Transducer is a device which converts one form of energy to another form. Another name of transducer is Pick up. The main application of transducer is in the measurement of non electrical quantities. It is used in the detector stage of instrumentation system. Sometimes i electrical signal. Non jectrical Electrical ——>| Transducer Energy is also defined as a device which converts a Physical quantity into an Electrical Energy‘The reasons for transforming a physical phenomenon into electrical form are: Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily Mass inertia effects associated with mechanical systems are absent vvv Easy to control electrical signal. Electrical signals can be easily used, transmitted and processed for further data acquisition systems. If the transducer covers entire detector transducer stage, the transducer may be consisting of two stages: y Sensing element: it is that part of a transducer which responds to a physical physical phenomenon, The response of the sensing phenomenon or change i element must be closely related to the physical phenomenon. > Transduction element: A transduction element transforms the output of sensing element to an electrical output. Note: The above two stages can be considered as primary and secondary transducer.The transducers can be classified as : > On the basis of transduction form used- Resistive, capacitive , inductive, piezoelectic ete > As primary and secondary transducers ~ Bourdon tube and LVDT for measurement of pressure, load cell and strain gauge for measurement of force. > As passive and active transducers > Asanalog and digital transducers > As transducers and inverse transducers.Primary transducer: > It forms first stage of transduction. It converts non electrical quantity to another form which is compatible for next transducer. Mechanical device acts as primary ‘transducer, ex: Bourdon tube, Diaphragm, Bellows, Load cell The output of primary transducer is given to secondary transducer and it converts into electrical signal compatible for data acquisition systems. Ex: Strain Gauge, POT, LVDTPassive transducer: > Passive transducers derive the power required for transduction from an auxiliary power source. They also derive part of the power required for transduction from the physical quantity under measurement. They are known as “Externally powered transducers” ex: POT, Strain gauge, LVDT Active transducer: > Active transducers does not require an auxiliary power source to produce their output. They are also known as “Self generating type transducers” ex: Thermocouple , Piezoelectric crystals , Photovaltaic cellsAnalog transducer: > These transducers convert input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous function of time. Ex: Thermocouple , LVDT, Thermistor Digital transducer: > These transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical output in the form of pulses. Ex: Glass scalesTransducer: > A transducer is a device which converts non electrical quantity into electrical quantity Inverse transducer: > An inverse transducer is a device which converts electrical quantity into non electrical quantity Ex: iezoelectric CrystalResistance Transducers > The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by an equation that involves a few physical quantities. pl R-2t A where R= Resistance P = Resistivity of conductor material L= length of conductor A= Area of conductor ‘Any method of varying one of the quantities in the above equation can be the design basis of Resistive Transducer > Potentiometer, Strain gauge, RTD, Thermistor are the examples of Resisti transducersPotentiometer ( POT ) POT: are suitable for measurement of linear and angular displacements POT consists of resistive element provided with a sliding contact known as wiper. ‘The motion of the contact may be translatory (linear) or rotational. ‘Some of the POTS use both combination of translatory and rotational motions , they are known as HELIPOTS. poenent + al “aAdvantages of POT Y Simple to operate and inexpensive Y — Suitable for measurement of large amplitudes of displacement v In wire wound potentiometer the resolution is I ed and metal film potentiometers the resolution is infinite. Disadvantages of POT Y — Itneeds larger force to move their sliding contacts. ¥ Sliding contacts are viable for wear out, misalignment and introducing errorsStrain Gauge If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changed on account of the fact that both length and diameter of conductor changes. ‘There is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and property is called Piezoresistive effect. Strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and associated calculation of stress, Strain gauges also useful es secondary transducer in many of the sensors like Load cells, Pressure gauges, accelerometers and flow meters etc. If a strip of clastic material is subjected to tension or pi ively strained, then length increases and diameter decreases ( lateral dimension ), It results ito increase in resistance of gauge. Ifa strip of elastic material is subjected to compression or negatively strained, then length decreases and diameter increases { lateral dimension ). It results into de crease in resistance of gauge.¥ — Sometimes, the change in resistance of strained conductor is more than what can be accounted for a change in resistance due to dimensional changes. It is due to change in resistivity ( Piezoresistive effect). Types of Str Gauges: 4. Un banded metal strain gauges 2, Bonded metal wire strain gauges 3. Bonded metal foil strain gauges 4, Sputter deposited thin metal strain gauge 5, Semiconductor strain gaugesSemiconductor Strain Gauges: “High sensitivity strain gauges needs higher gauge factor. A high gauge factor means arelatively higher change in resistance for the applied strain. ¥ Semiconductor strain gauges will have higher gauge factor | + 130) due to Piezoresistive effect ( i.e the change in value of resistance due to change in resistivity), ¥ Silicon and Germanium are used as resistive materials for semiconductor gauges. Advantages : > High gauge factor y ‘Smallin size > Hysteresis characteristics are excellent Disadvantages: > Very sensitive to temperature variations Non linear characteristics. The gauge factor varies with strain.Rosette: > ra > It is the combinaton of strain gauges, called Rosette. Itis may consist of two gauges or three gauges. In practical applications, an element may be subjected to stresses in any direction and hence it is not possible to locate the direction of principal stress. Therefore it is not possible to orient the strain gauge along the direction of principal stress. There is a necessity to evolve a strain measurement system which measures the values of principal strain and stresses with out actually knowing their directions.Special points on strain gauge: > Change in resistance in strain gauge will be measured by Wheatstone bridge. If only one active gauge is used in bridge, it is known as Quarter Bridge . To increase sensitivity and for temperature compensation, half and full bridge configurations are to be followed. In the half bridge , two active bridges shall be employed. The output voltage of half bridge is two times that of quarter bridge. In the full bridge , four active bridges shall be employed. The output voltage of full bridge is four times that of quarter bridge.Effect of Temperature on strain gauge: Temperature change acts as spurious signals and cause change in resistance in two wayst (1) the resistance of the wire grid of strain gauge changes with change in temperature. (2) a change in resistance occurs due to differential expansion exciting between the gauge and test surface to which strain gauge is bonded. Temperature compensation: The errors due to temperature change can be accounted / cancelled out during measurement by the following methods: a) Dummy gauge b) Half bridge configuration Full bridge configurationResistance Thermometers The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. The variation of resistance R with temperature T (°K) can be represented by the following formula: R=R (4 agT H0gT? + on boT") where R, =resistance at temperature T = 0 0,00 ,..0.0, aFe constants The resistance thermometer uses the changes in electrical resistance of conductor to determine temperature. Platinum is specially suited for Resistance Temperature Detector ( RTD ), it can withstand high temperatures while maintaining excellent stability.RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS >All motals produce a positive change in resistance with tomporature. This, of course, is the main function of an RTD. ized when the nominal value of RTD is large. This >The system erro1 implios a motal with a high value of resistivity should be used for RTDs. Tho lower is the resistivity of the metal, the more material we will have to use. mini >The requirements of a conductor material to be used in RTDs are : (i) The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature should be as large as possible (i) The material should have a high value of resistivity so that minimum volume of material is used for the construction of RTD. (iii) The resistance of materials should have a continuous and stable relationship with temperature.>Tungsten has relatively a high resistivit , but is reserved for high temperature applications s it is extremely brittle and difficult to work. >Copper is used occasionally as an RTD element. Its low resistivity forces the element to be longer than the platinum element, but its low linearity and low cost make it an economical alternative, »The most common RTDs are made of either platinum, nickel or nickel alloys. The economical nickel wires are used over a limited temperature range. They are quite non-linear and tend to drift with time, For measurement integrity, platinum is the obvious choice.THERMISTORS >Thermistor is a construction of a term “thermal resistors”, >Thermistors are generally composed of semi-conductor materials. >Thermistors have a negative coefficient of temperature resistance i. their resistance decreases with increase of temperature. >The negative temperature coefficient of resistance can be as large as several percent per degree Celsius. >This allows the thermistors circuits to detect very small changes in temperature which could be observed with an RTD or a thermocouple. >In some cases the resistance of thermistor at room temperature may decreases much as 5 percent for each 1 °C rise in temperature. >This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes thermistors extremely useful for precision temperature measurements control and compens:>Thermistors are widely used in applications which involve measurements in the range of -60°C to 15°C. > The resistance of thermistors ranges from 0.5 © to 0.75 MQ. >Thermistor is a highly sensi e device. >The price to be paid off for the high sensi ty is in terms of linearity. >The thermistor exhibits a highly non linear characteristics of resistance versus temperature.Resistance-Temperature Characteristics of Thermistors: The mathematical expression for the relationship between the resistance of thermistor and absolute temperature of thermistor is : a) where R,, =Resistance of thermistor at absolute temperature T, ; °k, k, and B =a constant depending upon the material of thermistor, typically 3500 to 4500 °k Rr, =Resisiance of thermistor at absolute temperature T, :Applications : > Measurement of temperature > Control of temperature > Temperature compensation Measurement of thermal conductivity Materials for thermistors: > Metall oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt and uranium > Semiconductor materialsSEEBECK EFFECT Two metallic strips made of different metals are joined at the ends to form a loop. If the junctions are kept at different temperatures, there is an electric current in the loop. This effect is called the Seebeck effect and the emf developed is called the Seebeck emf or thermo-emf.THERMOCOUPLES > Thermocouple is active transducer. > Thermocouple is the joint of two dissimilar metals. > Thermocouple produce voltage as its temperature varies as per SEEBECK EFFECT >In a thermocouple temperature measuring circuit, the emf setup is measured by sending a current through a moving coil instrument, the deflection being directly proportional to the emf. > Thermal emt is a function of temperature difference A8, the instrument can be calibrated to read the temperature. The emf may also be measured by a potentiometer. cogilAdvantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouples : Advantages: () Thermocouples are cheaper than the resistance thermometers. (i) Thermocouples follow the temperature changes with a small time lag and as ‘such are suitable for recording comparatively rapid changes in temperature. (ii) Thermocouples are very convenient for measuring the temperature at one particular point in a piece of apparatus. Disadvantages: () They have a lower accuracy and hence they cannot be used for precision work. (i) To ensure long life of thermocouples in their operating environments, they shauldVARIABLE INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCERS >The variable inductance transducers work, generally, upon one of the i) change of self inductance, following three principles : ) change of mutual inductance, i) production of eddy currents. » Transducers working on principle of change of Self Inductance : ‘The self inductance of acoll L=N'/R where 'N =number of turns, and R reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Thereluctance of the magnetic circuit etnductance b= N? (AQ =NE WG () where it =effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil, H/m G=AVe =geomettic form factor ‘A =area of cross - section of coil ;m? and ¢ = length of coil :m.>it is clear from above equation that the variation in inductance may be caused by: (i) chango in numbor of turns, N, (ii) change in geometric configurations, G, (iii) change in permeability, p. > Inductive transducers are mainly used for measurement of displacement. The displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation of any of three variables in Eq(1) and thus alter self inductance L by AL. Differential Output : >Change self inductance AL is adequate for detection for subsequent stages of instrumentation system. >The transducer can also be designed to provide two outputs one of which is an increase of self inductance and the other is a decrease in self inductance. The succeeding stagos of instrumentation system measure the difference between those output i.e. 2\L. This is known as the differential output.>The advantages of differential outputs are : (i) The sensitivity and accuracy are increased. (ii) The output is less effected by external magnetic fields. (ili) The effective variations due to temperature changes are reduced. {iv) Effects of changes in supply voltage and frequency are reduced.‘Transducers working on principle of change of Mutual Inductance : An inductive transducer working on the principle variation of mutual inductance uses multiple coils. The mutual inductance between two coils is M=KyUjLy where L, and L, = seff inductance of two coils, and K =coefficien t of coupling. Thus mutual inductance between the coils can be varied by variation of self inductances or the coefficient of coupling. >However, the mutual inductance can be converted into a self inductance by connecting the coi in sorios. >The self inductance of such an arrangement varies between L, +L, - 2M to L, + L, + 2M with one of the coils being stationary while the other is movable. >The self inductance of each coil is constant but the mutual inductance _chanaes denendina unon the displacement of the movable coil.>The differential arrangement, the fixed coil is divided into two parts. The movement of the movable coil increases the mutual inductance of one part by AM. Transducers working on principle of production of Eddy Currents : > These inductive transducers work on the principle that if a conducting plate is placed near a coil carrying alternating current, eddy currents are produced in the conducting plate. >The conducting plate acts as a short circuited secondary winding of a transformer. The eddy currents flowing in the plate produce a magnetic field of their own which acts against the magnetic field produced by the coil. This results in reduction of flux and thus the inductance of the coil is reduced. >The nearer is the plate to the coil, the higher are the eddy currents and thus higher is the reduction in the inductance of the coil. Thus the inductance of the coil alters with variation of distance between the plate and the coil.[ LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT) ] >The most widely used and popular Inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical signals is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). >The transformer consists of a single primary winding P and two secondary windings S, and S, wound on a cylindrical former. The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side of the primary winding. The primary winding is connected to an alternating current source. A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the soft iron core. s, hime LvoT>The core is made of high permeability, nickel iron which is hydrogen annealed. This gives low harmonics, low null voltage and a high sensitivity. This is slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses. >The frequency of a.c. applied to primary windings may be between 50 Hz to 20 kHz. >The primary winding is excited by an alternating current source, it produces an alternating magnetic field which in turn induces alternating voltages in the two secondary windings (transformer action ). >The output voltage of secondary, S,, is E,, and that of secondary, S., is E,, In order to covert the outputs from S, and S, in to a single voltage signal, the two secondaries $1 and S2 are connected in series opposition. >Thus the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages. _pifferential output voltage E, = Ex, -EszWhen the core is at its normal (NULL) position, the flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Thus at null positions : E,, = E,,. Since the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages, the output voltage E, is zero at null position. ¥If the core is moved to the left of the NULL position, more flux links with winding S, and less with winding S,. Accordingly output voltage E,,, of the secondary winding S,, is more than E,,, the output voltage of secondary winding S,, The magnitude of output voltage is, thus, E, = E,, - E,, and the output voltage is in phase with say, the primary voltage.If the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux linking with winding S, becomes larger than that linking with winding S,. This results in E,, becoming larger than E,,. The output voltage in this case is E,= E,,-E,, and is 180° out of phase with the primary voltage. Therefore, the two differential voltages are 180° out of phase with each other.>The amount of voltage chang er Secondary winding is proportional to the amount of movement of the core. >As the core is moved in one direction from the null position, the differential voltage i.e, the ference of the two secondary voltages, w crease while maintaining an in phase relationship with the voltage from the input source. > In the other direction from the null position, the differential voltage will also increase, but will be 180° out of phase with the voltage from the source. By comparing the magnitude and phase of the output (differential) voltage with that of the source, the amount and direction of the movement of the core and hence of displacomont may be dotormined.Advantages > High range of displacement ( up to 250 mm) > Friction and electrical isolation. >Immunity front external effects. >High out i.e high sensitivity. Disavantages > Sensitive to stray magnetic fields > Transducer performance is affected by vibrations. >Further instrumentation system should be capable of receiving a.c signal, otherwise is to be converted to dc Applications > Measurement of displacement > Acting as secondary transducer in force , weight, pressure measurement.ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (RVDT) > RVDT is useful for measurement of angular displacement itis similar to LVDT but its core is CAM shaped and is rotated botween tho windings by means of a shaft. > At NULL position of the core, the output voltage of secondary windings are equal and in opposition. Thorefore, the net output voltage is zero. >Any angular displacement from the null position will result in a differential output voltage. >The greater this angular displacement, the greater will be the differential output. > clockwise rotation produces an increasing voltage of a secondary winding of one phase while anti clock wise rotation produces an increasing voltage of opposite phase. >The amount of angular displacement and its direction may be obtained from magnitude and phase of the output voltage.CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS >The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the familiar equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. Capacitance cacy = a0 (ty where ‘A = overlapping area of plates ;m?, d =distance between two plates m, {9 = permitivily of mediumover lapping area of plates ;F/m, relative permitivity, permilivity of free space ;8.85 x 10"? Fim. >The capacitive transducer work on the principle of change of capacitance which may be caused by; (i) change in overlapping area A, (li) change in the distance d between the plates, __and_(iii) chanae in dielectric constant>These changes are caused by physical variables like displacement, force, and pressure in most of the cases. >The change in capacitance may be caused by change in dielectric constant as is the case in measurement of liquid or gas levels. The capacitance may be measured with bridge circuits. >The capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear displacomont. These transducers uso the following offects : (i) change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates, change in capacitance due to change in distance between two plates.Transducers Using Change in Area of Plates : > It is evident from the formula that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area, A of the plates. Thus the capacitance changes linearly with change in area of plates. >This type of capacitive transducer is useful for measurement of moderate to large displacements say from 1mm to several cm. >The area changes linearly with displacement and also the capacitance. »Fig shows the variation of capacitance. As mentioned earlier the response is linear as shown, the initial non- linearity is due to edge effects.PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR capacitanceis: cach, =2%F @) vihere x =length of overlapping part of plates ;m, and w = width of overlapping part of plates ;m Sensitivity $= 8 >The sensitivity is constant and therefore there Is linear relationship between capacitance and displacement.Advantages > Small forces are required for their operation. Hence small power is required for their operation. > they have a high input impedance and the loading effects are minimum. >They have a good frequency response. This response is high as 50 KHz and hence they are very useful for dynamic studies. Free from stray magnetic fields Disavantages > Guard rings are to be used in order to eliminate effect of stray electric fields. >The instrumentation circuitry associated with these transducers is complex. >The capacitive transducers are temperature sensitive and any change in temperature adversely effects performance.Applications >» Measurement of linear and angular displacements > As a secondary transducer for force and pressure measurement. Measurement of humidity of gases. > Measurement of liquid levels, volume and density.PIEZO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS > A Piezo ~ electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by the application of a mechanical force. This potential is produced by the displacement of charges. >The effect reversible, i.e, conversely, if a varying potential is applied to the Proper axis of the crystal, it will change the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it. This effect is known as Piezo-electric effect. >Elements exhibiting piezo-clectric qualities are called as Electro resi elements. >Common piezo-electric materials include Rochelle salts, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, lithium sulphate, dipotassium tartarate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, quartz and ceramics A and B.>Excopt for quartz and coramics A and B, tho rest are man-made crystals grown from aqueous solutions under carefully controlled conditions. » The ceramic materials are polycrystalline in nature. They are, basically, made of barium titanate. They do not have piezo-electric properties in their original state but these properties are produced by special polarizing treatment. >The materials that exhibit a significant and useful Piezo-clectric effect are divided into two categories : (i) Natural group and (ii) Synthetic group. >Quartz an Rochelle salt belong to natural group while materials like lithium sulphate, ethylene diamine tartarate belong to the synthetic group.>The piozo-oloctric effect can be made to respond to (or causa) mochanical deformations of the material in many different modes. >The modes can be : thickness oxpansion, transvorse oxpansion, thickness shear and face shear. ¥A piezo-electric element used for converting mechanical motion to electrical signals may be thought as charge generator and a capacitor. Mechanical deformation generates a charge and this charge appears as a voltage across the olactrodes. Tho voltago is E = QIC. > The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity. >The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are proportional to the magnitude and charges depends upon the direction of applied force. rection of the applied force F. Tho polarity of inducedProperties of Piezo-electric Crystals : ¥The desirable properties of piezo-electric materials are stability, high output insensitivity to temperature and humidity and the ability to be formed into most desirable shape. > Quartz is the most stable piezo-electric material. However, its output is quite small. On the other hand, Rochelle salt provides the highest output but it can bo worked over a limited humidity range and has to bo protected against moisture. The highest temperature is limited to 45°C. »Barlum titanate has the advantage that It can be formed into a variety of shapes and sizes since it is polycrystalline. It has also a higher dielectric constant.Hall Effect >If a strip of conducting material carries a current in the presence of a transverse magnetic field a difference of potential is produced between the opposite edges of the conductor. >The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the current, the strength of magnetic field and the property of the conductor called Hall effect coefficient. >The Hall Effect is present in metals and semiconductors in varying amounts, depending upon the densities and nobilities of carriers.>The resistivity of some metals and semiconductors at low temperatures changes if exposed to a magnetic field. This effect is known as Magneto resistance. Magnetic - resistive elements operate on the law of thermodynamics that Lorentz forces act upon mobile charge carriers in a magnetic field, causing electrons to move in an indirect route, thereby lengthening the current path and increasing resistance. >The amount of deflection of the electrons depend upon electron mobility. > The preferred semiconductor materials are Indium antimonide or Indium arsenide.