INSTRUCTIONS

1. WRITE THE OBSERVATION TABLE USING PENCIL SO THAT YOU CAN

CHANGE IF ANY THING WRONG. OTHER THINGS YOU CAN WRITE WITH
PEN (BLUE OR BLACK). YOU CAN USE COLOUR PENS EXCEPT GREEN
AND RED.

2. DRAW THE GRAPH IN GRAPH SHEET USING PENCIL.

3. DRAW THE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM USING PENCIL.

4. HANDWRITING SHOULD BE NEAT AND CLEAN

5. AFTER WRITING TAKE THE PICTURE OF THE PAGES AND MAKE A

.PDF. (FILE NAME: PHYPRACTICAL ( YOUR NAME)(YOUR STUDENT ID)
6. USE THIS TYPE OF NOTE
EXPERIMENT NO-1
To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference
versus current.

Aim
To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.

Apparatus
Two resistance wires (one is constant and Eureka) , a voltmeter (0-1000) mV and an
ammeter (0-1000) mA [ or Digital Volt and ammeter ] of appropriate range, a battery (battery
eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale, one way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand
paper, screw gauge

Theory
According to the Ohm’s law the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature,
dimensions, pressure) of the conductor remains the same. If I be the current flowing through
a conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends, then according to, Ohm’s Law,
R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the conductor.

Procedure

1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the insulations, if any.
3. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram. While making
connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are joined
towards the +ve terminal of the battery.
4. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, if any.
5. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that ammeter and voltmeter are
working properly.
6. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes through
the resistance coil or the resistance wire.
7. Note down the value of potential difference V” from voltmeter and current I from
ammeter.
8. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full divisions
readings and not in fraction.
9. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.
Note. In case of battery eliminator, follow these steps:
Turn the knob at 2 V in battery eliminator and put the constant point in rheostat at fixed
position. Now record the reading in voltmeter and ammeter.
Without disturbing the rheostat, turn the knob of battery to different voltage such that 4,
6, 8, 10 and 12 Volts and record corresponding readings in voltmeter and ammeter.
10. Take at least five sets of independent observations.
11. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its
length by the metre scale.
12. Screw gauge is used find the diameter of the wire.
13. Repeat the same procedure for another wire and note the readings.
14. Calculate the resistivity of both the wires.

The 1st wire( constant wire)

Length of the wire 𝒍𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒄𝒎

Diameter of the wire:

Zero Error=c= Nil

Screw Gauge reading:

Sl Linear Scale Reading Circular Scale Reading Total Reading

No (N) (mm) No. of Circular Value Observed Corrected
Scale division on = [𝒏 × (𝑳. 𝑪. ) 𝒕𝟎 = 𝑵 + Reading=
respective line 𝒏× 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟎 + 𝒄
(n) mm (𝑳. 𝑪. )mm =𝑵
+ 𝒏 × (𝑳. 𝑪. )

1 0 30 30X0.01=0.30 0.30 0.3

2 0 30 30x0.01=0.30 0.30 0.3

Observation Table: The 1st wire ( constant wire)

( Draw the graph ( Voltage in X axis and Current in Y axis) in graph paper and attach with the
practical file)

SL Potential Difference (mV) Current (I)=mA 𝑉

Resistance (R= 𝐼 )
No
1 100 40 2.5
2 200 80 2.5
3 300 120 2.5
4 400 160 2.5
5 500 200 2.5
Mean 2.5 ohm
𝑙
Resistivity: 𝑅 = 𝜌1 𝐴1
1

𝝆𝟏 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 𝒎

The 2st wire(Eureka wire)

Length of the wire 𝒍𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒄𝒎=0.3 m

Diameter of the wire:

Zero Error=c= Nil

Screw Gauge reading:

Sl Linear Scale Reading Circular Scale Reading Total Reading

No (N) (mm) No. of Circular Value Observed Corrected
Scale division on = [𝒏 × (𝑳. 𝑪. ) 𝒕𝟎 = 𝑵 + Reading=
respective line 𝒏× 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟎 + 𝒄
(n) mm (𝑳. 𝑪. )mm =𝑵
+ 𝒏 × (𝑳. 𝑪. )

1 0 40 40X0.01=0.40 0.40 0.40

2 0 40 40x0.01=0.40 0.40 0.40

Observation Table: The 2st wire (Eureka wire)

( Draw the graph ( Voltage in X axis and Current in Y axis) in graph paper and attach with the
practical file)

SL Potential Difference (mV) Current (I)=mA 𝑉

Resistance (R= 𝐼 )
No
1 20 100 0.2
2 40 200 0.2
3 60 300 0.2
4 80 400 0.2
5 100 500 0.2
Mean 0.2 ohm

𝑙2
Resistivity: 𝑅 = 𝜌2
𝐴2

𝝆𝟐 = 𝟖. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 𝒎

RESULT:

The resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current
is done and the resistivities are:
𝝆𝟏 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 𝒎

𝝆𝟐 = 𝟖. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 𝒎

Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the
insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
5. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of
resistance (otherwise its resistance will increase).

Sources of error
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance

EXPERIMENT NO-2

2. To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.

Apparatus
A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a
resistance box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, a metre scale, a
set square, connecting wires and a piece of sand pape

heory
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by

where, R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right
gap of metre bridge. I cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
Procedure

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the right gap
between C and B. Take care that no part of the wire forms a loop:
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
4. Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in
opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only, then
there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and rectify the fault.
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer gives
zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of 12 from the resistance box such that there is no
deflection in the galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire
(i.e.,between 45 cm to 55 cm).
10. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know length AD = l.
11. Take at least four sets of observations in the same way by changing the value of 12 in
steps.
12. Record your observations.

To find resistance of a given wire using metre Observations:

Unknown resistance:
SL Resistance from resistance Length (l) in cm (100-l) cm Unknown resistance
No Box (R) (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
(X= 𝒍 × 𝑹
1 5 48.5 51.5 5.3
2 6 53.4 46.6 5.2
3 7 56.7 43.3 5.34
4 8 59.8 40.2 5.37
5 9 62.4 37.6 5.4
MEAN 5.32 ohm

Result

1. The value of unknown resistance X = 5.32 ohm

Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be
taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.

Sources of error

1. The instrument screws may be loose.

2. The plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
EXPERIMENT NO-3

3. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of

merit.

Aim
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of
merit.

Apparatus
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and
200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an
ammeter of given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory:
Circuit diagram

Procedure :
(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

1. Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.

2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R and insert the
key K1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the
scale.
5. Note the deflection. Let it be θ.
6. Insert the key also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S, such
that deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step 5
i.e., θ/2.
7. Note the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting S every
time. (b) Figure of merit
9. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a voltmeter by
connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter with -ve of the
cell. Let it be E.
10. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
11. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection 0 (say 30 divisions) when the circuit
is closed.
12. Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.
13. Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.
14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with different voltages like 2, 4,
6, 8, volts from battery eliminator.
15. Find the figure of merit k using the formula.

Observation:
Resistance of galvanometer using half deflection method:
Sl High resistance box Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanometer
No (ohm) galvanometer Resistance deflection resistance
1 10,000 20 div 55 10 div 55.3
2 20,000 10 div 57 5 div 57.2
Mean 56.25 ohm

Figure of Merit:
Sl Emf of cell or reading of the Resistance of Deflection Figure of merit
no battery eliminator (E) the high 𝜽 𝑬
𝒌=
resistance box (𝑹 + 𝑮)𝜽
(R) A/div
1 2 20,000 6 0.000016
2 3 30,000 6 0.000016
Mean 0.000016 A/div
Result

1. Resistance of given galvanometer = 56.25 Ω

2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer =0.000016 A/div.

Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit
(otherwise for small resistance an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer
or ammeter can be damaged).

Sources of error

1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.
EXPERIMENT NO-4

4. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a
voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.

Aim
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter
of desired range and to verify the same.
Apparatus
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter of 0-3 volts range, range a battery of two cells or
battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one way keys, a
rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
Theory
Circuit diagram

Procedure

1. Calculate the value of series resistance R to be connected in series with the

galvanometer for the given range V (say 3 volts).
2. Connect a resistance box in series with the galvanometer and take out the plugs of
resistance R. Now the given galvanometer is ready for use as a voltmeter of range V
volts.
3. For verification make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Here AB is a
rheostat being used as a potential divider. A and B are the fixed terminals and C is the
variable terminal of the rheostat.
4. Take out the plugs of calculated resistance R from the resistance box. Insert the key K
and adjust the movable contact of the rheostat so that deflection in the galvanometer
becomes maximum.
5. Note the readings of voltmeter and galvanometer. Convert the galvanometer reading
into volts.
6. Find the difference, if any, between the readings of voltmeter and galvanometer. The
difference gives the error.
7. Move the variable contact C of the rheostat and take at least five observations
covering the whole range of the voltmeter i.e., 0-3 volts.
8. Record your observations.
Calculation

The Range of the voltmeter is=0 to 3 Volts

One small div of the galvanometer= 0.1 V
Observations:
Sl Reading of converted galvanometer to Standard voltmeter Difference (error)
No voltmeter reading (V2) (V2- V1)
Deflection V1= 𝜽 × 𝑳. 𝑪
𝜽
1 5 div 0.5 0.5 0
2 10 div 1 1.01 0.01
3 15 div 1.5 1.52 0.02
4 20 div 2 1.92 -0.02
5 30 div 3 2.87 -0.13
Result
As the difference in actual and measured value of potential difference (as recorded, in
column 5) is very small, the conversion is perfect.

Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.
3. The ammeter used for verification should preferably be of the same range, as the
range of conversion.
4. The diameter of the wire to be used for shunt resistance should be measured
accurately.
5. Length of shunt wire used should be neither too small nor too large.
6. The resistance box should be a high resistance one.
7. The voltmeter used for verification should preferably be of the same range, as the
range of conversion.
8. Value of required series resistance should be calculated accurately.
5. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or
between 1/u and 1/v.

Aim
To find, the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and
1/v.

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral
movement), a convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting
needle and a half metre scale.

Theory
The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is

where,
f = focal length of convex lens
u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.
Note. According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive value. Hence, f
comes positive.

Ray diagram:
Observations:

Rough focal length= 15 cm (approx)

S.No Position of Observed Corrected 𝟏 𝟏 𝒖𝒗

𝒇=
Distance Disatnce 𝒖 𝒗 𝒖+𝒗
Object Lens Image OA=u OC=v u v
Needle O Needle
A (cm) (cm) C Cm (cm) (cm) (cm) 𝐜𝐦−𝟏 𝐜𝐦−𝟏 cm
( cm)
1 20 50 79.6 30 29.6 30 29.6 0.033 0.033 14.9
2 22 50 82.3 28 32.3 28 32.3 0.035 0.031 15
3 24 50 85 26 35 26 35 0.038 0.029 14.9
4 26 50 91 24 41 24 41 0.041 0.024 15.1
5 28 50 96 22 46 22 46 0.045 0.022 14.9

Average focal length= 14.96 cm

Calculations of focal length by graphical methods:

Plot the following graphs in the graph paper using above readings:

(i) u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along X’-axis and v along Y-
axis. According to sign conventions, in this case, u is negative and v is positive. Plot the various
points for different sets of values of u and v from observation table second quadrant. The graph
comes out to be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in graph between u and v.
Draw a line OA making an angle of 45° with either axis (i.e., bisecting ∠YOX’) and meeting the
curve at point A. Draw AB and AC perpendicular on X’- and Y-axes, respectively.

The values of u and v will be same for point A. So the coordinates of point A must

(Find the value of f from the graph)

(DRAW THE GRAPH IN GRAPH PAPER USING THE OBSERVATION TABLE)

(Find the value of f from the graph)

Precautions

1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away
from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of it is
formed.
4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
6. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between angle of incidence and angle of deviation

Aim
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and the angle of deviation.

Apparatus
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins,
graph paper and a protractor.

Theory
The refractive index in) of the material of the prism is given by

where, Dm angle of minimum deviation and A angle of the prism.

Diagram:
Observations
Angle of prism ‘A’ = 60°

Angle of incidence (i) Angle of deviation(𝛿)

1 300 480
2 400 390
3 450 370
4 550 390
5 600 420

Calculations
Plot a graph between angle of incidence ∠i and angle of deviation ∠D by taking ∠i along X-axis
and ∠D along Y-axis. From this graph, find the value of single of minimum deviation
Dm corresponding to the lowest point of the graph.

(Plot the graph according to the Observation Table:

Result

1. i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of deviation (D)
first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm ) and then starts increasing for further increase
in angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = 370
3. Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = 1.5

Precautions

1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.

2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

Sources of error

1. Pin pricks may be thick.

2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
7. To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Aim
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Apparatus
Three “glass slabs of different thickness but same material, a travelling microscope, lycopodium
powder. A slab is a piece of transparent material with rectangular faces. All faces are transparent
and opposite faces are parallel. The dimension along with the light travels inside the slab is
called its thickness.
A Short Description of a Travelling Microscope
It is a compound microscope fitted vertically on a vertical scale. It can be moved up and down,
carrying a Vernier scale moving along the main scale.
In any position, the reading is taken by combining main scale and vernier scale reading.

Theory:
Observations and calculations

Result:

Precautions

1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed.

2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid back lash error.

Sources of error
The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated
8. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias.

Aim
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse
bias.

Apparatus
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistance
rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 0-100 μA
ammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper.

Diagram:
Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of error
The junction diode supplied may be faulty.