The Bhagavad Gita (/ˌbʌɡəvəd ˈɡiːtɑː/; Sanskrit: भगवद्गीता, romanized: bhagavad-gītā, lit.

'The Song by
God'[a]), often referred to as the Gita (IAST: gītā), is a 700-verse Hindu scripture, which is part of
the epic Mahabharata. It forms the chapters 23–40 of book 6 of the Mahabharata called the Bhishma
Parva. The work is dated to the second half of the first millennium BCE.[2]
The Bhagavad Gita is set in a narrative framework of dialogue between
the Pandava prince Arjuna and his charioteer guide Krishna, an avatar of lord Vishnu. At the start of
the Kurukshetra War between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, Arjuna despairs thinking about the
violence and death the war will cause in the battle against his kin and becomes emotionally
preoccupied with a dilemma.[3] Wondering if he should renounce the war, Arjuna seeks the counsel of
Krishna, whose answers and discourse constitute the Bhagavad Gita. Krishna counsels Arjuna to
"fulfil his Kshatriya (warrior) duty" for the upholdment of dharma.[4] The Krishna–Arjuna dialogue
covers a broad range of spiritual topics, touching upon moral and ethical dilemmas, and
philosophical issues that go far beyond the war that Arjuna faces.[1][5][6] The setting of the text in a
battlefield has been interpreted as an allegory for the struggles of human life.
Summarizing the Upanishadic conceptions of God, the Gita posits the existence of an individual self
(Atman) and the supreme self (Brahman) within each being.[note 1] The dialogue between the prince
and his charioteer has been interpreted as a metaphor for an immortal dialogue between the human
self and God.[note 2] Commentators of Vedanta read varying notions in the Bhagavad Gita about the
relationship between the Atman (individual Self) and Brahman (supreme Self); Advaita
Vedanta affirms on the non-dualism of Atman and Brahman,[7] Vishishtadvaita asserts qualified non-
dualism with Atman and Brahman being related but different in certain aspects, while Dvaita
Vedanta declares the complete duality of Atman and Brahman.[note 3][6][8]
As per Hindu mythology, the Bhagavad Gita was written by the god Ganesha, as told to him by the
sage Veda Vyasa. The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis[9][10] of various Hindu ideas
about dharma,[9][10][11] theistic bhakti,[11][12] and the yogic ideal[10] of moksha.[10] The text
covers Jñāna, Bhakti, Karma, and Rāja yogas,[12] while incorporating ideas from the Samkhya-
Yoga philosophy.[web 1][note 4] The Bhagavad Gita is one of the most revered Hindu texts[13] and has a
unique pan-Hindu influence.[14][15] Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita
with differing views on its essentials.

Etymology[edit]
The gita in the title of the Bhagavad Gita means "song". Religious leaders and scholars interpret the
word Bhagavad in a number of ways. Accordingly, the title has been interpreted as "the word of
God" by the theistic schools,[16] "the words of the Lord",[17] "the Divine Song",[18][page needed][19] and "Celestial
Song" by others.[20]
In India, its Sanskrit name is often written as Shrimad Bhagavad Gita, श्रीमद् भगवद् गीता (the latter two
words often written as a single word भगवद्गीता), where the Shrimad prefix is used to denote a high
degree of respect. This is not to be confused with the Shrimad Bhagavatam, which is
a Purana dealing with the life of the Hindu God Krishna and various avatars of Vishnu.
The work is also known as the Iswara Gita, the Ananta Gita, the Hari Gita, the Vyasa Gita, or the
Gita.[21]

Date and authorship[edit]

Date[edit]
Theories on the date of the composition of the Gita vary considerably. Some scholars accept dates
from the 5th century BCE to the 2nd century BCE as the probable range, the latter likely. The
Hinduism scholar Jeaneane Fowler, in her commentary on the Gita, considers second century BCE
to be the probable date of composition.[22] J. A. B. van Buitenen also states that the Gita was likely
composed about 200 BCE.[23] According to the Indologist Arvind Sharma, the Gita is generally
accepted to be a 2nd-century-BCE text.[24]

A manuscript illustration of the battle of Kurukshetra,

fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the Mahabharata.
Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, in contrast, dates it a bit earlier. He states that the Gita was always a part of
the Mahabharata, and dating the latter suffices in dating the Gita.[25] On the basis of the estimated
dates of Mahabharata as evidenced by exact quotes of it in the Buddhist literature by Asvaghosa (c.
100 CE), Upadhyaya states that the Mahabharata, and therefore the Gita, must have been well
known by then for a Buddhist to be quoting it.[25][note 5] This suggests a terminus ante quem (latest date)
of the Gita to be sometime prior to the 1st century CE.[25] He cites similar quotes in the dharmasutra
texts, the Brahma sutras, and other literature to conclude that the Bhagavad Gita was composed in
the fifth or fourth century BCE.[27][note 6] According to Arthur Basham, the context of the Bhagavad Gita
suggests that it was composed in an era when the ethics of war were being questioned and
renunciation to monastic life was becoming popular.[29] Such an era emerged after the rise
of Buddhism and Jainism in the 5th century BCE, and particularly after the semi-legendary life
of Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Thus, the first version of the Bhagavad Gita may have been
composed in or after the 3rd century BCE.[29]
Winthrop Sargeant linguistically categorizes the Bhagavad Gita as Epic-Puranic Sanskrit, a
language that succeeds Vedic Sanskrit and precedes classical Sanskrit.[30] The text has occasional
pre-classical elements of the Vedic Sanskrit language, such as aorists and the
prohibitive mā instead of the expected na (not) of classical Sanskrit.[30] This suggests that the text
was composed after the Pāṇini era, but before the long compounds of classical Sanskrit became the
norm. This would date the text as transmitted by the oral tradition to the later centuries of the 1st-
millennium BCE, and the first written version probably to the 2nd or 3rd century CE.[30][31] According to
Jeaneane Fowler, "the dating of the Gita varies considerably" and depends in part on whether one
accepts it to be a part of the early versions of the Mahabharata, or a text that was inserted into the
epic at a later date.[32] The earliest "surviving" components therefore are believed to be no older than
the earliest "external" references we have to the Mahabharata epic. The Mahabharata – the world's
longest poem – is itself a text that was likely written and compiled over several hundred years, one
dated between "400 BCE or little earlier, and 2nd century CE, though some claim a few parts can be
put as late as 400 CE", states Fowler. The dating of the Gita is thus dependent on the uncertain
dating of the Mahabharata. The actual dates of composition of the Gita remain unresolved.[32] While
the year and century is uncertain, states Richard Davis,[33] the internal evidence in the text dates the
origin of the Gita discourse to the Hindu lunar month of Margashirsha (also called Agrahayana,
generally December or January of the Gregorian calendar).[34]

Authorship
The Bhagavad Gita (/ˌbʌɡəvəd ˈɡiːtɑː/; Sanskrit: भगवद्गीता, romanized: bhagavad-gītā, lit. 'The Song by
God'[a]), often referred to as the Gita (IAST: gītā), is a 700-verse Hindu scripture, which is part of
the epic Mahabharata. It forms the chapters 23–40 of book 6 of the Mahabharata called the Bhishma
Parva. The work is dated to the second half of the first millennium BCE.[2]
The Bhagavad Gita is set in a narrative framework of dialogue between
the Pandava prince Arjuna and his charioteer guide Krishna, an avatar of lord Vishnu. At the start of
the Kurukshetra War between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, Arjuna despairs thinking about the
violence and death the war will cause in the battle against his kin and becomes emotionally
preoccupied with a dilemma.[3] Wondering if he should renounce the war, Arjuna seeks the counsel of
Krishna, whose answers and discourse constitute the Bhagavad Gita. Krishna counsels Arjuna to
"fulfil his Kshatriya (warrior) duty" for the upholdment of dharma.[4] The Krishna–Arjuna dialogue
covers a broad range of spiritual topics, touching upon moral and ethical dilemmas, and
philosophical issues that go far beyond the war that Arjuna faces.[1][5][6] The setting of the text in a
battlefield has been interpreted as an allegory for the struggles of human life.
Summarizing the Upanishadic conceptions of God, the Gita posits the existence of an individual self
(Atman) and the supreme self (Brahman) within each being.[note 1] The dialogue between the prince
and his charioteer has been interpreted as a metaphor for an immortal dialogue between the human
self and God.[note 2] Commentators of Vedanta read varying notions in the Bhagavad Gita about the
relationship between the Atman (individual Self) and Brahman (supreme Self); Advaita
Vedanta affirms on the non-dualism of Atman and Brahman,[7] Vishishtadvaita asserts qualified non-
dualism with Atman and Brahman being related but different in certain aspects, while Dvaita
Vedanta declares the complete duality of Atman and Brahman.[note 3][6][8]
As per Hindu mythology, the Bhagavad Gita was written by the god Ganesha, as told to him by the
sage Veda Vyasa. The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis[9][10] of various Hindu ideas
about dharma,[9][10][11] theistic bhakti,[11][12] and the yogic ideal[10] of moksha.[10] The text
covers Jñāna, Bhakti, Karma, and Rāja yogas,[12] while incorporating ideas from the Samkhya-
Yoga philosophy.[web 1][note 4] The Bhagavad Gita is one of the most revered Hindu texts[13] and has a
unique pan-Hindu influence.[14][15] Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita
with differing views on its essentials.

Etymology[edit]
The gita in the title of the Bhagavad Gita means "song". Religious leaders and scholars interpret the
word Bhagavad in a number of ways. Accordingly, the title has been interpreted as "the word of
God" by the theistic schools,[16] "the words of the Lord",[17] "the Divine Song",[18][page needed][19] and "Celestial
Song" by others.[20]
In India, its Sanskrit name is often written as Shrimad Bhagavad Gita, श्रीमद् भगवद् गीता (the latter two
words often written as a single word भगवद्गीता), where the Shrimad prefix is used to denote a high
degree of respect. This is not to be confused with the Shrimad Bhagavatam, which is
a Purana dealing with the life of the Hindu God Krishna and various avatars of Vishnu.
The work is also known as the Iswara Gita, the Ananta Gita, the Hari Gita, the Vyasa Gita, or the
Gita.[21]

Date and authorship[edit]

Date[edit]
Theories on the date of the composition of the Gita vary considerably. Some scholars accept dates
from the 5th century BCE to the 2nd century BCE as the probable range, the latter likely. The
Hinduism scholar Jeaneane Fowler, in her commentary on the Gita, considers second century BCE
to be the probable date of composition.[22] J. A. B. van Buitenen also states that the Gita was likely
composed about 200 BCE.[23] According to the Indologist Arvind Sharma, the Gita is generally
accepted to be a 2nd-century-BCE text.[24]

A manuscript illustration of the battle of Kurukshetra,

fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the Mahabharata.
Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, in contrast, dates it a bit earlier. He states that the Gita was always a part of
the Mahabharata, and dating the latter suffices in dating the Gita.[25] On the basis of the estimated
dates of Mahabharata as evidenced by exact quotes of it in the Buddhist literature by Asvaghosa (c.
100 CE), Upadhyaya states that the Mahabharata, and therefore the Gita, must have been well
known by then for a Buddhist to be quoting it.[25][note 5] This suggests a terminus ante quem (latest date)
of the Gita to be sometime prior to the 1st century CE.[25] He cites similar quotes in the dharmasutra
texts, the Brahma sutras, and other literature to conclude that the Bhagavad Gita was composed in
the fifth or fourth century BCE.[27][note 6] According to Arthur Basham, the context of the Bhagavad Gita
suggests that it was composed in an era when the ethics of war were being questioned and
renunciation to monastic life was becoming popular.[29] Such an era emerged after the rise
of Buddhism and Jainism in the 5th century BCE, and particularly after the semi-legendary life
of Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Thus, the first version of the Bhagavad Gita may have been
composed in or after the 3rd century BCE.[29]
Winthrop Sargeant linguistically categorizes the Bhagavad Gita as Epic-Puranic Sanskrit, a
language that succeeds Vedic Sanskrit and precedes classical Sanskrit.[30] The text has occasional
pre-classical elements of the Vedic Sanskrit language, such as aorists and the
prohibitive mā instead of the expected na (not) of classical Sanskrit.[30] This suggests that the text
was composed after the Pāṇini era, but before the long compounds of classical Sanskrit became the
norm. This would date the text as transmitted by the oral tradition to the later centuries of the 1st-
millennium BCE, and the first written version probably to the 2nd or 3rd century CE.[30][31] According to
Jeaneane Fowler, "the dating of the Gita varies considerably" and depends in part on whether one
accepts it to be a part of the early versions of the Mahabharata, or a text that was inserted into the
epic at a later date.[32] The earliest "surviving" components therefore are believed to be no older than
the earliest "external" references we have to the Mahabharata epic. The Mahabharata – the world's
longest poem – is itself a text that was likely written and compiled over several hundred years, one
dated between "400 BCE or little earlier, and 2nd century CE, though some claim a few parts can be
put as late as 400 CE", states Fowler. The dating of the Gita is thus dependent on the uncertain
dating of the Mahabharata. The actual dates of composition of the Gita remain unresolved.[32] While
the year and century is uncertain, states Richard Davis,[33] the internal evidence in the text dates the
origin of the Gita discourse to the Hindu lunar month of Margashirsha (also called Agrahayana,
generally December or January of the Gregorian calendar).[34]

Authorship
The Bhagavad Gita (/ˌbʌɡəvəd ˈɡiːtɑː/; Sanskrit: भगवद्गीता, romanized: bhagavad-gītā, lit. 'The Song by
God'[a]), often referred to as the Gita (IAST: gītā), is a 700-verse Hindu scripture, which is part of
the epic Mahabharata. It forms the chapters 23–40 of book 6 of the Mahabharata called the Bhishma
Parva. The work is dated to the second half of the first millennium BCE.[2]
The Bhagavad Gita is set in a narrative framework of dialogue between
the Pandava prince Arjuna and his charioteer guide Krishna, an avatar of lord Vishnu. At the start of
the Kurukshetra War between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, Arjuna despairs thinking about the
violence and death the war will cause in the battle against his kin and becomes emotionally
preoccupied with a dilemma.[3] Wondering if he should renounce the war, Arjuna seeks the counsel of
Krishna, whose answers and discourse constitute the Bhagavad Gita. Krishna counsels Arjuna to
"fulfil his Kshatriya (warrior) duty" for the upholdment of dharma.[4] The Krishna–Arjuna dialogue
covers a broad range of spiritual topics, touching upon moral and ethical dilemmas, and
philosophical issues that go far beyond the war that Arjuna faces.[1][5][6] The setting of the text in a
battlefield has been interpreted as an allegory for the struggles of human life.
Summarizing the Upanishadic conceptions of God, the Gita posits the existence of an individual self
(Atman) and the supreme self (Brahman) within each being.[note 1] The dialogue between the prince
and his charioteer has been interpreted as a metaphor for an immortal dialogue between the human
self and God.[note 2] Commentators of Vedanta read varying notions in the Bhagavad Gita about the
relationship between the Atman (individual Self) and Brahman (supreme Self); Advaita
Vedanta affirms on the non-dualism of Atman and Brahman,[7] Vishishtadvaita asserts qualified non-
dualism with Atman and Brahman being related but different in certain aspects, while Dvaita
Vedanta declares the complete duality of Atman and Brahman.[note 3][6][8]
As per Hindu mythology, the Bhagavad Gita was written by the god Ganesha, as told to him by the
sage Veda Vyasa. The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis[9][10] of various Hindu ideas
about dharma,[9][10][11] theistic bhakti,[11][12] and the yogic ideal[10] of moksha.[10] The text
covers Jñāna, Bhakti, Karma, and Rāja yogas,[12] while incorporating ideas from the Samkhya-
Yoga philosophy.[web 1][note 4] The Bhagavad Gita is one of the most revered Hindu texts[13] and has a
unique pan-Hindu influence.[14][15] Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita
with differing views on its essentials.

Etymology[edit]
The gita in the title of the Bhagavad Gita means "song". Religious leaders and scholars interpret the
word Bhagavad in a number of ways. Accordingly, the title has been interpreted as "the word of
God" by the theistic schools,[16] "the words of the Lord",[17] "the Divine Song",[18][page needed][19] and "Celestial
Song" by others.[20]
In India, its Sanskrit name is often written as Shrimad Bhagavad Gita, श्रीमद् भगवद् गीता (the latter two
words often written as a single word भगवद्गीता), where the Shrimad prefix is used to denote a high
degree of respect. This is not to be confused with the Shrimad Bhagavatam, which is
a Purana dealing with the life of the Hindu God Krishna and various avatars of Vishnu.
The work is also known as the Iswara Gita, the Ananta Gita, the Hari Gita, the Vyasa Gita, or the
Gita.[21]

Date and authorship[edit]

Date[edit]
Theories on the date of the composition of the Gita vary considerably. Some scholars accept dates
from the 5th century BCE to the 2nd century BCE as the probable range, the latter likely. The
Hinduism scholar Jeaneane Fowler, in her commentary on the Gita, considers second century BCE
to be the probable date of composition.[22] J. A. B. van Buitenen also states that the Gita was likely
composed about 200 BCE.[23] According to the Indologist Arvind Sharma, the Gita is generally
accepted to be a 2nd-century-BCE text.[24]
A manuscript illustration of the battle of Kurukshetra,
fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the Mahabharata.
Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, in contrast, dates it a bit earlier. He states that the Gita was always a part of
the Mahabharata, and dating the latter suffices in dating the Gita.[25] On the basis of the estimated
dates of Mahabharata as evidenced by exact quotes of it in the Buddhist literature by Asvaghosa (c.
100 CE), Upadhyaya states that the Mahabharata, and therefore the Gita, must have been well
known by then for a Buddhist to be quoting it.[25][note 5] This suggests a terminus ante quem (latest date)
of the Gita to be sometime prior to the 1st century CE.[25] He cites similar quotes in the dharmasutra
texts, the Brahma sutras, and other literature to conclude that the Bhagavad Gita was composed in
the fifth or fourth century BCE.[27][note 6] According to Arthur Basham, the context of the Bhagavad Gita
suggests that it was composed in an era when the ethics of war were being questioned and
renunciation to monastic life was becoming popular.[29] Such an era emerged after the rise
of Buddhism and Jainism in the 5th century BCE, and particularly after the semi-legendary life
of Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Thus, the first version of the Bhagavad Gita may have been
composed in or after the 3rd century BCE.[29]
Winthrop Sargeant linguistically categorizes the Bhagavad Gita as Epic-Puranic Sanskrit, a
language that succeeds Vedic Sanskrit and precedes classical Sanskrit.[30] The text has occasional
pre-classical elements of the Vedic Sanskrit language, such as aorists and the
prohibitive mā instead of the expected na (not) of classical Sanskrit.[30] This suggests that the text
was composed after the Pāṇini era, but before the long compounds of classical Sanskrit became the
norm. This would date the text as transmitted by the oral tradition to the later centuries of the 1st-
millennium BCE, and the first written version probably to the 2nd or 3rd century CE.[30][31] According to
Jeaneane Fowler, "the dating of the Gita varies considerably" and depends in part on whether one
accepts it to be a part of the early versions of the Mahabharata, or a text that was inserted into the
epic at a later date.[32] The earliest "surviving" components therefore are believed to be no older than
the earliest "external" references we have to the Mahabharata epic. The Mahabharata – the world's
longest poem – is itself a text that was likely written and compiled over several hundred years, one
dated between "400 BCE or little earlier, and 2nd century CE, though some claim a few parts can be
put as late as 400 CE", states Fowler. The dating of the Gita is thus dependent on the uncertain
dating of the Mahabharata. The actual dates of composition of the Gita remain unresolved.[32] While
the year and century is uncertain, states Richard Davis,[33] the internal evidence in the text dates the
origin of the Gita discourse to the Hindu lunar month of Margashirsha (also called Agrahayana,
generally December or January of the Gregorian calendar).[34]

Authorship