Munich Personal RePEc Archive

An Overview on the Feminism and Its

Categories

Mohajan, Haradhan

Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Premier

University, Chittagong, Bangladesh

20 June 2022

Online at https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/114625/
MPRA Paper No. 114625, posted 22 Sep 2022 01:12 UTC
Research and Advances in Education, SEP. 2022 VOL.1 NO.3, pp. 11-26. Paradigm Academic Press

An Overview on the Feminism and Its Categories

Haradhan Kumar Mohajan

Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Premier University, Chittagong, Bangladesh
Email: [email protected]
Mobile: +8801716397232

Abstract

This paper tries to analyze the origin and progress of global feminism. Feminism is a mass
movement commenced by women of all groups to eradicate all forms of feminist oppressions by
men that are prevailing in a patriarchal society. It always fights against all types of oppressions
on women. It is a procedure that takes attempts to understand and conceptualize gender roles and
advocates for the annexation of women‟s interests in social organization. It tries to explain the
phenomenon of gender inequality. It is considered as a politics to achieve gender equality in all
spheres of the society. Feminists support of ensuring equal individual rights and liberties for
women and men. This study takes attempts to discuss a comprehensive understanding of
feminism, and the different variants of feminism. This paper also tries to highlight the major
challenges that the feminists are facing and the future goals of the feminist movement should be.

Keywords: Feminism, female movement, patriarchy, exploitation, gender liberation,

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1. Introduction

About half of the global human population is women. In every step, all over the world; women
face inequality, subordination, and secondary class status. Often they are victim of the
oppression, marginalization and exploitation in the patriarchal societies. Before the First
Industrial Revolution (IR), the human life was not men dominated, and both men and women
contribute equally in the society. The IR began in England in about 1750-1760 that lasted to
sometime between 1820 and 1840. The IR dramatically changed the global social order and
consequently, a new gender system started worldwide that disadvantaged women (Mohajan,
2019). During this period men started to work in the industries and women were restricted to the
domestic sphere. As a result, they remain vulnerable socially, politically, and economically. The
industrialization also developed a new class system; aristocratic class (Anderson & Zinsser,
2000). In the 21st century there is no straightforward definition of feminism. At present, there are
as many definitions of feminism as there are feminists depending on their own beliefs, history
and culture, but gender equality is common to all. Feminism is a women basis socio-political
movement and ideology, and supports the idea “women should share equality in society‟s
opportunities and scarce resources” (Delaney, 2005). Oxford Dictionary defines feminism as
“the belief and aim that women should have the same rights and opportunities as men; the
struggle to achieve this aim”. The feminism is characterized by “the activism for the purpose of
challenging and changing women‟s subordination to men” (Ferree, 2006).

Feminism is an ideology that demands an equal right of men and women in terms of politics,
decision making, career, and having children. It consists of a number of social, cultural and
political movements that take attempts for equal rights of men and women (Asnani, 2020). It is
considered as a struggle to achieve same rights, opportunities and dignity as men have in the
society (Raj & Davidson, 2014). It has raised much in the western upper-class society and the
women have fought for women‟s suffrage and reproductive rights (Agger, 1998). The rise of
feminism in Europe occurred as “women of all classes became increasingly aware of the way in
which their sex influenced their life chances and experiences” (Fuchs & Thompson, 2005). It
endeavors to see an end to the dominance of men over women, and to provide equal rights
between women and men in all fields ranging from household issues to politics (Kuleli, 2019).

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Different disciplines, such as sociology, philosophy, economics, and politics, served as

distinctive intellectual backgrounds of feminism (Herouach, 2019).

Feminism explains and suggests directions for the change in social and environmental factors;
tries to highlight the propose interventions for women‟s intrapersonal and interpersonal concerns,
and provides a perspective for evaluating social and environmental experiences of groups and
individuals, regardless of sex or gender. It has changed the lives of millions of women
(Anderson, 2016).

2. Literature Review

Nyoman Kutha Ratna has realized that feminism is a tool for women to fight for their rights,
which is closely related to racial conflicts between weaker groups and stronger groups (Ratna,
2004). Shruti Jain has observed that digital revolution has paved the way for a new iteration of
feminism. She has believed that the digital space can become a breeding ground for sexism and
misogyny. She also highlights the strengths and deficits of contemporary cyber feminism
through postcolonial and postmodern feminist theories (Jain, 2020).

Rowland Chukwuemeka Amaefula has discussed the aspects of African Feminisms to enhance
the conditions of African women (Amaefula, 2021). Sofian Herouach has investigated students‟
attitudes towards the social status of Moroccan women. He has realized that feminism, female
activism, and international human rights may influence the cause of women‟s liberation. But,
some factors, such as religion, patriarchy (an idea about sex differences that institutionalizes
male dominance throughout a society), and marriage legislation could stand against the cause of
female freedom (Herouach, 2019).

Alison Jagger has defined four theories of feminism; liberal feminism, Marxist feminism,
socialist feminism, and radical feminism more clearly for the first time (Jagger, 1983). Bimer
Eyayu Enyew and Alemeneh Getaneh Mihrete have analyzed the appropriateness and
applicability of liberal feminist theory and strategies that attempt to achieve gender equality and
to reduce women oppression and subordination (Enyew & Mihrete, 2018). Ananya Bhardwaj has

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dealt with the importance of Marxist Feminism in the 21st century. She has also highlighted the
struggles of the working class and their revolution within the feminist framework (Bhardwaj,
2021). Silvia Federici focuses on aspects of feminism and gender in Marx‟s theory. She has
discussed the significance and the importance of Marxism on contemporary feminist theory and
feminist movements (Federici, 2018).

Bina Agarwal has given some basic ideas within ecofeminism; i) domination and exploitation of
nature has a connection, ii) in patriarchal thought women are closer to nature, but men are closer
to culture, iii) the domination and oppression of nature and of women have occurred
simultaneously, and iv) the feminist movement and the environment movement collaboration can
create a more equitable and just society (Agarwal, 2007). Haradhan Kumar Mohajan has
discussed the four waves of feminism, where he stresses that sexism, sexual exploitation,
everyday sexism, and sexual discrimination need to be ended off. He believes that feminism
challenges various reproductive rights, abortion rights, educational rights, domestic violence,
maternity leave, salary equality, voting rights, representation, sexual harassment, gender
discrimination, and sexual violence (Mohajan, 2022).

3. Methodology of the Study

Research methodology is the procedure to perform a research in a systematic and process

oriented way that provides a guideline to the researchers to investigate a problem (Abbasi, 2015).
In this study, variants of feminism, such as liberal feminism, Marxist feminism, socialist
feminism, radical feminism, ecofeminism, cultural feminism, black feminism, and postmodern
feminism are discussed in briefly. Reliability and validity are the parts and parcel of a good
research, and in this study we have tried following these as far as possible (Mohajan, 2017).

Throughout the study, we have tried to maintain ethical principles properly. This study is a
qualitative research method that tries to analyze feminist research (Mohajan, 2018, 2020). To
prepare this study we have used the secondary data sources that are related to feminism. We have
consulted the published journal articles, books and handbooks of renowned authors, websites,
etc. to complete the paper.

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4. Objective of the Study

The key objective of this paper is to discuss about the feminism and its variants. Feminism is
used to describe the political, economy and social equality of the sexes. The other specific
objectives of this article are as follows:
 to investigate the categories of feminism,
 to eliminate the women oppression from all nations, and
 to establish gender equality in the society.

5. Feminism

There is no fixed definition of feminism and it has a variety of meanings and interpretations.
Feminists of different fields of life define feminism according to their own social, political,
religious, and cultural perspectives. According to Cambridge Dictionaries, feminism can be seen
as “the belief that women should be allowed the same rights, power, and opportunities as men
and be treated in the same way, or the set of activities intended to achieve this state”. According
to the Encyclopedia Britannica, “feminism is the belief in the social, economic, and political
equality of the sexes”. It consists of a number of social, cultural and political movements,
theories and moral philosophies concerned with gender inequalities and equal rights for women.
It is against the abuse of power, and seeks equality and justice under different domains, such as
economy, class, caste, race, culture, religion, etc. (Hundleby, 2012).

Therefore, feminism is a diverse, rival and often opposing collection of social theories, political
movements, and moral philosophies. It mainly looks social, political, and economic inequalities
of women (Adawo et al., 2011). It tries to describe women oppression; searches strategies,
causes, and consequences to remove discrepancies from the society. It takes attempts to achieve
the objective of equality, dignity, rights, emancipation and empowerment of women (Tong,
2009). Therefore, it is the struggle against sexism, where male supremacy and female oppression
are happened. Actually, sexism is not a modern phenomenon and is a form of social oppression
(Gimenez, 1975).

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Women all over the world are seen lacking access to opportunities, knowledge, skill and even
some basic human rights. In every nation women are victim of oppression, suppression; and
consequently, they are highly marginalized. From the ancient period human took attempts for
establishing gender equality in the ancient society by reducing the discrimination (Freedman,
2002). Plato (427-347 BC), a Greek philosopher, revealed that women possess “natural
capacities” equal to men (Scott, 1996). Some scholars believe that the word “feminism”
comes from the word “femme” that means woman (Collins Dictionary, 2010). Actually it is
originated from the French word “féminisme” and its derivatives are still obscure. Charles
Fourier (1772-1837), a French philosopher and utopian socialist, is credited for the coining of
this word in 1837. It is a socio-political movement, first occurrences in France centers in 1880s
as an activity under forms of demonstrations (Herouach, 2019). Later, the activity is moved to
the USA in 1910 (Hilversum, 1994). Feminism began as a political thought when Olympic de
Gouges (1748-1793) wrote the “declaration of the rights of women and the female citizen”, in
1791, which demanded equal rights for women based on “The Rights of Man and Citizen” that is
published during the French Revolution (Mousset, 2007). Similar thinking has risen in the USA
in 1848, in England in 1878, in Russia in 1848, and in China in 1911 (Raj & Davidson, 2014).

Feminist is a person who believes in the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes. The
feminist aims to terminate all forms of male domination. Feminist research focuses on gender
and tries to establish gender equality in the world (Kaur & Nagaich, 2019). The conservative
feminist Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer; Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), had
argued that men and women are by nature not merely different in kind but different in “natural
rank”. She wrote that women are biologically fit to play the roles of wives and mothers, and
unable for work in the public sphere. She revealed that women being weaker physically,
intellectually, and emotionally. She tried to establish sexual dimorphism on the logic that men
are more rational, and women are more emotional and passionate, and set up complementary
roles for men and women (Rousseau, 1754). She and some other social contractualists have not
considered women as rational human beings. Although they have conservative believe about
feminism, and do not think about the gender equability; later English philosopher and physician
John Locke (1632-1704), known as the “Father of Liberalism”, had argued that the sexes should

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receive the same education, share equal rights, and responsibilities (Hirschmann, 2009). Betty
Friedan, the first president of the National Organization for Women had published “The
Feminine Mystique” in 1963. Although women has the right to vote and hold property, but they
spend too much time for polishing and organizing homes that experience boredom and anxiety.
She has realized that they need to go outside of the domestic area by entering into public life as a
paid employment. She has argued that equality and human dignity are not possible for women if
they are not able to earn. Consequently, employment opportunities for women need to be
widened, and many discriminatory laws must be abandoned (Friedan, 1963).

Feminism is an umbrella term for a number of cultural phenomena. It tries to acquire freedom for
women to work, and make independent economically, and psychologically (Malinowska, 2020).
It indicates institutional and grassroots activities to abolish gender-based inequalities from the
society. It hopes to discover the hidden reality of male domination, and women subordination
and subjugation in the world, and aims to give equal rights to women economically, politically,
and socially (Brunell & Burkett, 2019). It supports a broader struggle of freedom for women to
make their own decisions related to their bodies, financial independence, freedom to choice their
lives and sexual choices, and liberation from all types of oppression (Omvedt, 1990; Learner,
1994).

In the society, women oppression and subordination are different; consequently, different
feminist groups have emerged in different times. But the main goal of every group is to achieve
gender equality (Tong, 2009). Feminism can be manifested into seven categories as; i) liberal
feminism, ii) Marxist feminism iii) socialist feminism, iv) radical feminism, v) ecofeminism, vi)
cultural feminism, vii) black feminism, and viii) postmodern feminism (Jaggar, 1983). Each
ideology tries to describe women‟s oppression, explains the causes and consequences, and
suggested strategies for women liberation. Feminists support a gender-based view of the state,
which is based on the creation of a gender-neutral society (Brunell & Burkett, 2019). On the
other hand, they are against the flawed, vague, and illogical procedures of thinking and writing
about women (Papa, 2017). Most feminist categories suggest for the elimination of
misperceptions, sexual inequalities, restrictions, and oppression faced by women (Bryson, 2007).

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Feminism seeks to appreciate the ways in which women are oppressed: socially, economically,
politically and psychologically to reduce their various oppressions (Bressler, 2007).

5.1 Liberal Feminism

Liberalism is a political and economic principle that stresses individual independence, equality
of opportunity, and the protection of individual rights. It supports rule of law, civil and human
rights, secularism, democracy, freedom of speech, press, religion, and property. It encourages the
development of freedoms, particularly in the political and economic spheres (Alterman, 2008). It
is a “feminist theory that believes gender inequality is created by lowering access for women and
girls to civil rights and allocation of social resources such as education and employment”
(Giddens, 2001).

Liberal feminism originates from the liberal political theory, inspired by French Revolution, and
focuses mainly on equality. It is derived from the liberal political philosophy with the core ideas
of autonomy, universal rights, equal citizenship, and democracy. According to liberal feminists,
society has a false belief that women are, by nature, less intellectually and physically capable
than men (Tong, 2009). They believe that all human are equally rational to perform any job and
subordination of women is due to certain outdated beliefs. Men are judged through their merits,
whereas women‟s abilities are deemed due to their sex (Jaggar, 1983). They stress that men and
women should have equal rights and women have equal opportunities as men. Actually, we
cannot eliminate gender oppression unless we change the society from the bottom up (Federici,
2018).

Liberal feminism first emerged between the 17th and 18th centuries in the western countries to
educate women with liberal ideas, and later expanded in the rest of the world. Finally, in the 19th
century feminists extended the arguments in favor of equal rights for women under the law to
own property and to vote. Liberal feminism is the most widely accepted social and political
philosophy among feminists. It has arisen as a theoretical background to nurture the feminism
movements (Herouach, 2019). It is a main branch of contemporary feminism that tries to
establish gender equality in the society (Maynard, 1995). It is inclusive and socially

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progressive. It “tends to be adopted by „mainstream‟ (i.e., middle-class) women who do not

disagree with the current social structure” (Zhang & Rios, 2021). Liberal feminism supports
suffrages, such as equal rights to education, equal political and civil rights, right to vote for all
citizens irrespective of men and women. It concentrates more on issues, such as equality in the
workplace, in education, and in political rights (Jaggar, 1983; Hackett & Haslanger, 2006).

The pioneers of liberal feminism are Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), John Stuart Mill (1806-
1873), and Harriet Taylor Mill (1807-1858), who act for women rights and liberation, when the
economic and social position of European women was very low (Herouach, 2019). Seminal
feminist work “A Vindication of the Rights of Women” developed by famous English author
Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, which is considered as the beginning of the liberal feminist
movement. She shows logics that women become as independent and morally strong as the men.
If different education system is imposed on men and women; then it is not only unjust but also
counterproductive and the nation will be of “artificial and weak characters”. For this reason, she
argues for equal access to education for women and men. The women who married to wealthy
professional and entrepreneurial men, and had no incentive to work outside home, she compared
them to the “feathered race”, i.e., the birds in cages that do nothing but plume themselves.
Therefore, both sexes, should be educated to enhance their rationality that will be benefitted the
society (Wollstonecraft, 1792).

By the 19th century, John Stuart Mill, an English philosopher, political economist, Member of
Parliament (MP) and civil servant, has argued for equal economic opportunities, political rights
and civil liberties for men and women in “The Subjection of Women”. He thought that same
educational and civic opportunities as like men, most women would choose to remain wives and
mothers, by improving domestic life for the family (Mill, 1869). On the other hand, Harriet
Taylor disagreed on Mill‟s concepts; women would choose to participate more fully in public
life, going beyond simply voting and performing charity work. Instead, they would become the
partners of men in productive industry and would have fewer children. His works largely focused
on issues of marriage and divorce. He believes that both divorced men and women have a role to
play in children‟s lives (Mill & Taylor, 1832; Mill & Mill, 1970).

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Liberal feminists also demanded equal rights for voting, reproduction, abortion and child
healthcare, and reaction against sexual harassment. They believe that nobody benefits from
existing gender inequalities; both men and women are harmed, because the potential of females
and males alike is suppressed. Consequently, many skilled members of the workforce do not get
the opportunity to develop their talents. On the other hand, a dual income family is more solvent
than a single earning family (Hackett & Haslanger, 2006; Zhang & Rios, 2021).

Movement of liberal feminism results the right to vote for women in 1920 in the USA with the
19th amendment to the constitution. Liberalism has become an intellectual tool towards freeing
humans in all domains of life, such as in social, political, economic and religious domains
(Herouach, 2019). Liberal feminists are of two forms: i) classical feminists, who fought for the
removal of discriminatory laws, and ii) welfare feminists, who think to eliminate socio-economic
obstructions to women progress (Papa, 2017).

Liberal feminism works within the structure of mainstream society to integrate women into it and
make it more responsive to individual women‟s rights. But it does not directly challenge the
system itself or the ideology behind women‟s oppression. It has failed to fully address the root
cause of gender inequality. There becomes a great global social change due to liberal feminism.
It considers that women are foremost human beings and not sexual beings. As women are
rational creatures as like men and they should not be denied from natural rights and should have
freedom to act according to their wishes. Moreover, liberal feminists aim for gradual change in
the political, economic and social systems of societies (Tong, 2009; Zhang & Rios, 2021).

Liberal feminists show mixed opinions on prostitution and pornography. The three main
elements in prostitution practice are: payment, promiscuity, and emotional indifference (Asnani,
2020). Many liberal feminists reject to condemn or criminalize the prostitution and pornography,
because much of it involves coercions and choices that are not autonomous (Barry, 1995).
Liberal feminists have observed that women who pose for pornography and engage in
prostitution are violently forced or coerced into it (Reiman, 1979). On the other hand, many
liberal feminists oppose prostitution and pornography (Shrage, 1994). In the society these are
inconsistent with dignity, solidarity, and equality (Jensen, 2017). They realize that prostitution

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was not the selling of sex but the selling of mastery; they do not provide a service but sell their
own subordination. Childhood sexual abuse, drug dependency, and poverty are endemic among
prostitutes and other sex workers (Pateman, 1983).

5.2 Marxist Feminism

Marxism is a political philosophy, led by left-wing people; inspired and founded by the two great
German philosophers, Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), and is
generally referred to as the economic theory of history. It is a political doctrine that deals in
releasing the chains of oppression is applied by the elite class using frames like law, religion,
race, and sources of production. Capitalism has created two major social classes: i) bourgeoisie,
which is the owner of the means of social production (i.e., owners of capitalist companies), and
ii) proletariat, which is the employer of wage-labor (sell labor force in exchange for a wage)
having no means of production of their own, subjugated in all affairs of socioeconomic life. The
bourgeoisie makes profits from the exploitation (i.e., paying low) to the proletariat (Marx, 1867;
Abbasi, 2015).

After the IR, the poor from rural areas are displaced to the urban areas and the concentration of
wealth in the hands of the new capitalist class. Both philosophers, Marx and Engels, observe that
the difference between men and women is not biological but social. Their philosophy confirms
that economy is the controlling factor of all the realities in the shape of culture, class, creed,
education, race, religion, etc. Their works strongly support the powerful insights to interpret the
structures denoting women‟s oppression. They have insisted that patriarchy is a product of
capitalism. Capitalism has made a sexual division of labor; men to economic production and
women to social reproduction (Marx, 1844; Engels, 1884).

According to Marxism, the state is an instrument of class struggle in which the bourgeoisie class
exploits the proletariat class. Women should not struggle against men but against the bourgeois
system under capitalism, which is a collective work of both men and women of the working class
(Khan et al., 2016). Marxism considers that gender inequality within the society has produced
from capitalism and “men‟s domination over women is a byproduct of capital‟s domination over

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labor” (Wably, 1990). Engels mentions “Within the family he (man) is the bourgeois and the
wife represents the proletariat” (Engels, 1884). It is made to appear natural at the behest of
patriarchal forces, which Engels calls “final defeat of female sex”. He has an intention to
emancipate women from the burden of unpaid and devalued domestic duties, patriarchy and
economic deprivation. He has highlighted the struggle of women throughout the history. He has
observed that economically weak women suffer greatly on patriarchy, but financially solvent
women enjoy more social security. He and other Marxist feminists demand women‟s liberation
from economic deprivation. He assures that to liberate women a revolution against the
capitalistic order of society is necessary (Engels, 1884; Lokaneeta, 2001). Nancy Holmstrom
says, “Marxist feminism is an emancipatory, critical framework that aims at understanding and
explaining gender oppression in a systematic way” (Holmstrom, 2002).

Marxist feminism is discovered in the 1970s, which focused on the dismantling of capitalism and
way to liberate women that explains the roots of women‟s oppression from a class viewpoint
(Vogel, 1983). Actually, Marx has never developed a theory of gender, and his contribution in
feminism is an indirect procedures; due to the rise of capitalism. Marxism has provided the tools
and the categories to enable the society for thinking together gender and class, feminism and
anti-capitalism (Federici, 2018). Marxist feminism is “critical of traditional Marxism for its
gender blindness”. It is concerned with women‟s double oppression of both class and sex (Calas
& Smircich, 1996). It directly blames that the root cause of women oppression is capitalism
(Tong, 2009). Marxist feminists have observed that oppression on women is visible in home
environment, workplace, and social life due to economic, social, and business reasons (Kuleli,
2019). They believe that women are oppressed by capitalism and gender inequality will vanish
when capitalism is replaced by socialism (Papa, 2017).

Marxism has identified the origins of women oppression in the introduction of private property
(Chinn & Wheeler, 1985). It believes that capitalism is one of the main reasons for women‟s
subjugation, oppression, and second class status in society, where women labor is
uncompensated and invisible. Therefore, from its view, the equality for women cannot be
achieved within the substructure of capitalism (Abbasi, 2015). Marxist feminism argues that
“poverty is a structural feature of a capitalist system. Women‟s oppression is regarded as

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inextricably linked with class oppression, precluding the liberation of women within the
prevailing capitalist world system” (Bandarage, 1984). Marxist feminism has realized that
“capitalism is viewed as having created a unique social and economic class for women, which is
maintained primarily through economic exploitation of women‟s labor in the family, industry,
and marketing” (Chinn & Wheeler, 1985).

Marxist feminists indicate the secondary oppression of women with economic, social and
political structures related to capitalism. It has stressed to adjust domestic labor, as well as wage
work to support their position. It believes that the contribution in economic household may give
women a better position in the family. It has realized that oppression on women is not only from
men but also from women (Barrett, 1980). For Marxist feminists, if the class distinctions can be
overcome in the society through unity of the working (oppressed) class, then women can be free,
and their housework should be valued by the state and society. Moreover, Marxist feminists add
that, women must take an active part in the unity of oppressed class against the bourgeoisie. The
way to this unity is all about raising awareness according to Marxist feminism (Engels, 1884). In
Marxist feminism ethnicity, race, wage labor, etc. are ignored (Grosz, 2010). Although Marxist
feminism is very well-known framework, it does not have adequate theoretical involvement for
uprooting gender dominance from the society (Balbus, 1982; Jagger & Rothenberg, 1993).
Marxist feminists see the patriarchy as a product of capitalism. Women oppression would be
linked to private property that creates an environment the control of women by fathers and later
by husbands. Marxists reject the capitalist state in totality, but they demand freedom and equality
of gender. On the other hand, unpaid domestic work is relatively invisible in Marxist feminism
(Engels, 1884).

5.3 Socialist Feminism

Socialist feminism is a vibrant intellectual and political current that has come and gone. It has
arisen to produce a creative synthesis of debates in the late 1960s about the roots of the
oppression of women. It is inspired by Marxism, and is developed for the reaction to liberal
feminism, but it does not lead to the abolition of patriarchy in social relations. Marxism is stuck
with the complexity of class analysis which socialist feminists consider as gender blind. Socialist

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feminism is gained popularity in the 1960s and 1970s. It has gradually faded from the 1980s and
has abolished after the collapse of communism in the early 1990s (Holmes, 2007; Fraser, 2009).

Socialist feminists believe that women are exploited by a dual system: capitalist and patriarchal.
They reject radical feminism idea that patriarchy is the only system at the root of gender
inequality (Hansen & Philipson, 1990). They also reject the Marxist notion, where class and
class struggle are the only defining aspects of history and economic development. They believe
that the home is not just a place of consumption, but of production as well. They agree with the
fundamental premises of both Marxist feminism, where capitalism is the source of women
oppression, and radical feminism, where patriarchy is the source of women oppression
(Buchanan, 2011).

Socialist feminism wants to analyze the effects of fair distribution of rewards to realize the
correlation between gender and classes (Bell et al., 2020). The main aim of it is to overcome the
historical account of the exploitation of women. It analyzes both economic and gender-based
oppressions and any one form of oppression is not the key form of oppression, instead it is a
combination of systems related to gender, sexuality, ethnicity, race, social class, and nation that
are all interlinked. Gender and class intertwine to create new forms of oppression and privileges
(Dworkin, 2007; Armstrong & Armstrong, 1983).

Socialist feminists have realized that liberal feminism does not stress on the depth of the
oppression of women, rather it targets the women of the upper and upper middle classes.
Actually, women have been oppressed in all known societies, and the nature of oppression is
differed for the different economic realities. Oppression of women is not only on the economic
system, but also on the combination of patriarchy and capitalism (West, 1981; Bowman, 2016).

Socialist feminists argue that even though women are oppressed in almost all societies, the
degree and character of oppression depends upon the economic realities of a given society. They
stress that in the society women are considered as birth giver, child rearer and socializer,
caretaker of the sick people, etc. When women engage in the job-market, they are subjected to
lower wages than men and victim of sexual harassment. To achieve liberation of women, the

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movement should be aimed at taking all issues collectively (Hennessy & Ingraham, 1997).
Socialist feminism wishes to promote equal wages and the unionization of women in the society.
But it has remained silent on race, sexuality or disability. Social Feminists believe that the state
supports the patriarchal structure that exists in the family. They have seen that women liberation
is a necessary part of social, economic and political action (Wong, 1997).

Socialist feminism has evolved through the three goals: i) it analyzes the exploitation of women
as a result of the two interconnected aspects of patriarchy and capitalism, ii) it provides extensive
social analysis methods to realize historical materialism, iii) it shows the need for significant
ideas in material analysis to determine human affairs (Ritzer, 2011; Gordon, 2013). Social
feminists have seen that class differences among women influence their gender experience. For
example, women from the upper classes may employ poorer women to do the domestic work for
them (Brenner & Ramas, 1984). It stresses heavily on the economic dimension of gender
inequality, the detriment of other areas of women‟s lives, such as sexuality, violence or abortion.
Socialist feminists find economic dependence of women on men as main cause of their
subordination. Therefore, they want social and economic equality and financial independence of
women (Brenner & Holmstrom, 2013).

5.4 Radical Feminism

Radical (means root) feminism is a movement founded in the 1960s by the women who had
participated in the civil rights and anti-war campaigns, primarily in New York and Boston, then
spread to the rest of the USA and Europe; on the basis of the idea that patriarchy is the main
cause of discrimination and oppression of women (Millet, 1970; Vukoičić, 2017). It views that
patriarchy and sexism are the most fundamental factors in the discrimination and oppression of
women and ignore all others forms, such as race, color, age, religion, ethnicity, culture,
geographical location, disability, caste, and economic and social classes; patriarchy is based in
psychological and biological factors, which is rooted in the society (Nachescu, 2009).

Radical feminism also highlights violence and coercion made by men through rape, sexual
harassment, child sexual assault, domestic violence; abuse for women, children, and vulnerable

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men in patriarchy (Jensen, 2021). It blames the exploitation of women on men, who have
benefited from the subordination of women. It sees women as one homogeneous group and
recognizes them to be oppressed by men. Main advocators of radical feminism are Kate Millet
(1934-2017), an American feminist writer, educator, artist, and activist, and Germane Greer
(1939- ), an Australian writer and public intellectual (Millett, 1970). They complained
exploitation of women as housewives, mothers, and sex partners; and also see the marriage as a
formalization of women persecution (Tong, 2009).

Radical feminism is the radical evolution and extreme development of liberal feminists inside the
20th century (Graham, 1994). It opposes patriarchal oppression and female maltreatment, and
tries to prevent male-dominated society. It focuses on power of men and patriarchy, and privilege
within the social system that seeks to promote women organizations as separate social
organizations (Jensen, 2017). It is based on two principles: i) women are of absolute positive
value, and ii) they are oppressed violently everywhere due to the system of patriarchy (Rowland
& Klein, 2013). It views patriarchy and sexism as the most fundamental factors in women‟s
oppression. It respects women as a political class, because of their biological functions. It does
not favor marriage and family, as both of them help to establish patriarchy in the society
(Atkinson, 2000). It stresses that women who give birth, are different from men, and therefore
they should have their own rights rather than only equal rights to those of men have (Atkinson,
2000). It seeks to promote division between peoples on superficial differences; its propositions
seem to be unrealistic, and often considers as the route to violence. So that it is considered as
both class and color blindness and also heterosexuals (Rudy, 2001). Weibo, a Chinese social
networking site, demonstrates radical feminism characteristics (Mao, 2020).

Radical feminists see the society as patriarchal, and it is dominated and ruled by men, i.e., men
are ruling class, and women are the subject class. Moreover, they believe that women are not just
equal but are actually morally superior to men and patriarchy can be replaced by matriarchy.
They want to transform the women life and the society through radical actions (Tong, 2009).
They think that men to be enemies of women and consider marriage as a hegemonic contract to
exploit women. They prefer the use of technologies to men for the fulfillment of sexual desires
and reproductive need (Abbasi, 2015).

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The early radical feminists Betty Friedan has realized that women are oppressed by the cultural
construction of society because of their sex. The radical feminist group shows logic that a
woman‟s decision to marry should be a rational strategy rather than surrendering to a false
sentiment. They viewed „gender‟ as a socially contrived absolute category than masculinity or
femininity (Rudy, 2001). Mary Daly and other activists have argued that women are closer to
ecology, but men are to their sexuality. According to radical feminism, women exploitation has
resulted from socio-cultural practices in patriarchal societies and the Marxism believes that the
main source of oppression and causes is inferior position of women in the communities (Cronin,
2007).

Radical feminists believe that prostitution, pornography, stripping, massage parlors, escort
services are sexual exploitation industries, and men routinely buy and sell objectified female
bodies for their sexual pleasure. Feminists like Andrea Dworkin and Catherine Mackinnon are
very strongly against pornography, because it is dehumanizing and degrading for women
(Jensen, 2021). In the 1980s, some radical feminists argued that participation of women in the
manufacture of pornography and in prostitution were not link to patriarchy (Shrage, 1994).

5.5 Ecofeminism

Oppression of women and domination of nature are connected and mutually strengthening. In the
late 20th century, ecofeminism is emerged with the supports of the fight for women
empowerment and sustainable environment. Ecofeminism defines as “the feminist position most
explicitly concerned with environmental degradation” (Braidotti et al., 1994). It is much more
spiritual than political or theoretical in nature. It contains two major components; ecology and
feminine. It believes that women realize and love nature instinctually, and oppose oppression of
women and aggression against nature under patriarchy (Zhang, 2021). Ecofeminists Alice
Walker, Vandana Shiva, Ivone Gebara, and others deal with the moral basis of human
connection to nature (Warren, 1990). There are many movements in the world that are related to
ecofeminism, for example, Chipko movement in India, Anti-Militarist movement in Europe and
the USA, Green Belt movement in Kenya (Quinby, 1990).

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In our society, there are some order dualities, such as male/female, white/black, culture/nature,
West/East, human/nature, white/black, conscious/unconscious, logic/emotion, strong/weak, and
spirit/body occur, and former dominates the latter. For example, conscious is superior to
unconscious, the West is superior and civilized but East is inferior, white people have in superior
positions than black people, and logic is superior to emotion. In some societies, culture is
superior to nature, and man is superior to woman (Said, 1977; Kümbet, 2012). Therefore, if man
symbolizes culture, consciousness, logic and spirit; woman must represent nature,
unconsciousness, emotion and body. If we consider case of women and nature, both are similarly
conceptualized, and both are exploited in the masculine-dominated society (Öztürk, 2020).

Ecofeminism is an organic combination of feminist and ecological thoughts that are articulated
through the work of women gardeners, botanists, animal welfare advocates, etc. It focuses
ecology and feminism into one point, and seeks to draw parallels between the exploitation of the
environment and the exploitation of women. It is rooted in a reawakening of earth honoring and
earth caring. It shows that women are closer to nature than men are (Anjum, 2014; Zhang, 2021).
In the 21st century, the nature is in the dangerous position due to rapid urbanization,
industrialization, commercialization and unlimited needs of human beings (Mohajan, 2015).
Women and nature are same in various ways due to their biological status, reproductive role, and
discrimination; both defined as passive subjects that subjected to violence and social inequalities
(Zhang, 2021).

Françoise d‟Eaubonne (1920-2005), a French author, labor rights activist, environmentalist and
feminist, introduced the idea of ecofeminism in 1974 through the publication of her book “Le
Féminisme ou la Mort”. She has realized that the only way to save the environment is through
the destruction of male power by women (Lagarde, 2021). The movement was further developed
by Ynestra King in about 1976 and became a movement in 1980 (Rao, 2012). Ecofeminists
believe that male-dominated culture thrives on sexism, racism, class-exploitation, and
environmental destruction. Of course, they agree that there is a close link between the liberation
of women and of nature. They have called the women and men to re-conceptualize world in non-
hierarchical ways (Anjum, 2014). They claim that environmental problems and women‟s issues

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are interrelated (Zhang, 2021). For example, women bring humans into the world; nature ensures
the continuity of life on earth (Öztürk, 2020).

Ecofeminism views patriarchy and its focus on control and domination not only as a source of
women‟s oppression but as being harmful to humanity as well as destructive of all living
creatures and the earth itself (Warren, 1990). It stresses that humans and nature must live in
harmony to maintain ecological balance and sustainable development (Zhang, 2021). It observes
women rights and empowerment that are related to political, economic, social and cultural
factors, which benefit all living creatures. Women can reproduce and create a life, just like
nature. For example, women create humans; they raise children and feed them (Kristeva, 2016;
Öztürk, 2020). Nature is just like a mother, ensures the continuity of life on earth with its
resources. Nature is mentioned as “Mother Nature, motherland, or mother earth” (Roach, 2003).
They wanted to use the term ecological feminism to indicate that women are natural
environmentalists, by virtue of being born as women (Raj & Davidson, 2014).

5.6 Cultural Feminism

Cultural feminism mainly describes about “female nature or female essence” that attempts to
revalue and redefine attributes ascribed to the feminine character. This female essence includes a
greater emphasis on cooperation, relationships, and peace; also referred to as an ethic of care.
The cultural feminism tries to find differences between men and women, based on biological
differences in reproductive capacity. It seeks to validate feminine attributes that have been
systematically undervalued within a patriarchal society. It also highlights the conflict between
women and men, but reflects the variation of culturally created rather than biologically innate
(Lewis, 2021; Ghodsee, 2004).

In 1972, socialist feminist Elizabeth Diggs, used the label “cultural feminism” for applying it to
radical feminism for minimizing gender differences (Diggs, 1972). In 1975, the radical feminist
critic, Brooke Williams, for the first time, introduced the term “cultural feminism” to describe
the depoliticization of radical feminism (Taylor & Rupp, 1993).

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Cultural feminism refers to a philosophy that men and women have different attitudes to the
world around them, and that greater value should be applied on the way women approach the
world. In some cases, a woman‟s way of looking at the world is actually superior to that of men
(Alcoff, 1988). Cultural feminism is a theory that praises the positive aspects of women. Aim of
it is for the creation of women-only spaces, such as women‟s bookstores, art, gyms or health
clubs, periodicals, etc. to generate a new, patriarchy-free consciousness society, and to engage in
radically different ways of living. Cultural feminists have seen an opportunity to rebuild society
completely with female-centered institutions and power structures (Daly, 1978; Echols, 1983).
The basic principle of cultural feminism is that women have a different culture and even a
different epistemology, such as different ethics, ideas, and language from men (Evans, 1995). It
attempts to unite all women in a common sisterhood, regardless of ethnicity, race, class or age.
The goal of it is to create and maintain healthy relationships and environments that are free of
masculinity values (Alcoff, 1988).

Many scholars have observed that when liberal and radical feminism faces difficulties to achieve
gender equality in the society; cultural feminism shows ways of thinking, acting, and speaking as
distinctive and inherent qualities to build a woman‟s shared culture (Belenky et al., 1986;
Gilligan, 1982). Cultural feminists combat woman oppression through means of the creation and
sustainability of separate woman-centered spaces that “promote female biology as the basis of
women‟s power”. They look to find solutions for how the worst offenses of patriarchy can be
mitigated (Hyde, 2013). Cultural feminists identified women as superior/preferable to qualities
identified with men, whether the qualities are products of nature or culture. Male characteristics
are harmful to society, and female characteristics bring benefit for the society. For example, less
aggression among nations would lead to less war and conflict (Echols, 1983; Lewis, 2021).

5.7 Black Feminism

Black feminism has emerged in the 1970s to produce social thought for opposing oppression
(Collins, 2008). It is an intellectual, artistic, philosophical, and activist practice grounded in
black women‟s lived experiences. It is a political struggle to combat oppression faced by any
women of color. It provides the idea that “black women are inherently valuable, that [black

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women‟s] liberation is a necessity not as an adjunct to somebody else‟s but because our need as
human persons for autonomy” (Combahee River Collective, 1978). It has many terminologies,
such as Black Canadian feminism, African-American feminism, African feminism, etc. (Wane,
2004). Black feminism is formed to empower Black women towards fighting for their unique
cause for social justice. In 1989, scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw (1959-) coined the term “Black
Feminism” in her doctoral thesis, where she argues that a Black woman have to deal with the
concept of the “double bind” which refers to being Black and being a woman (Crenshaw, 1989).

Black feminism plays an important role in the formation and stability of black families in the
USA. It emphasizes on the issue of racism that is a main cause of oppression to women of color,
and black women face different forms of oppression that is racist and sexist (Désiré, 2016).
Majority of African black women were brought to the USA to work as slaves, in a form of
oppression. In the American society, black women and white women have different status. The
lives of African-American women have been critically affected by racism, sexism, classism, and
ethnicism. All African Black women have experienced living in a society that devalues them,
and most of them are victim of much oppressions, such as child rape, child marriage, female
genital mutilation, etc. (Gatwiri & McLaren, 2016). Backgrounds for Black women is
challenging because, they are considered to be less than human, and “there is no more isolated
subgroup in academe than Black women” (Carroll, 1982). In the society, ethnicity is determined
by cultural factors, such as nationality, language and culture; while race is determined by
physical characteristics, such as skin color, facial features, and hair type (Betancourt L pez,
1993). Black feminists have expanded the notion “Black Feminism” to include issues of class
and sexuality, in addition to race and gender (Salzman, 2006). Maria Stewart (1803-1879),
Sojourner Truth (1797-1883), and Frances E. W. Harper (1825-1911), agitated for the rights of
women of color. In 1851, Sojourner Truth, a former slave who became a public speaker later,
told that when white women were struggling for voting and labor rights; black women struggled
to be seen themselves as human, i.e., in the same society, black women face a radically different
situation than white women (Brezina, 2005; Ribeiro, 2016). Faminist African-American writer
Alice Walker coined the term “Womanism” in 1979 to describe an intersectional alternative to
white feminism. In 1982, her novel “The Color Purple” is published where she used “Womanist”
to describe the black feminist movement (Walker, 1983).

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In 1896, the National Association of Colored Women (NACW), an American organization, was
formed as part of a club movement by educated middle class Black women, which adopted the
motto “lifting as we climb”. The members of NACW focused on combating harmful stereotypes
surrounding Black women‟s sexuality and gender identity (Williams, 1994). In the USA, “The
Women Liberation and Black Liberation Movement” were growing at a rapid pace during the late
1960s and 1970s. Black women did not feel politically represented by either of these. The former
is focused primarily on middle-class white women; while the latter is focused on black men. The
black women remain in an invisible category and even within the Black Liberation movement.
They were being constantly subjected to sexism, and consequently, Black Feminist Movement is
developed in response to it (Walker, 1983; Ribeiro, 2016).

Liberation of black women requires freedom for all people, which will end the racism, sexism,
and class oppression. The movement believed that the moral and social climate which perceived
women as second-class citizens needed to change, and women should be free to define their own
individual identity as part of human society. The women liberation movement focused primarily
on middle-class; white women and black liberation movement focused on black men, but black
women remain in invisible category and being subjected to sexism (Rue, 1970; Cook, 2011;
Studer, 2017).

5.8 Postmodern Feminism

Recently the impact of postmodern thinking on feminist theory and politics has created
substantial debate. After the development of “The Women Liberation Movement and Black
Liberation Movement”, worldwide divorce rate has increased alarmingly; consequently,
increases the miseries of the children of the divorced families, and also STDs and HIV/AIDS
have spread globally. In this stage, feminists face the new dilemma, and begin to rethink male
and female relations. They have allowed the feminist movement to protect social rights and
interests of women, and side by side they have questioned those feminists who are trying to
subvert the traditional family model (Fan, 2017). In this movement, there is a great change of the
previous debates within feminism and feminists reveal that language is what constructs gender.

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Multiple factors, such as class, race, ethnicity and sexuality collectively are responsible to
construct the identity „woman‟. Neither any one of these factors is solely responsible for women
oppression, nor would handling any one of these could provide a solution to the problem of
suppression of women (Butler, 1999). In the 21st century we are living in the postmodern world,
but prejudice and discriminatory attitudes about women have not changed much over a period of
time (Jensen, 2021).

Postmodern feminism, also called the third generation feminism, is a combination of post-
structuralism, postmodernism, and French feminism. These three terms have emerged
spontaneously at the sometimes, and also their themes overlap and philosophies seem
contradictory. On the other hand, postmodern feminism has an uneasy relationship between
feminism and postmodernism; because some feminists believe postmodern thought weakens the
attacks that feminist theory attempts to create, while others are in favor of the union (Sands &
Nuccio, 1992). Postmodern feminists believe that there is a multiplicity of women and women‟s
movements, which represent diverse and divergent interests. They recommend a wide range of
social forms and behaviors, and argue against a relatively uncomplicated account of oppression
based on patriarchy. Postmodern feminism is the destabilization of what is considered normal or
natural in relation to gender (Alcoff, 1997). Postmodern feminism rests heavily on social
constructivist theories arguing that gender is a construct of language, or discourse (Sands &
Nuccio, 1992). It seeks to develop a new paradigm of social criticism that does not rely on
traditional philosophical reinforcements and emphasizes the relations of the feminism issues to
the languages, sex, and power (Edman, 1997; Kauthar, 2005).

Postmodern feminists reject a common feminist position and support a plurality of perspectives
on knowing, such as essentialism, philosophy, and universal truths (Hawkesworth, 1989). They
believe that knowledge is always provisional, open-ended, and relational, and each woman can
capture the truth differently (Wallin, 2001). They also want to remove gender inequality from the
society. They focus on how discourse in society creates social assumptions about how women
should be treated. They have followed the ways in which sexual difference is shaped by language
and culture (Butler, 1999). They believe that truth is not absolute and merely constructed by
individuals groups, culture, and language (Barrett, 1980).

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6. Conclusion

Globally women are oppressed, abused, marginalized, and deprived from their legal rights
because of their gender. From the ancient time, feminism has always existed but its organized
form has seen around the 17th century in England. During the second wave of feminism giving
rise to several political ideologies, such as liberal feminism, Marxist feminism, socialist
feminism, radical feminism, and ecofeminism are raised to protest against the sexist ways of men
to the private lives of women. Liberal feminists have stressed for equal rights and benefits both
for men and women. Radical feminists think that patriarchy is the basis of women oppression.
Marxist feminists consider that capitalism and patriarchy are the root causes of women
oppression, which is analyzed only through the class paradigm, and housework should be valued
in society. Socialist feminists stress on socialism, and both class and gender factors to be taken
into account; patriarchy and capitalism should be articulated. Ecofeminism views patriarchy, and
focuses ecology and feminism into one point. Later, during the third wave for a global
recognition, some new ideologies, such as cultural feminism, black feminism, and postmodern
feminism are presented. Cultural feminism refers to a philosophy that men and women have
different attitudes, and tries to create of women-only spaces. Black feminism is emerged to
empower black women toward fighting for their unique cause for social justice. Postmodern
feminists think heterosexual society with male dominance is a source of women oppression.

All the feminism‟s basic slogan is creation of a just society, the protection of freedom and
liberty, the creation of a class-less society, and the creation of a gender-neutral society
respectively. At present, educational equality is accepted in many nations and females have
gained many societal responsibilities worldwide. But they have not gained same advantages
globally as like males to play a vital role in the courts and public administration. We hope that in
near future the justice, freedom, liberty and gender equality will be established in all societies.

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