
the exposed area to prevent any dangerous
chemicals from getting into the wound.

Fire Blankets - Fire blankets help smother the

flames if someone’s clothing ignites. After the
person has dropped to the floor and rolled around
to try to extinguish the flames, a fire blanket can
be used as a last resort.

Chemical Fume Hoods - Fume hoods are

chemical and fire-resistant enclosures that protect
lab personnel from inhaling dangerous chemicals
by drawing in vapors, gases, and dusts before
ventilating them out of the laboratory.