Theme 1

Introduction to Control Systems

_______________________________________________________

1.1 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control

1.2 Examples of Control Systems
1.3 Control System Design
1.4 Design Examples
_______________________________________________________

1.1 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control

Engineering is concerned with understanding and controlling the materials and
forces of nature for the benefit of humankind. Control system engineers are
concerned with understanding and controlling segments of their environment,
often called systems, to provide useful economic products for society. The twin
goals of understanding and controlling are complementary because effective
systems control requires that the systems be understood and modeled.
Furthermore, control engineering must often consider the control of poorly
understood systems such as chemical process systems. The present challenge to
control engineers is the modeling and control of modern, complex, interrelated
systems such as traffic control systems, chemical processes, and robotic
systems. Simultaneously, the fortunate engineer has the opportunity to control
many useful and interesting industrial automation systems. Perhaps the most
characteristic quality of control engineering is the opportunity to control
machines and industrial and economic processes for the benefit of society.
Control engineering is based on the foundations of feedback theory and
linear system analysis, and it integrates the concepts of network theory and
communication theory. Therefore control engineering is not limited to any

1–1
engineering discipline but is equally applicable to aeronautical, chemical,
mechanical, environmental, civil, and electrical engineering. For example, a
control system often includes electrical, mechanical, and chemical components.
Furthermore, as the understanding of the dynamics of business, social, and
political systems increases, the ability to control these systems will also
increase.
A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system
configuration that will provide a desired system response. The basis for analysis
of a system is the foundation provided by linear system theory, which assumes
a cause-effect relationship for the components of a system. Therefore a
component or process to be controlled can be represented by a block, as shown
in Figure 1.1. The input-output relationship represents the cause-and-effect
relationship of the process, which in turn represents a processing of the input
signal to provide an output signal variable, often with a power amplification.

FIGURE 1.1 Process to be controlled.

An open-loop control system uses a controller and an actuator to obtain the

desired response, as shown in Figure 1.2. An open-loop system is a system
without feedback.

FIGURE 1.2 Open-loop control system (without feedback).

An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating device to control

the process directly without using feedback.

In contrast to an open-loop control system, a closed-loop control system

utilizes an additional measure of the actual output to compare the actual output
with the desired output response. The measure of the output is called the
feedback signal. A simple closed-loop feedback control system is shown in
Figure 1.3. A feedback control system is a control system that tends to maintain

1–2
a prescribed relationship of one system variable to another by comparing
functions of these variables and using the difference as a means of control. With
an accurate sensor, the measured output is a good approximation of the actual
output of the system.

FIGURE 1.3 Closed-loop feedback control system (with feedback).

A feedback control system often uses a function of a prescribed relationship

between the output and reference input to control the process. Often the
difference between the output of the process under control and the reference
input is amplified and used to control the process so that the difference is
continually reduced. In general, the difference between the desired output and
the actual output is equal to the error, which is then adjusted by the controller.
The output of the controller causes the actuator to modulate the process in order
to reduce the error. The sequence is such, for instance, that if a ship is heading
incorrectly to the right, the rudder is actuated to direct the ship to the left. The
system shown in Figure 1.3 is a negative feedback control system, because the
output is subtracted from the input and the difference is used as the input signal
to the controller. The feedback concept has been the foundation for control
system analysis and design.

A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of the output

and feedback of this signal to compare it with
the desired output (reference or command).

As we will discuss in Chapter 3, closed-loop control has many advantages

over open-loop control including the ability to reject external disturbances and
improve measurement noise attenuation. We incorporate the disturbances and
measurement noise in the block diagram as external inputs, as illustrated in
Figure 1.4. External disturbances and measurement noise are inevitable in real-
world applications and must be addressed in practical control system designs.

1–3
FIGURE 1.4 Closed-loop feedback system with
external disturbances and measurement noise.

The feedback systems in Figures 1.3 and 1.4 are single-loop feedback
systems. Many feedback control systems contain more than one feedback loop.
A common multiloop feedback control system is illustrated in Figure 1.5 with
an inner loop and an outer loop. In this scenario, the inner loop has a controller
and a sensor and the outer loop has a controller and sensor. However, we use
the single-loop feedback system for learning about the benefits of feedback
control systems since the outcomes readily extend to multiloop systems.

FIGURE 1.5 Multiloop feedback system with

an inner loop and an outer loop.

Due to the increasing complexity of the system under control and the
interest in achieving optimum performance, the importance of control system
engineering has grown. Furthermore, as the systems become more complex, the
interrelationship of many controlled variables must be considered in the control
scheme. A block diagram depicting a multivariable control system is shown
in Figure 1.6.

1–4
FIGURE 1.6 Multivariable control system.

The use of feedback to control a system has a fascinating history.

FIGURE 1.7 Watt's flyball governor.

The first automatic feedback controller used in an industrial process is

generally agreed to be James Watt's flyball governor, developed in 1769 for
controlling the speed of a steam engine . The all-mechanical device, shown in
Figure 1.7, measured the speed of the output shaft and utilized the movement of
the flyball to control the steam valve and therefore the amount of steam
entering the engine. As depicted in Figure 1.7, the governor shaft axis is
connected via mechanical linkages and beveled gears to the output shaft of the
steam engine. As the steam engine output shaft speed increases, the ball weights

1–5
rise and move away from the shaft axis and through mechanical linkages the
steam valve closes and the engine slows down.

FIGURE 1.8 Water-level float regulator.

The first historical feedback system, claimed by Russia, is the water-level

float regulator said to have been invented by I. Polzunov in 1765. The level
regulator system is shown in Figure l.8. The float detects the water level and
controls the valve that covers the water inlet in the boiler.
The next century was characterized by the development of automatic
control systems through intuition and invention. Efforts to increase the accuracy
of the control system led to slower attenuation of the transient oscillations and
even to unstable systems. It then became imperative to develop a theory of
automatic control. In 1868, J. C. Maxwell formulated a mathematical theory
related to control theory using a differential equation model of a governor.
Maxwell's study was concerned with the effect various system parameters had
on the system performance. During the same period, I. A. Vyshnegradskii in
Russia formulated a mathematical theory of regulators.
The control of an industrial process (manufacturing, production, and so on)
by automatic rather than manual means is often called automation. Automation
is prevalent in the chemical, electric power, paper, automobile, and steel
industries, among others. The concept of automation is central to our industrial
society. Automatic machines are used to increase the production of a plant per
worker in order to offset rising wages and inflationary costs. Thus industries are
concerned with the productivity per worker of their plants.

1–6
1.2 Examples of Control Systems
Control engineering is concerned with the analysis and design of goal-oriented
systems. Therefore the mechanization of goal-oriented policies has grown into a
hierarchy of goal-oriented control systems. Modern control theory is concerned
with systems that have adaptive, robust, learning, and optimum qualities.

(a)

(b)

(c)
FIGURE 1.9 (a) Automobile steering control system, (b) The driver uses the
difference between the actual and the desired direction of travel to generate a
controlled adjustment of the steering wheel, (c) Typical direction-of-travel
response.
1–7
Feedback control is a fundamental fact of modern industry and society.
Driving an automobile is a pleasant task when the auto responds rapidly to the
driver's commands. Many cars have power steering and brakes, which utilize
hydraulic amplifiers for amplification of the force to the brakes or the steering
wheel. A simple block diagram of an automobile steering control system is
shown in Figure 1.9(a). The desired course is compared with a measurement of
the actual course in order to generate a measure of the error, as shown in Figure
1.9(b). This measurement is obtained by visual and tactile (body movement)
feedback, as provided by the feel of the steering wheel by the hand (sensor).
This feedback system is a familiar version of the steering control system in an
ocean liner or the flight controls in a large airplane. A typical direction-of-travel
response is shown in Figure 1.9(c).
Other familiar control systems have the same basic elements as the system
shown in Figure 1.3. A refrigerator has a temperature setting or desired
temperature, a thermostat to measure the actual temperature and the error, and a
compressor motor for power amplification. Other examples in the home are the
oven, furnace, and water heater. In industry, there are many examples,
including speed controls; process temperature and pressure controls; and
position, thickness, composition, and quality controls.
In its modern usage, automation can be defined as a technology that uses
programmed commands to operate a given process, combined with feedback of
information to determine that the commands have been properly executed.
Automation is often used for processes that were previously operated by
humans. When automated, the process can operate without human assistance or
interference. In fact, most automated systems are capable of performing their
functions with greater accuracy and precision, and in less time, than humans are
able to do. A semiautomated process is one that incorporates both humans and
robots. For instance, many automobile assembly line operations require
cooperation between a human operator and an intelligent robot.
Feedback control systems are used extensively in industrial applications.
Machines that automatically load and unload, cut, weld, or cast are used by
industry to obtain accuracy, safety, economy, and productivity. The use of
computers integrated with machines that perform tasks like a human worker has
been foreseen by several authors. In his famous 1923 play, entitled R.U.R.,
Karel Capek called artificial workers robots, deriving the word from the Czech
noun roboia, meaning "work." A robot is a computer-controlled machine and

1–8
involves technology closely associated with automation. Industrial robotics can
be defined as a particular field of automation in which the automated machine
(that is, the robot) is designed to substitute for human labor. Thus robots
possess certain humanlike characteristics. Today, the most common humanlike
characteristic is a mechanical manipulator that is patterned somewhat after the
human arm and wrist. Some devices even have anthropomorphic mechanisms,
including what we might recognize as mechanical arms, wrists, and hands.
A three-axis control system for inspecting individual semiconductor wafers
is shown in Figure 1.10. This system uses a specific motor to drive each axis to
the desired position in the x-y-z-axis, respectively. The goal is to achieve
smooth, accurate movement in each axis. This control system is an important
one for the semiconductor manufacturing industry.

FIGURE 1.10 A three-axis control system for inspecting individual

semiconductor wafers with a highly sensitive camera.

The modern, large-capacity plants, which exceed several hundred

megawatts, require automatic control systems that account for the
interrelationship of the process variables and optimum power production. It is
common to have 90 or more manipulated variables under coordinated control.
A simplified model showing several of the important control variables of a

1–9
large boiler-generator system is shown in Figure 1.11. This is an example of the
importance of measuring many variables, such as pressure and oxygen, to
provide information to the computer for control calculations.

FIGURE 1.11 Coordinated control system for a boiler-generator.

The process industry has used the modern aspects of control engineering for
significant and interesting applications. Another important industry, the
metallurgical industry, has had considerable success in automatically
controlling its processes. Very important application of control technology is in
the control of the modern automobile. Control systems for suspension, steering,
and engine control have been introduced. Many autos have a four-wheel-
steering system, as well as an antiskid control system. In fact, in many cases,
the control theory is being fully implemented.
Control systems are used to achieve (1) increased productivity and (2)
improved performance of a device or system. Automation is used to improve
productivity and obtain high-quality products. Automation is the automatic
operation or control of a process, device, or system. We use automatic control
of machines and processes to produce a product reliably and with high

1 – 10
precision. With the demand for flexible, custom production, a need for flexible
automation and robotics is growing.
The theory, practice, and application of automatic control is a large,
exciting, and extremely useful engineering discipline. One can readily
understand the motivation for a study of modern control systems.

1.3 Control System Design

The design of control systems is a specific example of engineering design. The
goal of control engineering design is to obtain the configuration, specifications,
and identification of the key parameters of a proposed system to meet an actual
need. The control system design process is illustrated in Figure 1.12.

FIGURE 1.12 The control system design process.

1 – 11
The design process consists of seven main building blocks, which we
arrange into three groups:
1. Establishment of goals and variables to be controlled, and definition of
specifications (metrics) against which to measure performance (blocks 1,
2, and 3);
2. System definition and modeling (blocks 4 and 5);
3. Control system design and integrated system simulation and analysis
(blocks 6 and 7).
The first step in the design process consists of establishing the system goals.
For example, we may state that our goal is to control the velocity of a motor
accurately. The second step is to identify the variables that we desire to control
(for example, the velocity of the motor). The third step is to write the
specifications in terms of the accuracy we must attain. This required accuracy
of control will then lead to the identification of a sensor to measure the
controlled variable. The performance specifications will describe how the
closed-loop system should perform and will include:
 good regulation against disturbances;
 desirable responses to commands;
 realistic actuator signals;
 low sensitivities;
 robustness.
As designers, we proceed to the first attempt to configure a system that will
result in the desired control performance. This system configuration will
normally consist of a sensor, the process under control, an actuator, and a
controller, as shown in Figure 1.3. The next step consists of identifying a
candidate for the actuator. This will, of course, depend on the process, but the
actuation chosen must be capable of effectively adjusting the performance of
the process. For example, if we wish to control the speed of a rotating flywheel,
we will select a motor as the actuator. The sensor, in this case, must be capable
of accurately measuring the speed. We then obtain a model for each of these
elements.
The next step is the selection of a controller to achieve the desired
performance. In summary, the controller design problem is as follows: Given a
model of the system to be controlled (including its sensors and actuators) and a
set of design goals, find a suitable controller. As with most of engineering
1 – 12
design, the design of a feedback control system is an iterative process. A
successful designer must consider the underlying physics of the plant under
control, the control design strategy, the controller design architecture (that is,
what type of controller will be employed), and effective controller tuning
strategies. In addition, once the design is completed, the controller is often
implemented in hardware, and hence issues of interfacing with hardware can
appear. When taken together, these different phases of control system design
make the task of designing and implementing a control system quite
challenging
The design process has been dramatically affected by the advent of
powerful and inexpensive computers and effective control design and analysis
software.

1.4 Design Examples

EXAMPLE 1.1 Rotating disk speed control
Many modern devices employ a rotating disk held at a constant speed. For
example, a CD player requires a constant speed of rotation in spite of motor
wear and variation and other component changes. Our goal is to design a
system for rotating disk speed control that will ensure that the actual speed of
rotation is within a specified percentage of the desired speed. We will consider
a system without feedback and a system with feedback.
To obtain disk rotation, we will select a DC motor as the actuator because it
provides a speed proportional to the applied motor voltage. For the input
voltage to the motor, we will select an amplifier that can provide the required
power.
The open-loop system (without feedback) is shown in Figure 1.13(a). This
system uses a battery source to provide a voltage that is proportional to the
desired speed. This voltage is amplified and applied to the motor. The block
diagram of the open-loop system identifying the controller, actuator, and
process is shown in Figure 1.13(b).
To obtain a feedback system, we need to select a sensor. One useful sensor
is a tachometer that provides an output voltage proportional to the speed of its
shaft. Thus the closed-loop feedback system takes the form shown in Fig.
1.14(a). The block diagram model of the feedback system is shown in Fig.

1 – 13
1.14(b). The error voltage is generated by the difference between the input
voltage and the tachometer voltage.

FIGURE 1.23 (a) Open-loop (without feedback) control of the speed

of a rotating disk. (b) Block diagram model.

FIGURE 1.14 (a) Closed-loop control of the speed of a rotating disk.

(b) Block diagram model.

1 – 14
We expect the feedback system of Figure 1.14 to be superior to the open-
loop system of Figure 1.13 because the feedback system will respond to errors
and act to reduce them. With precision components, we could expect to reduce
the error of the feedback system to one-hundredth of the error of the open-loop
system.

EXAMPLE 1.2 Disk drive system

Consider the basic diagram of a disk drive shown in Fig. 1.15. The goal of the
disk drive reader device is to position the reader head to read the data stored on
a track on the disk. The variable to accurately control is the position of the
reader head (mounted on a slider device).The disk rotates at a high speed and
the head "flies" above the disk at a distance of less than 100 nm . The initial
specification for the position accuracy is 1 μ m . Furthermore, we plan to be able
to move the head from track a to track b within 10 ms , if possible.
We establish an initial system configuration as shown in Figure 1.16. This
proposed closed-loop system uses a motor to actuate (move) the arm to the
desired location on the disk.

FIGURE 1.15 Diagram of a disk drive.

FIGURE 1.16 Closed-loop control system for disk drive.

1 – 15
Text:
Dorf, R. C., R. H. Bishop. Modern Control Systems, 12th Ed., Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2011.

1 – 16