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CHAPTER I: Metacognition

Objectives:

a. Define the meaning, concepts of metacognition.

b. Classify the learner centered psychological principles.

“Metacognitive
thinking teaches us
about ourselves,”
Tamara Rosier

Metacognition is defined in simplest terms as “thinking about your own thinking.” The
root “meta” means “beyond,” so the term refers to “beyond thinking.” Specifically, this
means that it encompasses the processes of planning, tracking, and assessing your own
understanding or performance.

Metacognition (derived from the Greek root word "meta" meaning "beyond" and the Latin
word "cognoscere" meaning "getting to know") refers to a student’s ability to be aware of
what they are thinking about and choose a helpful thought process. It captures a student’s
ability to:

 Analyse how they think

 Have high self-awareness and control of their thoughts
 Choose an appropriate and helpful strategy for the task at hand.
The phrase was termed by American developmental psychologist John H. Flavell in
1979, and the theory developed throughout the 1980s among researchers working with
young children in early cognitive stages. “Metacognition refers to one’s knowledge
concerning one’s own cognitive processes or anything related to them, e.g., the learning-
relevant properties of information or data. For example, I am engaging in metacognition

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if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should
double check C before accepting it as fact.”
Flavell argued that metacognition explains why children of different ages deal with
learning tasks in different ways, i.e., they have developed new strategies for thinking.
Research studies (see Duell, 1986) seem to confirm this conclusion; as children get older
they demonstrate more awareness of their thinking processes.

Metacognition has to do with the active monitoring and regulation of cognitive processes.
It represents the “executive control” system that many cognitive theorists have included
in their theories (e.g., Miller, Newell & Simon, Schoenfeld). Metacognitive processes are
central to planning, problem-solving, evaluation and many aspects of language learning.
Metacognition is relevant to work on cognitive styles and learning strategies in so far as
the individual has some awareness of their thinking or learning processes.

Metacognition, or thinking about one’s thinking, is key to facilitating lasting learning

experiences and developing lifelong learners. Linda Darling-Hammond and her
colleagues (2003) identify two types of metacognition: reflection, or “thinking about what
we know,” and self-regulation, or “managing how we go about learning."

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (LSP)

14 PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES PERTAIN TO THE

LEARNER AND THE LEARNING PROCESS.

The 14 principles are divided into those referring to:

A. Cognitive and metacognitive

B. Motivational and affective
C. Developmental and social
D. Individual difference factors

A. Cognitive and Metacognitive

1. Nature of Learning Process - the learning of complex subject matter is most

effective when it is an international process of constructing meaning from
information and experience.

 Learning is the process by which an individual acquires knowledge, attitudes and

skills that are necessary to meet the demands of life. While touching a burning
candle, a child gets burnt and he withdraws the fingers. When he faces a similar
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situation again he withdraws his fingers faster. Gradually he learns to avoid not
only the burning candle but also other burning things. The behaviour of an
individual is thus changed through experiences. This change in behaviour brought
about by experiences is commonly known as learning.

2. Goals of the Learning Process - the successful learner, over time and with support
and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.

The learning goal is the backbone of a lesson and provides the “reason” for teaching and
observing it.

3. Construction of Knowledge - the successful learner can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful ways. Knowledge widens and deepens as students
continue to build links between new information and experiences and their existing
knowledge base.

 Students learn by connecting new knowledge with knowledge and concepts that
they already know, thereby constructing new meanings (NRC, 2000). Research
suggests that students connect knowledge most effectively in active social
classrooms, where they negotiate understanding through interaction and varied
approaches. Instructors should be aware that students, as novice learners, often
possess less developed or incomplete conceptual frameworks (Kober, 2015). As
a result, it may take time to learn how to “chunk” knowledge into similar, retrievable
categories, grow larger conceptual ideas, and interconnect ideas. They may also
harbor misconceptions or erroneous ways of thinking, which can limit or weaken
connections with new knowledge (Ambrose, et. al, 2010).

4. Strategic Thinking - the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking
and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Successful learners use
in their approach to learning reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning.

 Strategic thinking is simply an intentional and rational thought process that focuses
on the analysis of critical factors and variables that will influence the long-term
success of a business, a team, or an individual.
 Strategic thinking includes careful and deliberate anticipation of threats and
vulnerabilities to guard against and opportunities to pursue. Ultimately strategic
thinking and analysis lead to a clear set of goals, plans, and new ideas required to
survive and thrive in a competitive, changing environment. This sort of thinking
must account for economic realities, market forces, and available resources.
 Strategic thinking requires research, analytical thinking, innovation, problem-
solving skills, communication and leadership skills, and decisiveness.

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5. Thinking about thinking - Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn,
set reasonable learning or performances goals, select potentially appropriate
learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress towards these goals.

 Metacognition is the ability to think about and regulate one’s own thoughts.
Teaching metacognitive strategies can improve learners’ performance at school.
This makes it a good, evidence-based target for intervention.
 A simplified definition of metacognition is “thinking about thinking”, but
metacognition also encompasses the regulation of these thoughts – the ability to
change them. It is a step further than simple awareness of thought processes,
incorporating the ability to alter thoughts and behaviours. Explicitly teaching
learners strategies for metacognition has been shown to lead to improvements in
attainment.

6. Context of Learning - Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including

culture, technology and instructional practices.

Contextual learning is based on a constructivist theory of teaching and learning. Learning

takes place when teachers are able to present information in such a way that students
are able to construct meaning based on their own experiences. Contextual learning
experiences include internships, service learning and study abroad programs.

Contextual learning has the following characteristics:

 emphasizing problem solving

 recognizing that teaching and learning need to occur in multiple contexts
 assisting students in learning how to monitor their learning and thereby become
self-regulated learners
 anchoring teaching in the diverse life context of students[clarification needed]
 encouraging students to learn from each other
 employing authentic assessment

For More Knowledge:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZrUWvfU6VU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elZFL4FLVLE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=grSw_n0xZUk

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CHAPTER II: Metacognition

Objectives:

Explain and differentiate the motivational and affective factors,

developmental and affective factors and Individual differences factors.

B. Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning the rich internal world of thoughts,
beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or failure can enhance or interfere with the
learner’s quality of thinking and information processing.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn - Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal

novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal
choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort - Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn.

The acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of
considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time.

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"Motivation can be understood as a balancing of the subjective value of a goal and

the expectation that it can be achieved."- Svinicki, 2004
C. Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning- learning is most effective when differential

developmental within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account. Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their
developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.

11. Social influence on learning - Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an
opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks.

D. Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning - individuals are born with and develop their own
capabilities and talents. Educators need to help students examine their learning
preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary.

13. Learning and diversity - the same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective
instruction apply to all learners.

14. Standards and assessment - Assessment provides important information to both the
learner and teacher at all stages of the learning process.

 Individual differences are the more-or-less enduring psychological characteristics

that distinguish one person from another and thus help to define each person's
individuality. Among the most important kinds of individual differences are
intelligence, personality traits, and values.

For More Knowledge:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FfDBcIfOjuk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I2hrSRbmHE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L46xtneepu0

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CHAPTER III: Developmental Theories

Objectives:

Review and reflect on the different development theories.

Development Theories

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their
movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic
actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even
though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and
objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things
to happen in the world around them

The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.

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The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

 During this stage, children begin to

thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of
conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny
glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and
organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle

The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Up)

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

Erickson’s psycho-social theory of development

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Trust vs. Mistrust (0 to 12 months)

Infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic
needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are
responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust;
their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who
do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their
baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are
not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the
world.

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Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (ages 1–3 years)

Begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their
environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of
the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the
issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is
the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a
2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits
might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect
on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she
may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of
shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating
activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.
According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By
learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can
master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents
allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children
will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at
this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may
develop feelings of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they
measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their
schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate
because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with
others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might
develop into adolescence and adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role
confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self.
Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with
my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones
fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult”
selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and
are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other
people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search

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for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may
develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their
identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role
will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share
our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young
adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others.
Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful
intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence
may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the

time known as middle adulthood, which
extends to the mid-60s. The social task of
middle adulthood is generativity vs.
stagnation. Generativity involves finding your
life’s work and contributing to the development
of others through activities such as
volunteering, mentoring, and raising children.
During this stage, middle-aged adults begin
contributing to the next generation, often
through childbirth and caring for others; they
also engage in meaningful and productive work
which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience
stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful
way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-
improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people
in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of
failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they
can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at
this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,”
“should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of
bitterness, depression, and despair.

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Vygotsky’s socio- cultural theory

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) argued that culture has a major impact on a child’s cognitive
development. Piaget and Gesell believed development stemmed directly from the child,
and although Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic development, he argued that it is the
language, writings, and concepts arising from the culture that elicit the highest level of
cognitive thinking (Crain, 2005). He believed that the social interactions with adults and
more learned peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning. Without this interpersonal
instruction, he believed children’s minds would not advance very far as their knowledge
would be based only on their own discoveries. Let’s review some of Vygotsky’s key
concepts.

Zone of Proximal Development and

Scaffolding: Vygotsky’s best known concept is
the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD). Vygotsky stated that children should be
taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they can
almost perform a task, but not quite on their own
without assistance. With the right kind of teaching,
however, they can accomplish it successfully. A
good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the
child stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher)
gradually withdraws support until the child can then
perform the task unaided. Researchers have
applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary
platforms on which construction workers stand) to
this way of teaching. Scaffolding is the temporary support that parents or teachers give
a child to do a task.

Private Speech: Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you
are struggling with a problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional about
a situation. Children talk to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as Egocentric
Speech or a practice engaged in because of a child’s inability to see things from another’s
point of view. Vygotsky, however, believed that children talk to themselves in order to
solve problems or clarify thoughts. As children learn to think in words, they do so aloud
before eventually closing their lips and engaging in Private Speech or inner speech.

Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought accompanied by internal speech, and
talking to oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when we are trying to learn
something or remember something. This inner speech is not as elaborate as the speech
we use when communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962).

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Kohlberg’s Theory Moral Development

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and

post-conventional.

Level 1: Preconventional

Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled.

Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and
teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized
society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on
external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

- Focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For
example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is
punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is
perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

- Expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined
by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two
reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point
where it might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for
others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my
back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is
asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and
the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this
is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal
order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a
rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

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Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

- Children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

- The child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for
everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as
valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law,
perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws
and rules. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality
is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Post- conventional

Throughout the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms

of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and
should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their
behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the
pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never
reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

- the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or
community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts.
Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when
necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is
achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic
government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

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Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

- Moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical

principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete
and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only
insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries
with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles
they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this
way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because
he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected,
it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage
six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated
at that level.

For More Knowledge:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WMv8A9qg6jY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6XxFmXkD8M8

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CHAPTER IV: Student Diversity

Objectives:

 Explain the student diversity.

 Differentiate the individual differences, learning, thinking styles and

exceptionalities of the students.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

1. Visual-Spatial Intelligence

Strengths: Visual and spatial judgment

People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at

visualizing things. These individuals are often good with directions
as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.

2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

Strengths: Words, language, and writing

People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use

words well, both when writing and speaking. These individuals are
typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and
reading.

3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Strengths: Analyzing problems and mathematical operations

People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good

at reasoning, recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing
problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about
numbers, relationships, and patterns.

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4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Strengths: Physical movement, motor control

Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be

good at body movement, performing actions, and physical control.
People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye
coordination and dexterity.

5. Musical Intelligence

Strengths: Rhythm and music

People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in

patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They have a strong appreciation for
music and are often good at musical composition and performance.

6. Interpersonal Intelligence

Strengths: Understanding and relating to other people

Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at

understanding and interacting with other people. These individuals
are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and
intentions of those around them.

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence

Strengths: Introspection and self-reflection

Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at

being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and motivations.
They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including
daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing
their personal strengths.

8. Naturalistic Intelligence

Strengths: Finding patterns and relationships to nature

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Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with
more resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner,
individuals who are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature
and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning about
other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle
changes to their environments.

Five Thinking Styles ( Bramson )

1. Synthesists - are creative thinkers who perceives the world in terms of. When
you say black, they think white, when you say long, they opposites think short.”
To connect with Synthesists,“listen appreciatively to their speculation and don’t
confuse their arguing nature with resistance.”
2. Idealists - believe in lofty goals and standards. “To connect with Idealists,
associate what you want to do with these goals of quality, service, and community
good.”
3. Pragmatic Thinkers - are flexible, resourceful folk who look for immediate payoff
rather than for a grand plan that will change the world. “To connect with
Pragmatists, “emphasize short-term objectives on which you can get started with
resources at hand.”

4. Analyst Thinkers - equate accuracy, thoroughness, and attention to detail with

completeness. They are likely to gather data, measure it, categorize it, and
rationally and methodically calculate the right answer to any problem you come up
with.
To connect to Analysts, provide a logical plan replete with back-up data and
specifications.”

5. Realist Thinkers - are fast moving doers who know that reality is what their senses
– sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch – tell them it is, and not that dry stuff that
one finds in accounting ledgers, or the insipid pages of manual of operations.”

4 Types of learning styles

1. Visual learners - Someone with a preference for visual learning is partial to seeing
and observing things, including pictures, diagrams, written directions and more.
This is also referred to as the “spatial” learning style. These are your doodling
students, your list makers and your students who take notes

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2. Auditory learners - Auditory learners tend to learn better when the subject matter
is reinforced by sound. These students would much rather listen to a lecture than
read written notes, and they often use their own voices to reinforce new concepts
and ideas. These are the students who like to read out loud to themselves, aren’t
afraid to speak up in class and are great at verbally explaining things. Additionally,
they may be slower at reading and may repeat things a teacher tells them.

3. Kinesthetic learners - Kinesthetic learners or “tactile” learners learn through

experiencing or doing things. They like to get right in the thick of things by acting
out events or using their hands to touch and handle in order to understand
concepts. These are the students who might struggle to sit still, might be good at
sports or like to dance, need to take breaks when studying and might not have
great handwriting.

4. Reading/writing learners - According to the VARK Modalities theory developed

by Fleming and Mills in 1992, reading/writing learners prefer to learn through
written words. While there is some overlap with visual learning, these types of
learners are drawn to expression through writing, reading articles on the internet,
writing in diaries, looking up words in the dictionary and searching the internet for
just about everything.

Learners with exceptionalities

MENTAL
RETARDATON
LEARNING SENSORY
DISABILITIES IMPAIRMENT

EXEPTIONALITIES

EMOTIONAL AND PHYSICAL DISABILITIES &

BEHAVIORAL HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS
DISORDER

AUTISM

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MODULE FACILITATING AND ASSESSING LEARNING

DISABILITY - measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a person’s ability.

It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental condition.( schiefelbusch)

HANDICAP - A disadvantage that occurs as a result of disability or impairment.

CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES
a. SPECIFIC COGNITIVE OR ACADEMIC DIFFICULTIES
 Learning Disabilities – involves difficulties in specific cognitive process. Like
dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations), and dysgraphia
(writing).
 Attention – deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) – difficulty in focusing and
maintain attention. Recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behaviour.
 Speech Communication Disorder – difficulties in spoken language like voice
disorders, inability to produce the sounds correctly, shuttering.

b. SOCIAL/EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES

 Autism – It is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired
social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviours and limited
interest.
 Mental Retardation – It refers to significant sub-average intelligence
and deficits in adaptive behaviour.
 Emotional/Conduct disorder – This involves the presence of
emotional states.

c. PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS

 Physical and Health Impairments – This involves physical or medical
conditions including one or more of ff.
a. Limited energy and strength
b. Reduced mental alertness
c. Little muscle control
 Severe and Multiple Disabilities – This refers to the presence of two or more
different types of disability, at times at a profound level.
 Sensory Impairments
a. Visual impairments
b. Hearing impairments
 Giftedness – significantly high level of cognitive development

For More Knowledge:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2EdujrM0vA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ocUjtB6-4Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHMzELRpLr0

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