Chapter 3

Dive Equipment
Adaptations to the Underwater World

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Dive Equipment

Dive Equipment 3-CQ

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Chapter 3
Al Hornsby

Dive Equipment
Adaptations to the
Underwater World
INTRODUCTION
Since we’re not born as aquatic organisms, we use
technology to adapt to the underwater environment. Each
adaptation (seeing, breathing, warmth, etc.) imposes one
or more pieces of equipment, which is why diving is gear-
intensive compared to many sports. Dive equipment not
only provides life support, but it also closely integrates
with your body. For that reason, it’s important to choose
equipment that suits your preferences, that fits and that’s
comfortable.
In the early days of diving, the equipment was
primitive and there wasn’t much to choose from in
what there was. The more your physique departed from
that of an average-sized physically fit young male, the
more likely you had difficulty finding something that
fit well. Happily, those days are far behind us. Today Al Hornsby
almost anyone, regardless of size, shape or gender, can
find comfortable dive gear that fits. It’s also lighter, more
attractive and has higher performance than earlier gear.
This chapter covers dive equipment: what you need,
how it works, the styles and options available, and how
to care for it. You’ll also find recommendations and
considerations that will help you invest in gear wisely,
ideally guided by your PADI Instructor, Dive Center or
Resort. The emphasis is on recreational diving, though
the chapter also includes equipment information related
to technical diving and other forms of diving.

The Fully Equipped Diver

What’s a “fully equipped” diver? There’s no single answer
to that question because equipment requirements vary
with the dive environment and purpose. If you go
ice diving, for example, you’ll need a lot of thermal
protection, whereas in the tropics you need comparatively
less. Special activities call for special equipment; if you
want to take pictures on the dive, you’ll obviously need
an underwater camera system.
Within these variables, however, regardless
of the dive specifics there’s a basic equipment
set that you need as a recreational diver. The

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same is true if you get into technical diving. Let’s look at You don’t wear so much weight that you sink rapidly.
each of the components in these basic equipment sets. Weight systems may be a belt, a harness or integrated into
your BCD. In recreational diving, a weight system must
Mask, Snorkel and Fins have a quick release by which you can jettison your weight
with one hand – just in case you end up in a situation in
Sometimes called your “basic” gear, these three cover
which you want to be sure you stay at the surface.
the minimum “adaptations” you need as a diver: seeing,
You may need a weight system in tec diving, but
breathing and swimming with your legs instead of your
frequently you do not. Tec gear may be so extensive
arms. When you put on scuba gear, you still need the
and heavy that there’s no need for any weight system at
mask so you can see and the fins for swimming. You
all, even with a very buoyant exposure suit. If you need
still use the snorkel to save air at the surface, or in case
weight on a technical decompression dive, the dangers
you have to make a long swim (planned or unplanned)
caused by losing it may be higher than any difficulty
with an empty cylinder, especially if there’s a current or
jettisoning them. For this reason, tec divers commonly
chop. Except in a few instances, the snorkel is considered
have a weight system that requires operating more than
required recreational scuba equipment even though you

Dive Equipment
one release to get rid of the weight.
can breathe from your scuba system.
In technical diving, you usually omit the snorkel
because it causes more problems than it solves. However, Scuba System
tec divers do equip with snorkels in some circumstances, The standard recreational scuba system consists of three
such as if they may end up a long way from a boat and integrated components a high pressure compressed gas
have to wait for it to pick them up. cylinder, a regulator and a Buoyancy Control Device
(BCD). Each of these has subcomponents.
Exposure Protection
HIGH PRESSURE COMPRESSED GAS CYLINDER
You’ll want an exposure suit of some kind on all dives to
protect you from heat loss and from abrasion. As covered This is a steel or aluminum cylinder than holds air (or
enriched air) typically at a full pressure that ranges from
in Chapter Four, water conducts heat from your body
150 bar/2250 psi to 200 bar/3000 psi. You typically wear
about 20 times faster than air at the same temperature.
a single cylinder in recreational diving. Tec divers typically
Because of this, you can become dangerously chilled in
wear double, high capacity cylinders joined by a special
water temperatures that would be comfortable in air. In
valve (manifold).
very warm water you may not need thermal protection,
but you still benefit by wearing something to protect you REGULATOR
from incidental scrapes and stings.
Exposure suits include lightweight body suits (a.k.a. Your regulator delivers air from your cylinder on demand
skin suits), wet suits and dry suits. You use body suits in when you inhale. It does this by reducing the compressed
warm water primarily for abrasion protection. Wet suits air pressure to match the surrounding water pressure in
provide more insulation, making them suited to longer two steps or stages. Your regulator also has an alternate
dives in warm water as well as cooler water diving. Dry air source for sharing with a buddy in an emergency and
suits provide the most insulation, enabling you to dive in an SPG (submersible pressure gauge) so you know how
cold waters, including at the Arctic or Antarctic. Besides much air you have at all times. A third hose, call the LPI
suits, you’ll usually wear some form of hand and foot (low pressure inflator) supplies air to your BCD.
protection, and in cooler water, a hood. Because tec dives
BCD (BUOYANCY CONTROL DEVICE)
can be two or three times longer than recreational dives,
tec divers generally wear more insulation (almost never Your BCD is an inflatable jacket that you wear. It holds
body suits) compared to recreational divers for the same your scuba system together and allows you to control
temperature water. your buoyancy by adding or releasing air. By inflating or
deflating the BCD, you can float easily at the surface or
swim effortlessly over the bottom. Your BCD may also
Weight Systems
include your weight system.
Exposure suits are buoyant, and you may be, too, Tec divers use a similar scuba system, but with some
depending upon your physical characteristics. When important differences. The tec diver has two completely
diving, you use a weight system to just offset any independent regulators and uses a wing-type BCD with a
buoyancy, thereby letting you swim gently downward.

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separate harness. The wing-type BCD sandwiches between Signaling Devices
the cylinders and the harness; tec BCDs may have two In many situations, you can be hard to see if you surface
independent bladders and inflation/deflation systems. a long way from the boat due to currents or a dive plan
error. Audible and visual signaling devices attract the
Instrumentation attention of boat crew or other divers for pickup or
Besides needing to know how much air you have, you also emergency assistance.
need to know how long you’ve been underwater and your
depth to avoid decompression sickness. At the minimum, Log Book
you’ll need an underwater timer or watch and a depth Your certification cards establish your training
gauge, though it is more common to use a dive computer. qualifications, but it’s your log book that tells what you’ve
Dive computers help you avoid decompression sickness by done with those qualifications. By keeping a log book,
applying time and depth information to a decompression you create a tangible record of your dive experience,
model. In addition, you use an underwater compass to which some resorts and liveaboards will want to see. As
assist finding your way. you move up through the diver training ranks, you’ll
In tec diving you need the same instruments, but need your log book to establish that you meet experience
you always have two timing devices and two depth gauges minimums required by many courses.
–– typically dive computers. In recreational diving you The typical log book is on paper, though you can get
may opt to mount your instruments into a console, but in computer programs that log your dive. If you prefer to
tec diving you wear instruments on your wrist. log your dives in a computer, you’ll carry printouts that
summarize your experience.
Knife/Cutting Tool
Although it isn’t common to get entangled, it does
happen, so having a cutting tool of some kind is standard
Equipment Selection
equipment (except where prohibited by law). The typical When you invest in dive equipment, you’re investing in
choice is a dive knife, though you may prefer special safety, performance and fun. That is, you want to choose
shears and other cutting devices. In tec diving you go one the specific equipment you need for where you’ll be
step further, always having two cutting tools, one of which diving and that achieves the results you need so you enjoy
you can reach with either hand. yourself.

Dive Tables/Planners
As a recreational diver, you always stay within depth and
time constraints that allow you to swim directly to the
surface at any time should the need arise. Although you
use a dive computer to help you stay within these limits,
you use dive tables to plan your dive and as a backup in
case your computer malfunctions. The Recreational Dive
Planner (RDP) is by far the most popular table for this,
though you can choose from others, such as the US Navy
tables (which you can find laid out in different ways for
convenient use). You use underwater slates to carry dive
plan information, as well as to communicate.
Tec divers make dives with required decompression
stops at specific depths and times. You would use
somewhat more sophisticated dive computers to
determine these depths when tec diving, but you still need
Each prospective equipment selection has specific
dive tables for planning the dive and to consult in case of
considerations, but there are four general criteria that
a computer problem. Rather than use preprinted tables
apply to almost every piece of gear you’ll buy.
like the RDP, in tec diving you create custom
1. Safety first. Modern manufacturers design and
dive tables for a specific dive using desktop
produce gear that, within its intended purpose,
decompression software.
you can generally rely on assuming you maintain it

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properly. Safety choices relate more to choosing the
wrong gear or obsolete gear for the dive you plan
to make. As an example, a thin wet suit may be an
appropriate choice for warm, tropical water, but
it’s an unsafe choice if you plan to ice dive with it.
Remember, you’re selecting life support equipment.
When selecting your gear, narrow your choices to
those models that actually meet your planned dive
requirements.
2. Comfort is everything, after safety. As it happens, the
equipment that makes you comfortable is also the
gear you need for the dive, so you almost never have
to sacrifice comfort. Putting up with something that’s
not comfortable diminishes the fun on a dive and
can lead to bigger problems. A constant distraction

Dive Equipment
raises stress and can take your attention away from
watching your air or staying with your buddy. Good
To remove the protective wax put on your mask during
divers end the dive when they have a problem, so it
manufacturing, gently scrub the lens with toothpaste or
doesn’t make sense to start the dive with one – even nonabrasive cleaner
a “little” one like discomfort. There’s enough variety
available that you can get performance and comfort Manufacturers usually spray masks, snorkels and fins
together. with a silicone-impregnated wax as a storage preservative.
3. Be sure you can get it serviced. Dive gear requires This is an issue because the wax makes it impossible to defog
regular servicing if you expect it to perform year after your mask, and it can cause mask and fin straps to slip.
year. Regulators, scuba cylinders, BCDs, dry suits To remove the wax, normally you gently scrub the
and other equipment need overhauls and adjustment inside of your mask and the adjustment surfaces of your
at manufacturer-specified intervals. Your local PADI straps with toothpaste or a nonabrasive cleaner. Before
Dive Center or Resort will almost always provide you do this, though, check the manufacturer instructions,
required service for anything it sells, which is one especially if your mask has prescription lenses, any kind of
advantage of doing business with them. But, you may color correction, an antifog surface or plastic side windows.
also want to find out for which models they stock The wrong cleaner can damage these types of surfaces.
parts and for which they have to order parts; this can Adjust mask and fin straps for a snug, comfortable fit.
affect turnaround time when you have something Do this with your wet suit hood and booties on if you’ll be
serviced. using them when you dive.
4. Try it out, or at least ask someone who has. You make It’s a good idea to put your initials on your equipment
the best decisions when you get to try out a new with a permanent gear marker, but don’t do this until
piece of gear first, but the reality is that this often isn’t you’ve used it once or twice to allow more of the wax
possible. The next best thing is to be able to compare coating to wear away so the marking ink adheres better.
similar items side by side and talk to experienced When you’re ready to mark your gear, put some
divers (like the staff at your local PADI Dive Center thought into it. If there’s still too much wax, first use nail
or Resort) who’ve used them. By doing this, you can polish remover to clean the area you want to mark. With
get what you’re looking for the first time out. most items, you can put your initials so they’re invisible
when you’re kitted up, but reasonably visible when you’re
not wearing them. As one example, you can put your
Preparing New Equipment initials where they’re visible inside your fin pockets.
for Use Your scuba system will have different preparation
requirements. Your PADI Dive Center or Resort will
You get home with your new gear. Now what? Take the time usually set up regulator systems by attaching your SPG,
to prepare and adjust everything while you can do so at your alternate air source and low pressure hose. Assemble your
leisure. Don’t wait until you’re about to dive to do it. With BCD, regulator and cylinder like you’ll be wearing in the
most items, you start by washing and adjusting. water, ideally with your exposure suit. Adjust the straps,

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clip your SPG and alternate air source into place and Corrosion and Deterioration: The
determine how high to strap the cylinder in the harness.
Natural Enemies of Dive Equipment
Get everything ready, as if you’re about to dive. That way,
you’ll only have to make minor adjustments when you In their natural state, most materials combine with oxygen
actually go diving. (oxidize) to form oxides. Pure metals, for example, are
extremely rare in nature. Iron and aluminum ores are
actually iron oxide and aluminum oxide, which we refine to
Equipment Care get the pure metals.
Most pure materials oxidize toward their natural state.
and Storage Steel (which is made from iron), aluminum, brass and
neoprene rubber will all oxidize, given sufficient time and
Once you invest in quality dive gear, you want it to last conditions. Some materials, however, resist oxidation more
and perform well over the long haul. Fortunately, you than others.
handle 90 percent of your maintenance requirements Steel, when alloyed with metals such as nickel,
if you properly rinse, dry and store your gear after each resists most forms of oxidation (rust). Commonly known as
use. Annual or biannual overhauls of your scuba system “stainless” steel, given the right conditions, it oxidizes.
components account for the remaining 10 percent. Aluminum oxidizes, but a surface layer of oxidation
can actually prevent the oxidation of the metal beneath.
Rinsing Aluminum, however, is more susceptible to another form of
corrosion known as galvanic action. This type of corrosion
You need to thoroughly rinse your gear with fresh water may occur when two dissimilar metals touch one another.
after each use. Except when you’ve been diving in perfectly This can cause an electron flow that transfers metal from
clean fresh water. Rinsing removes dirt, sediment and salt, one surface to another.
all of which can impair performance by accumulating Brass is among the most corrosion resistant metals,
which is one reason it’s used in scuba regulators. However,
brass will also oxidize given sufficient time. More recently
manufacturers have been making high end regulators out of
titanium. Besides being light and strong, titanium is one of
the slowest oxidizing metals known.
Catalysts speed up oxidation. Because oxidation
involves the transfer of electrons, anything that enhances
electron transfer (i.e., electrical flow) speeds up the process.
Water is a fair conductor of electricity, which is why many
metals oxidize faster when exposed to moisture. Salt water
is an excellent conductor, explaining why salt water causes
so much more oxidation than fresh water. Iron-based water.
Titanium, however, oxidizes at about the same rate whether
it’s wet or dry.
Just as conductive fluids speed oxidation of metals in
water, exposure to ultraviolet radiation and ozone act as
catalysts for the oxidation of neoprene rubber. In rubber
compounds derived from natural gum latex (including
The primary care you give your scuba equipment is a thorough neoprene), ultraviolet radiation from sunlight and exposure
freshwater rinse after each use. to ozone cause the chemical bonds within the material
to break down. This allows the material to combine more
on moving surfaces and promoting corrosion. Salt, in readily with oxygen and deteriorate. Anything you own
particular, attacks dive gear by acting as a catalyst for that’s made of natural rubber is in the process of breaking
corrosion in steel or aluminum items. Salt crystals are also down, whether you use it or not.
sharp and abrasive, promoting wear and making things Silicone rubber, however, is not really a rubber at
uncomfortable. Salt accumulation in your BCD can wear all. It’s a synthetic material derived from silicone, and it
holes and causes punctures in it. resists oxidation and deterioration quite well. Although
silicone costs more than neoprene, it resists oxidation and
Besides salt water, chlorine deteriorates rubber and
deterioration so much better than neoprene that in some
fabrics. The combination of sun and chlorine dive equipment, such as masks, you almost can’t find
will bleach your exposure suit over time. For neoprene any more.
these reasons, treat equipment that has been in
a chlorinated pool (or other heavily chlorinated

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water – the trace chlorine in tap water isn’t an issue) as Storage
though it has been in salt water. Store your equipment out of direct sunlight in a cool area
Fortunately, a thorough fresh water rinse does the away from car exhaust, electric motors and other sources
job for most of your gear. Warmer water is more effective of ozone. Store rubber items in their natural, relaxed
for removing both salt and chlorine, and you can get salt- position without folds or bends. Keep silicone rubber out
removing sprays (e.g. Salt-AwayTM, Salt-XTM) that help of contact with neoprene rubber because the neoprene
dissolve salt deposits. Use gentle water flow – not high will discolor the silicone. If you’re going to store neoprene
pressure streams – especially when rinsing regulators, rubber items for long periods, seal them in a plastic bag to
valves, gauges and underwater photo/video gear. Several extend its shelf life.
manufacturers make equipment cleaners and conditioners Recommendations vary for exposure suits, so check
especially for removing chemicals, mildew, bacteria and manufacturer recommendations. Generally, you can store
residues from body suits, wet suits and dry suits. nonneoprene body suits either folded or on a hanger.
If you can’t rinse your gear immediately after a For wet suits, the usual recommendation is to store it
dive, your best bet is to keep it wet to keep salt from inside out on a wide hanger. Most manufacturers suggest
crystallizing. Salt-removing spray will help. If it does dry

Dive Equipment
you store a dry suit gently rolled and folded (per their
out, let it soak in warm, fresh water for several hours instructions) in its bag.
before giving it a final rinse with a hose.

Drying Masks
After rinsing, let your equipment air dry thoroughly Since our eyes aren’t designed to focus in water, the mask
before storing. This is especially important if your storage creates an airspace that’s your window to the underwater
place lacks air circulation because it can mildew if you world. If you had all your gear but no mask, you wouldn’t
put it away damp. Dry equipment out of direct sunlight go diving. But, if you had only a mask, you could still
because ultraviolet light deteriorates many materials, and have a lot of fun swimming and exploring shallow water.
the heat can damage instruments.
Ideally, during drying and storage, put a wet suit on
hangers made especially for them. These hangers are extra
thick to avoid creating permanent creases in the material.
Some versions hold your hood, wet suit boots and gloves
as well. 1940s- 1960s
High Volume
Narrow Field of Vision

1970s
High Volume
Wide Field of Vision

1980s
Reduced Volume
Wide Field of Vision

1990s
Very Low Volume
Wide Field of Vision

2000s
Canted-in Bottom
Eye Panel Shape to
Hangers for drying wet suits are extra thick to avoid creating Maximize Field of View
permanent creases in the material and are heavy duty to
support the weight.

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Arguably, your mask is your most important piece of gear. videographers sometimes like to wear black silicone to
Although masks have changed in shape, materials reduce stray light when looking through a viewfinder.
and design since the first home-made ones in the 1930s However, they usually prefer clear silicone on their models
and ‘40s, they’re still basically made of a clear faceplate, a because it helps light their faces.
rubber sealing skirt and a strap to hold it on your face. For safety, the faceplate is usually, but not always,
tempered glass. Unlike standard glass, when tempered
glass breaks, it clings together and forms fewer sharp
Materials slivers. Most plastics aren’t suitable faceplate materials
Today almost all mask skirts are made from clear or because you can’t keep them from fogging and they
colored silicone rubber. Silicone has all but replaced scratch easily. A few plastics do work and can be defogged;
neoprene in masks because it lasts longer and because some manufacturers use these.
some people have a skin sensitivity to neoprene. Most
people prefer the common clear silicone, though you
can get black silicone skirts. Underwater photographers/ Styles
Mask styles range from old-style oval-shaped models to
the more popular models shaped for low internal volumes
and wide fields of vision.
How Masks Are Made Wraparound masks feature two additional panes
along the side of the mask to improve peripheral vision.
Most manufacturers make masks through a
combination of automated and hand labor. The Early wraparound masks had a high internal volume,
process begins with automated (in most plants) which meant that you had to exhale more to keep the
machines that inject liquid silicone rubber into mask equalized during descent or to clear it when flooded.
molds and then cook it at a specified temperature They were also dislodged more easily in a current because
for a set duration. The temperature and time of their high profile.
depend upon the specific silicone compound in Low-profile masks have a notched faceplate and a
use. Hard plastic, such as the mask frame and nose pocket that allow the diver’s nose to protrude past
buckle components, gets molded in a similar the lens plane. This design puts the lens closer to the face
process. and lowers mask volume. Low-profile masks are easier to
The cooking process solidifies the silicone
equalize and easier to clear. They also offer a wide field of
rubber into the pliable mask skirt and strap, or in
vision by getting the faceplate closer to your eyes, but not
the case of plastic, the rigid components. A human
or part of the machine pulls these from the mold quite as wide as that provided by wraparound masks.
and sets them aside for further assembly. Some Wraparound and low-profile masks have been
manufacturers collect the molded components popular since the 1970s. During the 1980s and ‘90s,
in bins, whereas others move them along on the wraparound style and low-profile styles blended
assembly lines.
Molded items usually have flashing, which is
simply excess silicone rubber or plastic that spills
out of the mold. Most manufactures still find that
human hands are the best “machines” for trimming
away flashing.
The trimmed skirt, frame and strap go to final
assembly, usually by hand. A technician fits the
faceplate into the skirt, attaches the frame (it either
snaps or screws in place), buckles (multipiece
buckles may be preassembled in a separate step)
and strap. After checking for sealing and correct
assembly, the masks get sprayed with protective
coating, then sent to packaging, which is usually
a mix of human and machine labor.

Many of today’s leading masks maximize your field of view by

matching lens shape to your field of view.

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into masks that retain the best of both. Variations popular, provided they’re not overly expensive and
on this theme remain popular today, although divers don’t excessively complicate what has historically been a
needing extremely low volume use models without any simple, reliable and functional piece of equipment.
wraparound panes. Fullface Masks
Maximum field masks started in the early 1990s
when manufacturers tried to improve your view of your Although the conventional mask meets the majority of
chest area with prisms or extra panes below the main lens, recreational and technical diver needs, there are times
but neither approach proved popular. Many of today’s
leading edge masks provide better downward and wide Broad Head Strap
view by angling the bottom of the lens inward and by
Soft, Flexible Skirt
shaping the lenses to take full advantage of your eyes’
natural vision field. Noncorroding Frames

Features Tempered Glass Lens

Dive Equipment
There’s more to a mask than materials and styles.
Depending upon your preferences, there are other Quick-release
features you may like. Some of these are subtle and may Strap Adjustment
separate high-end and a low-end masks that on the
surface, look almost identical. Nose Pocket
Feathered skirt edges. On high-quality masks, the
rubber skirt gradually thins at the edges. This makes
the portion in contact with your face more flexible for a when you may want to use a fullface mask. There are
better, more comfortable fit. several styles, depending upon your reason for using a
Double skirt. Almost all better-quality masks have fullface mask.
a second, inner skirt that provides a double seal, and a The simplest fullface mask is used for warmth. The
more comfortable fit. This second skirt usually extends regulator attaches to the front, with the mouthpiece
around the entire edge, except the very bottom. This open protruding on the inside. This is popular with divers in
portion allows water to drain more easily when you clear Northern Europe during the colder seasons.
your mask. Another reason for a fullface mask is to get rid
Strap adjustment. Popular masks have buckles of the mouthpiece and provide an airspace for talking
that you can snug or release while you’re wearing them. with underwater communication equipment. These
This makes it much easier to get the right fit or to go masks have built in regulators and usually require some
from wearing a hood to not wearing one. Most work training and experience to use proficiently (more about
so smoothly that some divers don the mask with the underwater communications later in this chapter). When
strap completely loose, then snug the strap until it’s diving in contaminated water, professionals also use these
comfortable. masks.
Purge valves. Purge valves are one-way valves that In tec diving, you may want to use a fullface mask
allow you to blow water out of your mask without Courtesy of ScubaPro
having to tilt your head back. These valves help divers
with limited hand use clear their masks, and many divers
prefer the convenience. However, many of the best masks
don’t have them.
Special lenses. Some masks have special coatings or
coloration to either prevent fogging or to make colors
look more normal underwater. Since it’s not difficult to
defog a mask with commercial defog, antifog coatings
haven’t caught on and you won’t find many, if any, masks
with them at present. A few divers like the colored masks,
though the clear lens is by far more popular.
Heads up displays. Just coming onto the dive scene
are high-end masks with built in electronics for computer
displays and other information. These may become Scubapro fullface mask for ice diving.

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detach the pods (the upper half stays dry) to switch to
another regulator. After sealing the new pod, you clear
out the water. With these masks you can breathe from a
conventional mouthpiece when the pod is removed, and
they’re usable with underwater communications.

Choosing the Right Mask

It isn’t hard to choose the right mask, though you can’t
do so without trying some on. Fit is everything in a mask
and more important than getting a particular feature or
color. If your mask doesn’t fit or if it’s uncomfortable ––
or both – it distracts and annoys you throughout the dive.
The good news is that manufacturers offer many suitable
Another reason for a fullface mask is to get rid of the mouthpiece
and provide an airspace for talking with underwater communi-
cation equipment. These masks have built in regulators and If You Have
usually require some training and experience to use proficiently.
Less-Than-Perfect Vision
for breathing hyperoxic (high oxygen) gases underwater. Do you have to swim underwater half blind if you
One of the remote, but possible, risks of aggressive tec need glasses or contact lenses? Not at all. Actually,
diving is that a tec diver could suffer an oxygen toxicity there are several ways to accommodate vision
seizure while completing a long decompression on correction while diving.
The first way is to have your prescription
oxygen. The seizure is relatively harmless, but underwater
put into your mask. This can be done by having
it can cause a diver to lose a conventional mouthpiece and an optician bond lenses into your mask, and it’s
drown. A fullface mask reduces this risk somewhat. a good option especially if you have a strong
To be compatible with tec decompression procedures, astigmatism or if you’re farsighted.
which involve switching regulators several times during If you have simple nearsightedness, another
the dive, the best fullface masks for tec diving have option is purchasing a mask with preground
lenses that approximate your prescription. These
removable “regulator pods” around the mouth. You can are usually masks with independent eye panes
so you can choose the appropriate correction for
each eye. Keep in mind that these aren’t available
everywhere, however, due to regulations regarding
optical prescriptions.
You may also wear contact lenses while
diving, unless your optician recommends otherwise.
If you wear hard lenses, be sure to get gas
permeable contacts. There’s some risk of losing a
lens if you flood your mask, though in practice the
lens usually stays in. Still, it’s a good idea to carry a
spare set when you go diving, just in case. A purge
valve mask may also reduce the risk by trapping a
lost lens when you clear it.
Some divers with very mild nearsightedness or
farsightedness find they get by with no correction at
all. This is especially true of those who are slightly
near sighted, because refraction naturally magnifies
everything when you look through your mask
underwater.
The best fullface masks for tec diving have removable “regulator The latest option is to correct your vision
pods” around the mouth. You can detach the pods (the upper with laser surgery. No one has yet reported any
half stays dry) to switch to another regulator. After sealing complications of diving after laser surgery, nor are
the new pod, you clear out the water. With these masks there any theoretical concerns, provided you wait
you can breathe from a conventional mouthpiece
until your eyes heal (usually about three months, but
when the pod is removed, and they’re usable with
consult your surgeon or eye care specialist).
underwater communications.

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masks with various features, so you’re likely to find one surface well away from the boat or shore with little or no
that fits and has the particular options you want. air left in your tank. The snorkel makes it easier to breathe
To see if a mask fits: (especially if the surface becomes choppy) and relax while
1. Remove the strap or loop it in front of the face swimming to your exit or while waiting to be picked up.
plate out of the way. In ideal conditions you may not plan to use your snorkel,
but like other safety equipment, you should have it along
2. Place the mask lightly against your face while
in case things go other than the way you planned.
looking upward. The mask skirt should rest evenly
Tec divers follow a different set of procedures,
against your face along the entire edge.
so snorkels play a different role. In many forms of tec
3. Inhale slightly through your nose. The mask should diving, they actually present a hazard, so they’re not used.
pull snuggly into place and stay well enough that If there’s a possibility of accidentally surfacing a long
you can turn or shake your head without it losing way from the boat or shore, some tec divers opt for a
suction and coming loose. collapsible model that fits in a pocket.
Chances are you’ll find more than one that fit, and some Snorkels are simply curved tubes that strap to the
that fit better than others. Choose one from among those

Dive Equipment
side of your head with a mouthpiece on one end. Like
that fit the best. If you have to sacrifice a feature to go with masks and your other gear, though, you can choose from
the best fit, do it. different materials and features.

Snorkels Large Bore

A snorkel allows you to breathe at the surface without
lifting your head from the water. This may not sound like
a big deal, until you realize that the average human head
weighs about 7-9 kg/15-20 lbs. Every time you lift your
head above the surface, you have to expend energy to hold Designed with Key snorkel features
it there. Even with adequate buoyancy, you cause a shift Smooth Bends
in your center of gravity that you have to accommodate
by expending energy.
With a snorkel, you can swim for hours with your Self
face in the water, even without flotation. Without one, Draining
you can’t. You either exhaust yourself, or you’re forced to Barrel Dual vent design aids
clearing and limits surface
lie on your back so you can breathe without lifting your chop entering the snorkel.
head (which only works if there are no waves).
Snorkels are considered mandatory, standard
equipment in recreational
scuba diving (a few specialty
situations are exceptions).
Although they allow you to
swim at the surface without
wasting air from your
cylinder, the main reason
snorkels are mandatory is
for safety. Even in calm,
tropical conditions, it’s
possible to accidentally

Snorkels are considered

mandatory standard equipment
for recreational divers. You can
find modern snorkels with a wide
variety of options and features.

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Materials
Virtually any snorkel you buy today will consist of a
plastic barrel (tube) with a silicone mouthpiece. The entire
lower portion of the snorkel may be molded silicone
including the mouthpiece, or it may be plastic with a
silicone mouthpiece attached to it.

Features
Offset Mouthpiece
Today’s snorkels have different features you can choose
from, depending upon your preferences.
Offset Angle
Size. At one time there was considerable choice in
snorkel length and diameter, but it wasn’t a beneficial
Placed and adjusted correctly, the snorkel tip should be over the
choice because you were just weeding out snorkels that
crown of your head with the mouthpiece comfortably between
were too long or short or too narrow. As it happens, the your teeth.
variation in appropriate length and diameter from one
diver to the next isn’t great, so that most modern snorkels
range from about 35-45 cm/15-17 in long (measured your regulator. Other divers prefer a fully rigid snorkel
from the center of the mouthpiece to the tip), and from with a swivel as just described. They turn the snorkel to
19-25mm/0.75-1.0 in internal diameter. the side to get it out of the way while using scuba.
The main concern in size is keeping the breathing If you prefer flexible snorkels, try to find one that’s
resistance down. The shorter the snorkel the less smooth internally in the corrugated section. Internal
resistance, but you can’t go too short or the tip submerges corrugation causes turbulence that increases breathing
too easily. Wider diameter equates to less breathing resistance, and makes it difficult to completely clear out
resistance, but you can’t go too wide or it becomes nearly the water.
impossible to blow the water out of it. Self-draining barrel. Self-draining snorkels are now
Shape. The snorkels you bought in the 1960s were the standard that most divers use. The self-drain is simply
straight with a U-bend into your mouth. Today’s snorkels a one-way valve at the base of the snorkel or below the
contour around your head to streamline you better and to mouthpiece. When you exhale sharply to clear the snorkel
reduce brushing into things with it.
Comfortable mouthpiece. Just as a mask that doesn’t
fit can ruin your dive, so can a snorkel or regulator
mouthpiece. Fortunately, almost all high-quality
snorkels have anatomically designed mouthpieces that fit
comfortably and minimize jaw fatigue. Modern silicone
mouthpieces offer a softer bite than the old, less pliable
neoprene ones.
Offset mouthpiece. Looking at a diagram of proper
snorkel placement, you can see that the ideal angle of the
barrel against your head differs from the angle you need
for a comfortable fit. For this reason, a good snorkel has
an offset mouthpiece that you can adjust for a custom
fit. Some snorkels swivel on the upper barrel to simplify
adjustment.
Flexible or rigid. Some divers prefer a snorkel with
a flexible, corrugated bottom portion. This is especially
useful in scuba diving, since it allows the snorkel
mouthpiece to swing out of your way when using Flexible Tube Cross Sections
Internal corrugation causes turbulence that increases breathing
resistance, and makes it difficult to completely clear out the
water.

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for breathing, the water expels through the valve, as well as comfortably as a standard snorkel, but they’re an
as up through the top of the snorkel. attractive option for divers in environments in which
Water exclusion devices. Some snorkels have valves, using the snorkel would not be a planned part of the
baffles and other devices at the top. These reduce the dive. Tec divers sometimes carry these for emergency use
amount of water entering the snorkel when using it in in the open ocean.
rough, choppy water. Attachment system. Your snorkel will come with
Folding design. One of the latest options is a snorkel some means to attach it to your mask strap. It may be a
that collapses, folds or otherwise becomes compact so simple rubber snorkel keeper, but today’s snorkels usually
you can carry it in your pocket instead of attached to have clips that you can easily secure and adjust.
your mask. Many of these don’t breathe as well or fit

Dive Equipment
If you don’t expect to need a snorkel you can carry a folding Snorkel keepers come in a wide variety of styles.
design model in your BCD pocket.

1940s 1960s 1980s 2000s

The first snorkels often had The first modern snorkels had These snorkels often incorporated Folding snorkel becomes
long, small barrels that increased larger, shorter barrels and purge valves and flexible tubes compact enough to carry
breathing resistance and deep smooth contours for easier with smooth internal bores. in a pocket.
bends that trapped water. breathing and cleaning.

1950s 1970s 1990s

The ball-in-a-cage kept water out Adjustable mouth pieces and Impulse Snorkel
and sometimes air, too. Corrugated extra-large diameter barrels appear. Dual vent design aids
tubes trapped water and further Barrels are often contoured clearing and limits surface
increased breathing resistance to fit closer to the head. chop entering the snorkel.

Snorkel evolution: from simple J-shaped to modern snorkels that include water exclusion devices.

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Snorkel Length
Some people think that a longer snorkel is better
because it sticks up above the water farther. The
thinking is, the taller the snorkel, the less likely water
will splash in. The reality, however, is that the taller
the snorkel, the less effective it is for two reasons:
Dead air space – As you’ll read in detail in
Chapter Five, the first part of each breath you take
is dead air. Dead air is the tail end of your last All fins consist of a
exhalation that doesn’t leave your breathing passage, large blade that allows
you to push against
and is therefore high in carbon dioxide. When you
the water. Most divers
inhale, you rebreathe this carbon dioxide. A snorkel
use foot fins, though
increases the amount of dead air you rebreathe each there are hand fins for
time you inhale. The higher the snorkel volume, the individuals who have
more dead air. A snorkel that’s taller than it has to a physical challenge
be makes you rebreathe more carbon dioxide than involving their legs.
necessary. To illustrate the point, if your snorkel were
122 centimetres/48 inches tall, at rest you would
simply rebreathe the same breath over and over. and a thermoplastic blade. Only a few all-neoprene fins
remain, but they have a strong following with some
Water pressure – The second problem is that it’s divers. Composite fins are generally more sophisticated
harder to clear the water out of a taller snorkel. Every
in design and are lighter weight. Both are manufactured
15 centimetres/6 inches of water adds about 63
through molding processes. Neoprene fins are molded
grams/2.2 ounces more effort that you need to blow
water out of it. A self drain valve helps, but even with in one step. With composite fins, manufacturers mold
a self drain, part of the water you blow out goes out component pieces individually before molding them
the top. The taller the snorkel, the harder it is to clear. together in the final step.
The best snorkel length is tall enough for the
tip to be at or just above the crown of your head.
This is high enough that you won’t have much water
splashing in, yet will have minimal dead air and be
easy to clear.

Fins
Fins allow you to use your legs to swim, which is much
more efficient than swimming with your unaided
hands and feet. Regardless of the style or materials, all
Most modern
fins consist of a large blade that provides resistance for fins are either all
pushing against the water, and a foot pocket that secures neoprene (left)
the blade to your feet. There are also hand fins, which or neoprene and
are webbed gloves used by divers who have a physical plastics composites.
challenge that keeps them from using their legs.
As simple as fins look, there’s actually a lot of science
Materials in them. Many high-end fins incorporate graphite
and other fibers to enhance the amount of energy that
Modern fins consist of neoprene and various thermo-
transfers from your legs into motion, minimizing waste.
plastics. A few popular neoprene fins are entirely rubber
The blades vary in thickness as well so they flex optimally,
or plastic, but the majority of modern fins are composite
according to the manufacturer’s design and the way you’re
construction, meaning they’re made of two or more
supposed to kick with them. Even all neoprene fins use
materials. Typically, your fin has a neoprene
somewhat different types of neoprene in various parts of
foot pocket and heel strap (if it uses one)
the fin during molding to benefit performance.

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Styles In addition to open-heel adjustable and full-foot
Modern fins come in two main styles: open-heel fins, there are a number of special purpose fins. Some
adjustable and full-foot. Open-heel adjustable fins make of these aren’t designed for diving, but for activities
up the majority of fins commonly worn by recreational such as bodysurfing. Other special purpose fins are
divers and are practically the exclusive choice for tec highly specialized, like ultra long bladed models used in
divers. They’re generally larger, full power fins suited to competitive fin swimming or spearfishing. Monofins,
propelling you through the water with scuba on. They where both foot pockets attach to one large blade, are
have an open back foot pocket with adjustable strap, and popular with some deep free (breath-hold) divers.
therefore come in basic sizes (small, medium, large, extra
large). Even in warm water, you usually wear wet suit Features
boots with open-heel fins because this design requires the Fin features generally relate to blade design options and to
padding for a comfortable fit. strap options. You’ll find more options in the open-heel,
adjustable models than in full-foot fins.
Strap adjustment. For many years, adjustable fins

Dive Equipment
came with basic metal wire buckles (you’ll still see a few
Open-Heel Adjustable around). This buckle held well but made adjusting the
strap difficult. Many new divers, in particular, turned to
their instructors for help in getting their fins adjusted for
the first time. Adjusting these buckles correctly required
strong hands, and you couldn’t adjust them after you put
your fins on.
Today’s fins come with quick adjust buckles, many
Force Fin with quick release snaps. Most of these allow you slip your
Full-foot FIN STYLES foot into the pocket and the cinch the strap up when you
put them on. To take them off, just release the strap on
one side. The primary caution with these buckles is to be
The two primary fin styles are full-foot and open heel sure you use the correct type of strap for the buckle, and
adjustable. that you make sure that the strap ridges face the right way
to hold. Otherwise, the strap may slip.
Full-foot fins slide over your feet like slippers. You
choose the size based on your shoe size, and you normally Fin Strap Enhancements

wear them barefoot. This makes them quick to put on:

wet them, slide in your feet and you’re ready to go.
Most full-foot fins have smaller blades and
are therefore suited primarily for snorkeling,
not serious scuba diving. There are Swivel
some exceptions, however. A few
manufacturers make full bladed Fastex-type Strap Release
power fins in the full-foot
Ultra Long
Blades
design specifically for Quick-release Strap Adjustment

scuba divers who will

use the fins exclusively Today’s fins come with quick adjust buckles, many with quick
in warm water release snaps. Most of these allow you to slip your foot into the
environments. pocket and the cinch the strap up when you put them on. To
take them off, just release the strap on one side.

Spring heels –– Encased springs have begun to

Ultralong bladed fins and replace straps, although they’re nothing new. The first
Monofin
monofins are used primarily by spring heel fins came out in the 1970s, and the concept
serious free divers for competitive had off-and-on success into the mid 1980s. Since about
fin swimming, spearfishing and 2000, tec divers have popularized them again. Spring
deep breathhold.
www.deeperblue.net.

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heels have the advantages of never requiring adjustment Vents. Vented fins first appeared in the early 1960s.
and being almost indestructible. However, you need Some models vent water through the blade on the rest
thick, well-padded boots to wear them comfortably. (up) stroke or on the power (down) stroke. Either way,
You can buy some fins with spring heels built in. the purpose is to reduce resistance that would result in
If you already have a good set of open-heel fins, several wasted energy instead of propulsion. Although most
manufacturers make spring heels that replace the standard modern fins don’t use vents, several popular vented
buckle and strap. You simply choose the size (you may models remain.
need to try a few), slip off the old buckle and slip on the Vents that let water through the fin on the power
spring heel. stroke seem to work best on more flexible fins. During
the power stroke with a flexible fin, the very top of the
fin, right below the foot pocket, tends to push water
forward instead of back. The vents let water through the
fin to minimize this wasted energy.
Vents let water through the fin on the rest stroke
seem most appropriate for stiffer fins. They reduce the
effort you need to lift the fin during the upstroke, so they
allow you to rest more effectively. This venting style is less
popular. At least one manufacturer has a fin blade that
folds sharply to minimize resistance on the rest stroke,
then opens to allow a powerful down stroke.
You can buy fins with spring heels already built into them, or
you can buy spring heels that replace the buckle and straps
found on most standard fins.
Vents allow water
Ribs. Virtually every fin has some kind of rib system through the fin
on its blade. Usually located on the edges, ribs stabilize blade to reduce
the fin blade so it doesn’t shimmy as you kick. They guide resistance that
would otherwise
the water straight back along the fin so that the water you result in wasted
move contributes to forward motion instead of wasted energy.
energy.
Channels. Channels also guide the water straight Split fins. One of the latest innovations is to split
back, but some do so more effectively than ribs alone. On the blade down the center. The theory behind this
your power stroke (downward kick), the fin design allows design is that it greatly reduces resistance and, during
the blade to curve into a U-shaped channel that captures the kick, shapes the blade much like a fish or whale
water and sends it smoothly back along the fin.

Ribs

Channeling The theory behind

split fins is that the design
greatly reduces resistance
and, during the kick,
shapes the blade much
Channels guide the water straight back. On your like a fish or whale tail so
power stroke (downward kick), the blade curves that almost all the water
into a U-shaped channel that captures water and goes straight back.
sends it smoothly back along the fin.

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tail so that almost all the water goes straight back. This, blade size, foot pocket size and general diver size/strength
say the designers, makes the fins far more efficient than generally match in the popular open-heel fins. This means
conventional blades, decreasing leg effort while that if the fin fits, the blade is probably appropriate.
maintaining forward thrust. Try your fins on while wearing your booties. Adjust
Split fins have a growing popularity, though many the strap and slip it in place. The fins shouldn’t pinch, nor
divers still prefer the nonsplit versions. The split fin design should they be so loose that they wobble when you wiggle
assumes that you’ll be using the standard, up-and-down your feet.
flutter kick. With other kicks, like the frog kick, the split The most common error in choosing an open-heel fin
design seems to be less effective. The frog kick is common is buying one that’s too small. Your foot should slide into
among cave divers and other tec divers, so you don’t see the pocket so that the pocket comes all the way up to your
many tec divers using split models. ankle. If you can’t get your foot in that far, it’s too small.

Mask, Snorkel
and Fin Accessories

Dive Equipment
In theory, compared to conventional There are a few mask, snorkel and fin accessories you’re
fins split fins drive more water straight
back for more efficient propulsion.
likely to find useful.

Defogging Solution
Choosing the Right Fins
Unless you do something about it, the inside of your mask
If you’re investing in your first set of fins, as always your
will fog up. This happens because your body heat warms
primary concerns are fit and comfort. You also need to
the air in the mask, allowing moisture to condense on the
consider where you’ll be using them: water temperatures,
cooler lens. To prevent this, the optimal solution is to coat
currents and places you’ll be walking.
the inside with a commercial defogging solution. The defog
While full-foot models may be adequate in calm,
coating keeps water from being able to condense against the
tropical conditions, open-heel adjustable models are the
glass. Follow the manufacturer’s directions, but generally
best bet for most divers. This is because you can always
you put a few drops in your mask, rub it on the face plate
use open-heel fins in warm water, but you can’t use full-
and then rinse the mask once (more than once will wash
foot fins in cool water. If you’re shore diving, open-heel
away all the defog and you’ll have to start over).
fins are preferred in almost any environment because your
In a pinch, you can use saliva, though some medical
wet suit boots provide some foot protection. Be sure to
experts have expressed concerns about eye infections from
match the blade size to your strength.
this practice. While there have been no widespread reports
If you don’t have strong legs, oversized, stiff blades
of this, you’ll probably find commercial defog a more
may be difficult to use. On the other hand, if you’re very
pleasing option.
strong, short highly flexible blades may make you feel like
you’re kicking like crazy but going nowhere. Fortunately,
Marking Paint
You need special marking paint that bonds to neoprene
or silicone rubber. Common markers may work on some
surfaces, but tend not to last. The ones you get from your
PADI Dive Center or Resort are permanent.

Preservative Sprays
When neoprene made up most of a diver’s gear,
preservative sprays were popular. With modern materials,
you’re not as likely to need or benefit from them.
If you do want to use these on your gear, check the
manufacturer’s guidelines before doing so. Don’t use them
The most common error in choosing open heel fins is getting on regulators or dry suit zippers, and if in doubt, don’t use
ones that are too small. Your foot should slide all the way into the them at all.
pocket so that the fin comes up to your ankle.

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Milestones in Fin Design
Fins have a long and illustrious history. Leonardo Da Vinci, the 15th century inventor, was one of the first to envision
them. He sketched a diver wearing fins and webbed gloves. Since then, there have been many milestones in the
gradual evolution of the fin.

Owen Churchill’s Original Duck Feet vented fin a standard piece of equipment for scuba diving
Owen Churchill is credited with in the late 1960s and early ‘70s, later popularized it in
popularizing the first widely used open-heel form. Eventually, other manufacturers began
swim fins in the late 1930s. producing versions of this fin, so that even after four
Churchill’s fins improved upon decades, this all-neoprene design remains one of the
those invented and patented by world’s most popular fins.
Frenchman Louis de Corlieu in
1933, whom Churchill acknowl-
edged and paid a royalty. Now The Plana
more than 50 years later, Churchill’s fins remain The AMF Mares Plana was the first
popular with body boarders and bodysurfers. widely used thermoplastic-composite
fin in North America and it helped
reestablish full-foot fins as suitable
UDT Duck Feet for scuba diving. When an adjust-
During World War II, the US able version of this fin appeared in
Navy’s Underwater Demolition the early 1980s, it quickly became
Team (UDT) members captured one of the most popular fins of all times.
popular attention as combat frog-
men. They used the most powerful
fins of their time which were long The Force Fin
and rigid with fixed heel straps, Introduced the 1980s, the Force Fin
required huge kicking effort. Many users said, “It’s like departed from conventional fin
having boards strapped to your feet.” UDT Duck Feet design in many respects. It
fins were widely used by skin and scuba divers during eliminated the enclosed foot pocket,
the postwar years and on into the 1960s but the most significant departure
was the blade design. The Force
Fin’s blade emulates fins found in
The Voit Viking nature with a V-shape for hydro-
At one time, AMF Voit was a dynamic performance, and a design that folds down to
major dive equipment manufac- minimize effort on the upward (resting) part of the kick.
turer. Their popular Viking Fins Specialized variations as well as the original Force Fin
came from the era in which remain popular to the present.
Lloyd Bridges first starred in Sea
Hunt. Many present-day divers
The Apollo Prestige
first started with these fins.
Apollo designed the Prestige so
that the entire fin, including the
The U.S. Divers Otarie foot pocket, acts as a blade.
The Otarie was one of the most This fin channels water behind
popular snorkeling and warm- the fin, rather rather than to the
water scuba diving fins of all sides, giving it an efficient kick.
times. Hundreds of thousands of
divers got their first taste of the Split Fins
underwater environment when Force Fin and Apollo both
they went snorkeling for the first time in these fins. introduced split fins in the late
1990s. This was the first major
The Jet Fin change in fin design since the
The Jet Fin was the first popular 1980s. Both sell their fins today.
vented fin. When first introduced Several other manufacturers
by Beauchat in France, it had now produced split fins under a
a full-foot pocket and an adjust- license.
able heel strap. Scubapro, who
helped make the adjustable,

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Spare-Parts Kits know what to avoid. Consequently, some contact with
Mask straps, fins straps, snorkel keepers and other small potentially harmful objects is inevitable. So, even when
items get lost and fail. It’s really annoying to miss a dive you don’t need thermal protection, you still want body
simply because you didn’t have a spare, so get in a habit protection.
of carrying a kit with these types of items. O-rings for
cylinder valves, spare straps, buckles and some basic tools Body Suits
all belong in this kit. Good spare mask straps to carry are Body suits, sometimes called “skin suits,” are your most
the fabric and VelcroTM type straps. These straps fit almost basic protection. They’re typically single-piece jumpsuits
any mask, go in place quickly, and will even work with a primarily for protection from incidental scrapes and
broken strap buckle on most masks. stings. They have little or no insulation, so they’re
intended primarily for warm water diving. As a secondary
use, you may find that a thin body suit helps you slide
Exposure Suits into your wet suit more easily. Out of the water, they
help you avoid sunburn, and they take up very little space

Dive Equipment
Water conducts heat away from your body about 20 when packed.
times faster than air at the same temperature. This is why
prolonged exposure to water as warm as 27-30°C/81-86°F MATERIALS
can be uncomfortable. Given enough time, exposure to
Most body suits are made from lycra, a nylon derivative
water below 24°C/75°F can be fatal due to the loss of
known for its tremendous elasticity and resistance to
body heat. Your body can’t generate heat as fast as the
abrasion. This is the same fabric commonly used in
water carries it away.
competitive swimsuits and other athletic wear. Some body
Beyond the need to retain heat, the underwater
suits use lightweight neoprene in the torso area — the
environment contains any number of items that can
area most critical for thermal protection. These materials
cut, puncture, scrape or sting your bare skin, which
come in a wide variety of colors so that body suits can
softens after prolonged exposure to the water. If you’re
coordinate with other equipment.
in an unfamiliar underwater environment, you may not

Wet suits have

the greatest
usable range of
all exposure suits,
Body, sometimes especially multiple-
called “skin piece models.
suits,” are single- Depending
piece jumpsuits on style and
primarily for thickness, they
protection from may keep you
incidental scrapes adequately
and stings. They comfortable in
have little or no water as cold as
insulation, so 10°C/50°F and
they’re intended yet be useful for
primarily for keeping warm in
warm water water as high as
diving. 32°C/90°F.

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Body suits may use other materials, such as Polartec®, MATERIALS
a fleece-like insulator that adds significant thermal
As mentioned, wet suits are made from closed cell
properties. Polartec® suits are thicker than conventional
neoprene. The term “closed cell” refers to the fact that the
lycra suits, but thinner and lighter than wet suits. They’re
bubbles inside the neoprene are not interconnected. This
a good option if you want a little bit of insulation for
means that water cannot flow through wet suit material
warm water diving.
like it would in an open cell material like a dish sponge.
STYLES Manufacturers use two primary processes to create closed
cell neoprene.
Body suits usually come in two styles: models that zip up
Manufacturers make chemically blown foam neoprene
the front, and zipperless models with crossing panels in
by adding chemicals to the raw material during the curing
the front that allow you to stretch the suit open to put
process. The chemicals react, creating gas bubbles that
it on. Some body suits come with short sleeves, though
remain trapped within the neoprene as it solidifies. Done
most provide full-length protection from wrist to ankle.
properly, this process creates large, uniform bubbles and
neoprene with good insulating qualities.
FEATURES
Manufacturers make nitrogen-blown (or gas-blown)
Most body suits have stirrups at the ankles that you slip foam neoprene using special machines that force nitrogen
under your heels. These keep the suit legs from riding up into sheets of raw neoprene under pressure. They release
when you put on wet suit boots, or when you wear the the pressure, which allows bubbles to form during curing.
suit under a wet suit. Thumb loops similarly keep the This also creates large, uniform bubbles with good
sleeves from rolling up when you wear your body suit insulating qualities.
under a wet suit. The technology for making closed cell neoprene has
been with us for decades. Although the basic material
Wet Suits hasn’t changed, new manufacturing refinements have
By far, wet suits are the most common form of thermal done a great deal to make wet suits more comfortable.
and abrasion protection you’ll use. They have the greatest Softening agents make modern wet suit neoprene more
usable range, especially multiple-piece models that you flexible. In the 1960s and early 1970s, most wet suits had
can use in parts or together. Depending on style and ankle and wrist zippers so you could get into the suits.
thickness, wet suits may keep you adequately comfortable Modern suits seldom have these because their stretch
in water as cold as 10°C/50°F and yet be useful for makes them unnecessary. The primary drawback to these
keeping warm in water as high as 32°C/90°F. new processes are that they make the neoprene less dense,
so you need more weight. Also, each dive breaks the
HOW WET SUITS WORK neoprene down faster through crushing, meaning you’ll
There have been some long-standing misconceptions need a new suit sooner.
about how wet suits provide insulation. Because wet suits Thickness. Neoprene comes in various thicknesses
let a small amount of water in between your skin and ranging from about 1.5 mm/1⁄ 16 in to 7 mm/.28 in. In
the suit, some divers have had the impression that the countries using the imperial system, the most popular
water insulates you. This isn’t true. The insulation comes thicknesses used to be 3 ⁄ 16 in and ¼ in, but today virtually
from the neoprene rubber that the suit is made from. all thickness references use metric.
This neoprene has closed gas bubbles (closed cells) that Thinner neoprene is appropriate for warm water
conduct heat slowly, thereby insulating you. A thicker diving — 24°C/75°F and above, and for additional
suit provides more insulation. The gas in the closed cells layers under thicker suits. Lightweight wet suits, such as
compresses under the water pressure, so the shallower shorties or one-piece jumpsuits, are usually made from
your dive, the more insulation you have. thinner material, 2.5 mm material. Thicker neoprene is
Wet suits allow water into the suit, but they trap the used for multipiece suits that will be used in cold water
water. Your body heats the water, which, as long as it stays — suits used in temperatures ranging from 10°C/50°F to
trapped, allows the neoprene to insulate you. If your suit 26°C/79°F. Most two-piece wet suits are made from 6mm
doesn’t fit well and more cool water can circulate into neoprene, which puts two layers – 12 mm – of insulation
the suit and displace the warmed water, you’ll cool over your trunk area. In warmer water, you may only need
very quickly. This is why a snug, proper fit is to wear one piece of a multipiece suit.
important. Lining. Most wet suits have a material lining the
neoprene on both sides. The exterior material is usually

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Dive Equipment
Shorties are one-piece wet suits that The most popular style of two-piece suit Another two-piece option is a thicker
generally have short sleeves and legs. is the farmer john (or long john) and neoprene back zippered jump suit with
Shorties provide thermal protection for the jacket combination. This style provides a hooded vest. It also provides a double
torso area, which, other than the head, is you with a double layer of insulation in insulation layer over your torso.
the most important area for maintaining the critical torso area. You can shed some
body heat. You’ll find this style best suited of the pieces when you dive in warmer
for water above 27°C/81°F. conditions.

a robust, flexible nylon or other similar synthetic STYLES

material. Interior linings range from simple nylon fabric
There are several wet suit styles, allowing you to choose
to plush, synthetic pile. Some linings are impregnated
the one(s) that meet your needs in extremely cold water
with titanium or other materials to enhance their heat
to extremely warm water. The more of your body you
retention, but the primary purposes of lining are to
cover, and the thicker you cover it, the more insulation
make it easier to put the suit on, and to protect the foam
you have.
neoprene, which wears and tears easily.
Shorties. Shorties are one-piece wet suits that
Unlined suits, popular in the 1960s, fit very snugly
generally have short sleeves and legs. Shorties provide
to the skin and are consequently very warm. However,
thermal protection for the torso area, which, other than
they went by the wayside with the rise of lined neoprene
the head, is the most important area for maintaining
because unlined suits were too difficult to don and tore
body heat. You’ll find this style best suited for water
too easily. More recently, suits lined on the outside,
above 27°C/81°F.
but not the inside, have come back into vogue in some
Of the various shorties, those with thigh-length legs
quarters. The outside lining protects the suit and prevents
are the warmest. These provide insulation in the groin
tearing, and the new stretchy materials – plus a few
area, which in addition to the arm pits, are important
squirts of hair conditioner – allow you to slip right in.
areas for heat loss (because major arteries pass close to the
The bare neoprene against your skin minimizes water
skin’s surface here). Other popular shorty styles include
circulation within the suit. If you have a sensitivity to
those with beaver-tail closures, similar to full-length wet
neoprene, you’ll want a suit that’s lined on both sides.
suit jackets, and step-in models that look more like one-
piece swim suits.

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One-piece jumpsuits. One-piece jumpsuits are minimize water flow. It also provides some additional
warmer than shorties because they cover more of your padding between your back and your scuba cylinder.
body, and because they’re typically made of thicker Custom fit. Because fit is such a critical factor in a
neoprene. They provide both thermal and abrasion wet suit’s ability to provide adequate thermal protection,
protection from wrist to ankle. Thin, 2.5mm one-piece probably the best way to ensure proper fit and maximum
jumpsuits work well for water from 24°C/75°F through warmth is to have your suit custom made for you.
30°C/86°F. Although people of average build can find a stock wet suit
Two-piece wet suits. Two-piece wet suits are the that fits adequately, custom wet suits offer the best fit.
most popular of all dive suits, due to their flexible utility. The more your physique differs from average, the more
Depending on thickness and your tolerance to cold, you you benefit from having a custom suit made. An added
can use two-piece wet suits in water as cold as 10°C/50°F benefit of custom-made suits is that you get to select
and as warm as 27°C/81°F. You can use the jacket of a color combinations and optional features that may not be
two-piece wet suit alone as a shorty in water as warm as available on stock suits.
32°C/90°F.
The most popular style of two-piece suit is the farmer
john (or long john) and jacket combination. Another
two-piece option is a thicker neoprene back zippered
jump suit with a hooded vest. This and the farmer john
combination both provide you with a double insulation
layer in the critical torso area. You can shed some of the
pieces when you dive in warmer conditions.

FEATURES
In addition to choosing thickness and style, you’ll want to
consider the accessories available. Some of these increase
a suit’s warmth, others increase its durability, convenience
or appearance.
Attached hoods. Because you swim through the The best way to
water headfirst, you can inadvertently scoop cold water ensure proper fit and
into your suit through a loose-fitting collar, forcing maximum warmth
it inside the suit. One way to help prevent this from is to have your suit
happening is to attach the wet suit hood directly to the custom made for you.
suit jacket. With this modification, there is no longer a
neck opening through which water can enter. However, Knee and elbow pads. If you’re like most divers,
with a properly fitting suit, water entry down the neck you’ll wear out your wet suit knees first. Kneeling on
shouldn’t be a major issue. If you plan to use the suit in swim steps or the bottom plus general abrasion and
warm water as well as cold, the ability to remove your stretching make these the first area to go, so knee pads are
hood may be more important. a wise investment. Some divers are similarly hard on their
Wrist and ankle seals. Another way to minimize elbows, so they benefit from elbow pads. Both knee and
water entry and circulation inside a wet suit is to fit elbow pads thicken the suit and make it resist bending.
neoprene dry suit seals at the wrist and ankles. These seals Knee pads aren’t usually an issue for your powerful leg
are made from unlined neoprene and are tapered to fit muscles, but some divers find elbow pads fatiguing to
snugly. Because unlined neoprene fits much more tightly their much smaller arm muscles.
to the skin, water cannot enter as easily. This provides The most basic pads are simply big neoprene patches
many of the benefits of using a totally unlined suit with on the outside of your suit. You can also get KevlarTM
fewer of the drawbacks. pads, which will usually outlast the rest of the suit.
Spine pads. There’s a natural channel over your spine Bent knees. Another way to overcome the problems
caused by the rise of your shoulder blades the curve associated with knee-area stretching is to cut the suit in
of your back. A spine pad is a strip of neoprene such a way that the legs are slightly bent at the knees
mounted either on the inside of the wet suit when the suit is in a relaxed position. When this is done,
jacket or farmer john that fills this space to bending your leg at the knees doesn’t stretch the material

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as much. This, in turn, reduces wear and helps the particularly true of tec divers, who avoid large pockets on
neoprene maintain its original insulation. their BCD harnesses and instead rely on thigh pockets for
Bottom pads. Since some divers dive off of rocky accessory stowage.
beaches by sliding into the water on their buttocks and
because others spend significant time sitting, bottom WET SUIT REPAIRS
pads can also help a suit’s durability. Divers with physical Use your wet suit and eventually you’ll cut or tear it, even
challenges often rely on seated entries and exits and can with the most durable linings. Fortunately, you can easily
benefit from these pads. repair minor damage with commercial wet suit cement
Pockets. There are all kinds of things we carry with available at your local PADI operations. If you’re repairing
us underwater: slates, spare gauges, backup tables and so an area that’s just torn or cut, that’s all you’ll need. If you
on. You can carry some of these in a BCD pocket, but need to add or replace knee pads, then you’ll need the pads
you may want utility pockets installed on your wet suit’s as well. For worn areas along joints, you’ll want some seam
tape. Keep in mind that putting on pads or seam tape is
more involved than a simple repair, so you may want to
leave it to your PADI Dive Center or Resort to handle.

Dive Equipment
To repair a tear or cut, you’ll need neoprene cement,
which only works on the exposed neoprene – not the
Knee pads and thigh nylon lining. The directions vary slightly (follow the
pockets are two options
you may want on your wet
instruction on the cement you buy), but generally you
suit. Knee pads protect start by folding open the damaged area to expose the
the high-wear knee area. neoprene foam edges. Coat these edges lightly with the
Many divers –– especially cement, but leave them apart until they dry for a few
tec divers –– find thigh minutes. (A few weights come in handy to control the
pockets more convenient
than BCD pockets.
fabric if it’s a long tear). Apply a second coat to each edge
and wait until the surface becomes tacky. Press the edges
thighs or arms. Such pockets may close with a VelcroTM- firmly back together, starting at one end and working to
type flap, or they may not have a closure. You can also get the other. Use weights to hold the repair together until
special pockets for your knife sheath on your calf, thigh or it dries. The suit may be usable within an hour, but for
upper arm. best results allow it to cure overnight. Done correctly, the
Some wet suit manufacturers recommend against repair will be as strong as the neoprene itself.
installing pockets because the sewing and gluing, as For knee pads and seam tape, you’ll use a bonding
well as the continual tugging on surrounding material cement like AquasealTM. Bonding cement bonds on and
when you go into a pocket, may affect the suit’s fit through the suit lining, and has good external strength.
and durability. Many divers believe that the added Therefore, you may also use it over a tear or cut as a
convenience, however, outweighs these drawbacks. This is secondary bond if you think the area will be subject to

To repair neoprene, expose the surfaces you need to glue. Coat them with neoprene Use weights to hold repairs made
cement, and allow then to dry. Apply a second coat, and when the surfaces are tacky, with bonding cement while they
press them firmly together. dry, which can take 12 hours or
longer.

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Why You Want a Custom Don’t Throw Away Your
Wet Suit Old Wet Suit
Custom-made wet suits fit your exact measurements, With proper care, you’ll get several years of diving
tastes and colors, which is why you may find that for out of a quality wet suit, assuming your physical
you, a custom suit is not a luxury, but a necessity. characteristics don’t change so much that it doesn’t
Before you have a financial anxiety attack, fit any more. Eventually, though, it doesn’t insulate as
relax. Fortunately, custom suits aren’t that much more well, the colors fade and the wear becomes obvious.
expensive than stock suits. The reason is that even It’s time to invest in a new one. Don’t trash the old one,
stock suits require a lot of manual skilled labor to though, because it can help you get more life from the
assemble. So, the primary difference in manufacturing new one.
is whether the suit is precut from a pattern or custom If you’re like most divers, chances are that some of
cut from your personal measurements. your dives take you places that are hard on a wet suit
Although the base price typically isn’t a lot more and not that cold – such as in chlorinated swimming
than for a stock suit, you may end up paying a good pools or shore diving in the warmer seasons. If your
bit more for your custom suits –– but you’ll get your old suit will provide adequate insulation on these
money’s worth because the money goes to special dives, wear it instead of your new suit.
pockets, knee pads and other features that you want Eventually the old suit gets so thrashed it’s
yet aren’t available on stock models. Another plus unwearable. It goes in the trash, your new suit
with custom suits is you generally get some color becomes your old suit, and you order a new new suit.
pattern choices at no additional cost. Once you have this cycle going, you may find you
When you get measured for your suit, wear add two or three years to the life of each suit.
the type of bathing suit you’ll wear under it. This
helps assure the best fit. Be aware that some of the
measurements may seem highly personal, but are Next, you may apply the cement to the pad or tape,
necessary considering the suit must conform closely to
or to the suit where it will go – whichever makes it easier
your body shape in all places.
for you to do the job neatly. The cement is thick, so it will
When picking up your wet suit for the first
time, be sure to try it on. If it doesn’t fit quite right, flow slowly. Therefore, be sure to work on a level surface.
a salesperson will mark the area and return it to the Again, weights are useful to control the suit. After placing
manufacturer for a final adjustment. This will add the pad/tape, put light weight on it to hold it firmly
some time, but will be well worth it in the long run in in place (careful not to cement a weight to your suit,
terms of wear and comfort. though). If you’re bonding over a neoprene cement repair,
put a light coating within the taped area just thick enough
that no fabric protrudes through the surface. Leave it
uncovered to dry.
repeated stress. The downside of this is that dried bonding
Bonding cements usually take 12 or more hours to
cement is very obvious, and it reduces the suit’s flexibility
dry (see the manufacturer instructions). To speed things
in the area. Generally, you don’t want to put bonding
up, some brands have curing accelerants that you can add
cement on the inside of your suit, since it’s not soft and
to the cement. With these, the bond may be ready in as
may create discomfort.
little as an hour. The downside is that you have to work
Start by preparing everything before opening the
more quickly. If you’re repairing a large area, it’s usually
cement. Premeasure seam tape and trim pads to the
easiest to omit the accelerant so you have plenty of time
proper size. Place them on the suit where you want them
to work. After the cement firmly sets so it no longer flows
to go, and if necessary, use a marker to help you position
(at least three or four hours without accelerant), gently
the pad or seam after you apply the glue. Next, frame the
and carefully remove the masking tape. Leave everything
area with masking tape about 3 mm/.1 in to 6 mm/.25 in.
else in place until the cement bonds completely.
outside the repair area. If you’re simply applying bonding
Here are a couple of tips. First, all of these cements
cement over a neoprene cement repair, frame the bonded
have noxious fumes. Use them in a well ventilated area.
area. The reason for this is that the cement will spread
Second, get some scrap wet suit material from your PADI
somewhat while it dries. You’ll remove the tape
dive operator to practice these repairs instead of learning
afterward, leaving clean, professional-looking
on your favorite wet suit.
edges.

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Courtesy of Historical
Diving Society

Dive Equipment
The early models of the 1940s Modern dry suits vary in material, thickness and features, but all provide insulation by surrounding
were made entirely of rubber you with a layer of air (or other insulating gas).
and lacking today’s dry suit
zippers, were difficult to put on
and difficult to seal.

volume with depth. For this reason, your dry suit has
Dry Suits an inflation system to maintain the gas volume as you
Although we think of dry suits as a newer technology than descend, and an exhaust valve to release expanding gas as
wet suits, in reality the first exposure suits were dry suits. you ascend. This allows you to maintain buoyancy control
The early models of the 1940s were made entirely of latex and avoid a dry suit squeeze. It’s also why you should have
and, lacking today’s dry suit zippers, were difficult to put special –– albeit simple and straightforward –– training
on and difficult to seal. Divers in those days didn’t have for dry suit diving in the PADI Dry Suit Diver course.
today’s high-tech undergarments. The early suits tended
to leak, and even when they didn’t they weren’t that Reference
warm. This was why the invention of wet suit was such an PADI Dry Suit Diver Manual
important contribution to sport diving. PADI Dry Suit Diving video
At the beginning of the 1970s, however, the dry suit
reemerged, reinvented into their modern form. The first MATERIALS
of the new breed were neoprene dry suits –– a material There are two basic types of dry suits: neoprene dry
that you can still get today. The early 1980s saw the suits and shell dry suits. Neoprene dry suits are made
introduction of ultralight dry suits made from urethane- of neoprene (of course), whereas manufacturers use
coated nylon, ushering in the age of the shell dry suit. many different materials to construct shell dry suits. The
primary difference is that neoprene dry suit material
HOW DRY SUITS WORK provides insulation, whereas shell dry suits only keep you
As the name implies, dry suits keep you dry. Because dry. Therefore, you must wear an insulating undergarment
air conducts heat much more slowly than water does, between your skin and the dry suit.
surrounding you with a layer of air (or argon – more Neoprene. As mentioned before, neoprene dry suits
about this later) as well as insulation, dry suits keep you are made from closed cell neoprene, which is the same
warm by further reducing heat loss. A good illustration material used to make wet suits. The difference is the
of this is a neoprene dry suit compared to a wet suit suit has wrist and neck seals to exclude water. Since the
of the same thickness. Both have the same insulating neoprene insulates you, you may need no undergarment,
characteristics with respect to the neoprene, but the dry or a thinner one compared to a shell suit. Neoprene dry
suit insulates you better by removing the water between suits are more buoyant than shell suits, and therefore you
your skin and the neoprene. Because a dry suit is filled don’t become as negatively buoyant if you accidentally
with air or argon, you have a gas space that changes flood the suit. The downsides to neoprene suits are that

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Crushed neoprene suits are very
durable, making them one of the
favorite choices for recreational
and technical divers who enjoy
wreck diving.
Neoprene dry suits are made Shell suits include urethane
from foam neoprene. coated fabrics, vulcanized
rubber and trilaminate. Crushed neoprene. Suits made of crushed neoprene
like a wet suit, the neoprene compresses with depth are also considered shell suits, but this material differs
and insulates less. Also, these suits tend to be bulky for substantially from other shell fabrics. Crushed neoprene
packing and dry slowly. However, they’re among the is neoprene in which the manufacturer uses high pressure
warmest dry suits and a prime choice for the coldest to crush the closed cells flat. The resulting material is only
waters. slightly buoyant and doesn’t insulate substantially, so that
Shell fabrics. Shell dry suits are made from relatively
thin material that keeps you dry. Your undergarment
provides all the insulation. The advantages of these suits
is that they’re very compact for travel, they don’t hold
moisture so they dry rapidly and that you can easily vary
your insulation by changing undergarments. Since the Some manufacturers
materials don’t compress, your insulating characteristics offer suits that use
designs to get the
don’t decrease with depth. The primary drawbacks are
best of two different
that most shell fabrics have little or no inherent stretch, materials. One
so they have to have a bit of extra bulk to accommodate design, for example,
movement. These suits have little buoyancy when flooded. uses trilaminate for the
As recently as the mid 1990s, you could cover all the top half of the suit and
crushed neoprene for
shell materials in a short list. Today manufacturers use a
the bottom.
growing variety of high-tech fabrics, making it impractical
to discuss all of them separately. Because of this variety,
shell fabric suits include the least expensive and some of you need an undergarment just like any other shell suit.
the most expensive dry suits available. However, unlike other shell materials, crushed neoprene
Urethane-coated fabric is a relatively inexpensive stretches, making the dry suit flexible and comfortable.
shell fabric, and a suitable choice if you need a dry suit Crushed neoprene suits are heavier than most other shell
on a budget. Vulcanized rubber is heavy, but makes a fabrics and, like regular neoprene, dry slowly. They’re
very durable suit that’s commonly used by commercial very durable, making them one of the favorite choices for
divers as well as recreational divers. Trilaminate is actually recreational and technical divers who enjoy wreck diving.
any one of several triple-layered fabrics in use today. Mixed fabrics. Given the different qualities of
Trilaminates are lightweight and strong, making them different materials, some manufacturers offer suits that
especially popular among tec divers. As you may expect, use more than one type. These designs allow you to
the higher cost materials have the edge in terms get the best of two different materials. One design, for
in performance, and durability; if you’re like example, uses trilaminate for the top half of the suit and
most divers, you’ll find that investing more is crushed neoprene for the bottom. This results in a suit
cheaper in the long run. that’s lighter weight and faster drying than a suit made

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entirely from crushed neoprene, yet gives you the crushed FEATURES
neoprene’s durability and stretch in the legs where they As with wet suits, you can choose from several
benefit you most. features when selecting a dry suit.
Fit. A dry suit doesn’t need to fit you as closely
STYLES as a wet suit, so you’re far more likely to find a stock
Since you use dry suits in cool water, all styles consist of a suit that’s the right size, though you may still need a
single piece, full body suit that covers the arms and legs. custom suit (not available in all models) if your physique
Style differences therefore relate to zipper location, which differs substantially from average in some way. Fit is still
affects the way you don the suit. important, though, because you need to be sure that you
Across the shoulder. This is perhaps the most have adequate room to
common style of dry suit. The advantages are that it’s an move, reach and bend.
easy design to don and that it minimizes zipper length This is particularly
important to consider
with shell dry suits made

Dive Equipment
from materials that don’t
stretch, which means
you have to have some
excess material. At the
same time, you don’t
want any more bulk
than necessary. When
investing in a dry suit,
try on the ones you’re
considering while wearing
the undergarments you
intend to use.
Modified torso. At
least one manufacturer
One advantage of the modified makes dry suits with an
torso design is that is allows suits extra long torso that folds
made of non-stretch material to down over itself, held in
give when you stretch. place by an elastic crotch
strap. This design gives
you more freedom to move, somewhat unfolding when
Across-the-shoulder
you reach upward, for example, and then being pulled
and shoulder-to-hip zipper
locations are probably the two back by the strap when you bring your arms down. You
most common dry suit entry unfasten the strap to take full advantage of the extra
configurations. length while donning and removing the suit.
Zipper covers. Dry suit zippers are essentially the
(the zipper is one of the most vulnerable and expensive same. They’re special waterproof closures based on a
parts of the suit). The downside is that unless you’re design originally used in space suits. Actually, it was this
incredibly flexible, you need someone to open and close
the zipper for you.
Shoulder to hip. Originally used in flight suits and
space suits, this zipper location lets you put on and take
off your suit without assistance. This is perhaps the most
common location for self-donning suits.
Other styles. Less common styles include zippers
across the front, from the torso center to midback
through the crotch, and an inverted U zipper that runs to
and from the midtorso around the neck. Zipper covers protect the suit’s relatively sensitive watertight zipper.

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Most dry suits seal at your wrist and neck. Both wrist and neck seals are available in latex (left) and neoprene (right).

zipper technology that made the modern dry suit possible. With either type, you have to size the seals to your
Dry suit zippers are tough as zippers go, but still relatively neck and wrists. Latex seals come in one size with a
vulnerable. Therefore, a feature to consider is a zipper conical shape. You trim the seal to get the right size,
cover. Some zipper covers are flaps that you fold over the though you must do this carefully because if you trim too
zipper and secure with VelcroTM type fasteners. Others much, you have to replace the seal and start again. You
take the form of a second normal zipper with material buy the approximate size you need with neoprene seals,
that you zip up after closing the dry suit zipper. Either and then stretch them over something if they’re a bit
way, these covers help protect the dry suit zipper from too big. (You learn about adjusting your seals during the
abrasion and dirt, which are your zipper’s main enemies. PADI Dry Suit Diver course).
Seals. Dry suits use two different types of neck and Until recently, a downside of dry suit diving had
wrist seals. Neoprene suits typically use neoprene seals, been that if you damaged a seal right before a dive,
whereas shell suits generally use seals made from a latex you were out of luck. Replacing a seal takes several
material. However, you can use either type, and it’s a hours while the cement dries. Today, however, you can
matter of personal preference. get dry suits with interchangeable seal systems. With
Proponents of latex seals claim that they’re softer these systems, you can change a damaged seal in a few
and more comfortable, and allow less water leakage. At moments.
one time they didn’t last as long as neoprene seals, but Unless you’re using dry gloves, keep in mind that a
this has changed with the development of higher quality little bit of seepage around your wrist is normal. When
latex. Those who prefer latex point out that they’re easier you clench your fist, grooves form along the tendons
to replace, though a downside is that they’re impossible to inside your wrist, which can let a little water through.
repair if you tear one. With properly sized seals, however, this should be
Neoprene seal users claim that such seals can be every infrequent and hardly noticeable.

Most dry suits include attached boots with rugged soles. One dry suit boot system uses heavy duty external boots that fit over sealed
crushed neoprene socks.

bit as watertight as latex seal without being as tight or Dry suit boots. Most dry suits come with attached
constricting. Neoprene seals are harder to replace boots. Neoprene suits typically have built-in neoprene
than latex seals, but have the advantage of hard-sole boots. Shell suits usually have boots with hard
being repairable with neoprene cement. latex soles, or soles made from other materials. Your suit

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may also have straps that cinch around the ankle or across equip your suit with dry gloves. These keep your hands
your feet to minimize air ballooning in your feet when warmer, though they’re more cumbersome. A newer
you have your legs high underwater. development is the interchangeable seal system, which
At one time, lower cost shell suits came with latex allows you to use conventional wrist seals and wet suit
socks instead of boots. You wore conventional wet suit gloves or dry gloves depending upon your needs for a
booties over these socks. The system worked adequately, given dive. Special retaining bands hold the seals to your
but were not as preferred as built-in dry suit boots. More suit, allowing you to quickly go from conventional seals to
recently, however, at least one manufacturer has updated dry gloves in a matter of minutes. These systems are also
the concept so that it’s featured on their high end models. useful because you can replace a damaged seal quickly.
They use a crushed neoprene sock with ample room for Undergarments. Choosing the right undergarment
undergarment socks, and include special overboots. Many is just as important as choosing the right dry suit. Your
divers prefer this system because it gives them footwear undergarment provides much or all of the insulation,
that’s sturdier than most conventional dry suit boots, depending on your type of dry suit.
plus the feet don’t balloon when their feet are elevated
underwater.

Dive Equipment
A point to keep in mind is that regardless of the type
of boots you choose, they’re bulkier than wet suit boots,
so you may need larger fins to accommodate them. Many
divers have a pair of fins exclusively for their dry suits.
Hoods. Most dry suits come with separate wet suit
hoods designed to be worn with them. A few suits have
attached hoods that keep your head dry. These keep you

Choosing the right

under garment is just as
important as choosing
the right dry suit. Your
undergarment provides
much or all of the
insulation, depending on
your type of dry suit.

Lightweight polypropylene undergarments work

well for water that’s not too cold, or as a liner under a
heavier undergarment. They may be all you need under
a neoprene dry suit. Another undergarment option is
synthetic pile, which wicks perspiration away from your
skin. This is important because anything that holds
moisture against your skin will make you colder. This is
With most dry suits, you’ll wear a separate wet suit hood, why you don’t want to wear cotton, for example, under
though some models have built in hoods. your undergarment.
Among the most thermally efficient dry suit
warmer, though they make it a bit more difficult to don undergarments are those made from DuPont Thinsulate®
the suit and establish a proper neck seal. If you’re diving or similar synthetics. These materials are not only
in the coldest water, however, you may find it worth the warm, they are also relatively thin and provide effective
trouble. insulation without increasing your buoyancy excessively.
Gloves. As with hoods, the most common approach Another big benefit of Thinsulate® is that it still insulates
is to use separate wet suit versions. You can, however, you when wet, albeit not as well.

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Inflation/exhaust valves –– Since you have to add Your exhaust valve is a variable volume valve that
and release air from your dry suit during the dive, the you adjust by turning an outside ring. By tightening the
suit has a low pressure inflation valve (usually in the valve, your suit holds a larger air volume. By loosening it,
it holds less. This allows you to precisely control your suit
buoyancy. Once set, as you ascend, you keep the exhaust
valve elevated and expanding air vents automatically. You
can press on the valve to vent manually at any time.
An important feature in modern dry suits is the size
of the exhaust valve and the inflation valve flow rate. This
is important because a stuck inflator valve can result in
a runaway ascent, yet it can take some time with gloves
on to disconnect the inflator hose. With this in mind,
several manufacturers have designed their suits so that the
exhaust valve releases air faster than the inflation system
can put it in. This allows you to avoid a runaway ascent
by holding the exhaust valve open while disconnecting the
inflator hose.
Argon systems. Instead of using air to inflate your
dry suit, you may opt to use argon. Argon is a heavy gas
Your inflation valve uses a quick disconnect fitting to attach a that insulates better than air does. Although there’s some
low pressure hose from your regulator. The newest versions debate about its effectiveness as a dry suit inflation gas,
swivel, allowing you to feed the inflation hose under your arm many divers (especially tec divers) use it when diving
from either side (most divers prefer the left). dry. Argon systems consist of a small, specially marked
cylinder that’s typically mounted valve down on the left
center of your chest), and an exhaust valve (usually on side of your cylinder(s) or BCD/harness. The regulator
your shoulder or upper arm). Some suits have secondary has no mouthpiece (so no one accidentally breathes from
exhaust valves on your lower arm for convenience. it) as well as an overpressure valve.

Argon systems consist

of a small, specially
marked cylinder that’s
Once set, as you typically mounted valve
ascend you keep the down on the left side of
dry suit exhaust valve your cylinder(s) or BCD/
elevated and expanding harness. The regulator
air vents automatically. has no mouthpiece (so no
You can press on the one accidentally breathes
valve to vent manually from it) as well as an
at any time. overpressure valve.

Your inflation valve uses a quick disconnect fitting to Relief valves and systems. One issue with dry suits is
attach a low pressure hose from your regulator. The having to urinate. While you can relieve yourself in a wet
newest versions swivel, allowing you to feed the suit if you have no other choice, that’s not a good option
inflation hose under your arm from either side in a dry suit. Even out of the water, getting out of a dry
(most divers prefer the left). suit to urinate is usually a more cumbersome task than

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when you wear a wet suit. This issue, while minor for the hard on your suit, or if you won’t be able to
majority of recreational divers, is a big deal when you’re a give a dry suit adequate care (cleaning, drying,
tec diver making a two to three hour dive. lubricating the zipper, etc.), then a wet suit may be
There are three basic approaches to handling this a better choice, temperature allowing.
problem, two of which only really benefit males for 2. Because dry suits are bulkier than wet suits, you
reasons that will be obvious. The first is a dry suit zipper may find it more tiring to swim in one, and you
fly. Although not intended for use underwater, this at least may not be able to swim as fast. If you’re going
keeps you from having to take the suit off at the surface. to make a long surface swim, or speed may be
A second system uses condom catheters to route urine out important, then you may want to opt for a
of a manual or one-way valve installed on the suit. The wet suit.
third option (and the primary one for women) is to use 3. Although dry suits are wonderful after a dive when
adult diapers. it’s cold out, they can be miserable before a dive
when it’s hot out. You offset this by not putting
WHEN TO DIVE DRY, the suit on until the last possible moment, but
WHEN TO DIVE WET because they insulate better than wet suits, you’re

Dive Equipment
The primary reason for choosing a dry suit is for more going to be hotter in one before a dive, all things
insulation. However, wet suits provide a good bit of being equal.
insulation, so you may think you don’t have any good 4. If you tear a wet suit underwater, it doesn’t usually
reason to get a dry suit. Actually, that may not be true. affect your insulation much except in the damaged
Often, dry suits offer a better option in water that you area. If you tear a dry suit, it usually affects your
could dive in a wet suit. insulation over a wide area. This is especially an
issue for tec divers who, due to decompression
1. Dry suits do not compress with depth, whereas wet
requirements, may have to remain in the water for
suits do. The deeper your planned dive, the more
an hour or more in a damaged suit.
significant this benefit becomes. You’ll really notice
the difference as you descend below 18 metres/ If you seldom dive in water below 21°C/70°F and don’t
60 feet. make exceptionally long or deep dives, you probably
2. Although you may be able to make a dive or two won’t benefit from owning a dry suit. On the other hand,
in cool water with your wet suit, often you’ll find if you never dive in water warmer than 15°C/60°F, you
a dry suit allows you to make those dives longer, may never need anything but a dry suit. If you frequently
and even make another repetitive dive that you dive in water between 21°C/70°F and 13°C/55°F, you
normally wouldn’t have. The dry suit doesn’t will probably find a dry suit more than pays for itself in
determine whether you dive, but it determines how additional dive time and comfort, even though you could
long you dive. Although dry suits cost more than dive these temperatures in a full wet suit.
wet suits, the added dive time plus the fact that
DRY SUIT CARE AND MAINTENANCE
they typically last longer than wet suits more than
offsets the added expense for most divers. A good dry suit will be one of your biggest equipment
3. When you get out of a dry suit, you’re dry (or at investments, so you’ll want to provide the proper care and
most slightly damp) and you’re wearing a nice,
comfy undergarment. Although a wet suit may be
perfectly fine during the dive, the difference after
the dive can be a big deal in a cool or cold climate.
4. When you’re ready to dive again, putting your dry
suit back on is no more uncomfortable than before
the first dive. Compare this to the chill of pulling
on a wet wet suit when it’s cold out.
Of course, dry suits have some disadvantages compared to
wet suits, and there are times when a wet suit is the better
way to go.
1. Dry suits require more care and maintenance than After rinsing, hang your suit out of direct sunlight over something
wet suits. If the circumstances will be particularly that won’t crease or stain it, like a thick wood or plastic bar.

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maintenance so you maximize its life and utility. Although
there’s more to caring for a dry suit than a wet suit, it’s not The Flooded Dry Suit
that much more.
After the dive, start by thoroughly rinsing the suit Flooding your dry suit has several safety-related
with fresh water. Close the zipper when you do this so implications, but with proper planning and training,
you can be prepared should it happen. The two
you don’t get it wet inside, unless the suit leaked or you
concerns are loss of buoyancy and loss of insulation.
perspired a lot. In that case, rinse the inside, too. Flush Loss of buoyancy should not be a major issue
water over and through the inflation and exhaust valves. if you’re using a BCD (as you should). If you’ve only
After rinsing, hang your suit out of direct sunlight partially flooded your suit, you can usually offset the
over something that won’t crease or stain it, like a thick buoyancy loss with your BCD and abort the dive.
wood or plastic bar. Bend it at the knee or waist with A fully-flooded suit may require you to drop
the zipper open, and, if you rinsed the inside, dry the some weight. A good option is to have your weight
interior first by gently turning it inside out (don’t strain distributed in two quick release systems so that you
the zipper). can ditch some of it to regain buoyancy, but not so
Pay close attention to the zipper. If it’s dirty or gritty, much buoyancy that you ascend out of control. (See
more about this in the discussion on weight systems).
gently clean it with a soft toothbrush and soapy water. If
Because you’ll be wet, you lose insulation. In
you find the zipper very dirty after a dive, you should do
many circumstances, the immediate and obvious
this before you even open the zipper to get out of the suit solution is to exit the water, dry off and seek
(your buddy can help you with places you can’t reach). warmth. However, in some situations there may
When the suit is completely dry, you’ll store the suit be a delay between flooding and the soonest you
gently folded up as recommended by the manufacturer. can get out of the water. These include a long
Some manufacturers recommend you store the suit swim to shore, or in tec diving, a long required
zipped, and others recommend you leave it unzipped. You decompression remaining. You can reduce
can tuck latex seals into the suit arms and body to help this concern by choosing undergarments, like
protect them. Thinsulate®, that retain substantial insulation even
The makers of your suit may also suggest dusting when wet. However, you won’t be comfortable,
the wrist and neck seals with unscented talcum powder. and you will be cooling faster than usual. In
planning your dive, consider how long it would
Don’t use silicone or any similar product on the suit
take you to exit the water if you flooded your suit
because it makes it nearly impossible to replace seals. and plan so that you stay close enough to your
Many preservatives have silicone in them, so avoid these. exit that you could do so without undue risk (albeit
Lubricate the zipper with paraffin (wax) as specified by the uncomfortably).
manufacturer. Again, do not use silicone spray or grease. After the dive, rinse the inside and outside of
Store your suit in a plastic bag (to protect from ozone your suit thoroughly. Don’t dive with it again until you
damage) in a cool, dry place away from hydrocarbons and have it serviced by a qualified repair technician.
other chemicals. An indoor closet is usually better than a
garage or basement.
If you perspired a lot or had a leak, you’ll need to
launder the undergarment. Follow the manufacturer’s
Exposure
instructions. Note that you do not use detergent when Suit Accessories
washing Thinsulate® since this affects its insulation Your exposure suit isn’t complete without the accessories
characteristics. After drying (which you can do with a that protect your head, hands and feet. Although you may
clothes drier with most undergarments), store the suit in a not need them every time you dive, hoods, gloves and
closet on a wide hanger. boots are a standard part of your dive kit.
Finally, have your suit checked out and serviced by a
qualified professional at your PADI Dive Center or Resort HOODS
every year or as specified by the manufacturer. Annual Without insulation, as much as 75 percent of the heat you
servicing provides a thorough suit inspection lose while diving is lost from your head. In warm, tropical
to find and repair minor leaks, check and water this usually makes little difference, but below
overhaul the valves and replace seals as 21ºC/70ºF, it becomes significant. Even above 21ºC/70ºF,
required. you may need to wear a wet suit hood if you’ll be in the
water for an hour or more.

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mask seal under the hood). Other cold-water hoods that
you seal the mask on the hood have tiny cutouts around
the eyes and nose and another opening for the regulator
mouthpiece. This area is unlined and the mask seals on
the outside of the hood.
Some hoods have a zipper to help you put it on. You
can also find hoods with small holes at the top to vent
trapped air from inside.
Most wet suit hoods
have a bib that fits
under your jacket so GLOVES
that water doesn’t
easily flow down Our hands weren’t designed to retain heat well. They’re
the neck. Dry suit not very insulated and they have numerous blood vessels
hoods generally that run close to the skin. When your hands get cold, the
lack bibs, though primary response is to reduce circulation to save heat.

Dive Equipment
there are a few dry
That’s why your hands get numb, and why having cold
suits designed to
accommodate them. hands can be serious if it makes you lose your dexterity
and strength. Even if your hands don’t get cold, they
Hoods come in many styles, thicknesses and lengths. get soft and become more vulnerable after being wet for
Most wet suit hoods have a bib that fits under your jacket extended periods, making gloves important for protection
so that water doesn’t easily flow down the neck. Dry suit against accidental cuts or stings.
hoods generally lack bibs, though there are a few dry suits Lightweight gloves. In water above 21°C/70°F,
designed to accommodate them. For extra insulation, you may find that lightweight reef gloves provide all the
another option is to wear a hooded vest under your wet protection you need. They come in a variety of colors
suit jacket. that go well with your other equipment. Many diving
You can get hoods in different thicknesses. For professionals prefer to use bright orange gloves because
warmer water a lighter, thinner material may be adequate, students and divers can see them easily. Bright orange is
but generally you get the same thickness in your hood particularly effective because they remain vivid even with
as the rest of your wet suit. Some hoods have thinner the color loss at depth.
material under the chin and around your neck so that Neoprene gloves. As water temperatures drop below
you’ve got more flexibility. Hoods designed for the coldest 21°C/70°F, you’ll likely need thin neoprene wet suit gloves
water may have unlined neoprene around the opening. for thermal protection. These gloves generally have five
This creates a good seal, and you may even be able to fingers for greater flexibility and dexterity. A variation on
seal your mask over some of these (usually you fit the this design for moderately cold water is to have thicker

In water above 21°C/70°F, you As water temperatures drop Three finger mitts are shaped like mittens
may find that lightweight reef below 21°C/ 70°F, you’ll likely with index finger and thumb separate, which
gloves provide all the protection need neoprene wet suit gloves reduces heat loss, while giving you a measure of
you need. for thermal protection. dexterity.

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Glove Use Tips most of your dexterity back, and may be a useful
Over the years, divers have learned option with both reef and neoprene gloves. Another
useful tricks and tips to consider when plus is that it keeps you mindful of what you touch
using gloves. because it exposes your fingers.
1. Consider the environment – hand protection doesn’t 3. Cycle your gloves. If you cringe at the thought of
mean reef protection. Some areas ban divers cutting up your nice, new neoprene gloves, don’t do
from wearing any gloves because some ignorant it. Instead, do it to your old ones, which works well
divers grab live coral or other sensitive aquatic life. because usually you wear out the fingertips first. Save
Remember that though you’re more protected from your new gloves for cooler water in which you need
coral and other organisms, a thoughtless touch the fingers intact.
or grab still damages them. Use gloves to protect 4. Two pairs for long dives. Tec divers in particular
yourself, but remember to respect the environment. need their dexterity, but may have cold, numb hands
And, remember that gloves help, but they’re not armor by the end of a long dive in moderately cool water.
– many things go right through them, so pay attention One solution is to wear a pair of fingertipless gloves,
to where you put your hands. but have an extra large pair that fit over them for
2. Cut off the fingertips. One complaint about wearing warmth when the dexterity isn’t as important. In tec
gloves is that you lose your dexterity. A solution many diving, for example, you would wear the over gloves
divers like is to cut off some or all the fingertips. This during decompression stops.
retains most of the protection and insulation, but gives

neoprene on top and thinner, more flexible material on even mask clearing is awkward. Nevertheless, these mitts
your palms. Almost all wet suit gloves are wide and long are the only practical way to keep your hands warm in
to slide easily over wet suit or dry suit sleeves. Some have waters much below 10ºC/50ºF. You can overcome some
VelcroTM-type straps that tighten of the difficulties in wearing them by
around your arm to minimize practicing with them in warm conditions
water circulation. first.
Neoprene mitts. For very
cold water, you want thick BOOTS
neoprene mitts if you’re not using You wear wet suit booties (a.k.a. booties)
a dry glove system on your dry for warmth, for protection while walking
suit. Since these are shaped like before and after the dive, and for a
mittens with the index finger and proper fit with open-heel strap fins. As
thumb separate, these are usually you already read, most dry suits have
referred to as three-finger mitts. built in boots, though with a few you
This design reduces the surface wear wet suit boots over a latex sock
area through which heat can built into the suit. With wet suits and
escape compared to five-finger body suits, if you’re using open-heel fins,
gloves, while giving you a measure you’ll wear booties, too. The only time
of dexterity. Since your less-used you wouldn’t need them is when using
fingers stay together, they keep Wet suit boots come in various styles. The
full-foot fins.
each other warm. Manufacturers better boots have thicker, more durable
soles and last longer. Most have zippers Wet suit boots come in various
can make three finger mitts out of on the side so you can put them on or take styles. The better boots have thicker,
much thicker neoprene because them off easily. more durable soles and last longer. Most
your weaker fingers flex the have zippers on the side so you can put
material together instead of independently. them on and take them off easily. Try them on, just like
Although three finger mitts give you more you would shoes (they come in standard shoe sizes). They
dexterity than neoprene mittens would, you should be snug and comfortable without cramping your
still lose a lot of hand function. It can be toes at the tip. If you’re investing in fins and booties for
difficult to connect or disconnect inflators, and the first time, try them on together.

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Suit Choice Summary
Being warm and comfortable underwater is important put your exposure suit on – or all the way on – until
both for safety and enjoyment. You’re more likely to find right before the dive.
yourself too cool underwater than too hot at the surface.
In those environments in which you have to choose, • Cold weather –– Similarly, but much more rarely,
you’ll probably find that it’s best to be comfortable you may be in a situation in which you don’t
during the dive. Keep these factors in mind when need much insulation in the water, but the air
determining what type exposure suit and how much temperature is cold and you won’t be able to
insulation to use: change into dry clothes quickly. You may be fine
during the dive, but get very cold standing around
• Water temperature –– This is the obvious first in a wet body suit or wet suit after the dive. In
variable, but it’s not the only one. Use this as the this case, a dry suit may be a better choice, even
starting point when deciding what to wear. though it’s overkill during the dive.

• Depth –– Deeper water tends to be colder, and • You –– You become accustomed to the water

Dive Equipment
wet suits compress with the increasing pressure. The where you dive frequently. If your local waters
deeper you’ll go, the more insulation you need all hover around 10ºC/50ºF, diving in 26ºC/80ºF
else being the same. feels like taking a bath. But, if you always
dive in the tropics, 26ºC/80ºF may feel cold.
• Duration –– A dive that’s an hour long will likely Furthermore, physiological differences including
require more insulation than the same dive that’s half bodyfat composition, height/weight ratio and
as long. When in doubt, err on the side of more metabolism all affect how fast you generate and
insulation. dissipate heat. As you gain experience, you
become familiar with your individual insulation
• Number of dives –– If you’re making one dive, you
requirements.
can usually get by with less insulation than when
making multiple dives. This is because you usually
don’t have time for your body
to fully reheat between dives.
• Activity level –– The more Exposure Suits
you move around, the more Bare Skin, Lycra Body Suits, or Street Clothing Worn for Abrasion Protection Only
heat you generate, as well
as the faster you use your air.
If you’re going to be
swimming for most of the
Shorty Wet Suit, or Wet Suit Jacket
dive, you may not need as
much insulation as if you’re
going to be staying in one
place. If you’re not sure,
insulate based on less activity Full-length Wet Suit — Not Necessarily 7mm or Farmer John
rather than more. (No hood or neoprene gloves/mitts)

• Hot weather –– As
mentioned, you sometimes
face situations involving cool Full-length Wet Suit — 5mm or 7mm Farmer John
water in a hot climate. You (Worn with hood and neoprene gloves/mitts)
want to avoid overheating,
so sometimes you give up
some underwater comfort to
manage overheating before Inflatable Dry Suit
and after the dive. This is (With thermal undergarments suitable for ambient water temperature.
Worn with hood and neoprene gloves/mitts)
particularly true if you have
to hike a long way or carry
heavy gear in the hot climate.
A better option, however, is
to plan things so you don’t

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Scuba Systems
In Chapter One, the Underwater Adventure, you read that
it was the invention of open circuit scuba that made sport
diving possible. When someone says “scuba” (originally
an acronym for Self Contained Underwater Breathing
Apparatus), most of the time that person means open
circuit scuba. However, there are actually three basic types
of scuba:

Open circuit. When you inhale,

you breathe in from a compressed gas
cylinder. When you exhale, your breath BCD Inflation
vents into the water and bubbles to the System
surface.
Alternate
Closed-Circuit Rebreathers (CCRs). Air Source
When you inhale, you breathe in from
a bag (counterlung). When you exhale,
your breath cycles through a system that
removes waste carbon dioxide and replaces BCD
consumed oxygen, then returns it to the Regulator
counterlung. There are no bubbles.

Semi-Closed Rebreathers (SCRs).

When you inhale, you breathe in from
SPG
a counterlung. When you exhale, your
breath cycles through a system that Weight
Scuba
removes waste carbon dioxide and System
Cylinder
returns it to the counterlung. It replaces
consumed oxygen by employing a slow,
steady flow of gas into the counterlung,
resulting in a slow, small stream of bubbles.
Buoyancy Control Devices (BCDs)
For our discussions here, we’ll be focusing on open circuit Non-existent in the mid 1960s and optional in the early
scuba typically used by recreational and technical divers. 1970s, by the mid-to-late 1970s the BCD had become
You’ll learn more detail about how CCRs and SCRs work mandatory equipment for recreational divers. The modern
later in this chapter. BCD has three primary functions: 1) to let you float
The modern recreational scuba system is a on the surface to rest or swim, 2) to allow you to adjust
multicomponent system that integrates your high pressure changes in your buoyancy while underwater, and 3) to act
cylinder (scuba tank), regulator, alternate air source as the harness that holds the entire scuba system together
second stage, buoyancy control device (BCD), BCD on you.
inflation system, harness, submersible pressure gauge Since, in theory, if you’re properly weighted you
(SPG) and, sometimes, your weight system into a single shouldn’t need a BCD to stay at the surface, you may
kit. Once assembled, you don and remove these as a single wonder about the first point. It’s because when you’re
unit. properly weighted, you’ll be almost entirely submerged at
Thanks to industry standardization, you can assemble the surface except for the top of your head and snorkel.
your scuba unit from components made by different The additional flotation from a BCD gets your head well
manufacturers based on your needs and preferences. out of the water, which is often more relaxing. Also, you
may overestimate how much weight you need. Finally, as
you’ll see, your weight changes based on the amount of air
in your scuba cylinder. At the start of a typical recreational

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dive, you should actually be about two kilograms/five
pounds or so heavy when you’re properly weighted.
During the dive, your wet suit compresses and
expands as you descend and ascend. This changes its
buoyancy, which you compensate for with your BCD so
you remain neutrally buoyant throughout the dive. When
you’re diving with a dry suit, you do not use the BCD to
adjust buoyancy underwater, but you still need the BCD
for surface flotation and (more importantly) as a backup
buoyancy device if your suit has a massive leak.
Front Back Advanced
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION Mounted BCD Mounted BCD Design Jacket BCD
Manufacturers make two types of BCD. The double bag
design uses two layers: a tough, protective fabric outer

Dive Equipment
layer that contains and protects an inside bladder that
holds the air. The bladderless design uses a tough, airtight
material to accomplish both jobs in one material.
Both double bag and bladderless construction have
proven reliable. You’ll find both in modern BCDs, though
the overall trend is for the large capacity, tec diving BCDs
to use the double bag design, and the more compact,
mainstream recreational BCDs to use the bladderless
design.
Front Back Advanced Systems
Mounted BCD Mounted BCD Design Jacket BCD BCD
The evolution of the BCD is represented by front mounted (vest)
BCDs, back mounted BCDs, Advanced Design jacket BCDs and
System BCDs

Front Mounted BCDs.

Front mounted or “horse
collar vest” BCDs were
the first true BCDs for
divers. They are direct
descendants of smaller,
inflatable dive vests
designed primarily for
surface flotation. The
addition of large-diameter
Double bag inflation/deflation hoses
BCDs have an inner
and low pressure systems
bladder protected
by an outer shell. fed from the regulator
made it possible to add
Front mounted BCDs remain or remove air underwater
STYLES with us primarily in the form of
at the touch of a button.
snorkeling vests.
There are four distinct styles representing the evolution of For the first time, it was
BCD design: front mounted (vest) BCDs, back mounted possible to precisely3-068 BCD’s
BCDs, Advanced Design jacket BCDs and System BCDs. compensate for exposure suit compression and expansion
The front mounted BCD is considered obsolete for scuba during descent and ascent and other variables affecting
diving, but you’ll find the three other styles in current use. buoyancy.

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In the days of front mounted BCDs, you wore a
separate backpack with harness to hold the cylinder. The
backmounted and jacket style BCDs made the backpack
as a separate component obsolete, though compact
front mounted BCDs remain popular for snorkeling. In
Europe, this style of BCD became known as an ABLJ
(Adjustable Buoyancy Life Jacket).

Early jacket style BCDs were popular, but the design routed
the bladder over your shoulders and down to your chest. The
Advanced Design Jacket BCD brought in short straps to eliminate
the bladder from the low chest to the top of your shoulders. This
improvement was so significant that today it is the most common
and popular configuration in recreational diving.

backplate harness and your doubles. The harness also has

a crotch strap, which you rarely find in recreational BCDs
anymore. Tec BCDs of this type are commonly referred to
as “wings,” because the first tec BCDs manufactured used
(and still use) this product name.

Advanced Design Jacket BCDs. The first jacket style

BCDs came into the market to provide the single-unit
advantage of back mounted BCDs while redistributing
Today the backmounted BCD is the standard BCD in the tec
the buoyancy for more balance, especially at the surface.
community.

Back Mounted BCDs. Back mounted BCDs were the

first style to integrate all the scuba components into
a single package. Debuting in the 1970s, many back
mounted BCDs wrapped large, horse shoe shaped
bladders around a conventional backpack. The design had
a small, but loyal, following that kept it in the market well
into the 1980s. A primary complaint among recreational
divers is the tendency for back mounted BCDs to float
you face forward at the surface.
Back mounted BCDs could well have died out with
the rise of the jacket style BCD were it not for cave divers,
who found the configuration optimal for their purposes.
In the mid 1980s and into the 1990s, the back mounted The newest Advanced
Design BCDs eliminate
BCD evolved for the purposes of cave diving and other all buoyancy in front
forms of tec diving. Today it is the standard BCD of you by placing the
used in the tec community, consisting of a bladder to the rear,
high capacity BCD sandwiched between a curving toward the
hips.

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Dive Equipment
Harness BCD Weight Pockets

System BCDs consist of interchangeable components

Transpac II Modular that
BCD you assemble for your needs.
System
You can change out bladders and other features for specific dive requirements.

The first versions appeared in 1977 and they took the the BCD bladder from being over your lower abdomen
dive community by storm. By 1980, virtually every 3-073
or chest. To accomplish this, the lower part transpac
of the bladderII
manufacturer offered one, and while the back mounted wraps forward to your hips, providing the Advanced
BCD lingered on, it was the end of the horse collar. In Design balance. A few of this design eliminate the large
addition to the buoyancy characteristics, divers found inflation/deflation hose in favor of push-button inflation
the jacket BCD much more comfortable than the and deflation valves mounted directly on the bladder.
conventional strap harness.
Early jacket style BCDs were popular, but the design System BCDs. The rise of tec diving in the early 1990s
routed the bladder over your shoulders and down to ushered in a new need in sport diving – a BCD that’s
your chest. They had a tendency to ride up around your adaptable to the needs of many types of diving. While
shoulders, especially when it was full. some of the existing BCDs could be modified to fit
This changed with the debut of the Advanced Design multiple purposes, few adapted really well to more than
jacket BCD (named for the ADV trademark of the one or two applications.
manufacturer of the first one), which used short straps In the mid 1990s, the first true system BCD debuted.
to eliminate the bladder from the low chest to the top of System BCDs have a versatile harness and interchangeable
your shoulders. This improvement was so significant that BCD bladders as well as other options. First aimed at the
it almost entirely replaced the older jacket design within varied needs some tec divers have, the latest evolution of
two years. Today this is the most common and popular system BCDs are so adaptable that by changing some of
configuration in recreational diving. the hardware, they’re appropriately suited for everything
Although the Advanced Design jacket has been the from tropical recreational diving to deep trimix tec diving.
mainstay in recreational diving since the late 1980s, it System BCDs are primarily back mount in design, though
continues to change, though more subtly. Today many some configure to an Advanced Design jacket when set up
use a somewhat back mounted design to eliminate any of for recreational diving.

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Milestones in BCD Design
Since their debut in the late 1960s and early 1970s, compensator. Soon after the Fenzy’s introduction to
BCDs have changed dramatically. Along the way, several North America, other manufacturers began producing
models became milestones in BCD evolution. functionally similar BCDs using less costly methods and
materials. This hastened the acceptance of BCDs. For
The Waverly UDT Vest
some time though, the Fenzy maintained a reputation as
This vest was not a true BCD,
the prestige BCD.
but typical of the surface flotation
devices worn by many divers The At-Pack
during the 1960s and early When first introduced in
1970s. Of all the vests produced 1972, the At-Pack had some
during this period, the Waverly revolutionary features. It was
was among the most popular. the first unit to integrate a
For many divers, the Waverly back pack, cylinder, regulator,
was the first buoyancy device they ever used. It helped buoyancy control device and
teach them about the value of inflatable buoyancy weights. It was also the first BCD
devices — but also revealed some of the shortcomings to come with a standard low-
that future designs would solve. pressure inflator. Modern BCDs still
incorporate concepts that first appeared on the At-Pack.
The Fenzy
The Fenzy was one of the first true The US Divers BCII
BCDs. Its large-diameter inflation/ The BCII was one of the first
deflation hose allowed you to widely used double-bag BCDs.
use it both at the surface and Introduced in 1973, it helped
underwater. Made of heavy duty establish the popularity of large,
vulcanized rubber, Fenzys soon front-mounted BCDs with low-
earned a reputation for being pressure inflation. The BCII was
nearly indestructible. It was the first virtually the only widely used
of what is still called an ABLJ (Adjustable Buoyancy Life BCD that didn’t use a combined
Jacket) in much of Europe. oral/power inflation device. Its
The Fenzy introduced many divers to buoyancy optional low pressure inflator mounted independently on
adjustment underwater. The French, who made the Fenzy, bladder, not at the end of the inflation/deflation hose like
even coined one of the most widely used term: buoyancy most BCDs. (Continued on next page.)

FEATURES
Despite the wide range of BCDs, there are a number of
common features. Some of these are simply conveniences,
whereas others are vital to comfort and performance.
Some features are nice options for some forms of diving,
but something to avoid in other types of diving.
3-074 BCD’s
Inflation/deflation system. Any modern BCD has
a high capacity inflation and deflation system. This most
typically takes the form of a large diameter hose with a
3-074 BCD’s
low pressure inflator (LPI, or “power inflator”) system
connected to your regulator. Opening the hose valve
releases air from your BCD; pressing the LPI button adds
air. In some cases, the BCD inflator/deflator assembly
integrates an alternate air source second stage that you
breathe from in an air-sharing emergency (more about
these later). In some places, divers still use a
small, separate cylinder within the BCD for
inflation. Typical inflator hose/system.
3-074 BCD’s

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Milestones in BCD Design (continued)
The Scubapro Stabilizing Jacket started introducing similar designs. Within six months, a
Scubapro invented jacket-style BCDs with the number of BCD makers reported that this type of design
introduction of the Stabilizing accounted for most of their sales.
Jacket in 1971. The Stabilizing
Dive Rite Wings
Jacket combined the comfort
Introduced in the mid 1980s,
and convenience of back-
Dive Rite Wings were the first
inflation units with many of the
commercially available BCD/
performance characteristics of
harness systems for tec diving.
front-mounted BCDs.
Still available today, this basic
This durable, single
design is the mainstay in
bladder jacket remains
technical diving.
popular with many divers. As testament to this device’s
importance, the term “stab jacket” is still widely used The Sea Quest Quick Draw

Dive Equipment
to describe any jacket style BCD. It has proved so Introduced in 1990, Sea Quest’s
popular that it is one of the few jacket style BCDs that Quick Draw was one of the
survived the introduction of the Advanced Design. first advanced design BCDs to
carry integrated weights of up
The Seatec Bluefin
to 13 kg/30 lb. By pulling on
The Bluefin was the first popular,
a handle, the user could jettison
double-bag, jacket-style BCD
up to 9 kilograms/20 pounds
and was widely imitated by
of weights. This design allows
other manufacturers. Like the
many divers to dive without a
Scubapro Stabilizing Jacket, it
separate weight belt.
helped popularize jacket-style
BCDs during the late 1970s Dive Rite Transpac II
and early 1980s. Introduced in 1996, the
Transpac II was the first system
The SeaQuest ADV
BCD. Oriented primarily toward
The ADV introduced the
tec divers at introduction, the
Advanced Design jacket and
Transpac II has continued
succeeded in revolutionizing 3-074 BCD’s
to evolve so that it suitably 3-074 BCD’s
buoyancy control device design
accommodates virtually every
in a matter of months. The ADV
type of recreational and
first appeared on the market in
technical diving.
December of 1984. By January
1985, other manufacturers

Some of the latest BCDs have eliminated the large Overpressure relief valves are generally set to open
diameter hose. In its place, you have touch controls that when the pressure inside the BCD exceeds the ambient
inflate the BCD or release air from an exhaust valve on pressure by approximately 2 psi/0.14 bar.
the BCD shoulder. BCDs with the hose remain the most Quick dump valves. Higher end BCDs have a rapid
popular, however. exhaust valve that you open by pulling a tether or pulling
Oral inflation hose. One reason for the hose on down on the inflation/deflation hose. This feature is handy
your BCD is so that you can inflate it orally, such as might because you can release air without having to elevate the
3-074 BCD’s
be necessary were you out of air at the surface, or if you hose. Often the quick dump is part of an over pressure
had a stuck LPI valve and had to disconnect the inflator valve, and in tec diving BCDs, you may have more than
hose. BCDs without the large diameter hose have a small one quick dump so you can easily control your buoyancy
diameter oral inflation hose that deploys should you need it. in different swimming positions.
Overpressure valve. All modern BCDs have one or Waistband options. Jacket style BCDs originally
more overpressure valves, which opens before your BCD came on the market with a wide nylon strap and buckle
bursts if you accidentally over inflate it, or if a stuck low system as a waistband. To make them more comfortable,
pressure inflator over fills it. newer models offer wide cummerbunds and other
3-074 BCD’s

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alternatives. Some of these go under a standard nylon web Due to the amount of gear they wear, tec divers often
and buckle setup, whereas others use FastexTM type clips don’t need a weight system, and when they do, it’s not
to secure the jacket. usually as much as a recreational diver wears. To minimize
The primary advantage of cummerbund waistbands bulk on their harnesses, tec divers do not commonly use
is comfort. The wide, padded area distributes stress over integrated weight systems.
a larger area, and many divers find they help keep the Weight harness. Although not widely used, the
BCD from riding up while floating at the surface. Some weight harness is an option for wearing a lot of lead
BCDs have a loose fit, whereas others cinch down so comfortably by putting the weight on your shoulders
the cylinder feels glued to your back. Tec divers typically instead of your hips. For safety, weight harnesses have
avoid cummerbunds entirely. Most system BCDs give you to have a quick release system much like those found in
the option of whether you use a cummerbund. BCD-integrated weight systems. It is most popular in
Pockets. Most jacket style BCDs have pockets as colder climates for use with dry suits.
standard features for carrying accessories like slates,
backup tables and so on. These are useful in recreational
diving. Backmounted tec BCDs and system BCDs have
pockets you can add on. However, tec divers use only very
small pockets on their BCDs or none at all, favoring thigh
pockets on their exposure suits.
Hose retainers. At one time, most BCDs had
fabric hose retainers intended to eliminate the problem
of dragging your SPG and alternate air source (which
damages aquatic life and your gear at the same time).
Unfortunately, many of these didn’t hold heavy gauge
consoles and alternate air sources well, resulting in the
same problem. Today most responsible divers use clips
and other devices to properly secure their gear so it doesn’t
dangle. This also has the advantage of giving you more
options in where you choose to secure your SPG, for
example. Many BCDs now include clips for your hoses.
Accessory D-rings. One obvious feature on a tec
diving BCD is D-rings on the shoulders and hips used
to secure decompression cylinders and other equipment.
Recreational divers caught onto these quickly, so that now
many jacket BCDs have D-rings in several places. These
give you a lot of places to secure your SPG, alternate air
source and accessories. In using these, remember that you
When wearing a weight integrated BCD, your buoyancy floats
attach the clip to the accessory, not to your BCD. you into the BCD. Whether you’re positive, negative or neutrally
Integrated weight systems. Although you could buoyant, this tends to put the contact stress comfortably on your
get a BCD with integrated weights as early as 1972 (the shoulders. With a separate weight system and BCD, the weights
At-Pack), it wasn’t until the 1990s that they became tend to pull you down, out of the BCD while the BCD pulls you
up from the waist, especially when you’re positively buoyant.
widely accepted. Putting the weight system into the
The more weight you need, the more likely you’ll find a weight
BCD has several advantages. It eliminates another piece integrated BCD more comfortable.
of equipment (a weight belt) and it’s usually much more
comfortable. When wearing a conventional weight belt, The next section looks at weight systems and their
if you’re vertical in the water (as when floating at the use in more detail.
surface) the belt pulls you downward at the hips while the
BCD tries to lift you by the upper torso. This frequently Weight Systems
causes the BCD to ride up. When the weights are in
your BCD, there’s nothing pulling you down Even without an exposure suit, most people are positively
at the waist. This keeps the BCD firmly and buoyant. Even if you have a very low proportion of
comfortably secure on your shoulders and back. bodyfat to muscle, as soon as you put on a wet suit

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is that changing weights can be time consuming, and
many divers find them uncomfortable.
Shot filled belts. These weight belts have special
compartments that accept lead shot, usually in small
measured sacks. This allows the belt to conform to your
body easily, making it much more comfortable than a
standard belt. The biggest drawback is that adjusting the
weight is very time consuming, and you have to have your
own shot because few dive operations carry it. Shot filled
belts are not as popular as they once were.
The weight harness is a good option for carrying a lot of lead. Pocketed belts. Some weight belts have a series
It distributes the weight to your shoulders instead of your hips.
Pulling the yellow loops quick-releases the weight pockets in an
of pockets that you put individual weights in. The
emergency. advantages are that you can adjust the weight easily, use
different types of lead weights, and the fabric provides
cushioning for greater comfort. The first versions were

Dive Equipment
or drysuit, you’ll float. In recreational diving, you will
made of wet suit neoprene, which while comfortable,
need a weight system if not always, at least the vast
didn’t hold up well. More recent versions are made of
majority of the time. This means you either use a weight
heavy duty fabrics that last much longer.
integrated BCD, weight harness or a weight belt.
Weight styles. Your lead comes in different styles
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION and shapes. The most common and familiar is the block
The primary component of a weight system is lead. weight with openings for threading the belt through. They
It’s a dense, relatively inexpensive and easily molded range in size, allowing you to adjust your belt to the exact
metal, making it versatile for diving purposes. As you’ll size you need. Most harness and BCD-integrated weight
see, manufacturers produce lead weight in different systems accept block weights.
configurations to meet different demands. Hip weights are actually large block weights curved
The materials used in a weight integrated system to fit along your hips. They’re more comfortable than a
vary with the manufacturer, but the majority use pockets comparable amount of lead in standard block weights on a
constructed from the same tough materials used in belt. Few if any harness or BCD-integrated weight systems
constructing the rest of the BCD. Integrated systems or pocketed belts accept weights the size of hip weights, so
often rely on VelcroTM-type closure systems, which allow they’re worn exclusively on standard belts.
you to conveniently adjust your weights or release it in an Bullet weights are cylindrical weights with rounded
emergency. ends. Your belt passes through their center, so you need
Although there have been different types of weight retainer clips to keep them from sliding around. This
belts over the years, by far the most common remains the style weight is usually very comfortable, and you can
5 cm/2 in wide nylon webbing version. There are also use them in most BCD-integrated weight systems and
higher end weight belts with pockets made of heavy duty pocketed belts.
fabric, and neoprene weight belts that stretch. The quick Shot weights are small sealed bags of lead shot in
release buckles are either plastic or metal. increments that you choose to get the amount of weight
you need. Since they’re very soft, they’re comfortable and
STYLES much less likely to cause serious injury if you drop them
on your foot! However, you can only use shot weights in a
Since integrated weight systems are highly individual,
pocket belt, harness or BCD-integrated weight system.
this discussion really only pertains to weight belts. The
three primary styles are the standard belt, the shot-filled
FEATURES
belt and the pocketed belt.
Quick release. Every weight system used by
Standard belts. The most common weight belt is a
recreational divers must have a quick release that allows
simple 5 cm/2 in nylon or neoprene strap with a quick-
you to get rid of some or all of your weight with one hand
release buckle or mechanism. This strap threads through
in a single movement. (Note the reference to “some” ––
individual weights, which may be held in place with metal
you don’t necessarily have to drop all your weight, but just
or plastic retainers
enough to assure that you can float comfortably. More
The main advantages of the standard weight belt are
about this later.)
that it’s simple and it’s inexpensive. The primary drawback

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Weight belts universally use a quick release buckle Vinyl coating. Although your basic uncoated lead
to meet this need. Some buckles have a distinguishing blocks are simple and inexpensive, coated weights are
feature (color, shape, etc.), and you always wear the belt growing in popularity. Besides looking nicer, coated
for a right-hand release. The reason for this is that in the weights hold up longer, are less prone to marking boat
event another diver has to assist you in an emergency, the and pool decks and are generally more comfortable.
standard right hand release reduces confusion about how They also eliminate the minor but real risks of handling
to get your belt off. unprotected lead with your bare hands (if you must
BCD-integrated weight systems and weight harnesses handle bare lead, ideally wear gloves, and avoid contact
typically have a well marked loop or T-handle that you with your nose, mouth and eyes until you’ve thoroughly
pull. Although some systems will release all your weight, washed your hands).
it’s more common to have two such handles, each capable
of releasing half your weight. These systems may dump
your weights, or they may release the entire pocket Weight, Buoyancy and
holding the weights. When using these systems, be sure Streamlining
to familiarize
Weight, buoyancy and streamlining all go together. If
any one of these is off, they’re all off. The most critical is
the correct amount of weight. If you’re underweighted,
you swim with your legs high to hold yourself underwater.
This isn’t streamlined because you’re not horizontal. It’s
not only inefficient, but a problem that gets worse as you
empty your cylinder and become lighter.
If you’re overweighted, you’re not streamlined
because you have to use your BCD to offset the excess.
This shifts your center of buoyancy so you swim with your
feet low and chest high. Besides being inefficient, you
more prone to accidentally injuring aquatic life with your
fins in this position.
Weight belts (left) use a standardized quick release buckle. With the proper amount of weight, you only have
Weight systems (right) have quick releases that vary with make
enough air in your BCD to offset wet suit compression at
and model. Be sure you and your buddy are familiar with each
other’s systems.
depth. You swim horizontally, which reduces drag and
saves energy. This is one of the marks of an accomplished
diver.
your buddies with how to release the weight in case they
need to do so for you.
Although you commonly don’t need a weight
system in tec diving, when you do a quick release is
often the last thing you want. Accidentally releasing Underweighted

your weights in recreational diving is generally just an

inconvenience (unless you’re overweighted), but in tec
diving it can be deadly if you’re in a cave, wreck or need Properly weighted
to make decompression stops. For this reason, tec divers
commonly mount two buckles on their weight belts,
Overweighted
both of which must be opened to release it. As further
protection, they may wear their harness crotch straps over
their belts.
When you’re properly weighted, you move through the water
Depth compensation. Since your wet suit compresses horizontally. If you’re over or underweighted, you can’t
as you descend, a weight belt that was snug at the surface remain horizontal and therefore present a greater surface
will become loose. To offset this, some weight belts have area against the water as you move. This wastes energy.
an elastic spacer, a special spring buckle or be made
from neoprene. You stretch the belt when you Reference
put it on, and the belt contracts to take up PADI Peak Performance Buoyancy video
3-078.5 relative drag on diver

slack as you descend.

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WEIGHT SYSTEM USE more. Extra weight tends to lower your legs and raise your
It’s easy to take weight systems for granted because they’re chest so that you swim around unstreamlined and kicking
deceptively simple. Often, divers have the attitude that up the bottom. If that weren’t enough, it’s that much
if you put on enough weight to make you sink and then more weight to deal with as you walk across the beach,
level off by using your BCD, you’ve got it down. That climb the boat ladder or trudge through waves.
misconception detriments diver performance and safety. Weight distribution. Once you know how much
The right amount of weight. Although you’ll hear weight you need, you also have to figure out where to
all kinds of rules of thumb, there’s only one way to wear it. Generally, you want your weight distributed
determine your weight correctly, and that’s by getting in evenly on both sides of your body. A marked difference
the water with your kit on. Properly weighted, with a fully between the sides tends to roll you heavy side down.
deflated BCD (and dry suit if used) and a near-empty With integrated weight systems, weight harnesses
scuba cylinder, you should float at eye level while holding and pocketed weight belts, you distribute weights on
a normal breath. When you exhale, you should slowly either side in an approximate mirror image. Generally,
descend, and you should be able to hover at 5 metres/15 try to favor putting heavier weights toward the front to

Dive Equipment
feet with only 35 bar/500 psi in your cylinder. help counterbalance your cylinder. You distribute weight
Once you determine the weight you need, record the same way with a conventional belt, but it takes some
it in your log book along with the equipment you’re added effort to get it to stay put.
wearing: cylinder size and type, exposure suit thickness Start by attaching the buckle to the belt. Thread the
and pieces, and whether you’re diving in fresh or salt buckle on with about 25-30 cm/10-12 in folded back
water. Since your weight requirements change whenever under the buckle (this gives you some room if you need to
you change any of these variables, keeping a record of how add length in the future). Next, lay the belt down, buckle
much lead you need saves time when you dive in the same on the left (for a right handed release) and distribute your
gear and environment. weights next to it. Put them in a mirror image, balanced
pattern with a gap between the right and left sides. Now
thread the weights on so with the first weight about 8-10
cm/3-4 in from the buckle. Space them close together, but
far enough apart so the belt can bend. At the mid-point,
leave a gap where you scuba cylinder will go. You can put
a weight retainer on each weight, or if you prefer, just put
one on the weights on either side of the cylinder gap, and
the last weight on the free end.
Try the belt on over the exposure suit you’ll be using.
The free end of a properly adjusted weight belt usually
protrudes 15-20 cm/6-8 in from the fastened buckle. If
it’s longer than that, you’ll need to trim it to the right
length. Cutting the weight belt webbing with a hot knife
prevents ends from unraveling. If the webbing is cut at
Properly weighted, with a fully deflated BCD (and dry
suit if used) and a near-empty scuba cylinder, you should Retainer
Threading Weight
float at eye level while holding a normal breath. Retainers for Block Weights

Weights
Wearing extra weight beyond this serves no purpose.
To the contrary, you will have to inflate your BCD more
to overcome the weight, adding to your drag and energy
Weights
expenditure underwater. With more air volume in your Retainer

BCD, the more buoyancy variation you have with depth

changes, meaning you have to control your buoyancy Threading Weight
Retainers for Bullet Weights
(keeps weights from slipping)
Weight Retainers
Reference
Two ways to thread weight retainers, depending upon the type
PADI Peak Performance Buoyancy video
of weight you’re using.

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an angle, or the corners are rounded slightly, it is easier to Cylinders
pass through the buckle. A butane lighter (or other flame) High pressure cylinders lie at the heart of all types of
may be used to singe the webbing after cutting if you scuba –– open circuit, SCR or CCR. Without the ability
don’t have a hot knife. to hold large gas volumes compressed into relatively small
If you’ve yet to get the final adjustment on your containers, self contained diving would be impossible. In
buoyancy, leave an extra 15-20 cm/6-8 in on the free end. open circuit scuba, your cylinder (a.k.a. tank or bottle)
This will give you some room to add weight if necessary. holds enough gas for you to dive for about an hour,
Trim to the final length once you’re sure of the weight depending upon your depth, breathing rate and the
you need. specific cylinder.
Multiple weight systems. Diving in the coolest Cylinders are simple in concept, yet surprisingly
water calls for the heaviest dry suits and undergarments. complex in detail. Basically, you have a very strong
This results in a lot of buoyancy – so much so that you container with an on-off valve to control the flow of gas.
may need as much as 23 kg/50 lbs for proper weighting. Your dive operator fills it with gas to the rated pressure
However, it may be quite uncomfortable to wear a single for you, and then you breathe that gas as it flows back
weight belt with this much weight, and were you to out controlled by your scuba regulator (which you’ll
intentionally or accidentally release it at depth, you’d learn more about shortly). That’s all there is to it –– until
ascend at an unsafe rate. you look at materials characteristics, maintenance, safety
When you need to wear more than 14-18 kg/30- features and the options regarding materials and sizes.
40 lbs, you may want to consider using more than one
weight system. This could be a weight belt and a BCD- MATERIALS
integrated weight system, or a weight harness and a BCD- When you rent or buy a scuba cylinder, it will be made
integrated weight system. Some integrated weight systems, of either steel or aluminum (aluminum alloy, to be
as mentioned earlier, are effectively two closely associated precise). Over the years there have been experimental and
weight systems. By distributing your lead, you can avoid prototype cylinders made from stainless steel, titanium,
a runaway ascent but attain substantial buoyancy by fiberwound composites and other materials, but these are
ditching half your weight, or even only a third or quarter few and far between. Practically speaking, you don’t find
of your weight. It is also generally a more comfortable way them in recreational or technical diving.
to carry your weight. Steel. The first recreational scuba cylinders were made
Weighting in tec diving. Although it’s easy to from chrome-molybdenum steel and this material remains
determine proper weighting in tec diving, many tec divers popular with many divers today. In some markets, the
dive substantially underweighted without even realizing only scuba cylinders readily available are steel.
it. Proper weighting in tec diving is enough weight to Steel cylinders are hard (and, therefore, resistant to
maintain a decompression stop at 5 metres/15 feet with external damage), and are negatively buoyant, even when
nearly-empty double cylinders and carrying no stage/ empty. The advantage of this is that it means less weight
deco cylinders. This prepares you for the worst-case in on your weight belt. The highest capacity cylinders are
which you are decompressing with almost no gas left and steel; this coupled with their buoyancy characteristics, is
abandoned or lost stage/deco cylinders. why tec divers almost universally choose steel cylinders for
In practice, you’re almost always substantially their doubles setups.
negatively buoyant on a tec dive. Extra cylinders add The primary drawback of steel cylinders is that
weight, plus the gas alone may weigh more than 9 kg/20 without proper care, they may rust (an oxidation reaction
lbs, so that it’s typical to be as much as 14 kg/30 lbs with iron that yields iron oxide).
negatively buoyant at the start of a dive. This is why tec Aluminum. Aluminum is a softer metal than steel,
divers always have at least two buoyancy control systems making it more susceptible to damage from impact or
–– they cannot simply eliminate weight as a backup improper handling. In addition, because it isn’t inherently
buoyancy measure like you can in recreational diving. as strong as steel, the walls of an aluminum cylinder must
Because they’re so negative at the start of a dive, some be thicker. This makes these cylinders larger and heavier
tec divers think they have all the weight they need. It’s not out of the water than comparable steel cylinders, yet
until later, while they’re trying to decompress and more positively buoyant in the water. Aluminum doesn’t
they’ve consumed almost all their gases, that they tolerate overfilling (overpressurizing) nearly as well as
realize that they don’t have enough lead. steel does.

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Enriched Air Nitrox and Oxygen Equipment Considerations
The use of enriched air nitrox (EANx –– nitrogen-oxygen name, the diver’s name and maximum depth at
gas that has more oxygen than air does) in recreational which the blend can be used.
diving, and the use of both EANx and pure oxygen • EANx cylinders require a special visual inspection
in tec diving, raise issues regarding your scuba gear. sticker noting that the cylinder has been serviced
The concern is that as oxygen content rises, substances specifically for use with enriched air, and whether it
combust or burn more readily. This means that materials does or does not meet oxygen service standards.
such as neoprene rubber, lubricants such as silicone • Oxygen cylinders should be entirely white or green
grease, and contaminants such as dirt particles, may with a large label that reads “Oxygen.”
theoretically pose a hazard with enriched air, even Since enriched air has unique concerns that don’t apply
though they don’t with air. to air diving, these recommendations apply:
The question is, what is the threshold where 1. Only divers trained and certified to use enriched
more than 21 percent oxygen (the amount found in air should dive with enriched air (except under
air) becomes a substantial risk? Over the years there’s

Dive Equipment
supervision of an enriched air instructor). Enriched
been debate, but the community consensus for scuba air diving requires special procedures to manage
equipment (not necessarily equipment used to produce, potential risks not present in air diving.
store or handle EANx) is that if a piece of equipment 2. Manufacturers have differing recommendations with
won’t be exposed to more than 40 percent oxygen, respect to using their equipment with enriched air.
standard air equipment is fine. If the equipment will Follow these recommendations.
come in contact with more than 40 percent oxygen at 3. Only put enriched air into properly marked and
any time, then it must meet oxygen service standards. serviced cylinders. Pure oxygen should never be put
This means it must be made of oxygen compatible in a standard air cylinder, or one that doesn’t meet
materials, be cleaned for oxygen requirements and use oxygen service standards, because doing so poses
oxygen compatible lubricants. a high risk of explosion or fire.
A few experts recommend the gas industry’s more 4 Air from a conventional air system should not
conservative stance that any gas blend with more than be put into an enriched air cylinder intended for
approximately 22 percent to 25 percent oxygen meet oxygen service because it can render the cylinder
oxygen service standards. In addition, local regulations unsuitable for enriched air use until reserviced.
may require oxygen service standards for equipment 5. Using a regulator serviced and dedicated for
used with any gas with more than 22 percent to 25 enriched air on a conventional air cylinder may
percent oxygen. render the regulator unsuitable for use with enriched
The cylinders you use with enriched air need to air until reserviced (consult the manufacturer).
meet oxygen service standards even if you won’t be 6. In tec diving, use an oxygen service regulator when
using EANx with more than 40 percent oxygen. One diving with pure oxygen or EANx with more than
method of blending enriched air requires putting pure 40 percent oxygen.
oxygen in the cylinder, then adding air until ending up
with the desired proportion of oxygen and nitrogen. The
fact that the cylinder will be exposed to 100 percent
oxygen during blending means that the cylinder must
meet oxygen service standards.
EANx cylinders and oxygen cylinders also require
distinct markings to identify what’s in them.
• EANx cylinders should have a 15 cm/6 in. wide
band on the cylinder. The top and bottom 2.5
cm/1 in. of the band are yellow, with the center
area green. The green area contains “Enriched
Air,” “Enriched Air Nitrox,” or “Nitrox” in yellow or
white letters.
• A yellow cylinder requires only the green portion
of the band, with “Enriched Air,” “Enriched Air
Nitrox,” or “Nitrox” in yellow or white letters.
• EANx cylinders require labels or tags that state the
cylinder oxygen content, the fill date, the analyzer’s

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So, why do aluminum cylinders dominate
recreational diving in many markets? It’s because while
aluminum corrodes as does steel, the aluminum oxide Most tec divers commonly
adheres to the metal, creating a barrier that inhibits choose cylinders like
further corrosion. This makes aluminum cylinders far 18 litre/104 cubic
foot steels or larger for
more forgiving to salt water contamination. Interestingly,
doubles (left). For their
while tec divers prefer steel cylinders on their backs, many stage/deco cylinders,
prefer aluminium for their stage/deco cylinders because the choices range from 7
they’re light and easy to handle in the water. litre/50 cubic foot steels or
aluminums to 11 litre/80
STYLES AND SIZES cubic foot aluminums or 12
litre/71.2 cubic foot steels
The range of scuba cylinders currently available should (right).
make finding a size to suit your physical size and dive
activities straightforward, but the reality is that in most
areas two or three standard sizes dominate, and that’s FEATURES
usually what you’ll choose from. On dive holidays, you Scuba cylinders may offer a number of features, ranging
commonly rent your cylinder at your destination and will from a choice of exterior coatings to different types of
use what they have available. valves.
In North America, Coatings. Scuba cylinders, either steel or aluminum,
cylinder capacity refers to require coatings for different reasons. Left uncoated,
the volume of air stored in the steel cylinders corrode rapidly due to exposure to
the cylinder at its working fresh and salt water, and even to atmospheric moisture.
pressure if you were to To prevent this, most steel cylinders are galvanized — a
release it at the surface. The process in which the bare cylinder is immersed in a bath
most common sizes are the of molten zinc which bonds with the steel, creating a
80-cubic-foot aluminum corrosion proof barrier. Newly galvanized cylinders have a
cylinder (aluminum 80) shiny silver, metallic appearance — similar to that of new
and 71.2-cubic-foot steel metal refuse containers. With age, the color changes to a
cylinder (steel 72). Aluminum duller, more uniform gray.
cylinders in the 65- to It is also possible to coat steel cylinders with a cold
You can choose from a 67-cubic-foot range have also zinc spray. When freshly coated, such cylinders still
variety of aluminum and become increasingly popular lack the distinctive shiny, mottled appearance of newly
steel scuba cylinders to fit in the past few years. galvanized cylinders. This nongalvanized zinc coating
your particular needs and
The capacity of cylinders doesn’t last as long.
preferences.
in metric system countries For appearance, galvanized steel cylinders may have a
is usually measured in coating of paint or vinyl. This doesn’t harm the cylinder,
liters when the cylinder is empty (liquid capacity). By however, it’s important to distinguish between this process
multiplying this volume by the cylinder pressure in bar, and that used on certain older steel cylinders, which were
you can quickly determine the quantity of air available at simply painted or coated, but never galvanized. On a
any pressure. Popular cylinders in metric countries include coated, but nongalvanized cylinder, water may enter the
the 10, 12 and 15 litre steel and 10 litre aluminum. These paint or coating through a scratch, nick or pinprick and
correspond to the imperial steel 72 and aluminum 80. become trapped. This may lead to rapid unseen corrosion,
As you may expect, there’s more variety in tec diving, which is potentially dangerous. Such cylinders are best
with an emphasis on high capacity. Most tec divers stripped of their coatings, cleaned of any corrosion and
commonly choose cylinders like 18 litre/104 cubic foot galvanized.
steels or larger for doubles. For their stage/deco cylinders, For similar reasons, steel cylinders that have any
the choices range from 7 litre/50 cubic foot steels or type of paint or coating on the interior should have it
aluminums to 11 litre/80 cubic foot aluminums or 12 removed. Coating the interior of steel cylinders was
litre/71.2 cubic foot steels. Smaller tec divers may common between the early 1950s and 1974. These
opt for small cylinders, and there’s a good deal cylinders, however, cannot be visually inspected effectively
of variation depending upon local availability. because the coatings can hide extensive interior corrosion.

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International Cylinder Capacity Conversions Made Easy
You can easily calculate cylinder capacity and the to the working pressure or hydrostatic test date. Imperial
volume of useable gas at the surface at any time, even system cylinders don’t have their internal capacity
when differences in international cylinder markings and marked on them, but you determine this by dividing the
nomenclature appear to complicate it. maximum capacity in cubic feet by the working pressure
To determine the cylinder maximum capacity and (stamped in psi on the cylinder neck or shoulder) in
the amount of air it has at a given pressure, first you need atmospheres.
to know the internal volume (a.k.a. “water capacity,”
To compare cylinder capacity, use the following
since this is how much water the cylinder would hold).
equivalent:
Multiplying the internal volume by the actual cylinder 1 ft3 = 28.3 litres
pressure gives you how much gas the cylinder has at that
pressure. Multiplying the internal volume by the maximum Sample Calculations:
working pressure gives the volume the cylinder holds Metric: A 12 lt cylinder, filled to 232 bar, contains
when full (sometimes called “free gas”). 12 x 232 = 2784 lt of free gas.
Countries using the metric system usually refer to a To convert to imperial:

Dive Equipment
cylinder by its internal capacity in litres, and its working Given 28.3 litres = 1 ft3,
pressure in bar. You find this information stamped on 2784 ÷ 28.3 = 98.4 ft3
to the cylinder neck. For example, a cylinder may be Therefore, a 12 lt, 232 bar cylinder (a common
described as “12 litre, 232 bar” or “10 litre, 200 bar.” size in Europe) holds 2784 lt or 98.4 ft3 of gas
Countries using the imperial system traditionally when at its maximum working pressure.
refer to cylinders by how much gas volume you would
have, in cubic feet, if you released all the gas from a Imperial: An 80 ft3 cylinder has a working
full cylinder. Examples include 50ft3, 71.2ft3 or 80ft3. pressure of 3000 psi (from cylinder neck)
Newer cylinders have this stamped on them, though 3000 psi ÷ 14.7 = 204.1 atm
older cylinders often didn’t. With some cylinders, it’s 80 ft3 ÷ 204.1 atm = .4 ft3 internal capacity
not always obvious. The “71.2” cylinder, for example, To convert to metric:
only holds this volume if overfilled by 10 percent, an Given 28.3 lt = 1 ft3
acceptable practice if there is a “+” sign stamped next .4 ft3 x 28.3 = 11.3 litres internal capacity

Capacity Working Buoyancy

Full Empty Material Pressure Length Diameter Weight Full Empty
Cu. ft. Liters Cu. Ft. Liters p.s.i Bar In. Cm In. Cm Lbs. Kg Lbs. Kg Lbs. Kg

13.3 377 0.065 1.85 Aluminum 3000 203 12.75 32.69 4.37 11.21 4.20 1.91 -1.60 -0.73 -0.60 -0.27
50.0 1,416 0.246 6.97 Aluminum 3000 203 19.00 48.72 6.90 17.69 21.50 9.77 -2.70 -1.23 +1.00 +0.45
60.6 1,716 0.271 7.68 Steel 3300 223 22.00 56.41 6.00 15.38 22.70 10.32 -7.10 -3.23 -0.25 -0.11
65.0 1,841 0.320 9.06 Aluminum 3000 203 18.75 48.08 7.25 18.59 25.10 11.41 -1.80 -0.82 +4.10 +1.86
65.0 1,841 0.243 6.83 H.P. Steel 3442 237 16.75 42.50 7.25 18.59 23.20 10.50 -6.40 -2.90 -1.50 -0.68
67.0 1,897 0.330 9.34 Aluminum 3000 203 19.70 50.51 8.00 20.51 26.00 11.82 -1.90 -0.86 +4.00 +1.82
71.2 2,016 0.425 12.03 Steel 2475 168 25.00 64.10 6.90 17.69 30.00 13.64 -4.15 -1.89 +3.50 +1.59
71.4 2,022 0.320 9.05 Steel 3300 223 25.39 65.10 6.00 15.38 26.00 11.82 -7.60 -3.45 -2.30 -1.05
71.4 2,022 0.320 9.05 Steel 3300 223 20.47 52.49 6.84 17.54 29.40 13.36 -11.10 -5.05 -5.70 -2.59
75.8 2,147 0.424 12.01 Steel 2640 179 26.18 67.13 6.76 17.33 31.00 14.09 -5.50 -2.50 -0.13 -0.06
80.0 2,265 0.394 11.15 Aluminum 3000 203 26.00 66.67 7.25 18.59 31.70 14.41 -1.80 -0.82 +4.00 +1.82
80.0 2,265 0.394 11.15 Aluminum 3000 203 22.75 58.33 8.00 20.51 35.20 16.00 -3.30 -1.50 +2.70 +1.23
80.0 2,265 0.290 8.22 H.P. Steel 3442 237 20.00 51.28 7.25 18.59 28.00 12.71 -8.50 -3.86 -2.50 -1.13
92.0 2,605 0.453 12.83 Aluminum 3000 203 24.75 63.46 8.00 20.51 37.50 17.05 -3.70 -1.68 +3.10 +1.4
94.6 2,679 0.466 13.19 Steel 3000 203 25.00 64.10 7.00 17.95 39.00 17.73 -14.00 -6.36 -6.00 -2.73
100.0 2,831 0.350 10.0 H.P. Steel 3442 237 24.12 62.00 7.25 18.59 33.00 15.00 -8.50 -3.86 -1.00 -0.45
103.5 2,931 0.637 18.04 Steel 2400 162 26.50 67.95 7.80 20.00 44.00 20.00 -7.76 -3.53 +3.50 +1.59
119.0 3,370 0.384 10.97 H.P. Steel 3442 237 24.00 61.54 8.00 20.51 41.00 18.64 -10.50 -4.77 -2.00 -0.91
120.0 3,397 0.424 12.11 H.P. Steel 3442 237 28.25 72.43 7.25 18.59 38.00 17.27 -10.50 -4.77 0.00 0.00
130.0 3,680 0.418 11.95 H.P. Steel 3442 237 26.12 66.97 8.00 20.51 43.00 19.54 -10.50 -4.77 -1.00 -0.45

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Surviving cylinders from this era have usually had hexagon rim to help keep the cylinder from rolling when
their interior coating removed through tumbling or it’s on its side.
sandblasting. Yoke and DIN single cylinder valves. When you
Strictly speaking, aluminum diving cylinders need invest in a scuba tank, it usually comes with standard
no coating. Uncoated aluminum quickly acquires a thin chrome plated brass single cylinder valve. These valves
layer of aluminum oxide. As mentioned previously, this are straightforward. They thread into the cylinder neck,
effectively blocks further corrosion. Nevertheless, most sealed with a large o-ring. At this end of the valve there is
aluminum cylinders are painted or epoxied for cosmetic a narrow pipe — sometimes called a snorkel, debris tube
reasons. The cylinder looks notably used and worn as the or a dip tube — that extends into the cylinder to prevent
coating or paint wears away. This doesn’t hurt the cylinder moisture or contaminants from restricting or blocking
functionally, but you can either strip the remaining airflow through the valve when you’re swimming head
coating or have the cylinder repainted if you don’t like the down.
looks. The outside of the valve consists of a simple on/
An uncoated aluminum cylinder turns a dull gray off assembly with a hand wheel (knob). You open or
that’s remarkably similar to that of a well used galvanized close the valve to control the flow of gas to or from the
steel cylinder. A recoated cylinder can be almost any cylinder. Some older single cylinder valves may have a
color you choose. It is important, however, not to use reserve mechanism, but these have faded from use in most
any paint or coating process that heats the cylinder. This locations.
is because temperatures above 82°C/180°F alter the Cylinder valves use either the yoke system or the
molecular structure of the aluminum alloy, weakening it. DIN system. With the yoke system, your regulator fits
An aluminum cylinder that has been heated this way must down over the valve. With the DIN system, the sealing
be condemned because it can rupture when filled. o-ring mounts on your regulator, which screws into
Cylinder boots. The bottoms of steel cylinders are the DIN valve. The DIN system consists of the five
round, so they cannot stand upright by themselves.
Aluminum cylinders have flat bottoms, but can damage
the surfaces they stand upon, or sometimes be damaged
by those surfaces. For these reasons, cylinders usually
come equipped with plastic, vinyl or rubber cylinder
boots.
The best boots allow easy drainage, so that water
won’t become trapped between the boot and the cylinder
and cause corrosion or salt buildup. Some older boots
don’t drain well, and it’s a good idea to replace these.
Many newer model boots also have an octagonal or
High
Pressure
O-Ring Opening

On-Off Knob

Cylinder valves use either the yoke system or the DIN system.
With the DIN systems (left and inset), your regulator screws into
the valve. With the yoke system (right), your regulator fits down
over the valve.

Burst thread fitting, which you can use for pressures up to 200
Disk
High bar/3000 psi, and the seven thread DIN fitting for higher
Pressure
Seat working pressures.
The standard scuba At one time, whether you used yoke or DIN
cylinder valve. depended upon where you were. Today both systems
have migrated throughout the world dive community.
Tank
O-Ring In most regions, the yoke system remains the prevailing
choice of recreational divers, whereas tec divers prefer
the DIN system. The DIN system is also common

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among recreational divers in Europe. Although this was Courtesy of Dive Rite
sometimes inconvenient, today it is less so because you
can easily use a DIN regulator on a yoke valve with an
adapter, and now many DIN valves have inserts that you
screw in so they accept yoke regulators.
Dual cylinder manifolds. If you’re getting into tec
diving, or if you’re a recreational diver who uses a lot of air
or makes very long dives, you will need double cylinders.
Setting up doubles requires two identical cylinders, a set
of appropriate cylinder bands to hold and space them
properly, and a dual cylinder manifold or valve (a.k.a.
doubles manifold). The manifold must be threaded and
pressure rated to match your cylinders.
Like other dive equipment, doubles manifolds have
Y or H valves allow you to put two independent regulators on a
evolved. They began as yoke system valves that accepted a

Dive Equipment
single cylinder. This is commonly used in tec diving that doesn’t
single regulator, but today those models are all but gone. require high gas volumes.
The prevailing manifold is the DIN system, dual outlet
isolator manifold, which is the standard in cave diving
and other forms of tec diving. This valve allows you to Dual-regulator single cylinder valves. Some forms
mount two independent DIN regulators on your doubles. of cave and tec diving take place shallow enough to use
In the event of a malfunction, you can shut down the a single cylinder. For these dives, you can use an H valve
affected regulator and still have access to all the gas in the or a Y valve (named for their shapes), which accepts
doubles. The central isolator valve allows you to separate two independent regulators. As with the dual cylinder
the doubles into two halves. This safety device protects manifold, you can shut down either regulator in the case
half your gas if something damages the manifold and of a malfunction and still have access to all the cylinder’s
creates a leak. gas through the other.
Burst disk. All scuba cylinders have a maximum
working pressure past which they shouldn’t be filled
during normal use. To help make certain that the pressure
doesn’t accidentally go far beyond this, some cylinder
valves (but not all) have a device known as a burst disk.
This device is an industry requirement in North America,
but some European countries do not use them.
A burst-disk assembly consists of a thin copper
disk held in place with a gasket and a vented plug. If
cylinder pressure rises to approximately 140 percent of the
working pressure, the disk ruptures, and the air escapes
through the vented plug.
Burst disks protect against damage that may
occur from accidental overfilling, but more often from
accidental overheating. As discussed in Chapter Four,
when you heat a cylinder, the interior pressure rises.
The prevailing doubles manifold is the DIN system, dual outlet Therefore, a cylinder that’s at its working pressure at
isolator manifold. It is the standard in cave diving and other room temperature will be above working pressure in a hot
forms of tec diving. automobile trunk or, even worse, in a fire. The burst disk
ruptures before the pressure can get high enough for the
Note that setting up doubles isn’t as simple as it cylinder to explode.
might appear. It requires experience and skill to get the The downside of a burst disk is that you have to
alignment correct and avoid damaging the manifold, so replace it periodically. Each time you fill and then use
it’s best to have a professional at your local PADI Dive your tank, the disk flexes a bit, growing weaker over
Center or Resort do it. time. Eventually an old disk can blow at well below the

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Deciphering Cylinder Hieroglyphics
For many divers, the markings stamped on scuba cylinder A few may be filled to 225 bar/3300 psi and some
necks are a mysterious code, though they usually know even to 270 bar/4000 psi. The rated pressure of steel
enough about them to keep up with required inspections scuba cylinders typically range from 120 bar/1800
and pressure test. However, these markings aren’t that to 238 bar/3500 psi, though some go higher. The
most common steel cylinder in the US is rated for 150
complicated.
bar/2250 psi – 165 bar/ 2475 psi with the 10
Cylinders manufactured or distributed in North percent overfill approval. It is interesting to note that
America have the information in this illustration. You’ll find only with the 10 percent overfill approval does this
similar information on cylinders made or sold in other cylinder reach its advertised capacity.
parts of the world, though there’s some variation in the
• Serial Number — Most scuba cylinders carry a
stampings. The first row of cylinder markings will contain unique serial number that may also identify information
the following information: such as its size and lot number. This is usually the first
• Government Approval — The first set of information that appears on the second row.
characters will usually be either DOT or DOT/ • Manufacturer Identification — This usually
CTC. These initials stand for the US Department of appears following the serial number. Because most
Transportation and the Canadian Transportation cylinders are manufactured by large, compressed-
Commission. Older cylinders may bear the notation gas cylinder companies and not the scuba-equipment
ICC for Interstate Commerce Commission. The authority manufacturer that ultimately sells the cylinder to the
of the Department of Transportation to regulate the dealer, this name might not be familiar. Luxfer, Kidde
manufacture, sale and use of scuba cylinders in the and PST (Pressed Steel Company) are among the
United States comes primarily from its responsibility to most common manufacturer notations. The newest
oversee the transportation of high-pressure cylinders cylinders will have no name at all, but a manufacturer
across state lines on common carriers. There are many identification number instead.
areas in which the sale and use of scuba cylinders
don’t technically fall under the jurisdiction of DOT. • Hydrostatic Test Date — A cylinder’s initial
Nevertheless, it has become an effective standard of hydrostatic test date will usually appear as the last
practice in the United States to only sell and use scuba or only item in the last row of information originally
cylinders that meet DOT specifications. stamped on the cylinder. Subsequent hydrostatic
test dates may appear anywhere on the cylinder’s
• Metal Type — The next set of characters in the first neck. The hydrostatic test date consists of numbers
row denotes the type of metal used in the cylinder. representing the month and year in which the cylinder
The designation 3A denotes carbon steel. This was was tested. These numbers will be separated by either
used in very early scuba cylinders. It isn’t considered the hydrostatic tester’s initials or by a special symbol
desirable in that it is more prone to corrosion than that the tester has registered with the Department of
chrome-molybdenum steel or aluminum. 3AA is the Transportation.
designation for chrome-molybdenum steel. It appears
on virtually all steel scuba cylinders in use today.
Aluminum cylinders may bear the designations SP6498,
E6498 or 3AL. The first two designations identify the
special permit numbers under which aluminum scuba
Government Agency
cylinders were originally manufactured. 3AL is the
Supervision/Approval Working Pressure
permanent designation for the DOT-approved alloy used
in aluminum cylinder manufacture. All scuba cylinders Metal Type
manufactured or hydro-tested in the United States after 1
July, 1982 bear this designation.
• Working Pressure — The third set of characters in
the first row indicate the maximum pressure, in pounds-
per-square-inch, to which a cylinder may be filled for
10% Overfill Allowed
normal use or transportation across jurisdictional lines. Serial Number
A cylinder shouldn’t be filled beyond this point. The Hydrostatic Test Date
single exception to this rule occurs with steel cylinders Manufacturer
Hydrostatic Tester’s Mark
that bear a plus (+) sign after the date of the last
hydrostatic test. These may be filled to 10 percent Cylinder Neck Markings
above the listed pressure. This notation commonly
appears on newly manufactured cylinders but seldom
is given on subsequent hydrostatic tests. Most aluminum
cylinders can take air fills up to 205 bar/3000 psi.

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pressure you would expect. Fortunately, this is more of Moisture catalyzes the process, greatly accelerating
an inconvenience than a danger. At one time a blown oxidation in both steel and aluminum cylinders. Salt-
disk tended to spin a cylinder around violently, but laden moisture is even worse.
modern disk assemblies route the escaping gas in multiple The combination of moisture and oxygen under
directions that counteract each other. pressure can cause oxidation damage in hours that in
O-rings. As mentioned, your regulator seals with an unpressurized cylinder would take weeks. With steel,
the cylinder valve with an o-ring. Although very small, the primary concern is weakening the cylinder walls.
you can’t dive without these little rings, which use the You may recall that aluminum oxide actually retards
gas pressure to form a tight, reliable seal. Over time, further oxidation, but you still want to minimize it. Wall
o-rings wear out, and they’re not hard to lose. Carry spare corrosion still occurs, and large amounts of oxide can
valve o-rings with your dive kit – there’s nothing more come loose, clogging the valve and regulator.
annoying than missing a dive because you didn’t have an You can’t avoid the pressure or the oxygen, so you
o-ring that cost less than a couple cups of coffee. Because must keep cylinders moisture free. The dive operator takes
o-rings differ slightly in size and thickness, check your the first step by filling it with properly filtering the gas
PADI Dive Center or Resort to be sure you’re getting that contains virtually no moisture.

Dive Equipment
the right size. If you travel, it’s a good idea to carry an During filling, water droplets can splash onto the
assortment so that you’re likely to have the right sized filling whip or valve orifice, which subsequently enter
spare for a rented cylinder. the cylinder. You and your dive operator should watch
for this to prevent it from happening, and you can help
SCUBA CYLINDER CARE AND MAINTENANCE by making sure no water droplets end up in the valve
Day-to-day maintenance of your scuba cylinder is simply opening after removing your regulator post dive. If any
rinsing, drying and storing it after each use. However, do, simply release a burst from the cylinder to blow it out
you also need to protect it from damage, to keep moisture (be courteous of others when you do this, though).
from entering it, and to have it inspected and tested Your final safeguard is to never let your cylinder
regularly. become completely empty. Always keep at least about 20
Proper handling. Careful handling prevents bar/300 psi so that there’s no accidental inward gas flow
cosmetic damage to your cylinder, and also damage to that can carry in moisture. If you’re not going to use your
other things by your cylinder. More importantly, severe cylinder for an extended period, store it at this pressure,
damage to your cylinder can be dangerous and expensive. not full. This reduces the oxygen pressure inside and
Exterior damage, such as dropping, can weaken a cylinder the oxidation rate. Store your cylinder standing so any
structurally so that it no longer safely holds pressurized moisture accumulates on the bottom, where the cylinder
gas. Dropping a full cylinder so the valve sheers off can is thickest and where it’s easiest to spot any damage.
create an out-of-control projectile, though more likely Visual inspection. North America and most of the
the soft brass will deform, rendering it inoperable. You’ll dive community require a visual inspection of scuba
have to buy a new one. Drain and take any cylinder that cylinders annually. Reputable dive operations will not fill
has had severe impact out of service until you have it a cylinder that lacks a current visual inspection decal.
inspected by an expert. Aluminum cylinders, which are A visual inspection examines your cylinder internally
softer, are more susceptible to impact damage. and externally for any signs of damage or corrosion. The
To prevent damage, use common sense and handle inspector removes the boot, cylinder bands and anything
your cylinder with care. Don’t drop it, obviously, and take else that could conceal damage. Using special lights,
the time to secure cylinders so they don’t roll and bang mirrors and other equipment, the inspector checks the
around while transporting them by boat or car. In high interior for corrosion, stress cracks around the neck and
traffic areas, lay cylinders down so they can’t get knocked other warning signs. A close look at the valve can also
down. When laying down an assembled scuba kit, lay it betray problems.
with the cylinder side down so you don’t crush the BCD, Assuming no significant corrosion or damage, the
regulator or gauges. inspector checks the valve for smooth operation and
Keeping moisture out. The oxygen in air, enriched lubricates its threads to help prevent galvanic action
air nitrox, pure oxygen and any other gas mixture with between the dissimilar metals of the cylinder and valve.
oxygen reacts more readily with other compounds After reassembling and filling the cylinder (partially or to
(oxidizes) under pressure. Since your scuba cylinder full, depending upon what you want), the inspector places
holds gas at high pressure, it’s an ideal site for corrosion. a visual inspection decal on it. This sticker identifies the

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inspecting facility the inspection month and year. The from three to seven years.
usual location is near the base on the left side of single The test procedure is called hydrostatic testing
cylinders, with the location varied on double cylinders because it involves water. The tester fills the cylinder
due to the bands. with water and places it in a water-filled jacket. Next, the
If the inspector finds damage or corrosion, the course tester pressurizes the cylinder to five-thirds of its working
of action depends upon the type and extent. Rinsing with pressure, or to a test pressure stamped on the cylinder
distilled water and drying with warm air usually removes neck. This causes the cylinder to expand, displacing
minor contaminants from the inside of an aluminum water in the water jacket. The displaced water rises in
cylinder. Minor oxidation in a steel cylinder may be best a collection tube so the tester knows how much the
left in place because the removal process can weaken the cylinder expanded.
cylinder more than the oxidation itself. Next, the tester releases the pressure from the
If the cylinder has extensive oxidation or deep cylinder, allowing the metal to contract. The high pressure
pitting (oxidation that creates a concave gouge in will have caused some permanent expansion, which
the metal), it will require tumbling or sandblasting. is acceptable if it’s very slight. The tester then stamps
Tumbling involves putting an abrasive material inside the cylinder with the test date and tester identification
the cylinder, then placing it on rollers where it turns symbol, dries it thoroughly and reassembles it. However,
over and over until clean. Sandblasting forces a stream if the expansion is high, then the cylinder metal is too
of abrasive material into the cylinder under pressure to fatigued to use safely. In this case the tester does not
remove oxidation. These methods remove a portion of the stamp it and marks it condemned in some way. (Some
cylinder wall along with the corrosion, so the cylinder will operations drill a hole through the wall or destroy the
subsequently require pressure testing. Also, any cylinder valve threads so it cannot be filled). In most countries,
that has suffered possible impact damage requires pressure only people who have met specific criteria can qualify as
testing before use. hydrostatic testers.
Pressure (hydrostatic) testing. Besides an annual When to inspect or pressure test ahead of schedule.
visual inspection, your cylinder requires periodic pressure Although you have your cylinder visually inspected
testing. The interval between tests varies, with every five and pressure tested at intervals according to local dive
years required in North America, and other areas ranging community standards and regulations, you should also

North America and most of the dive community

require a visual inspection of scuba cylinders Scuba cylinders require hydrostatic testing every three to seven
annually. Reputable dive operations will not fill a years. The tester stamps the test date into the cylinder when it
cylinder that lacks a current visual inspection decal. passes.

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Elasticity: the Basis for Cylinder Working Pressures
Why is filling a cylinder beyond its rated pressure a elasticity and changed the metal by weakening it.
bad idea? Given that hydrostatic tests take your cylinder Suppose you were to press the coat hanger wire
to 166 percent of its working pressure, it’s tempting to severely, until the tip points straight to the ground,
think that there’s room for some “extra” gas on your next 90º from the portion in the vice. In this case, it may
dive. Once you understand metal elasticity, you won’t not bounce back at all, but have a sharp bend in it.
think that any more. If you were to repeatedly flex the tip 2 cm/1 in so
All substances have some degree of elasticity, that it stresses the permanent bend point, eventually
which for the purposes of this discussion, we can define the wire will break there. It’s the same hanger and
as the ability to withstand a distorting stress and then you’re stressing it the same amount as before. The only
return to its original shape. For example, imagine you difference was that you exceeded its elasticity just once.
have one metre/three feet of coat hanger sticking Let’s apply this to your scuba cylinder. Whenever
straight out from a table vice parallel to the ground. You you fill it, it expands slightly. It contracts when you

Dive Equipment
push the tip down about 2 cm/1 in and release it. It release the pressure. If you stay within the rated
springs back straight with a twang – that’s its elasticity. pressure, you’re filling it to well within its elasticity.
Within the limits of its elasticity, you can stress Assuming no other sources of damage, you can fill
something and have it return to its original shape and empty it hundreds and hundreds of times without
hundreds and hundreds of times. You could flex the any significant changes to the metal strength. If you
coat hanger wire tip down 2 cm/1 in and have it let someone overfill your cylinder, however, you’re
twang back all day, and the wire would remain virtually exceeding the elasticity of the metal, weakening it to
unchanged. some degree. Even a single overfill can substantially
Elasticity has its limits, however. If you stress a reduce the life of your cylinder (especially with
substance beyond the limits, you change its structure aluminum, which is not as elastic as steel). This is also
permanently. When you release the stress, the why you don’t hydrostatically test your cylinder any
substance does not return to its original shape. It only more than necessary – it’s the only way to verify the
returns partially, or may even stay permanently in the metal’s elasticity, but it’s not good for it.
stressed shape. With the coat hanger, imagine you Keep in mind that multiple, excessive and repeated
press the tip down 20 cm/10 in. When you release it, overfilling can cause enough stress that a cylinder could
it doesn’t twang back straight. It only comes back part become unsafe within the hydrostatic test interval.
way and now has a permanent curve. You exceeded its

Scuba Cylinder Manufacture

It may be hard to imagine, but under high pressure and force, metals flow much like liquids. This is the key to
manufacturing scuba cylinders, as well as many other metal products that have to be very strong and cannot be
produced through welding or other processes that leave an inherently weaker point.
A scuba cylinder begins as a metal slug –– a solid cylinder of the alloy – that goes into a very powerful press.
By applying tremendous force, the press pushes into the slug, forcing it to extrude – literally stretch – into a cylinder
open on one end. Another press compresses the top to close it, followed by machining to create the neck and
threading for the valve.
To make extrusion possible, with some materials the manufacturer uses an alloy that is very soft to shape
the cylinder, then bakes the cylinder. The baking alters the alloy, making it much stronger for final use. This is the
commonly used process for aluminum cylinders, and why you have to condemn an aluminum cylinder that’s been in
a fire. Exposing the alloy to high temperatures a second time further alters its characteristics, making it very weak.

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do so in case of possible damage such as: simply breathe through a long hose from 3 metres/10
• you think you can hear loose material rolling around feet underwater. The water pressure on your torso creates
inside. a differential of .3 atm/bar. To breathe, you need air
• you find red or greenish material accumulating on delivered to you at a pressure that’s about the same as the
your regulator inlet filter. pressure surrounding you. That’s what an open circuit
scuba regulator does.
• the cylinder is exposed to heat higher than 82°C/
Scuba regulators (also called demand regulators or
180°F (an aluminum cylinder is usually condemned;
demand valves because they only supply air on demand
steel cylinders may survive but require hydrostatic
–– when you inhale) are the foundation of your scuba kit
testing).
because they link everything together. They connect your
• the cylinder is filled or rises to (due to heat) scuba cylinder to your BCD, submersible pressure gauge
substantially beyond its rated working pressure (more (SPG), alternate air source and you. This is why a typical
than 10 percent). modern regulator system has four or more hoses coming
• you don’t use it for more than two years. from the first stage, which is the part that attaches to your
• the cylinder has sustained impact damage. scuba cylinder.
• you see anything on the cylinder that could indicate
MATERIALS
stress, weakening or cause for concern.
Manufacturers use a variety of materials for regulator
Scuba cylinders are very safe, and incidents involving their
construction. By far the most common material used
failure are very, very rare. However, when they do happen,
for the first stage body is brass. However, marine grade
they’re catastrophic. Here’s the rule regarding having your
aluminum has been used, and some very high end
cylinder inspected and tested before required: If in doubt,
regulators have titanium first stages. The internal parts
check it out!
are made from stainless steel, Teflon®, silicone or neoprene
rubber, Viton® or other materials.
Regulators Until well into the 1980s, you commonly found
Your scuba cylinder isn’t very useful without a way to second stages made of brass, but no longer. Modern
control the gas flow so that you get exactly as much air as second stage bodies are made from various high impact
you need when you inhale. Your respiratory system only plastics, making them light and impervious to corrosion.
tolerates a differential of about 0.14 atm/bar between The internal moving parts consist variously of brass,
stainless steel, titanium, Teflon®, silicone or neoprene
rubber, Viton® or other materials. Rubber-type materials
Alternate Second Stage
are prominent in all regulator systems because they’re used
for mouthpieces, exhaust tees and valves.

STYLES
Unlike many other types of dive equipment, there is really
only one “style” of regulator used widely by recreational
divers today. This is a two-stage, single-hose model.
The earliest regulators were single-stage, double-
Primary hose models. The designation “single stage” refers to the
Second Stage fact that these regulators reduced the cylinder pressure
directly to the ambient breathing pressure in a single step.
Low Pressure SPG This meant the regulator valve had to work with a wide
Inflator Hose instruments cylinder pressure range, requiring a small valve orifice to
give the demand levers sufficient mechanical advantage.
Scuba regulators are the foundation of scuba systems With these early single stage regulators, you had to work
because they link everything together. The typical open circuit harder to breathe, and the how hard you had to breathe
regulator has four or more hoses.
varied with how much pressure you had left in your
cylinder. Since there were no submersible pressure gauges,
the breathing air pressure and the pressure however, this at least helped you have some idea of how
surrounding the lungs. This is why you can’t much air you had.

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Making Regulators
Due to diversity in regulator design, detailing all the softer. Manufacturers reclaim and reuse brass shavings
steps required to make even a single model could recovered from the machining process, which helps
fill a book. There are, however, several interesting keep costs down. This isn’t possible with all metals.
procedures commonly used in regulator manufacturing. Titanium shavings, for example, are so difficult to
recover and reuse that it’s not worth the expense. One
Distributed Production
reason titanium regulators cost so much more is that the
Rarely does a scuba manufacturer construct all of its
price must cover the unrecoverable titanium.
regulator components in its own plants. Just as auto
Companies that produce their own brass regulator
makers do, they contract some or even all of the
components in-house typically purchase precast brass
subcomponents to companies that specialize in areas
that has been stamped or forged into the approximate
such as foundry work, machining and injection molding.
shape of the required component. They then machine
Some manufacturers only farm out certain specialized
it to its final shape and, if necessary, join it to other
parts.
brass components using a process similar to welding

Dive Equipment
Design steel. The end result is chrome plated to provide more
While a manufacturer distributes production, it rarely complete resistance to corrosion.
distributes design. Most companies do their own design
and testing in a process that consumes considerable Injection Molding
research and development. It may take years for a Modern regulators — and, in particular, second stages
regulator to go from conception to your local dive store. — commonly use plastics and other synthetic materials.
As with all dive equipment, it isn’t enough to simply Doing so offers savings in weight and expense. It’s also
develop a regulator that works better. The design must possible to mold plastics into shapes that are either
also be economical to manufacture, easy to repair and impractical or unattainable in brass or other metals.
stand up to the type of abuse regulators receive in real- Manufacturers use injection molding to create
life diving. plastic parts. In this process, the manufacturer first
Ensuring that a design meets these criteria involves commissions the construction of a mold of the final
extensive testing. For this reason, many equipment part. The machinist places the completed mold in an
companies use sophisticated hyperbaric chambers, injection-molding machine, which forces heated raw
sensitive flow-metering instruments and mechanical plastic into the mold. When the plastic cools, the
devices to replicate the stress a regulator encounters machinist removes it from the mold (or the removal may
over a number of years. These latter devices often go be automated) and trims it to its final shape.
through a TTD (test to destruct) process. This gives the Assembly and Testing
design engineers an accurate estimate of how long a Most equipment manufacturers assemble and test
particular part should last in normal use. As a result, their products themselves. This process is similar to a
some designs never make it to the market. Others regulator overhaul, but on a larger scale. Technicians
change radically from their first handmade prototypes to assemble first and second stages using components
the final production version. made either in house or by outside suppliers. The
Brass Foundry and Machining fully assembled regulators undergo testing, before being
Most regulators make extensive use of brass. Brass is packaged for shipment to dealers. Most manufacturers
an ideal regulator metal because it doesn’t oxidize as test to meet the European CE standards, which require
readily as steel or aluminum, and it withstands high individual regulator testing on a breathing machine to
pressures. Specialists can readily cast, forge and assess conformity to the manufacturer’s stated minimum
machine brass more easily than steel because it is specifications.

The next step in regulator evolution was the two- ambient-plus-intermediate pressure to the ambient
stage double hose regulator, which reduced the cylinder pressure for breathing. The introduction of the two-stage
pressure to breathing pressure in two steps instead of regulator improved performance because it allowed larger
one. In these, the first stage reduced cylinder pressure valve orifices and greater airflow. Because the second stage
to a preset intermediate pressure above the ambient worked with air at a more constant pressure, breathing
(surrounding) pressure. The second stage reduced this performance became consistent throughout the dive.

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Double-hose regulators remained popular into the regulators avoid this problem completely.
1960s. In these models, both regulator stages fit in a The final blow to the double-hose was the rise of
large housing behind the diver’s head. This offered some the SPG, alternate air source and low pressure inflation
benefits: system for BCDs. While possible, the double-hose design
• Lightweight mouthpieces (although double-hose didn’t readily accommodate these innovations, whereas
mouthpieces may be buoyant enough to pull upward the single-hose design did. By the 1970s, double-hoses
uncomfortably). were rare among recreational divers, and gone by the
• Excellent resistance to freezing in extremely cold 1980s.
water.
• No bubbles next to a diver’s face.
However, double hose regulators had drawbacks as well: Return of the Double-Hose
• The valves were usually high enough above the level Although the double-hose was effectively extinct
of a diver’s chest to unnecessarily increase breathing by the 1980s, a few divers pined for them.
resistance, which made these regulators hard to Underwater photographers liked having the bubbles
breathe from. behind their heads where they scared aquatic life
less and stayed out of their viewfinders. Ice divers
• The hoses were an excellent environment for bacteria
loved the fact that double-hoses are less prone to
growth.
freezing up. For a lot of divers, the appeal was
• It was difficult to remove water from the mouthpiece simply nostalgia.
without exhaling forcefully or removing the In 2005, Aqualung surprised the dive
mouthpiece from a diver’s mouth. community by reintroducing the double-hose.
The first single-hose regulators appeared in 1961. Because Named the Mistral after their classic 1950s double-
a single-hose regulator puts the second stage in your hose, their new double-hose is a modern regulator.
It has a two stage design that accepts an SPG,
mouth at virtually the same depth as your chest while in
single hose alternate air source second stage and
a normal swimming position, the air it delivers is at the low pressure inflator hoses. The hoses are made of
same pressure as your lungs. All else being equal, this is modern silicone rubber, which is far more durable
why a double hose regulator can never perform as well as than the neoprene hoses of the past.
a single hose regulator. As a modern regulator, this 2005 Mistral
Single-hose regulators lack an exhaust hose that fills performs far better than any double-hose from the
with water and they have purge buttons, two features 1950s and ‘60s, but as Aqualung points out,
that greatly simplify clearing out water. Double-hose thanks to the laws of physics it cannot perform as
regulators trapped moisture in their exhaust hoses, which well as a comparable quality single hose regulator.
made cleaning and drying them annoying. Single-hose But if you need its advantages or just want to
revisit the past, it certainly performs well enough,
and perhaps other manufacturers will go retro with
modern versions of the double hose regulator.

The first open circuit scuba regulators were double hose

models. They did not breathe as well as later single hose
models, nor did they accept the accessory hoses that
have become standard equipment in modern diving.

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FEATURES since that adds a hose) or you may not be able to aim
Although you use all single-hose regulators essentially the the hoses in the direction you want. High pressure and
same way, you have a surprising number of options to low pressure ports have different sizes to avoid putting
consider in selecting one. an accessory in the wrong place (until the late 1970s
they were the same size). North American and Asian
FIRST STAGE OPTIONS. In choosing your regulator, you’ll manufacturers use the same size standard for these ports,
find two basic first stage designs, as well as balanced versus but some European makes follow a different standard.
unbalanced versions of these designs, shape and ports, Besides the number and location of ports, some
environmental sealing and connector system. regulator first stages have portions that swivel. The
Piston and diaphragm. First-stage pressure- advantage of this is it makes it easier to get the hoses
sensing mechanisms fall into two categories: piston and where you want them. However, when comparing two
diaphragm. In piston regulators, external water pressure models, if both have adequate ports for your needs and
acts on a piston, which is the main moving part in this route the hoses where you need them to go, the swivel is
type of first stage. In diaphragm first stages, the pressure immaterial.
acts on a flexible diaphragm. A push rod on the inside of Environmental sealing. Some first stages offer

Dive Equipment
this diaphragm transmits the diaphragm’s movement to environmental sealing. In these first stages, water pressure
the valve mechanism. doesn’t act directly on the piston or diaphragm. Instead,
Piston and diaphragm first stages each have their it acts on a silicone or alcohol based fluid that seals inside
advantages and disadvantages — most of which are of a watertight pressure-sensitive barrier and transmits the
little consequence to the owner. A further discussion of pressure to the piston or diaphragm. A few models dry
these differences appears in the sidebar, the Differences seal the first stage with gas from your cylinder, which then
Between Piston and Diaphragm First Stages. transmits ambient water pressure.
Balanced versus unbalanced. Both piston and Environmental sealing offers two primary benefits.
diaphragm first stages may use either balanced or First, it prevents salt, sediment and other contaminants
unbalanced valves. The difference has to do with a from entering the first stage, thus reducing internal
design that offset variations in cylinder pressure. In an corrosion or contaminant buildup. Second, it helps isolate
unbalanced valve, the cylinder pressure presses on the the valve mechanism from freezing temperatures. This is
valve and assists opening it. As you use up your air, the important in cold-water environments, where excessively
pressure lessens and therefore doesn’t assist with opening low temperatures may cause the first-stage mechanism to
the valve. This causes a minor variation in performance. malfunction by freezing.
A balanced valve uses a design that routes high If you’ll be diving in very cold water (like ice diving),
pressure cylinder air around both sides of the valve you’ll want an environmentally sealed first stage. About
opening. This cancels out or balances the cylinder pressure the only disadvantage is that it adds a step to the overhaul
so that the performance stays the same throughout your process, which may increase the expense slightly.
dive. Today, the majority of regulators have balanced first Connector system. As you learned in the discussion
stages, however there are a few low end models that don’t. on cylinder valves, scuba cylinders and regulators mate via
These don’t perform as well, but are adequate for shallow either the yoke system or the DIN system. You now find
recreational diving and may be a suitable option if you’re both systems throughout the dive community, though the
looking for an inexpensive spare for your dive kit. See the yoke dominates in most recreational diving contexts. The
sidebar, Differences Between Balanced and Unbalanced DIN system is most popular in Europe, and the standard
Valves. for tec diving doubles. There are two types of DIN
Shape and ports. In choosing your regulator, an connector: the five-thread version is used for cylinder
important consideration is the ability to attach all your pressures up to about 200 bar/3000 psi and the seven-
accessory hoses and route them so you have a streamlined thread version is used above that.
setup. Most top of the line regulators have at least four You can get most models of regulators in either yoke
low pressure ports that deliver air at the intermediate or DIN, and you’ll probably choose the system used
pressure (used for your second stage, alternate air source where you dive. As mentioned earlier, there are adapters.
second stage and low pressure inflators) and one or two If you have a DIN regulator, it is simple to adapt it to a
high pressure ports that deliver air at the cylinder pressure yoke valve. If you have a yoke regulator, some but not all
(used for submersible pressure gauge). Some less expensive DIN valves can adapt to it, but there is no adapter that
models may have fewer (a consideration in dry suit diving, easily converts a yoke regulator for DIN use. Rather, a

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High-pressure Air

The Differences Between Piston

from Scuba Cylinder

and Diaphragm First Stages Intermediate

Pressure Chamber Piston Stem
Although piston and diaphragm first stages differ
Low-pressure Port
fundamentally in how they work, from a practical (to second stage) Valve Orifice
standpoint this is more of a curiosity question rather Piston Valve Seat
than a major selection decision. There are advantages
Bias Spring
and disadvantages to each, but in the end you’ll find (set to intermediate
both types in top-of-the-line regulators. pressure)

Piston first stages usually have fewer moving parts

than diaphragm first stages. This sometimes makes them Water at Ambient Pressure
faster and easier to overhaul. Balanced Piston First Stage (Open)
Diaphragm first stages separate the interior parts
from the water. This reduces internal corrosion and High-pressure Air
from Scuba Cylinder
contaminant buildup. To get this with a piston first
stage, you have to have it environmentally sealed.
Piston first stages easily accommodate designs Balance Chamber
with swivels. One of the most popular configurations Poppet Assembly
offers five low pressure ports, whereas most diaphragm
High-pressure Chamber
first stages only offer four. Valve Seat
Valve Orifice
Qualified individuals can adjust diaphragm first
Low-pressure Port
stages in the field relatively easily and with few tools. (to second stage)
Push Rod
Intermediate
Many (but not all) piston first stages have to be entirely Pressure Chamber
Diaphragm
disassembled to adjust.
Bias Spring
(set to intermediate
pressure)
Water at Ambient Pressure
Balanced Diaphragm First Stage (Open)

technician has to replace some parts and convert it into a DIN regulator with a yoke adapter. In fact, at least two
DIN regulator. manufacturers don’t sell yoke regulators at all. Rather, they
Therefore, if you may be dealing with both yoke sell DIN regulators and include the yoke adapter.
and DIN regulators, the surest way to go is to have a
SECOND STAGE OPTIONS. Second stage options
generally include configuration, downstream or pilot
valves, balanced or unbalanced, adjustable or unadjustable
and Venturi assist.
Configuration –– The most common second-stage
design has the diaphragm and purge button on the front
of the second stage. The exhaust valve is on the back,
at the bottom, with an exhaust tee directing bubbles to
either side of your face. The vast majority of second stages
use this configuration, regardless of other features.
A few regulators combine the exhaust valve and
diaphragm. These models have the diaphragm and purge
button either on the side, or on the rear at the bottom. An
advantage of the side breathing versions is that there’s no
right side up or upside down. In an air sharing situation,
If you may be dealing with both yoke and DIN
regulators, the surest way to go is to have a DIN
it doesn’t matter which way the diver puts it in the
regulator with a yoke adapter. mouth. However, some side breathers tend to drizzle a bit,
which many divers find annoying.

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Standard, bottom diaphragm, and side diaphragm second stages.

Downstream or pilot valve –– Second stages have two Downstream valves have several advantages. First,
basic valve types. Downstream valves are most common. they’re mechanically simple and therefore highly reliable.
With these, when you inhale, the diaphragm pushes Second, the air flow pushes against them, so that they’re
against a demand lever connected to a one way valve. easy to set so they’re just barely closed. This makes it

Dive Equipment
This causes the valve to open, supplying you with air. easy to breathe. Third, if a downstream valve does fail, it
Because the valve opens with the air flow, it’s called a almost always fails in the open position. While this means
downstream valve. your air freeflows, you can still breathe from it while
ascending to safety. This is called a fail-safe design.
Bias Spring (set to intermediate pressure) Second stages that have the diaphragm on the rear/
Poppet Assembly bottom or on the side usually have pilot valves. With a
Valve Seat To Diver pilot valve, when you inhale the diaphragm depresses a
Valve Orifice lever on a small valve. The small valve releases air pressure
that in turn opens the larger main valve. The benefit of
From First Stage this design is that it provides greater airflow with less
effort.
Main Valve Poppet Assembly
Diaphragm
Main Valve Orifice Pilot Chamber
Pilot Valve Orifice
Demand Lever
Downstream Second Stage (Closed) Air from First Stage
Pilot Valve Tilt Valve
Assembly
PART ONE: When you’re not inhaling, the bias spring holds (connects to diaphragm)

the valve closed against the intermediate pressure, stopping the

Pilot Valve Mechanism (Closed)
flow of gas from the cylinder.

PART TWO: When you inhale, the second stage diaphragm PART ONE: This is one of several variations on the pilot valve
push on the demand lever, which in turn opens the second design. When you’re not inhaling, gas at intermediate pressure
stage valve. This allows gas to flow from the cylinder for you to flows through the main valve poppet assembly into the pilot
breathe. chamber. The gas pressure presses the main poppet closed.

PART TWO: When you inhale, the tilt valve opens, causing
Bias Spring (set to intermediate pressure) To Diver pressure in the pilot chamber to drop. This reduces the pressure
Poppet Assembly
on the main poppet, allowing it to open and let gas flow for
breathing.
Valve Seat Venturi Effect
Valve Orifice Main Valve Poppet Assembly
Main Valve Orifice Pilot Chamber
Pilot Valve Orifice

From First Stage

Air from First Stage
Diaphragm
Pilot Valve Tilt Valve
Demand Lever Assembly
Air Enters Second Stage (connects to diaphragm)
and is Breathed by Diver

Downstream Second Stage (Open) Pilot Valve Mechanism (Open)

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The drawbacks to pilot-valve second stages include freeflow easily, so most have a dive/predive switch. The
complexity and expense. They typically cost more and predive setting puts tension on the diaphragm so it doesn’t
may be more difficult for service technicians to repair. freeflow as easily when it’s not in your mouth.
Some users complain of a shallow-water phenomenon Balanced or unbalanced – Just as your first stage can
known as flutter. This is actually an awareness of the slight have a balanced or unbalanced design, so can your second
delay between when the pilot valve opens and when the stage. This is relatively new in second stages; until the
main valve opens. This is less of an issue with the latest late 1990s, virtually all second stages had an unbalanced
versions of pilot valve regulators. Pilot valves tend to design.

The Differences Between Balanced and Unbalanced Valves

To understand the differences between balanced and unbalanced valves, look at these examples of balanced and
unbalanced piston first stage operation. Notice that:
In the unbalanced first stage, cylinder pressure helps push the piston valve open. For the piston to overcome this force,
the valve orifice must be smaller than in a balanced first stage. This reduces the maximum flow rate. Also, since the
cylinder pressure assists opening the valve, it becomes harder to breathe as you use up your air and the pressure drops.
With the balanced piston valve, cylinder pressure doesn’t influence its operation. Cylinder pressure acts all around the
piston stem, but not in the direction that forces the piston open. Since the valve doesn’t have to work against the cylinder
pressure, the orifice can be much larger. The breathing characteristics don’t change much as you use up your air.
High-pressure Air High-pressure Air High-pressure Air High-pressure Air
Intermediate
High-pressure
Intermediate
Air
from Scuba Cylinder PART
from Scuba ONE: When
Cylinder you’re not inhaling,
Intermediate
High-pressure
from Air
Scuba Cylinder
Intermediate from Scuba Cylinder
Intermediate from Scuba Cylinder High-pressure Air
Intermediate from Scuba Cylinder High-pressure Air
Pressure Chamber
Pressure Chamber Pressure Chamber the gas inside the
Pressure
fromPressure intermediate
Chamber
Scuba Cylinder
Chamber
pressure
Pressure Chamber from Scuba Cylinder
Intermediate Intermediate
Valve Orifice Valve Orifice Pressure Chamber chamber appliesValve a force
Orifice to the piston
Valve Orifice Pressure Chamber
Valve Orifice Valve Orifice
Valve Seat that is equal to theValve
Valve Orifice
forceSeat of the bias Valve Orifice
Valve Seat Valve Seat
Valve Seat Valve Seat
Port to 2nd stage
spring plus thePortambient
to 2nd stage
pressure. The
Port to 2nd stage Valve Seat Port to 2nd stage Valve Seat
Port to 2nd stage
Piston Stem
piston does not move
Port to and the valve
2nd stage
Piston Stem
Piston Stem Port to 2nd stage Piston Stem Port to 2nd stage
Piston Stem stays closed. Piston Stem
Piston Stem Piston Stem
Water at Water at Water at Water at
Water at Water at
Ambient
Ambient
Ambient PART TWO: WhenAmbient you inhale, gas Ambient
Ambient
Pressure Water at Pressure Water at
Pressure
Pressure
Ambient pressure in the intermediate
Pressure pressurePressure Ambient
Bias Spring (set to Bias Spring (set to Bias Spring (set to Bias Spring (set to
Bias Springpressure)
intermediate (set to
intermediate pressure)
Pressurechamber drops, the
Bias Spring
intermediate valve
(set to opens and
pressure) intermediate pressure)
Pressure
intermediate pressure) gas flows.intermediate
Bias Spring (set to When the cylinder is full, the
pressure) Bias Spring (set to
Piston Pistonintermediate pressure) Piston intermediate pressure)
Piston opening force against the valve seat isPiston
Piston

UNBALANCED PISTON
the
Piston greatest and it takes the least effort
UNBALANCED PISTON
Piston
UNBALANCED PISTON UNBALANCED PISTON
UNBALANCED PISTONFIRST STAGE
FIRST STAGE (CLOSED) to (CLOSED)
open it. As the cylinder pressure UNBALANCED
FIRST STAGE (OPEN)PISTONFIRST STAGE (OPEN)
FIRST STAGE (CLOSED) FIRST STAGE (OPEN) UNBALANCED PISTON
drops,UNBALANCED
it becomes PISTON harder to breathe
FIRST STAGE (CLOSED) FIRST STAGE (OPEN)
because there’s less force on the valve.
Port to 2nd stage Port to 2nd stage Port to 2nd stage Port to 2nd stage
Port to 2nd stage Port to 2nd stage
Intermediate Intermediate Port to 2ndIntermediate
stage Intermediate Port to 2nd stage
Pressure Chamber
Intermediate Pressure Chamber Pressure Chamber
Intermediate Pressure Chamber
Pressure Chamber Intermediate Pressure Chamber
Piston Intermediate
Piston Piston Piston
Pressure Chamber Piston Pressure Chamber
Piston
Piston Piston
Water at Water at Water at Water at
Ambient
Water at Ambient Ambient
Water at Ambient
Pressure
Ambient Pressure Water at Pressure
Ambient Pressure Water at
Pressure
Bias Spring (set to Ambient Pressure
Bias Spring (set to Ambient
Bias Spring (set to Bias Spring (set to
intermediate
Bias Springpressure)
(set to intermediate pressure) Pressure intermediate
Bias Springpressure)
(set to intermediate pressure) Pressure
intermediate pressure) Bias Spring (set to intermediate pressure) Bias Spring (set to
Piston Stem Piston Stem Piston Stem Piston Stem
intermediate pressure) intermediate pressure)
Piston Stem Piston Stem
Valve Orifice Valve Orifice Valve Orifice
Valve Orifice
Piston Stem Piston Stem
Valve Orifice High-pressure Valve Orifice High-pressure
Valve Seat High-pressure
Valve Seat High-pressure
Valve SeatAir from
Valve Orifice
High-pressure Valve Seat
Air from Valve Orifice
Air from
High-pressure Air from
Valve Seat Scuba
from Cylinder ScubaValve Seat Scuba
Air High-pressure Cylinder Air fromCylinder Scuba Cylinder High-pressure
Valve Seat Cylinder
Scuba
BALANCED PISTON BALANCED Valve
BALANCED PISTON BALANCED
Air from Seat Cylinder
Scuba
PISTON PISTON Air from
FIRST STAGEPISTON
BALANCED (CLOSED)
FIRST STAGE (CLOSED) ScubaFIRST STAGE (OPEN)
Cylinder PISTON FIRST STAGE (OPEN)
BALANCED Scuba Cylinder
FIRST STAGE (CLOSED) BALANCED PISTON FIRST STAGE (OPEN) BALANCED PISTON
PART THREE: When you’re not inhaling, the gas inside the PART
FIRST STAGE (CLOSED)
FOUR: When you inhale, gas pressure FIRSTin the (OPEN)
STAGE
intermediate pressure chamber applies a force to the piston intermediate pressure chamber drops, the valve opens and the
that equals the force of the bias spring plus the ambient gas flows. Because gas from the cylinder never exerts pressure
pressure. The piston doesn’t move and the valve stays on the piston stem base, it has little effect on breathing
closed. resistance. Therefore, breathing effort remains virtually
unchanged until the cylinder is nearly empty.

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To a large extent, balancing the second stage doesn’t starvation, it doesn’t work. The more effort you expend
benefit breathing performance (though it does some). inhaling, the more oxygen your body demands, which
This is because in a downstream valve, the air pressure increases air consumption. To save air, set your regulator
almost, but not quite (so it can close) cancels out the for the minimum effort without freeflowing.
effort required to open the demand valve. However, Venturi assist – As another way of reducing breathing
by balancing the valve, manufacturers can use lighter resistance, many downstream second stages take advantage
materials, reduce wear and more finely tune performance. of the Venturi principle, which is the principle that a
Since the ability to balance the second stage doesn’t add flowing fluid (like a gas) creates low pressure. By using
significant complexity, cost or service issues, more and Venturi, as you inhale the gas flow low pressure reduces
more high end second stages are balanced. the effort you need to pull down the demand lever. To
Adjustable or unadjustable – All second stages have trigger Venturi, the second stage outlet aims down the
an internal adjustment that the technician sets when mouthpiece opening.
assembling the regulator after manufacturing or overhaul. The downside of Venturi is, ironically, that it works
Higher end second stages, however, have an external very well, and therefore a Venturi-assisted second stage

Dive Equipment
adjustment for you to use. Most of these function by freeflows very easily when it’s not in your mouth. To offset
changing the tension on the second stage valve, making this, most Venturi-assisted second stages have a dive/
it easier or harder to breathe. With some models, you
can adjust the regulator to freeflow at one extreme, or be
nearly impossible to inhale from at the other. Venturi-assisted
regulators tend
There are two benefits to having an adjustable second to freeflow when
stage. The first is so you can slightly detune the regulator, they’re not in your
temporarily, to avoid freeflowing. This may be the case mouth. To prevent
when swimming into a current, which tends to press this, many have
against the diaphragm. Because top of the line second dive/predive
switches that disrupt
stages are very sensitive, you may wish to adjust your the Venturi effect
alternate air source so it’s less sensitive. When actually when you’re not
needed, the diver you’re helping can readjust it while using them.
breathing from it. Tec divers, who may switch between
three or more regulators on a single dive, often adjust predive control. The predive setting swings a vane into the
their second stages to be less sensitive until they air flow to disrupt the Venturi principle, keeping it from
need them. flowing so easily when it’s not in your mouth. (Note that
The other benefit is that between overhauls and this differs from how dive/predive settings work on pilot
servicing, your regulator performance may decline valve regulators).
slightly. This should be minimal (if it’s not, get your
regulator serviced), but with an adjustable model you can CHOOSING THE RIGHT REGULATOR
set it so the performance remains high throughout the If all these features and design differences make it sound
maintenance cycle. like it’s complicated to choose the right regulator, relax.
One thing an adjustable second stage is not for It’s actually not hard at all.
is setting it harder to breathe in attempt to save air. 1. Safety. Safety is important, to be sure, but if you
Not only can this be unsafe because it could cause air invest in a modern regulator from a reputable
manufacturer, you’re going to get something with a
reliable, proven design. You’re not going to have to
figure out which regulators work.
2. Invest in top of the line. If anyone ever says you don’t
need a top of the line regulator just because you’re a
Many higher end
new or infrequent diver, forget it. That’s like saying
second stages
are adjustable. you don’t need the best medicine because you don’t
This allows you get sick very often. Every diver benefits from the
to fine-tune the performance and durability of a top model. If price
breathing between is an issue, invest as high in the line as you can. It’s
servicings.
almost always cheaper to buy better in the long run.

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3. Breathing ease and serviceability are your primary disassemble or service your regulator unless you’re trained
concerns. Choose a regulator that breathes well and and qualified to do so.
that you know you can get serviced. There are many, Service. Your regulator requires professional servicing as
many great makes and models, but depending upon specified by the manufacturer. At one time, this was done
where you live, some may be difficult to obtain annually, but new materials are increasing the interval
service for without shipping them off. between required servicings. Have your regulator serviced:
4. Get help from your local PADI Dive Center or Resort. • at the manufacturer specified interval (usually one
You probably will have many top model, easy- or two years).
breathing, available-service models to choose from.
• after six months to a year of extremely heavy use.
Now what? Let a professional at your local PADI
dive operation help. You may have preferences • if you notice any signs of damage or excessive wear.
regarding port layout for hose routing, DIN versus • if it becomes noticeably harder to breathe from.
yoke or the type of diving you plan to do. Some • if you have any reason to suspect a problem.
pilot valve models are known for their sensitivity Considering that this is your underwater life support,
to sand, so you may steer toward downstream always err on the side of caution when it comes to
second stages if you like to beach dive a lot. If maintenance and service. Although a problem may have
you’re in a cold climate like northern Europe, an many causes, the best solution is usually a complete
environmentally sealed first stage to avoid freezing overhaul, which takes very little more time and money
may be important. than a partial repair.
An overhaul involves several steps. First, the
REGULATOR CARE AND MAINTENANCE
technician completely disassembles your regulator and
Your regulator and its accessories require more care than cleans the parts in either an acid bath or in an ultrasonic
your mask, fins and snorkel, but the added care isn’t bath containing a special cleaning agent. Once clean, the
particularly onerous. technician closely inspects all parts, replaces the worn
Maintenance. The most important maintenance step is elements and then reassembles the regulator. The final
to rinse your regulator thoroughly in fresh water, as soon step is to adjust it to the manufacturer’s specifications.
as possible, after using it. Failure to do this probably Oxygen Service. As you read previously, the use of
causes performance declines faster than anything else. If enriched air nitrox and oxygen may raise some issues
possible, rinse your regulator while it’s still attached to with respect to your scuba equipment. Although the
your cylinder with the air turned on. This reduces the dive community consensus is that you can use a standard
possibility of water accidentally entering the first stage. air regulator with gas mixes that have up to 40 percent
If you can’t do this, replace the first stage dust cap to oxygen, some manufacturers require their regulators to
seal it, and then rinse it with the second stage lower than meet oxygen service standards with any gas with more
the first. Don’t press the purge button, because this opens than 22 percent oxygen. Also, if you’re a tec diver using
the valve and could let water flow inside to the first stage. EANx with more than 40 percent oxygen and pure
Use a gentle water flow or soak it; avoid high pressure oxygen, your regulator must be rated for oxygen service.
water flow because it can cause debris to lodge into areas Not all regulators can qualify for oxygen service. For
that can cause damage. those that can, the work primarily involves the first stage.
In some situations, it may be impossible to rinse your The technician first disassembles your regulator and cleans
regulator for several hours. Carry a spray bottle of salt- until it meets oxygen clean requirements. This means
removing solution (like Salt Away or Salt-X) and spray that based on some simple tests, there are no signs of any
your regulator thoroughly, including inside the second contaminants that readily react with oxygen. Next, the
stage. Then, do the same with a spray bottle of fresh technician replaces parts as necessary to be sure you only
water. Pack your regulator away, ideally in a sealed bag have oxygen compatible parts in the first stage. Typically,
that will keep it from drying out. Rinse it thoroughly in this involves replacing standard neoprene o-rings with
fresh water at the first opportunity. special o-rings made from Viton® or butyl-n. Finally, the
After rinsing, allow it to dry in a cool technician reassembles your regulator using special oxygen
place out of the sun. Store it so that you don’t lubricants in place of the silicone grease typically used on
put sharp bends in the hoses. Hose protectors air-service regulators.
help prevent this. Don’t attempt to lubricate,

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Regardless of how often you use your regulator, you cylinder). The donor passes the extra second stage to an
should have it reserviced for oxygen use annually. Many out-of-air buddy, who clears it and then breathes normally
newer regulators are available in oxygen-service rated as they ascend to safety.
form when you buy them, but they also require annual
reservicing. ALTERNATE INFLATOR REGULATOR
The alternate inflator regulator combines your low
Alternate Air Sources pressure BCD inflator with an extra second stage. Again,
you use this for sharing air. However, since your BCD
In theory, a recreational diver should never be out of
hose is very short, the procedure is for the donor to switch
air underwater. However, what’s simple in concept isn’t
to the alternate inflator regulator and give the out-of-air
always so simple in reality. Sometimes divers run very low
diver the primary. Some divers who use alternate inflator
or out of air underwater. While you learn several ways to
regulators also use an extra long hose on their primary
handle this during the PADI Open Water Diver course,
regulators to make air sharing more manageable.
the generally preferred method is by using an alternate air
source (sometimes called an alternative air source).

Dive Equipment
An alternate air source is any device, other than
the primary second stage, that allows a diver to reach
the surface breathing normally. There are four distinct
varieties in recreational diving, two of which involve
buddies sharing air and two of which require no
assistance. Tec diving also has its approach to alternate air
source use.

ALTERNATE AIR SOURCE SECOND STAGES

The most common and widely accepted alternate air
source is the extra second stage, sometimes called an
“octopus.” The extra second stage is typically on a slightly When using an alternate inflator regulator, the donor switches to
longer hose than the primary in your mouth, and is the alternate and gives the primary regulator from the mouth to
usually secured in sight in the triangle formed by your the diver who is out of gas.
chin and the bottom of your rib cage in such a way that
it pulls free with a firm tug. Many manufacturers offer PONY BOTTLES
brightly colored second stages to make them easy to Technically, a pony bottle isn’t part of your scuba system,
locate. but a separate miniature scuba system that rides “pony
An extra second stage is for sharing air with another back” (hence the name) on your primary cylinder. A
diver (if you’re out of air, it doesn’t do any good to switch pony bottle is simply a small scuba cylinder with its own
to another second stage connected to the same empty regulator.

The extra second stage

is typically on a slightly
longer hose than the
primary in your mouth,
and is usually secured
in sight in the triangle
A pony bottle
formed by your chin
is a compact,
and the bottom of your
independent
rib cage in such a way
scuba cylinder
that it pulls free with a
that rides on your
firm tug.
main system.

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You can share air with a pony bottle much as you In tec diving, your first course of action is always self
would an extra second stage. It’s main benefit, however, is rescue. The dual valve, isolator doubles manifold with two
that you can rescue yourself with it. This makes it a truly independent regulators has become the standard because
independent alternate air source. They’re an especially it supplies you with a large reserve volume for handling an
good choice for recreational deep diving (deeper than 18 emergency, plus two independent systems with access to
metres/60 feet) because they’re not just a means to share that volume. If you have regulator malfunction, you close
air, but an additional supply of air. Pony bottles typically the valve to that regulator (because it will be freeflowing),
hold enough gas to assure a safe ascent and a safety stop at switch to your secondary regulator and begin your ascent
5 metres/15 feet. The main drawback is that it’s another and decompression on an aborted dive schedule.
scuba system that you have to carry and maintain. Besides this, however, tec divers configure their gear
to share gas with a team mate. In tec diving, your primary
SELF-CONTAINED ASCENT BOTTLES second stage has a two metre/seven foot hose. It comes off
A self-contained ascent bottle is a miniature scuba the right side regulator, down along the cylinder under
cylinder with a complete regulator assembly built onto your arm, then curves diagonally up across your chest
it. Like a pony bottle, it offers a completely independent and loops around your neck into your mouth. This layout
air sources so you can self rescue, but it is much more controls the extra long hose, yet deploys quickly in an
compact than a pony bottle. Unlike a pony bottle, you emergency. If your team mate needs gas, you provide the
can hand it to another diver who can use it to surface primary out of your mouth and switch to your secondary
independently. regulator, which has a standard hose and hangs below
your chin by a lanyard.

A self-contained
ascent bottle is a
miniature scuba
cylinder with a
complete regulator
assembly built onto
it, but it is much more In tec diving, your primary second stage has a two metre/seven
compact than a pony foot hose. If your team mate needs gas, you provide the primary
bottle. out of your mouth and switch to your secondary regulator.

The primary drawback is that self-contained ascent

bottles do not hold very much gas. They provide just
enough gas to reach the surface safely, assuming you start Not a Good Idea
immediately and don’t make a safety stop. Because of this, Although not as common as they once were, some
most divers who use them also equip themselves with BCDs have their own independent inflation cylinders.
alternate air source second stages. This gives them the In theory, then, it is possible to breathe from the BCD
ability to self rescue with the ascent bottle, and two ways in an emergency situation.
to assist an out of air buddy. The problem with the theory is that this greatly
complicates trying to make a controlled ascent.
TEC DIVING AND ALTERNATE AIR SOURCES Breathing from a BCD is not a simple skill, nor is it a
good one to practice because the conditions inside
Technical divers approach out of gas situations differently
a BCD make it a possible source for respiratory
from recreational divers primarily because they infections. Therefore, don’t consider a BCD an
usually cannot ascend directly to the surface. alternate air source. Have a proper, separate alternate
This means that in tec diving, you have to air source as part of your kit.
handle gas supply problems entirely at depth.

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Submersible Pressure Gauge (SPG) to avoid decompression sickness. You also need to know
The final component of your scuba system is your your current depth and time so you can remain within
submersible pressure gauge (SPG). The SPG tells you how your planned depth and time limits.
much you have left in your cylinder at any time, making As a recreational diver, to avoid decompression
it indispensable for safe diving. sickness you remain within established no stop limits
Most SPGs attach to your regulator’s high pressure based on depth and time, meaning you can ascend
port via a hose. The gauge itself is at the end of the hose directly to the surface at any time. As a tec diver, you
and may be a basic mechanical analog gauge, or it may be remain within the limits of a planned decompression,
part of an electronic dive computer. which means you make a series of planned stops at
You can also get hoseless SPGs, which have a successively shallower depths for specified durations.
compact transmitter that threads into the high pressure Your most basic instrumentation for these purposes is
port. The transmitter sends gas pressure information to a a depth gauge and a dive watch. By consulting dive tables,
receiver in a dive computer that you wear on your wrist. you can determine how long you can stay underwater
The dive computer displays your cylinder pressure and based on the maximum depth. More commonly, however,
you’ll use a dive computer, which tracks both depth and

Dive Equipment
may also calculate how long it will last based on your
present depth and breathing rate. (You’ll learn more about time and applies the information to a decompression
how gauges work and options in the next section on model. This typically provides more dive time because
instrumentation). you’re not limited to the no stop limit of the maximum
Some recreational divers like instrument consoles, depth, like when you use tables.
which package other instruments with the SPG. By In tec diving, you use special tables to plan your
contrast, tec divers almost exclusively use analog SPGs decompression dives. However, you can use tec diving
with no console. computers to determine your stop depths and times
within the scope of your plan.
Cylinder pressure. As discussed previously, your
SPG tells you how much you have remaining in your
cylinder at all times. Not only does this information
guide you to return to the surface with a minimum of 35
bar/500 psi, but also it helps you adjust your dive plan.
For example, based on your air use you may head back to
your start point with plenty left. This avoids a long swim
on the surface.
In tec diving, you use your SPG for even more
Your SPG
complex gas management that typically involves multiple
(submersible cylinders. You plan your dive based on a reserve margin so
pressure gauge) that you have at least a third of all your gases remaining at
tells you how the end of the dive (assuming no emergencies).
much air you have Direction. Depending upon circumstances, knowing
left, making it
indispensable for
the direction underwater can be vital or, more commonly
safe diving. in recreational diving, highly convenient. An underwater
compass gives you this information.

Instrumentation Temperature. This is typically nice-to-know

information. By noting and recording the temperature
In our technological adaptations as aquatic creatures, our as well as your exposure protection and comfort in your
scuba gear adapts our lungs, our fins adapt our legs and dive log, you can plan your dives for more comfort. If
instrumentation adapts our senses. You need instruments you notice that you were uncomfortably cool at a given
to provide vital information that you can’t get any other temperature, you can plan on wearing a thicker wet
way: depth, time, cylinder pressure and sometimes suit, for example, the next time you dive in water at that
direction. Instruments also help with useful, but not vital, temperature.
information like the water temperature. Other. Thanks to the modern dive computer, you
Depth and time. You need to know the maximum can have a lot of useful information at your disposal: dive
depth of a dive and how long you’ve been underwater profiles for last several dives, previous dive maximum

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depths and times, time between two or more dives, Mechanical depth gauges are another matter. The
duration before it’s acceptable to fly in commercial aircraft early version that allowed water to enter the bourdon tube
and more. Many dive computers give you the option of often failed after the tube clogged with salt crystals and
downloading these data into your personal computer. dried sediment. The remedy was to place the spiral tube
and the surrounding mechanism in an oil-filled housing.
PRESSURE SENSING INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN In this case, external pressure transmitted through the oil
AND CONSTRUCTION causes the tube to curl more tightly, moving the gauge
Although different instruments give you different needle. This eliminated the contamination problem.
information, many function similarly. For example, both Today the mechanical analog SPG remains popular
(especially among tec divers), but the mechanical analog
depth gauge is all but gone. In its place you find the
Needle Moves in Response
to Increasing Pressure electronic digital depth gauge, and typically not as a stand
alone instrument, but as part of an electronic bottom
timer/depth gauge or (most often) as part of a dive
computer.
Bourdon Tube
The device that makes this possible is the electronic
Uncurls with
Increasing
transducer. A typical transducer consists of a ceramic
Gas or Fluid
Under Pressure Pressure element that has an electrical conductivity that increases
in direct proportion to increasing pressure. By measuring
Bourdon Tube Mechanism current flow, the circuitry in such an instrument can
Bourdon, or spiral-wound, tube mechanisms form the heart of monitor pressure, and therefore depth or cylinder
many mechanical analog gauges. pressure. It is also one of the breakthroughs that made the
modern electronic dive computer possible.
your SPG and your depth gauge read pressure – cylinder
pressure and water pressure, respectively. Therefore, INSTRUMENTATION STYLES
the mechanical and electronic versions of both share a Among your instrumentation options, you can find a
common design. lot of variety. Dive instruments may be analog or digital,
The bourdon tube is among the most common wrist or console mounted, integrated or separate.
mechanical pressure-sensing mechanisms. It’s a curved Analog or digital. All mechanical instruments have
tube — usually made from copper — that tends to an analog display, whereas electronic instruments can
straighten if the pressure inside the tube is greater than read digitally (provide a number) or replicate the analog
ambient pressure. The tube’s tip connects with rods display of a mechanical instrument.
and levers to an eccentric gear that, in turn, connects You’ll only find two mechanical instruments still
to a gauge needle. Thus, by increasing or decreasing the in common use in diving, the analog SPG and the
pressure inside the tube, the needle moves around the underwater compass. Everything else is electronic, though
dial. This is how your mechanical, analog SPG works. electronic instruments may use some analog displays.
A variation on bourdon-tube design is the spiral tube, Electronic SPGs, depth gauges and time devices
which uses the same principle. In this design, the tube (usually integrated into a dive computer) provide
winds around several times in a spiral. The gauge needle primarily digitally information with high accuracy.
subsequently connects directly to the tip of the tube. However, some models also have analog displays because
Because the tube is spiral-shaped, it uncoils only as much the human brain can process information from them
as the needle must move for accurate readings. The spiral quickly based on relative position. A good example is
design is uncommon in submersible pressure gauges, but that some dive computers have bars that lengthen as you
common in mechanical analog depth gauges. near your no stop limit. Similarly, computers with built
One concern with the bourdon-tube design is in electronic compasses have analog displays rather than
keeping the mechanism free from corrosion or sediment reading out a degree heading number.
buildup. This isn’t a problem with the bourdon tubes The microchip circuitry that enables electronic
inside submersible pressure gauges. These tubes only instruments makes it easy to calculate and provide
fill with air, and the balance of the mechanism additional information. For example, whereas a
can stay inside an air filled or oil/liquid filled mechanical SPG tells you how much air you have left, its
watertight housing. electronic counterpart integrated into a computer can tell

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you how long it will last based on your breathing rate and The second influence against consoles resulted
depth, and whether it’s more or less than your no stop from streamlining issues. An unanticipated drawback of
time remaining. consoles is that even properly secured, they protrude far
Wrist or console mounted instruments. In the early more than a simple SPG. This creates a potential hazard
days, divers wore instruments, with the exception of the to the environment if an unwary diver lets it drag, and
SPG, on their wrists. As divers started wearing more and in the tec diving environment, significant entanglement
more instruments, this became a problem. Divers tried hazard (this is why tec divers don’t use consoles). Divers
several solutions, including mounting several instruments who don’t secure their consoles at all compound this
on a single strap, fastening multiple instruments to problem.
homemade, wrist-mounted “dashboards” and other Consoles remain, but except for the low cost models,
contraptions. None worked well, so many divers the modern versions are much more compact than
welcomed the first instrument consoles in the early 1970s. previous generations (though still not as compact as an
These consoles attached several instruments to your SPG, SPG alone). The better ones consist of an air integrated
leaving your wrists free. This sped up the equipment computer and a compass, making for a small package.
donning process. Integrated or separate instruments. With the rise

Dive Equipment
Today, however, things are changing. While consoles of electronics in diving came a trend toward integrating
remain a popular option, the trend is away from consoles instruments into single dive computers. As mentioned,
for several reasons. The first is that with the rise of this has made it possible to provide more information and
electronics, dive computers combine more and more a smaller package. It also eliminates the need to put on
functions into smaller and smaller packages. This again several gauges before every dive.
makes wrist mounted instruments attractive because you While integrated instruments work well for many
no longer need to wear half a dozen monstrous gauges. recreational divers, they do have at least one drawback
With hoseless SPG transmitters, today you can wear a that is a big issue for tec divers, as well as for some
compact wrist mounted computer that does far more recreational divers. Namely, they “put all your eggs in one
than the a .3 metre/1 foot console did in the mid 1990s. basket.” If your dive computer is your depth gauge, timer
Therefore, one reason the console is beginning to go away and SPG all in one, if it fails you lose everything.
is that many divers don’t need it any more. Tec divers and some recreational divers therefore
prefer separate instruments so that the
loss of one instrument doesn’t mean the
loss of everything. At this writing, for
example, none of the high end, multigas
dive computers favored by tec divers have
an integrated SPG. In addition, tec divers
always have at least two ways to determine
depth, time and calculate decompression
requirements.

INSTRUMENT SPECIFICS
Although you’ve had a general look at basic
dive instruments and how they work, let’s
look at some of the specific options and
types of each.
Submersible Pressure Gauge. The
most common form of a submersible
pressure gauge is the analog model with a
bourdon tube. European SPGs typically go
to 300 bar. North American SPGs typically
read up to 3500-4000 psi. From 0-35-70
Integrated computers are available as hosed consoles (left) and hoseless, wrist bar/500-1000 psi is color-coded (usually
mounted units (right). Thanks to hoseless, air integrated computers, the trend is
red) to warn of a dwindling air supply.
toward wrist mounted instruments. You can use the vast majority of modern dive
computers, like these, with enriched air nitrox as well as with air. Although electronic versions used to be

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available, today virtually all electronic SPGs are part of together. On the other hand, capillary depth gauges have
integrated computers (hosed and hoseless). no moving parts and are very accurate in shallow water,
Most SPGs have a plug similar in function to a making them excellent backup gauges.
cylinder valve burst disk. If the bourdon tube develops a Oil-filled — As you read earlier, oil-filled depth
leak, this plug ruptures to release the pressure so the gauge gauges are mechanical gauges with a spiral tube that
housing doesn’t burst. Nevertheless, turning the face of an tightens under pressure. These are the best value
SPG away from any nearby divers is recommended when mechanical depth gauges.
opening a cylinder valve, in case the plug is nonfunctional Diaphragm depth gauges — Diaphragm depth gauges
(it is a good idea to ensure that the plug is not pointing at aren’t as common as oil-filled gauges. They are generally
someone either). more expensive, but highly accurate mechanical gauges.
Hosed SPGs (electronic or mechanical) attach to the With these gauges, a flexible diaphragm connects to the
high-pressure hose with a swivel connection. Without gauge needle through a series of connecting rods, levers or
regular maintenance, these connections may develop gears.
minor leaks. While annoying, such leaks are seldom Electronic –– It’s less common today to find an
substantial enough to cause any immediate danger, electronic depth gauge that is only a depth gauge. Apart
but they do indicate that the hose connection requires from those found in dive computers, the most common
immediate, professional care. You can avoid this by asking electronic depth gauge is part of an integrated electronic
the technician to service the swivel o-rings when you have depth gauge/ bottom timer. These activate automatically
your regulator overhauled. when you descend and provide your depth and dive time.
Although they last many years, mechanical SPGs Most record your maximum depth and dive time for
wear out as the bourdon tube metal fatigues from reference at the surface after your dive.
constant flexing back and forth. You can tell it’s about Depth gauge features –– Both mechanical (except
time to replace your SPG when you know your cylinder capillary) and electronic depth gauges have some
was filled to the rated pressure, but it reads substantially common features. Most have an indicator that tells you
higher when you open the valve. the maximum depth you reached during a dive (with a
Depth Gauge. Not long ago, you could readily mechanical gauge, this is a secondary needle moved by the
choose from a variety of depth gauges, but that’s changing gauge needle. It stays at the maximum depth until you
with the invention of the dive computer. The vast reset it).
majority of divers today use an electronic depth gauge Depth gauges are calibrated assuming you’re starting
that’s either part of an electronic bottom time/depth a dive at sea level. However, you can adjust many depth
gauge, or part of a dive computer. However, the different gauges at altitude so they’re accurate. With mechanical
nonelectronic ones are still around, primarily in lower cost gauges, this is usually an adjustment wheel that resets the
instrument consoles. needle to zero, whereas most electronic depth gauges self
Capillary –– These gauges consist of a small-diameter, adjust. Dive computers often have a special mode you set
clear plastic tube wrapped around a circular dial. The when using them at altitude. It’s worth noting that some
tube is open at one end and closed at the other. As you mechanical depth gauges –– especially some of the older
descend, water fills the tube as the air compresses in ones –– are damaged by low pressure if you take them to
accordance with Boyle’s Law (more about Boyle’s Law in altitude.
Chapter Four). The dial is calibrated in depth increments Accuracy — All gauge manufacturers test their depth
that match this rate of compression, so you read the depth gauges for accuracy. Electronic depth gauges and dive
based on where the end of the water column is against the computers are typically accurate to within 15 cm/6 in of
depth increments. the indicated depth. This means that, while you shouldn’t
While a properly calibrated capillary depth gauge is place blind faith in it, a properly functioning electronic
inexpensive and can theoretically be accurate, these gauges depth gauge (or computer) will seldom give a substantially
also have some drawbacks, which make them less popular inaccurate depth reading.
as primary depth gauges. They can be inaccurate if you The situation for mechanical/analog depth gauges
don’t keep the little tube clean, due to the accumulation differs. The typical accuracy range might be one percent
of sand and other particles, and they’re difficult to of the full scale for the first half of the depths listed on
read deeper than about 10 m/33 ft) as the the dial, and two percent for the second half. In other
compressed air column gets progressively words, a newly manufactured 50 m/150 ft depth gauge is
smaller and depth increments get closer acceptable if it gives a reading of 26 m/80 ft for an actual

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depth that could be anywhere between 25-27 m/ stop watches. Electronic bottom timers emerged in the
77-83 ft. Greater accuracy than this would make the cost 1980s –– essentially electronic digital stop watches, many
of mechanical depth gauges prohibitive. Furthermore, of which also recorded your surface interval. About the
mishandling and wear affect gauge accuracy, so you same time, the first modern dive computers came into the
should check your gauge accuracy periodically (this is market; these also (necessarily) tracked your bottom times
good advice for electronic gauges and computers, too). and surface intervals.
The simplest way to do this is to compare your By the late 1980s, most divers were using either an
readings with those of other divers from time to time. integrated electronic bottom timer/depth gauge or a dive
You shouldn’t find any substantial differences (less than computer. Today, your underwater timepiece is generally
a metre/a foot or two is generally acceptable). If you your dive computer, although beginning student divers
do, compare with another gauge and, if it appears that sometimes use electronic bottom timer/depth gauges.
it’s your gauge that’s off, have it checked by a qualified Many divers – particularly tec divers – like to have a
technician. Many dive operations also have testing separate timepiece for easy reference and backup. The
chambers for checking gauge accuracy. instrument of choice here has become not the classic dive
watch, but the relatively inexpensive water resistant digital

Dive Equipment
electronic watch.
Dive watches –– Although the classic dive watch
isn’t used nearly as much by divers as they once were,
they have not gone away. As the traditional badge that
identifies you as a diver in nondiving circumstances,
they continue as jewelry, fashion statements and prestige
items. Some are very high end (No wonder many people
don’t dive with them – you can’t afford to lose one!), yet
practically speaking, they remain fully functional and very
sturdy. This makes the classic dive watch an ideal choice
for someone with an active lifestyle around water, even if
you opt to store it in your bag when you go under.
Among divers who do wear watches today, you’re
likely to see a depth-rated digital or electronic analog
sports. These watches are functional, robust and

The analog depth gauge, shown here console mounted with an

analog SPG, remains popular as a backup gauge and is an
inexpensive option for rental units.

Underwater Timepieces. Underwater timepieces

have had a circular history. In the 1960s and ‘70s, you
wore a dive watch – the classic analog device with a bezel
around the face so you could easily read the elapsed
You’re more likely to see divers wearing depth-rated digital
minutes. In the late 1970s, the first bottom timers watches (left) while actually diving, and wearing the traditional
emerged. The first were mechanical, pressure-activated dive watch (right) in social situations.

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inexpensive. In these, as well as other watches, you want a surface interval, the number of dives you’ve made, the
model that’s rated as water resistant to 200 metres. depth and the maximum depth of the last dive. You can
There is yet another step taking place in the evolution get these as wrist-mounted models or as part of a console.
of the dive watch, and that is the rise of dive computers Underwater Compasses. Until the turn of the
millennium, underwater compasses were the last gauges
that were only available in the traditional, mechanical
analog model. A few electronic compasses had come and
gone, but not been accepted widely. Today, however, that’s
changing. Several dive computers now include electronic
compass displays in their readouts.
Nonetheless, the conventional mechanical compass
remains the prominent choice. An underwater compass is
liquid-filled so it resists pressure. It has a north-pointing
needle or card, a center or lubber line that indicates the
direction of travel, and a rotating bezel or index marks
that can be turned to match the direction in which the
needle points. By turning the compass until the needle
The newest step in the evolution of the dive watch is the rise matches either the zero on the bezel or the index marks,
of dive computers that are also watches. These are a new you know that the compass now points in the same
generation of fully functional dive computers sized and shaped direction as it was when you set the heading. It also tells
like a large watch with changeable displays.
you this heading as measured in degrees.

that are also watches. These are a new generation of fully

functional dive computers sized and shaped like a large
watch with changeable displays. When you’re not diving,
you don’t leave it in your dive bag. You leave it on your
wrist set for “time of day mode.” These new computers do
everything a digital watch does. Perhaps things have come
full circle, and the dive computer watch will become the
new badge that marks us as divers.
Electronic depth gauge/bottom timers –– These gauges,
as discussed earlier, typically monitor bottom time,

An underwater compass
is liquid-filled so it
resists pressure. It has
a north-pointing needle
or card, a center or
lubber line that indicates
the direction of travel,
and a rotating bezel or
index marks that can
be turned to match the
direction in which the
needle points.

Thermometers. Although not essential information,

it’s useful to know the temperature. Thermometers as
separate dive instruments practically don’t exist anymore.
The electronic depth gauge/bottom timer (right side They’re quite commonly integrated into electronic depth
of console) is a popular backup device, especially gauge/bottom timers and dive computers. Some SPGs
in tec diving. Tec divers prefer the wrist mounted
have a small analog thermometer on the face.
versions.

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Dive Computers. Since the mid 1980s, dive (tec diving) that you get with EANx, as well as the oxygen
computers have revolutionized the way we dive. Prior to exposure (a variable you don’t worry about in recreational
the dive computer, you determined your allowable no diving with air). The cost savings of air-only computers
stop dive time based on the maximum depth you reached over EANx computers is so slight that most divers invest
during the dive. In tec diving, you determined your in the EANx models even if they have yet to complete
decompression stop schedule based on your maximum training as PADI Enriched Air Divers.
depth. The dive computer changed this significantly by
making it possible to predict no stop/decompression
requirements based on your actual dive profile, not the
maximum depth. If you spend a substantial amount of
time above your maximum depth (which is common),
this results in significantly longer no stop dive time or (in
tec diving) shorter required decompression.
Function –– For its primary purpose of tracking your
decompression status, a dive computer monitors your

Dive Equipment
depth and time throughout the dive. Its microprocessor
plugs this information into a mathematical decompression
model that estimates how much nitrogen (or other
inert gas) has gone into solution into your body tissues.
Constantly updated, the computer displays how much
time you have left, based on your current depth, before
you reach the maximum allowable limits. If you exceed
these limits, the computer displays the depths at which
you must stop, and for how long, before you’re allowed to
surface.
In addition to this information, computers that read
The cost savings of air-only computers over EANx computers is
your cylinder pressure can (integrated SPG) calculate your so slight that most divers invest in the EANx models even if
breathing rate. Based on that information and the depth, they have yet to complete training as PADI Enriched Air
they can tell you how long your remaining gas should last. Divers.
Most of these models display whichever is shorter: no stop
dive time or gas supply time. Tec diving computers –– The decompression
Currently, different makes of dive computers use requirements you have as a tec diver are more complicated
somewhat differing decompression models (algorithms). than as a recreational diver. In tec diving, not only do
These models reflect various approaches to the you dive deeper and require decompression, but you may
decompression problem, and may differ somewhat in use different gas blends in a single dive, some containing
their no decompression limits, time allowed on repetitive helium as well as nitrogen and oxygen.
dives and the credit you get for ascending to a shallower Tec diving computers address these needs by allowing
depth. Practically speaking, the differences aren’t usually you to program them with the blends of multiple gases.
substantial, though you may note them if your buddy’s Various models let you program eight or more gas blends,
diving with a different make computer. You’ll learn more with some computers accepting helium blends as well
about decompression modeling in Chapter Five. as nitrogen-oxygen and 100 percent oxygen. When you
Styles –– As you read earlier, you can select dive switch gases during the dive, you input the switch and the
computers that mount in consoles, or on your wrist. Both computer adjusts your decompression accordingly. A few
styles may integrate the SPG, or may be independent of of these models use multiple transmitters with hoseless
it. Even the dive computer watches mentioned earlier are SPG integration and can switch automatically, though few
available with hoseless SPG integration. tec divers favor this approach.
EANx computers –– As dive computers evolve, they Another option in some tec diving computers is
offer more capabilities and options. Today the majority CCR mode. In open circuit tec diving, the proportion of
of new dive computers can be programmed for different gases doesn’t change when you’re breathing from a specific
blends of enriched air nitrox (EANx). These computers cylinder. Closed-Circuit Rebreathers, however, vary the
calculate the longer no stop time/shorter decompression proportions based upon the partial pressure of oxygen

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(PO2) at depth, thereby altering the way you calculate
decompression. In CCR mode, you tell the computer Closed and Semiclosed–
what PO2 your rebreather will be set for and it determines
your decompression accordingly.
Circuit Rebreathers
Since 2000, one of the biggest changes in sport diving
has been the rapid growth of Closed-Circuit Rebreathers
(CCRs) and Semiclosed–Circuit Rebreathers (SCRs).
While those who use them remain very much a minority
at this writing, the number is on the rise, primarily
in tec diving. As electronics, ergonomics and other
improvements make these technologies more reliable and
user friendly, you’ll see them more and more frequently.

Reference
Mastering Rebreathers, Jeffrey E. Bozanic,
Best Publishing Company

You can program tec diving computers for multiple different

blends of oxygen, nitrogen, and helium.
Benefits of SCRs and CCRs
If you’re not familiar with them, you may wonder why
anyone would want to use SCRs and CCRs. Although
Downloadable –– As an added convenience, they’re more technical and (at least so far) require more
many modern dive computers interface with personal training to dive safely compared to open circuit, they
computers. This usually requires a special connection do offer two significant advantages over open circuit
device and software. Downloading provides a convenient scuba.
way to log your dives, and usually provides detailed dive Stefan Besier, Courtesy of
profile information. For example, with most programs Steam Machines Inc.
you can see your depth from a dive in regular intervals of
a minute or so, which can be handy in recreating what
you did.

Although closed circuit and semiclosed circuit rebreathers are

more technical and require more training, they have several
advantages over open circuit scuba.

MORE EFFECTIVE GAS USE

Because SCRs and CCRs recycle your exhaled gases,
As an added convenience, many modern dive you don’t have to carry a huge cylinder. An SCR
computers interface with personal computers, approximately triples how long a given cylinder lasts
usually through a special connection device and compared to open circuit. With a CCR, you can dive for
software.

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more than four to six hours with the gas carried in two your buoyancy. This is because when you inhale, the
cylinders the size of large pony bottles. unit’s counterlung retracts the same volume your chest
In recreational diving, this is a convenience because expands. Since there’s no net volume change, there’s
you don’t need a lot of cylinders or a compressor to make no buoyancy change. This means that with SCRs and
a lot of dives. You can dive your heart out for a week with CCRs, proper weighting and BCD use are far more
a supply of four to six small cylinders and a bucket of critical, and you have to change the habit of breathing
carbon dioxide absorbent. With some units, with respect shallowly or deeply to adjust your buoyancy.
to dive time, you’re wearing the equivalent of four or five
sets of double cylinders at once. GAS CONSUMPTION
In tec diving, this gas savings is more than a SCRs and CCRs operate best when you remain at a
convenience. With open circuit scuba, the deeper you steady depth. When you change depth, you have to add
dive, the faster you consume your gas. With CCRs, gas or release gas from the counterlung, which uses some
consumption depends almost entirely on your metabolism of your gas supply apart from your metabolism. Some
and activity level. You use about the same amount of gas divers exhale frequently through their nose or frequently
at 100 metres/330 feet as you do at 10 metres/33 feet, clear their masks, which are fine with open circuit, but

Dive Equipment
all else being the same. When you consider that trimix waste gas with SCRs and CCRs. If you’re one of these,
(oxygen, helium and nitrogen) fills are expensive, this you need to break the habit and get a mask that fits.
benefit becomes substantial. CCRs allow the tec diver to
make the same dive at a fraction of the cost, yet remain at UNDETECTED PROBLEMS
depth longer. Many dives made by leading edge tec divers From a training and use perspective, the biggest
would not be possible with open circuit simply because challenge with SCRs and CCRs compared to open
the number of cylinders would be unmanageable. circuit is what happens when you have a malfunction.
With open circuit scuba, you know it right away and
NO BUBBLES
you can’t ignore it. Either you immediately have nothing
Not every diver who uses an SCR or CCR wants to to breathe, or your regulator is freeflowing with a huge,
make long, deep dives. Many – especially underwater obvious bubble cloud.
photographers – want quiet dives. CCRs are very, very SCRs and CCRs can have malfunctions that you
quiet because they put out few bubbles (which is why only recognize by looking at your instruments. If you
combat swimmers use them, too). SCRs release bubbles, fail to do so, you will keep swimming along right up to
but in smaller amounts and far more quietly than open the moment you pass out without warning. Obviously,
circuit. Diving quietly allows you to approach fish and it becomes important to train the habits that keep you
other aquatic life that may shy away from bubble noise. attentive to possible problems. Electronic warning
CCRs and SCRs are also substantially more effective systems help, but you shouldn’t rely on these entirely.
than open circuit when it comes to using electronic voice Note that this concern has a positive side, however.
communications. With open circuit scuba, a malfunction is obvious, but
you have to react quickly. With SCRs and CCRs, if
Diving SCRs and CCRs you’re attentive and catch a problem immediately, you
A trained and experienced open circuit diver is, in many usually have time because it takes several minutes for
respects, a rank beginner when starting out with SCRs and it to become critical. In most cases, you can continue
CCRs. This is because many of the basic rules, skills and to breathe from the unit for a few minutes while you
habits that you use in open circuit diving no longer apply. determine the best course of action.

BUOYANCY CONTROL NO STOP LIMITS AND DECOMPRESSION

In open circuit diving, it’s common to use breath control In open circuit scuba diving, as long as you’re breathing
to fine tune your buoyancy – maintain a slightly higher from a particular cylinder, the ratio of gases stays the
lung volume for a little more positive buoyancy, or same. With SCRs and CCRs, the ratio of gases changes
exhale to become slightly negative. Most divers quickly throughout the dive, which changes the way you calculate
learn to do this unconsciously. your no stop limits or decompression. CCRs vary the
The first thing you notice with an SCR or CCR ratios to keep the PO2 at a specific level called the set
is that you can no longer use lung volume to fine tune point. You determine your decompression status with
special tables based on set points, or with a tec diving

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computer intended for CCR use. With SCRs, your gas 3 3 22
mix can vary more, so you determine your no stop limits 8 8
based on the highest possible nitrogen, and your oxygen
based on the highest possible oxygen.
Another decompression concern for tec divers
1 4
results from lack of experience and training. Since CCRs 6
consume gas based on your metabolism rather than depth, 1 4
an ignorant tec diver can accidentally accumulate literally 6 5
hours of decompression requirements. This is why you
should have 100 or more hours CCR experience within 7
recreational limits before even beginning training for tec 5
diving with one.

SET UP AND MAINTENANCE 7 11 12

Another big difference between SCRs and CCRs and 10
open circuit are set up and care. With SCRs and CCRs, 9
you have to assemble unit components, pack the chemical
scrubber and perform leak tests among other things 11 12
before a dive series. When you’re done for the day, you
1. Mouthpiece
have to disassemble and disinfect the breathing hoses and 13 10 2. Mouthpiece shutoff
counterlungs to avoid them becoming sources for lung
3. Upstream check-valve
infections. This “hassle factor” is one area that is likely 9 4. Downstream check-valve
to keep open circuit diving popular for years to come.
5. CO2 absorbent canister
However, on many dives SCR and CCR benefits will
6. Counterlung
make the trouble well worth it.
7. Constant-mass flow-valve
13 1. Mouthpiece
8. Overpressure check-valve
Basic Design and Function 2. 9. Supply gasshutoff
Mouthpiece cylinder
Although there are several design variations on each, 10. Supply gas on/off valve
conceptually the basic design and functions of SCRs and
3. Upstream check-valve
11. First-stage regulator
CCRs are essentially the same. All have a counterlung (or 4. Downstream
12. Manual supplycheck-valve
gas bypass
counterlungs), which is simply a bag that expands when 13. Supply gas pressure gauge
5. CO2 absorbent canister
you exhale and contracts when you inhale. Valves direct
gas circulation to travel only one way as you breathe, so SCRs work by injecting6. Counterlung
a slow, steady stream of EANx into the
your exhaled breath goes through a chemical scrubber breathing loop, and an overpressure valve on the counterlung
vents a small stream of7. Constant-mass
bubbles flow-valve
at the same rate. The continuous
that removes waste CO2. All have a gas supply or gas EANx flow replenishes oxygen in the breathing loop.
supplies that feed into the gas flow (breathing loop, since 8. Overpressure check-valve
it’s a circle) to replenish the oxygen you consume and to 9. Supply gas cylinder
increase the counterlung volume as needed. counterlung will vary depending upon your metabolism
Here’s an overview of the basic differences between and breathing rate.10. Supply
By varying gas on/off
the EANx valve
mix and the
SCRs and CCRs. flow rate (preset before the dive), you can
11. First-stage regulator control the
expected oxygen/nitrogen ratio based on tables and
SEMICLOSED REBREATHER DESIGN formulas. An oxygen 12. Manual
sensor supplyloop
in the breathing gasletsbypass
you
SCRs work by injecting a slow, steady stream of EANx check that you’re staying with the ratios you
13. Supply gas pressure gauge expected.
into the breathing loop, and an overpressure valve on the The primary disadvantages of SCRs are that they’re
counterlung vents a small stream of bubbles at the same not as quiet as CCRs, nor do they extend your gas supply
rate. The continuous EANx flow replenishes oxygen in the nearly as much. However, these are a good option for
breathing loop. divers who are looking for an easy way to use closed-
The primary advantage of a SCR is circuit technology in a simple, recreational setting.
simplicity. You’re only dealing with a single gas You can learn to dive SCRs in the PADI Semiclosed
going into the unit, though the blend in your Rebreather Specialty Diver course.

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10 15
9 14

23 22

13 18

3 2
8 1. Mouthpiece
2. Mouthpiece shutoff
3. Upstream check-valve
4. Downstream check-valve
5. CO2 absorbent canister
7 1 4 6. Counterlung
7. Diluent addition valve
8. Overpressure check-valve
6 5 9. Diluent supply cylinder
17 10. Diluent on/off valve
11. Diluent regulator
12 12. Manual diluent bypass
19 13. Diluent pressure gauge
20 14. Oxygen supply cylinder
21 15. Oxygen on/off valve
11 16

Dive Equipment
16. Oxygen regulator
10 15 17. Manual oxygen bypass
18. Oxygen pressure gauge
9 14 19. Oxygen sensor
20. Oxygen sensor cables
23 21. Main electronics
22
22. Primary display
13 18 23. Secondary display

Courtesy of Steam Machines Inc.

1. Mouthpiece
2. Mouthpiece shutoff
3. Upstream check-valve
4. Downstream check-valve
5. CO2 absorbent canister
6. Counterlung
7. Diluent addition valve
8. Overpressure check-valve
9. Diluent supply cylinder
In theory, CCR operation and
10. Diluent on/off
design valvebut are more
are simple
11. Diluent regulator
complex in application due to
gas flow dynamics, human factors Cleaned
CLEANEDor
ORScrubbed
SCRUBBEDGas
12. Manual diluent bypass
GAS

and other variables.

13. Diluent pressure gauge CO2 RICH
CO 2
Rich OR EXHALED Gas
or Exhaled GAS

14. Oxygen supply cylinder

15. Oxygen on/off valve
16. Oxygen
CLOSED-CIRCUIT regulator
REBREATHER DESIGN reduce the oxygen concentration. Back up gauges allow
17. Manual oxygen bypass
Excluding the traditional pure oxygen rebreather (which you to monitor the oxygen readings, with bypass valves so
18. Oxygen
has at best limited pressure
application in sportgauge
diving), closed- you can control the gases in the breathing loop manually
19. Oxygen
circuit breathers sensor
have two gas cylinders. One has pure in the event of an electronics malfunction.
oxygen and 20. Oxygen
the other has asensor
diluent,cables
commonly air, or The primary advantages of CCRs are most effective
helium/oxygen gas use for duration, the ability to optimize your
21.for deepelectronics
Main tec diving. Based on readings
from oxygen22. sensors (usually three for triple redundancy), decompression (tec diving) by increasing the proportion
Primary display
electronics within the CCR add oxygen to the breathing of oxygen and maximum quiet because there are no
23. Secondary display bubbles. The primary disadvantages are cost and the
loop as you consume it, keeping it at the set point (PO2)
you program before the dive. As you descend, you add relative complexity of use and maintenance.
diluent to maintain the counterlung volume and to

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Challenges Facing Closed-circuit Dive Accessories
Understandably, those who manufacture SCRs and CCRs
would like to see them become more popular. Given their Besides the major equipment components previously
advantages in many circumstances, growing use appears discussed, there are many smaller items that you need or
inevitable, though the best guess is that we’re probably want in diving.
many years away from them substantially replacing
open circuit diving, which for recreational diving, has Knives, Tools and Cutting Devices
tremendous cost, training and logistical advantages. Because there’s a remote, but possible risk of entanglement
Several challenges face the widespread adoption of underwater, you should carry some form of cutting tool
SCRs and CCRs. (except where prohibited by law). The usual choice is a
dive knife or dive tool with a cutting edge. Practically
1. Lack of standardization. No matter what make of speaking, these come in handy for a variety of tasks such
open circuit gear you learn with, you can dive with as prying and measuring.
all the other makes with few or no changes in how
you do things. CCRs in particular suffer from a lack
DIVE KNIVES
of common control placement. As an example, the
oxygen bypass valve is right handed on some units You can choose a dive knife from several styles, sizes and
and left handed on others. This means that you not materials. They range from knives that are similar in
only have to specifically train for each unit, but you appearance and size to large hunting knives (Bowie style
have to override common responses that become blades), to compact, stiletto-like knives that are small
habits. From an instructional perspective, this is a enough to fit on your forearm or BCD shoulder. Dive
significant issue. knives differ from other knives primarily in the type of
2. Maintenance and set up. More so for the casual metal used to make them, the handle design and sheath.
diver than the hardcore diver, the setup and care of
SCRs and CCRs is enough of a bother to dissuade
use. Manufacturers could make these units more
user friendly by developing prepacked scrubbers
and design features that allow you to disinfect the
breathing loop without completely disassembling
the unit every time. Another option would be for The z-knife (zip knife) is a hook with a fine, sharp blade
dive operations to take over these jobs for their especially suited to cutting fine line. The hook shape minimizes
customers. the risk of accidentally cutting yourself or your gear.
3 Infrastructure. A general lack of widespread dealer
support is a chicken-and-the-egg problem. At
present, you can’t go many places and expect the
local dive operator to have CO2 absorbent, or even
pure oxygen for your CCR. If more divers used
CCRs, there would be more incentive for operators
to supply these. Of course, if more operators
supplied these, there would be more incentive to
have an SCR or CCR.
4. Cost. At this writing, CCRs require a significantly
greater investment in equipment and training than
does open circuit scuba. Although CCRs are cheaper
to operate on deep tec dives, it takes awhile to
recoup your upfront costs. In a lot of recreational no
stop diving, CCRs have little or no cost advantage You can choose a knife from several styles, sizes and materials.
even long term; the primary reason for investing in They range from knives that are similar in appearance and size
one is the other advantages to large hunting knives (Bowie style blades), to compact, stiletto-
it offers. like knives that are small enough to fit on your forearm or BCD
shoulder.

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Stainless steel dive knives are made from No. 440
stainless steel or a similar steel alloy. This steel grade
provides a good compromise between resistance to
corrosion and the ability to hold an edge. As a rule of
thumb, the better it holds an edge, the more easily it rusts
– hence the need to balance the two.
Stainless steel will rust if you don’t rinse and clean
your knife after diving in salt water. With this in mind,
some manufacturers offer titanium or titanium-plated
dive knives. Although a bigger investment than a stainless
steel knife, titanium knife blades may look brand new
even after years of diving in salt water with them.
In choosing a dive knife, pay attention to the grip.
The knife should have enough of a hilt that your hand
won’t slip onto the blade when you’re exerting force. In

Dive Equipment
addition, choose one that has a serrated (sawing) edge
as well as a smooth edge. A good feature is a blade with
centimetre or inch markings – you may find you use your
knife for measuring more than for cutting!
Virtually all dive knives come with a sheath. The
sheath generally has two straps so that you can attach it
to your leg, arm or BCD. Sheaths have straps that stretch
to compensate for exposure-suit compression. A rubber
retaining ring or a quick-release mechanism, such as a
push button generally secures your knife in its sheath.
You want something that holds your knife securely in any
position, yet releases easily when you need it.

DIVE TOOLS
Dive tools are essentially knives with a prying or The z-knife (zip knife) is a hook with a fine, sharp blade
screwdriver-style tip instead of a point. They are similar to especially suited to cutting fine line. The hook shape minimizes
dive knives in most other respects and you may recognize the risk of accidentally cutting yourself or your gear.
them as simply another form of dive knife.

Z-KNIVES AND SHEARS

Recent years have introduced some new
cutting tools to diving. The z-knife (zip knife)
is a hook with a fine, sharp blade especially
suited to cutting fine line. The hook shape
minimizes the risk of accidentally cutting
yourself or your gear. First carried by cave
divers, the z-knife has become popular with
wreck divers (recreational and technical)
because they enable you to rapidly cut through
monofilament. Since they’re limited to fine
line, however, you would also want to carry a
dive knife or other heavy duty cutting tool.
Another tool that’s popular are dive
Dive tools are essentially knives with a prying or screwdriver-style tip instead shears, which were based on the EMT shears.
of a point. These heavy duty scissors go through fine to

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can have in your possession. You may want
to check, especially if you have a large
commando-style knife. When traveling
abroad, dive shears may be a good option.

Dive Tables and

Dive Planners
With the rise of dive computers, some
divers have the mistaken impression that
dive tables are obsolete. This isn’t true,
and probably won’t be until either dive
computers become entirely incapable of
failing, or having two is standard practice.
If your computer conks out on holiday,
dive tables and dive planners allow you to
keep on diving. They also help you plan
your dive.
Dive shears range from high caliber, integrated tool designs to basic, reliable The Recreational Dive Planner is the
EMT-type scissors. most popular dive table in recreational
diving. You can carry the Table or the
medium line quickly, making them the tool of choice if eRDPML versions in your dive bag
you find yourself dealing with a bit of fish net. This makes for planning purposes and computer backup. Many
them popular with wreck divers. Another advantage divers carry the Table or slate with them while diving.
is that they’re often easier to handle than a knife when For enriched air diving, you’ll want to have the DSAT
wearing thick neoprene gloves. Equivalent Air Depth Table and the Enriched Air RDPs
along, too.
LOCATION
Where you wear your knife and other cutting tool varies,
but the rule of thumb is that you want to be able to reach
it with either hand. Tec divers always have at least two
cutting tools located in different areas, one or more of
which they can reach with either hand.
You can wear larger knives on the inside of your calf
for easy access and to avoid entanglement. Smaller knives
can go on your thigh, arm, weight belt, BCD waist strap,
or mount on your BCD shoulder. At one time it was
popular to put knives on the backs of consoles, but this
is falling out of favor as consoles shrink and become less
popular.
The typical location for small z-knives is on your
wrist, though you can also put them on your BCD
inflator/deflator hose or BCD/harness shoulder. The usual
Available in two versions, the Recreational Dive Planner (RDP) is
location for a pair of shears is midwaist where either hand the world’s most popular dive table for recreational diving.
can get to it.

TRAVEL Log Books

It should be obvious that airport security will not let Your certification cards only document the training levels
you travel with a dive knife in your carry-on and performance standards you’ve met. They say nothing
luggage. Another consideration, however, is about what you’ve done with what you learned. This
that some countries restrict the size of knife you is but one of many reasons to carry and use log books.

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Additional reasons include: Slates
• Log books provide an excellent means to relive and Unless you and your buddy are fluent in sign language,
share your dive experiences. They provide a tangible you can effectively communicate only so much with hand
record of your dive history. signals. Underwater slates enable you to communicate
• You can record details about a particular dive that relatively complex information, making them important
you may otherwise forget. This can be helpful tools especially in research and tec diving.
information about environmental conditions, the Most underwater slates are somewhat smaller than
type of equipment used or how to dive the site under plastic dive tables, though you can get a variety of sizes,
the prevailing conditions. plus options like wrist-mounted slates and slates with
• Log books are required proof-of-experience for many underwater compasses. To give you a lot of room to write
levels of leadership and tec diver training. in a small size, you can get multiple page slates. Regardless
• An increasing number of dive operations require you of the type, you’ll want an attached pencil –– if it’s not
to present both a certification card and a log book attached, it will float away.
before they will provide dive services.

Dive Equipment
The minimum information a log book should provide for
each dive is the date, dive-site location, depth, time and
a means for your dive buddy, divemaster or instructor to
verify the log entry. Most log books provide additional
entries for recording environmental conditions, the type
of dive, equipment used, comments or observations, and
other information.
In addition to the different styles of log books, several
companies now offer computer dive logs, many of which
are part of dive computer downloading software. Some
of these programs automatically add the dive number,
the total bottom time after each dive and even compute
your pressure group after each dive and surface interval.
If you choose to log your dives by computer, you will
want to print out experience summaries for review by dive
operators as needed.
Underwater slates allow you to communicate more complex
information than is possible with hand signals. Specialized slates
have printed spaces for recording specific data.

Equipment Bags
Equipment or gear bags range from small, lightweight
fabric or mesh bags used to carry snorkeling equipment
to large, heavy-duty backpack or duffel-style bags that can
accommodate all the equipment you might need for cold
water diving, short of a cylinder and weights. These large,
compartmentalized gear bags fit the needs of most divers.
Such a bag enables you to suit up aboard a crowded dive
boat using the least space while minimizing the possibility
of equipment loss or damage.
One of the most popular designs is the backpack-
style model. These have shoulder straps that allow you
to comfortably transport the weight and bulk of your
The minimum information a log book should provide for each equipment on your back. These straps zipper into special
dive is the date, dive-site location, depth, time and a means for
compartments when you check them at the airport. Most
your dive buddy, divemaster or instructor to verify the log entry.
Most log books provide additional entries for recording other backpack-style gear bags have separate compartments for
information.

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items such as fins, masks and regulators. Some of these swim some distance from the boat, you fly your flag from
compartments may have padding to protect delicate items a float.
such as masks. Floats can either be smaller models, designed
Also popular, you’ll find many equipment bags with simply to support a flag staff, or they may be larger units
wheels – including backpack bags, giving you the option (typically tire inner tubes with fabric covers) that you
to roll or back-carry your gear. When you have a long way use to store extra weight or other items you don’t want
to go (like in an airport), wheels are a nice feature. to carry underwater. You usually store the tow line on a
An important point on equipment bags is that reel or spool. If you remain in a single location, you may
you want to invest in a bag actually intended for dive anchor the float in the area.
gear. Although you may find other luggage that appears
suitable, it rarely has the durability and the non corroding
zipper required to withstand the rigors of diving. A decent
gear bag is an investment, but it protects the far greater
investment you make in your other equipment and your
dive holidays.

Your dive flag – flown from the boat or towed on a surface float
– warns boat traffic away from your area. In many places, the
law requires you to display a dive flag when diving.

Equipment bags range from small, lightweight fabric or mesh Local laws may regulate how close you must remain
bags used to carry snorkeling equipment to large, heavy-duty
to the flag and how far watercraft and skiers must stay
backpack or duffel-style bags that can accommodate all the
equipment you might need for cold water diving, short of a away. If there are no laws governing these distances, a
cylinder and weights. common recommendation is to remain and surface within
15 metres/50 feet of the flag, and that boats remain at
least 30-60 metres/100-200 feet away.
Dive Flag and Float
A lot of places you go, you won’t be the only one on or in Signaling and Safety Devices
the water. Your dive flag – flown from the boat or towed In an emergency, you want to be able to get the attention
on a surface float – warns boat traffic away from your of people on the dive boat or on shore. You can use a
area. In many places, the law requires you to display a dive variety of signaling device to do this, and should consider
flag when diving. an audible and a visual device standard parts of your open
Depending on where and under what conditions a water diving kit. Electronic devices are good to have in
dive takes place, the appropriate dive flag may be either a specific circumstances.
red rectangle with a white, diagonal stripe or a blue and
white, double-tailed pennant. Sometimes you may fly AUDIBLE DEVICES
both flags. When diving from a boat, the dive flag
Audible devices are important because they gain attention.
usually flies from the mast or most visible part
They’re also important because, depending upon
of the boat. When you enter from shore or

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conditions, you may be visible, but it may be hard to tell flashes from these devices can be seen for kilometres/
you’re signaling for help. miles.
Whistles. The most basic and reliable audible device Flares. Flares are visible during the day or night,
is a whistle, ideally secured to your BCD inflator hose or though you either need a waterproof container or
some other place where you can access and use it without waterproof flares with a wet-ignite system. There is some
having to dig it out of a pocket. Even if you have another risk of burning yourself with flares, so they have to be
audible device, it’s good to have a whistle because you can used with caution. You’ll want two or three since they
use it to signal louder, longer and more frequently than only burn for a few minutes.
you can by voice or oral whistling.
Air Horn. You can also get audible devices powered Electronic Devices
by low pressure air from your cylinder. These are Electronic signaling devices are relatively new. Although
significantly louder than conventional whistles, making they’re comparatively expensive and you need an
them a good choice when you may be a long way from underwater canister to carry them on the dive, they’re
shore or the boat. Since they require pressure in your some of the most effective ways of getting help.
cylinder, it’s a good idea to have a conventional whistle in EPIRB. The Emergency Position Indicating Radio

Dive Equipment
the event you run out of air. Beacon was first developed for boat use, but there are now
miniature versions small enough to carry in an underwater
VISUAL DEVICES housing until needed at the surface. Essentially, an EPIRB
Visual devices are important because they can make the is a combination of GPS (Global Position System) unit
difference between being invisible at the surface, or easy and 406 MHz emergency radio. When activated, it
to spot. Your audible device may get attention, but that automatically transmits an emergency distress signal and
doesn’t help much if the boat crew can’t see where you your current position. Coastal rescue services monitor 406
are. Visual devices are particularly important if you end MHz continuously for this purpose, and dispatch rescue
up behind a dive boat in the current and may drift a teams when they receive an EPIRB signal.
good ways before being picked up. Generally, consider an Cell Phone and GPS. In a few coastal areas where
inflatable signal tube standard equipment that’s always in drift diving is the common practice, some divers carry
your kit, but augment with others when diving in currents
or other conditions that may call for them.
Inflatable Signal Tubes. These are long, brightly
color tubes or balls that inflate orally or from your scuba
equipment. By standing out from the water, they make
you much easier to spot and keep track of at the surface.
Some BCDs have integrated versions that you can use
hands-free; most roll up and take up little room, making
them convenient to carry in a pocket until needed. With
many, you can shine a light into the signal tube for better
visibility at dusk or night.
Mirrors. Signal mirrors are good over longer
distances, but they require you to aim them at a searcher.
They can help aircraft as well as boats locate you. When
diving in strong currents, these are good devices to bring
along in addition to inflatable signal tubes.
Dye Markers. Dye markers help aircraft and boat;
locate you by dying the water around you with a brilliant
nontoxic color (usually yellow-green). Because the dye
disperses and fades, however, you don’t want to deploy a
dye marker until a search craft is in sight, and you usually
want to have two or three with you.
In an emergency, you want to be able to get the attention of
Emergency Strobes. For night diving or if there’s a
people on the dive boat or on shore. You can use a variety of
chance that you could be adrift past nightfall, you’ll want signaling device to do this, and should consider an audible and
an emergency strobe. On a clear night, the high intensity a visual device standard parts of your open water diving kit.

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a hand-held GPS and a cell phone, both within plastic clips, retractors, lanyards, FastexTM-type devices and other
bag type splash housing for surface use, in underwater ways to secure your hoses and accessories. Your local
canisters on their rigs. If they find themselves downstream PADI Dive Center or Resort probably has many you can
from the boat, they deploy their inflatable signal tubes, choose from.
then activate their GPS. Once they have their position, Clips. These are your standard, all purpose accessory
they call the dive boat and tell the crew the GPS control devices. You can secure lights, slates and gauges
coordinates. with them. Attach the clip to the accessory, and then
clip the accessory to you. In tec diving, by the way, you
Emergency Oxygen and First Aid always use bolt snaps (sliding gate clips) because they can’t
Emergency oxygen equipment and first aid kits vary accidentally clip themselves to anything else, and you
from simple units for personal use to comprehensive sets always attach the clip with something you can easily break
that a divemaster or instructor may have available while or cut. That way, if the clip jams you can still detach the

Emergency oxygen equipment and first aid kits vary from simple units for personal use to comprehensive sets for dive groups.

supervising dive groups. Emergency oxygen systems accessory. Many divers like to tie clips to their accessories
supply medical grade oxygen to treat decompression with nylon line, which is very strong and long lasting, but
illness and near drowning. Systems that combine demand easily cut.
and free flow systems are generally preferred. You can Retractors. Some divers like these because they keep
learn more about these systems in the PADI Rescue Diver an accessory or gauge close to your body, but pull out for
course. use without detaching anything.
Lanyards. Use lanyards for accessories that you carry
Reference in your hand. Lanyards allow you to release the accessory
without losing it. If you plan to attach it to your BCD
PADI Rescue Diver Manual
as well, put a separate clip on it. Some manufacturers
make combined clip/lanyard devices that accomplish both
Gear Clips purposes at once.
Alternate Air Source Holders. You never want to
Simple, inexpensive and yet too often overlooked, gear
let your alternate air source second stage simply dangle.
clips are some of the most important accessories you need
Not only does doing so make it harder to locate in an
as a diver. Without them, your equipment dangles and
emergency, but it can fill with sand, damage aquatic life
drags, wasting energy, damaging aquatic life and in
or itself become damaged. You can choose from several
many circumstances, creating a hazard.
types of holders; you want one that holds the alternate
There are many different types of snap
second stage securely, yet lets it free with a firm tug.

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Although you don’t need specialty training for night
diving, it’s a good idea. Taking the PADI Night Diver
course helps you get accustomed to diving after dusk with
professional guidance. You’ll probably find this makes
your introduction into the underwater nocturnal world
more fun-filled and less anxiety-filled.

Reference
PADI Night Diver Manual and Night Diving video

The first thing you need to know about dive lights

is that, except for looking in holes during the day, you
always need more than one. When making a night or
cavern dive, you’ll want at least two: a large, primary

Dive Equipment
light and a second, compact backup light. Tec divers who
explore caves or the insides of wrecks always have at least
three lights per diver: a large primary tec diving light and
two compact backup lights.
The reason, of course, is that if your light fails, you
don’t want to be stuck in the dark. Although dive lights
are very reliable, they do fail at times so it’s prudent to
have another light source (in tec diving, it’s considered
mandatory). Although you may be able to manage
without a backup on a night dive, rest assured it’s far
easier to surface and find your way to the exit point with
one than without one.
Gear clips are some of the most important but overlooked
accessories. Ranging from general purpose snaps (upper)
Besides your primary light, for night diving you may
to specialized hose holders and retractors (lower), clips also want a small marker light, which may be a small
keep your gear clean and streamlined. chemical or electric light you attach to your cylinder valve
or snorkel. Marker lights help you and your buddy keep
track of each other, and when night diving from a boat,
Specialized Dive Equipment they help the crew spot you on the surface.

Underwater Lights RECHARGEABLE AND NONRECHARGEABLE

If you’re going to dive at night, or dive in caverns, caves or Primary and backup lights used by recreational divers
wrecks, you’ll need underwater lights. You may also find are available in rechargeable and nonrechargeable battery
them useful during the day to look into crevices and other models. The larger, more intense lights used as primary
dark crannies. lights by tec divers are only available as rechargeable
Before discussing lights themselves, let’s cover models.
some critical points. Most activities that call for using The primary advantage of nonrechargeable models
underwater lights either require special training, or is initial cost. Since you’re not paying for rechargeable
make it desirable. In the first category you find overhead batteries and a charger, your initial outlay is less. However,
environments – cavern diving, cave diving and wreck in the long term you pay more in disposable battery costs.
diving. These require special training and equipment In both recreational and tec diving lights, the
(in addition to lights) without which entering them dominant rechargeable battery system is the metal
is exceedingly dangerous. Untrained divers in these nickel metal hydride (NiMH). The performance of this
environments have a very poor safety record, whereas battery type is so good that it has quickly displaced
divers trained for them have a very good safety record nickel cadmium (NiCad) and lead acid gel cells. NiMH
in them. batteries hold their power consistently instead of fading

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away gradually like disposable alkaline batteries, and they Tec diving primary lights have significantly more
hold more power. That is, a set of new, freshly charged power than those typically used in recreational diving.
NiMH will usually outlast a set of new alkaline disposable They have compact hand-held light head connected by a
batteries. In large tec diving lights, NiMH systems
provide lighting performance that used to require a lead
acid gel cell more than twice the size.
The downside to NiMH batteries is that they’re best
suited to frequent use. If you flood your dive light, the
light may survive, but you’ve trashed some expensive
batteries. And, they lose their charge when they sit for
relatively short periods, whereas disposable alkalines hold
their charge for years.
A good way to go if you’ll be diving in the dark
regularly is to select a NiMH rechargeable for your
primary dive light, and a disposable batteries model for
your backup(s). If you’ll only rarely dive at night, it may Tec diving primary
be best to have a disposable battery primary, too. lights have significantly
more power than
those typically used
PRIMARY LIGHTS in recreational diving.
Primary lights are generally large models with strong They have a compact
power and wide beams. Recreational primary dive lights hand-held light heads
usually have large handles and are too large to stick connected by a cable to
a battery canister worn
comfortably in your BCD pocket. Most recreational dive on the waist.
lights use quartz-halogen, xenon or LED bulbs.

3-133

Recreational primary dive lights usually have large The lights that most divers prefer as backup lights are seldom
handles and are too large to stick comfortably in much larger than the diameter of the C-size or smaller batteries
your BCD pocket. they contain.

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cable to a battery canister worn on the waist. Although Reassemble the light and store it in a cool, dry place
quartz-halogen lamps used to be the tec diving standard, out of direct sunlight. If you won’t be using the light for
the High-Intensity Discharge (HID) light head has all but an extended time, disassemble it and remove the o-rings.
replaced them. The reason is that HIDs are more efficient, Store the disassembled light and batteries in separate
so that a 10 watt HID bulb emits as much as 50 watt plastic bags.
quartz-halogen bulb.
FLOODED DIVE LIGHTS
BACKUP LIGHTS Although it’s not common, you can fully or partially flood
The lights that most divers prefer as backup lights are a dive light due to improper maintenance or pinching an
seldom much larger than the diameter of the C-size or o-ring during assembly. At the first sign you’ve flooded
smaller batteries they contain. This small diameter allows your light, turn it off and switch to your backup.
you to use it much like you would a common flashlight. At the surface, aim the light away from you and wear
These lights typically use three C cells or six AA cells. eye protection (your mask works) as you open it. Wet
The introduction of the high intensity LED has made it batteries emit gas and your light can pop apart or spray
possible to have a powerful backup of diminutive size. chemically-contaminated water. Don’t touch the water

Dive Equipment
Recreational divers generally clip backup lights to coming out of the light. Dispose of the batteries (some
their BCDs or carry them in their pockets. Tec divers clip rechargeable batteries in tec diving primaries may survive
them to their harness D-rings on either side of the chest – consult the manufacturer literature for your light) and
and tuck them under a piece of bungee. rinse the light thoroughly with fresh water, then dry it
inside and out with a hair dryer set on cool. Usually you’ll
DIVE LIGHT MAINTENANCE need to have the light serviced before using it again.
Like any piece of dive equipment, your dive lights require
proper care if you expect them to last and perform
Underwater Imaging System
reliably. Proper maintenance begins immediately upon Underwater still and video imaging are specialized
exiting the water. Rinse your dive light in fresh water pursuits that are changing rapidly with advances in
as soon as possible after diving in salt water or heavily digital technology. What remains constant with both,
chlorinated water. Ideally, rinse the light before it dries, however, is that you need a way to take your still or video
which could leave a tough salt or chemical residue on it, camera underwater and a way to provide light for good
swishing it back and forth for a minute or so to flush out color. Beyond that, changes occur so rapidly that it’s
salt and particles from around switches and o-rings. Salt difficult to get into specifics in a short, general discussion.
removing agents can also help break down salt deposits. Before investing in any imaging equipment you plan
Next, dry the light, open it and remove the batteries to use underwater, consult with a specialist and check
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. out underwater imaging websites. Because they change
Inspect the battery contacts and clean them, if and are highly specific in their components, you should
necessary, with a pencil eraser. If you’re using rechargeable shop for your camera, underwater housing and lighting
batteries, hook them up to charge. Next, remove and together. Another reality is that you can’t get housings for
inspect the o-rings for any nicks, cuts or wear. Do not use many cameras.
a sharp object to remove o-rings, because that can damage
them. UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY SYSTEMS
Replace any damaged or worn o-rings. Clean each Digital photography has revolutionized underwater
o-ring with a lint free cloth, and clean the o-ring groove photography, making it more versatile and in many
with a lint free cloth or cotton swab. Inspect both the respects easier for both the rank novice and the
o-ring and the groove to make sure they’re free of lint or professional. Digital systems have removed one of the
debris that could cause a leak. Lubricate each o-ring with main obstacles underwater photographers used to face –
a small dab of silicone grease and distribute it evenly. namely, only being able to take at most 36 pictures before
Don’t over lubricate – if done correctly, the o-ring will having to surface and change film. Modern flash cards
appear shiny and wet, with no globs of grease visible. allow you take hundreds of pictures at high resolution,
Excess grease will not help the o-ring seal any better, but plus the ability to confirm your results while underwater.
may compromise the seal and flood the light by attracting Digital systems have also simplified getting color.
dirt and particles. While serious underwater photographers and advanced

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UNDERWATER VIDEO SYSTEMS
Digital video has been the mainstay in underwater motion
imaging since the late 1990s. Today’s top consumer video
camera digital image quality rivals (in some cases exceeds)
that of the professional cameras used in the early 1990s.
Furthermore, these video cameras are compact, making
them ideal for putting them in an underwater housing.
Today most underwater motion imaging production is
carried out with digital video.
As with a still camera, it’s important to shop for and
select the camera and housing together. You can’t get
housings for some models, and the technology changes
rapidly.
Video, like still photography, benefits from artificial
light. Until the development of the HID (see the
discussion in underwater lights), self contained lighting
suited to underwater video was greatly limited. The
amount of power required quickly drained even very
large, high capacity batteries. With HIDs, you can invest
in underwater video lighting with sufficient brightness
and duration without being huge and cumbersome.
However, with the versatility of underwater white balance,
many underwater videographers don’t use lights in
shallow, clear water.

You can choose from high end, low end, or middle of the line
underwater camera systems. There are submersible digital
cameras, but most systems consist of a surface camera and
housing. Select your camera and housing together.

snapshooters will prefer the results they get with an

underwater strobe, today you can get reasonably good
color with the automatic white balance available in most
digital cameras. The white balance function compensates
for color absorption by water, giving you much better
pictures even without a strobe.
Depending upon your interest level and experience, Like underwater still camera systems, you should choose your
you can invest in digital photo systems that are compact, video camera and underwater housing at the same time as a
simple point-and-shoot setups, or the interchangeable lens package.
SLR digital systems used by professionals. There are even
a few intermediate, submersible digital cameras available.
The best pictures result when you use an underwater IMAGING SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
strobe, white balance not withstanding. Your best Since water and cameras don’t mix, good predive and post
option is to invest in a dedicated strobe that has TTL dive maintenance are important in avoiding an expensive
(Through The Lens) control by the camera. Several accident. All cameras, housings and lighting equipment
manufacturers make submersible strobes that have distinct requirements, so consult the manufacturer’s
offer TTL control by specific cameras in their literature for specific. The basics, however, remain the
housings. same from one system to the next.

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Predive:
1. Inspect and clean all o-rings and contact surfaces.
Use soft, lint free cloths for removing debris from o-rings,
and use cotton swabs to clean the o-ring grooves and
channels. If necessary, replace worn or damaged o-rings.
It is always a good idea to have extra o-rings available for
this reason. If in doubt, change the o-ring.
2. After cleaning the o-rings and grooves, apply a dab
of silicone to the o-rings. Distribute the grease evenly,
so the o-ring appears wet without any signs of globs of
grease. Gently replace o-rings in their grooves, taking care
not to pick up any dirt or other debris. Do not overstretch
the o-ring, because this may damage it.
3. Inspect and clean the o-rings prior to each day of

Dive Equipment
shooting. It may not be necessary to clean them if you You use marker buoys to mark the position of something you
open the housing to change batteries or download images, want to relocate later.
but inspect the surfaces before sealing the housing for the
next dive. If in doubt, clean the o-rings. wreck or other object worth diving on – with its bottom
finder. When the boat passes over it, you deploy a marker
Post Dive: buoy so you don’t lose the location.
1. Fully immerse the camera system, still assembled, While diving, you use marker buoys to mark the
in fresh water and agitate it gently back and forth for at location of something you find when you don’t have the
least a minute. This helps flush salt water out of tight equipment to recover it with you. The buoy avoids having
areas. If you don’t have a place to flush it back and forth, to repeat your search when you return with the proper
then rinse it with flowing fresh water – but immersing it gear.
is far better. If you cannot immediately rinse the system Given that they’re inexpensive and useful as an all-
after diving in fresh water, it is best to leave it soaking in around tool and as well as in an emergency, you may want
salt water in a cool, shaded spot until you can. Don’t let to keep one or two marker buoys in your gear bag.
salt water dry on it.
2. Next, soak the system for about a half hour in
fresh water. Then gently dry the system, being careful not Metal Detectors
to scratch the optical surfaces. In the PADI Search and Recovery Diver course, you can
3. Disassemble the system, download the images, learn to locate things lost underwater using simple search
recharge the batteries and clean the o-rings. If you’re patterns. However, when the object is metallic — and
not going to be diving for an extended period, leave the especially if it has been underwater for some time —
system disassembled and store the o-rings separately in shifting sand and sediment easily bury it.
plastic bags. To find such buried metal objects, you can use
special underwater metal detectors. These range from
Marker Buoys small models that you dive with to large boat-towed
Given their name, obviously you use marker buoys to magnetometers. You use the former to search for small
mark the position of something. They’re useful tools that items, like a lost set of car keys dropped off a dock, or for
you may apply to this purpose in several ways and with old coins in what you believe was a popular swimmers’
several ends in mind. beach 50 years ago. You use the latter to search for an
One use is to help with a search, which can even be entire wreck – an investment more than one hardcore
an emergency to locate a missing diver. Emergency or wreck diver has made.
not, those involved with the search can use the buoys to The type most often used by recreational divers
define the required search areas. Searching divers can tow consists of an electromagnetic metal plate mounted on a
marker buoys so someone coordinating on the surface can long handle. The plate passes over the bottom, emitting
determine what areas have and have not been checked. a magnetic field. Metal disrupts the field pattern, which
Another way you use marker buoys is from a boat. the detector registers and then emits an audible signal
The dive boat may search for a specific spot – small reef, or shows movement on a gauge. Another type sends out

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electromagnetic pulses, and compares the characteristics
of sequential pulses as the detector moves to detect metal.

To find buried metal objects, you can use special underwater

metal detectors, which range from small models that you dive
with to large boat-towed magnetometers.

Lift bags make up a standard part of your kit in open water

Reference technical diving. You use it as a decompression marker that you
PADI Search and Recovery Manual and Search deploy to the surface with a line and reel.
and Recovery video
Reference
DSAT Tec Deep Diver Manual and TecRec
Lift Bags Equipment Setup and Key Skills video
You use lift bags for two primary purposes: recovering
heavy objects, and in tec diving, as a decompression stop Lift bags make up a standard part of your kit in
tool. open water technical diving. You use it as a planned
When you find something underwater that you want or emergency (depends upon where you’re diving)
to bring to the surface, unless it’s light enough to bring up decompression marker that you deploy to the surface
without adding air to your BCD, you need a lift bag. Lift with a line and reel. The bag provides a steady reference
bags resemble small hot-air balloons made of very heavy that you and your teammates use to control your required
duty, airtight fabric. You secure the object to the bag and decompression stops. The bright color on the surface
then inflate the lift bag using air from the extra second allows the dive boat to track your location as you drift
stage or a special air-inflation tool. Better quality lift while decompressing. Tec diving teams often carry a lift
bags have a venting mechanism so you can release bag that doubles as an inflatable signal tube. Sending it
expanding air and control the bag’s ascent rate up may alert surface support that the team needs them to
on the way to the surface. send down someone to assist them.

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Reels Gas Analyzers and Flowmeters
The only reliable way to carry line underwater is on some With the growing popularity of enriched air nitrox,
kind of reel or spool. Dive reels have multiple uses. You oxygen analyzers have become standard equipment for
can use them for underwater search patterns, to tow your many divers. You use an oxygen analyzer to confirm the
dive flag float or to measure things. In tec diving, they’re
standard equipment in open water to use with a lift bag,
and they’re critical in cavern, cave and wreck penetration
diving to provide a continuous guideline back to the
entrance and surface.

Dive Equipment
Dive reels have multiple uses because they’re the only reliable
way to carry line underwater. They’re standard equipment in
most forms of tec diving.

Locator Systems
Electronic underwater locator systems have been available
for years. These systems allow you to put a transmitter
(beacon) on an object or in a location and then relocate
it using a receiver. Although you can use this to find
your way back to a boat or exit point, due to expense
and inconvenience these devices have not had a huge
For enriched air diving, you use an oxygen analyze (lower) to
following in sport diving. confirm the blend you’re using. Helium analyzers (above) are
Since 2001, however, new systems that allow you increasingly popular for technical diving with trimix.
to electronically navigate have begun to emerge. These
systems show you your position relative to the dive boat,
percent of oxygen in an EANx cylinder. Because the
with some also allowing the dive boat to know where you
rate gas flows across the analyzer affects the reading, you
are. Although these systems remain rather costly, they may
usually invest in a flowmeter or flow restricting device that
become more common as prices come down. One day,
assures a controlled rate. Some models attach directly to
strapping a transmitter/receiver to your wrist before you
the cylinder valve, while others attach to the low pressure
step over the side may be routine practice on a charter
inflator hose on your regulator.
dive vessel.

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In tec diving, the oxygen/helium analyzer has a among scientific, military, commercial and public safety
growing following for trimix diving. Although you can divers. If you have a desire to talk underwater, the means
adequately determine your trimix blend by analyzing only to do so exist.
the oxygen, these new analyzers greatly simplify analyzing The preferred system for underwater communications
and blending trimix. includes using a full face mask, though simpler
mouthmasks exist. Various models have different ranges,
Reference frequencies, operating depths, battery types and other
features. You can get simple ones that have only a push-to-
PADI Enriched Air Diver Manual and Enriched Air
Diving video
talk control, or those with VOX (voice activated) control.
The most useful units have controls for volume, squelch
(cuts background noise), VOX on-off and other features
Reference that you can change during the dive.
DSAT Gas Blender Manual Driven partly by the need for increased harbor
security to combat terrorism, electronic voice
communication is becoming increasingly sophisticated,
Communication Systems easy-to-use and reliable. While they may never become
Although underwater voice communication has not standard equipment for casual recreational diving (some
caught on widely in either recreational or technical people like the fact you can’t talk), you’re likely to see their
diving, it is a well-established technology in wide use use increase as their utility and reliability progress.

Driven partly by the need for increased harbor security to combat terrorism, electronic voice communication is becoming
increasingly sophisticated, easy-to-use and reliable.

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Diver Propulsion Vehicles (DPVs) DPVs typically consist of a housing containing a
Diver propulsion vehicles — also known as DPVs or rechargeable battery and headlight with handles and a
“scooters” — allow you to cover large areas underwater shrouded propeller. The propeller’s speed may be fixed or
without having to kick. Because they save energy, they variable, with the switch that stops the propeller whenever
reduce your air consumption and see more on a single air you release the handle. This prevents your DPV from
cylinder. For some disabled divers, they provide efficient cruising away by itself if you accidentally let go.
propulsion in addition to hand fins. You’ll find two distinct types of DPVs: small,
relatively compact models with one to two hours run time
per battery charge, and large, relatively bulky models that
can cruise for three or more hours. The former DPVs are
intended primarily for recreational diving. Some are very
small models that don’t offer much pull, but are so light
you can carry them in one hand, to the more useful but
heavier models that zip you around faster than you can
swim. The big DPVs are intended primarily for tec diving.

Dive Equipment
They’re usually rated to much deeper depths, and are
particularly important in deep exploratory cave diving.
Although it’s not difficult to use a recreational DPV,
there are some important safety considerations. These
include not exceeding a safe ascent rate, and planning
your dive so you can, if necessary, return to your exit point
without it (they do fail on occasion).

Reference
PADI Adventures in Diving manual

There are two distinct types of DPV. Large tec models

have extended run times, though they’re bulky and heavy.
Recreational models are compact, but have shorter run
durations.

Dive Equipment 3-93

FOLIO

Cyan, Magenta, Yellow,

239