2 Verbs that end in one-elose thee. smoking coming hoping wating BUT lie lying ‘Verbs that end in ee dont drop an-e, ‘agreeing seeing 3. Verbs of one syllable, with one vowel and one consonant, double the consonant. stop stopping get getting run running Ifthe final consonants or-w, itis not doubled. laying showing 1 There are certain vers that are usually only used in the Present Simple. They describe states or conditions not activites. \Verbs of thinking and opinions believe think understand doubt know remember realize deserve guess suppose expect agree promise mean imagine ‘believe you. Doyouunderstand what! mean? ‘know what you mean. \Verbs of emotions and feelings like love hate care hope wish want prefer adore dislike ike block coffee. Da youwantto go.cut? Idon'teare Verbs of having and being belong own have possess contain cost seem matter need depend weigh resemble fit involve Thisbook belongs to Jane. Howmuch does it cost? Hehas olot of money. Verbs ofthe senses look hear taste smell feel sound The foodsmells good. My hairfeels soft. ‘We often use can when the subject a person. ‘ean hear someone cying. ‘Can you smell something buming? 2. Some of these verbs can be used in the Present Continuous, but witha change of meaning, Inthe continuous, the verb expresses anactivity, nota state. Compare: Ithinkyouteright. Were thinking of ging tothe cinema. (opinion) mental activity) Hehasclotofmoney. shes having a bade. (possession) ‘activy) Iseewhatyoumeon, —Areyouseeing Nigeltomorou? tact) Thesouptastesovf, fmeartng tesovpto set itneedsot (nate tects) ‘The tense ofthe verb to be changes to make tenses inthe passive, ‘Are ou being served? (Present Continuous) ‘My coris insured with ASM. (Present Simple) Were you taken to vist the cathedral? (Past Simple) ‘ve been invited .0 wedding, (Present Perfect) ‘idlove tobe introduced (oa fm star. (Passive infinitive) Use 1 Passive sentences move the focus from the subject tothe object of active sentences. ‘Shakespeare wrote Hamlet in 1601 while he was living n London. Hamlet, the most famous playin English iterature, was written by Wiliom Shakespeare. We choose the active or the passive depending on what we are more interested in, 2 Byandthe agent (the subject inthe active sentence) are often ‘omitted in passive sentences if -theagentisnotknown: Iwas burgled ast night. ‘-theagent isnotimportant: Thisbrdge was bul in 1886, ‘-theagent is obvious: Iwas fined £100 for speeding 13 The passive is associated with an impersonal, formal style. is often used in notices and announcements. Customers are requested 10 refrain from smoking. thas been noticed that reference books have been removed from theibary. 4 Ininfocmal language, we often use you, we, and they torefer to people in general to avoid using the passive. You can buy stamps in ots of shops, not just post offices ‘They're building a new department stren the city centre. We speak Englshin ths shop. ‘Many past participles are used as adjectives. ‘im veryInterested in modern art. We were extreme worried about you. imexhausted! Ive been working hard al day. Form Present Simple passive (amlis/are + past participle) ‘Most workers are paid month), 1s service included nthe bil? Present Continuous passive (am/isiare being + past participle) Thisroad is belngwidened. Are you being served? Use The uses are the same in the passive asin the active. [My coris serviced every sixmonths. (routine) Computers are used everywhere. (fact thats always true) The house is being redecorated at the moment. (activty now) a °Ur ‘We use different past tenses to describe moments and periods of time inthe past. Lookat the diagram, Read the sentences. When Andrea onivedhomeat 6.00... 5.30 ——— 690) ———— 630 | | | ‘The form ofthe Past Simple isthe same forall persons Heleft at tree otlock. They arrived tree weeks 090. ‘She didn’t finish on time yesterdey. I didnt visit my parents lst weekend. When did he finish the report? What time did they leave? Short answer Did you enjoy the meal? Use ‘The Pas Simple is used to express ‘finished action inthe past. We met in 2000, John left wo minutes ago. ‘actions that follow each other in a story, ‘Mary walked int the room and stopped. shelistened carefully. ‘She heard a noise coming from behind the curtain and. {2 past situation or habit. When Iwas a child, e lived ina small house bythe sea. Every doy, I walked for miles onthe beach with my dog. ‘This use soften expressed with used to. See 45 on p145, Weusedto iveinasmallhouse... used towalk for miles. Spelling of verb +-ed Most regular verbs add -ed tothe base form of the verb, worked wanted helped washed When the verb ends ine, add -d. liked used hated cared If the verb has only one silable, with one vowel + one consonant, ‘double the consonant before adding “ed. stopped plonned robbed But we write cooked, seated, nd moaned because there are ‘wo vowels before the consonant. 4 Theconsonantis not doubled f itis-y or played showed Yes we did No, we didnt 5. In most two-syllable verbs, the end consonant is doubled ifthe stress onthe second syllable. preferred admitted But we write entered and Visited because the stressison the first sjlable 66 Verbs that end in aconsonant + -y change the - to ied, cartled hurried buried But we write enjoyed, because'tendsin a vowel +. ‘There are many common irregular verbs © Irregular verbs p60 st Simple and time expressions Look at the time expressions that are common withthe Past simple, last night. 2001. Imether two days ago. insummer. yesterday morning. when! was young. Form was/were + verb +-Ing Iwaslearning French. They were driving to Pris. Weweren’t wating orang time. Whatwere they doing? Where was he studying? Shortanswer Were ou looking forme? Yes, 1was./No, wasn’t. Were they waitin outside? Yes, they were No, they weren't. Uc The Past continuous is used 1 tocexpress activites in progress before and probably ater, 2 particular time inthe past. ‘Atseven otlock tis morning, Iwas having my breakfos. You made alot of noise lastnight. What were you doing? 2 fordescriptions. Itwosa lovey dey and the sun was shining, Jan looked beautiful ‘She was wearing a green cotton dress. 3. toexpress an intertupted past activity. When the phone rang, was having a shower. Wile we were playing tennis i started to rain. 4 toexpress an incomplete activity. ‘was reading a book during the fight (I dirt finish it) ‘Compare: watched afm during the fight. (the whole film) 1 Sometimes both tenses are possible. The Past Simple focuses on past actions as complete facts. The Past Continuous focuses onthe duration of past activities, often describing being inthe middle of them, Compare: A did't see you atthe party last night. B No.Istayed at home and watched the football. ‘A Iphoned at 8.00, butyou didnt answer. B Sorry, Iwas watching the football.‘Questions in the Past Simple and Past Continuous refer to different time periods. Te Past Continuous asks about activities that began before; the Past Simple asks about what happened after. ‘A What were you doing when the accident happened? B Iwasshopping. ‘A. What did you do when you saw the accident? B Iphonedthe police. Used to expresses a habit or state in the past that now finished, used to read comics when was. kid. (but don't now) id you use to read comics when you were a child? Thistown didn’t use to be ance place to ie, but then itchanged. ‘The Past Perfect refers ton action in the past that was completed before another action inthe past Form ‘The form ofthe Past Prfects the same forall persons. Positive and negative 1 You We Question Where had ‘dthad) iba) | left wen the post came. you she they | been before? Short answer Hod be ready Io? Yes he had Mahe had’t Use “The Past Perfect is used to make clear that one action in the past happened before anather action inthe past When | got to my car saw that someone had broken into it I didn't go tothe cinema because seen the fm before. ‘The Past Simple tllsa story in chronological order. ‘Sue met Pet at university. They got marred. They were together for sixyears. They divorced lst month, ‘The Past Perfect can be used to tela story ina diferent order. ‘Sue and ete divorced last month. They'd met at university and ‘had been together or six years. Notice the difference between these sentences. When I gotto the party Peter went home. rst Latived, then Peter left) When I goto the party Peter had gone home. irst Peter lef then larrived) 4 The Past Perfect Continuous refers to longer actions or repeated activities, Wewere exhausted because we'd been driving al day. | went tothe doctor because 'd been having alot of headaches. Form ast Simple passive: was/were + past participle The museum was opened in 1987 Past continuous passive: was/were being + past participle The trees were being cut down. ast Perfect passive: had been + past participle The house had been redecorated. Use The uses are the same in the passive asin the active. The bridge was builtin 1876. (fnished action inthe past) The bridge was being repaired when it collapsed. (interrupted past activity) The etter didnt arve becauseit had been sent to my old ‘adress. (one action before another action inthe past) Form hhasihave + to+ infinitive Youhave tego toschool. _Hedoesn’thave to wear uniform. Shehastostudyhard —_-Wedon'thave to take exams. Doesshehave tostudy maths? _Dotheyhavettoleave now? Use Have to expresses strong obligation. You have to work ardifyou want to succeed. Have to expresses a general obligation based on a law or rule, ‘or based on the authority of another person. Children have to goto school untilthey are 16. ‘Mann says you hae fo Teun yout ror Lefore you youu, Have to doesn't necessarily express the opinion of the speaker. The doctor says have to lose weight Hove to has all verb forms. Must doesnt. ‘had to work lastnight. Past) Youtthave to study hard (Future) ‘Shesrch She's never had todo any work. (Present perfect) hate having to get up on winter mornings. ing form) 1 Have goto is common in British English, but its more informal than have o.Itis more spoken than written. We've got to getup early tomorrow. 1m in troublel You've got to help me! 2. Have goto expresses an obligation now, or on a particular Ive got to leave for work now. Bye! ‘He usually starts workat 900, but tomorrow he's got to start at 8.0. 3. Haveto expresses a general repeated obligation. always have to tellmy parents where m going. Teachers have to prepare lessons and correct homework. These are the mods! verbs: would shall should ‘ean could may might will must ought to‘They are used before other verbs and add meanings, such as certainty, possibilty obligation, ability, and permission Youmust be exhausted. Jean wim. Itmight rain Form 1 There sno sin the third person singular Shecan ski, Hemustbetred. Itmight ein. 2. Thereisno do/does/dontidoesntin the question or negative. Whatshouldido? Can help you? Youmustn'tsteall Heean'tdance. _Iwon'tbeaminute, 3 Modal auxiliary verbs are followed by the infinitive without to, ‘The exception is ought fo, Youmust go. lhelp you. You ought to see doctor. 4 They have no infnitives and no ing forms. Other phrases are used instead. ‘ilove tobe able toi. hate having to getup on cold winter mornings. 5 They dont usually have past forms. Instead, we use them with Perfect infinitives You should have told me about the party. might have come! (Or we use other phrases, ‘had to work hard in school 6 Could is used witha past meaning to talk about a genera ability ‘eoutd swim when wos sx. (= general ability) To talk bout ability on one specific occasion, we use was able to/ ‘managed. The prisoner was able to/managed to escape by climbing onto the roofof the prison. Use |) Modal verbs express our attitudes, opinions, and judgements of ‘events, Compare: “Who's that knocking on the door” ‘t’sJohn’ (This is afact) “Who's that knocking on the door” ‘tcould/may/might/must’should/ean'tIlbe John’ (These all ‘express our attitude or opinion) 2. Each modal verb has atleast two meanings. They can all express possibilty or probably. (See Units and 10) ‘must post tis etter! (= obligation) You must be ted! (= deduction, probability) ‘Could you help me? (= request) We could goto Spain for our holiday. Youmay go home now (= permission) ‘Wheres Anna?’ ‘Tmnotsure. She may be at work: (= possibility) Use 1 Should and ought to express mild obligation, suggestions. of ‘advice. They express what, in the speaker's opinion is the right or best thing to do. We often use them with Ithinkidon think Youre always asking me for money. think you should spend less. You shouldn't sitso close tothe television I's bad for your eves. You ought tobe more careful with your money. sibility) We often use Do you thnk... ?in the question. Do you think | should see a doctor? Whatdo you think should wear tothe party? ‘Mast, ke have fo expresses strong obligation. Must can express an ‘obligation that involves the speaker's opinion. tis personal Imustget my haircut. Youmust vst your parents ‘Musts also associated witha formal, written style. Allsitors must show proper D. have to and must Have 0 and must ae sometimes both possible. must be home by midnight. have to be home by midnight. ‘There is sometimes a difference in meaning. Must usually expresses the felings and wishes ofthe speaker. must buy my sistera birthday card. ‘Have to often expresses an obligation that comes from somewhere alse. ‘have to be at work by 2.00, Hove tis used more than must. you don't know which to use, use haveto, Question forms with have to are more common. Dothave to dowhat you soy? Must... ?is unusual Remember, have fohasall verb forms. Musthas no pastform and ‘ean only refer to future time when used to express obligation. don'thave to and mustn't Dont have to and mustn't are completely diferent. Don't have to expresses absence of obligation - you can, butitisnt necessary. You don't have toputa photo of you on your profile, but usually do. When you gointoa shop, you don't have to buy something. -Mustnt expresses negative obligation -itisimportant NOT to doit You mustn't steal other peoples things. t's wrong. You mustn't criveif youve been drinking. You could kil someone! needto [Need fo can also be used to express obligation It is nota modal verb in form however, and follows the patter of full verbs. ‘She needs to work long hours at the moment. Doweneed to show ourpassports? They didn’t need to change trans. Use The main use of canis to express abilty Jean swim. ‘Can and be allowed to express permission. Can is more informal ‘and usually spoken. You ean borrow my bike, but you can't have theca. needit. You're allowed to get marred when youre 16.1 There are many ways of making requests in English, ‘Can speak to you please? Willyou help me, please? Could |a:kyoua question? Would you passme the sat? Would you mind passing me he water? Doyou mind flopen the window? Would you mind ficosed the window? Could s alittle more formal; can is alittle more familiar. Could!... ?and Could you... ?are very useful because they can be used in mary clfferent situations. {Could ty on this jumper? Could you tellme the time? Tobe very formal, or polite, it’s only necessary to add possibly toa request with could. ‘Could | possibly use your phone tomakean important cll? Here are some ways of responding to request: ‘A. Excuse me! Could you help me? B Sure /Of course /Wel,m afraid ma lite busy right ow. A Would you mind flopened the window? B No, notatall/No, that's ne Wel, motte cold actually. 1 The contracted form of willis used to express an intention, decision, or offer. Comeoverafterwork FM cook dinner. ‘Janes birthday today’ 1sit?P buy he seme lowers! 2 Shall. Uwe... ?is used in questions with the ist person, and we. Itexpresses an offer, suggestion, ora request fr advice, ‘Shall carry your bag for you? ‘Shallwe go out for meal tonight? Where shall we go? 1 The same form (have + past participle) exists in many languages, but the use in Englih ae different. In English, the Present Perfect ‘expresses the effect ofthe past on the present. ns rae > reson does not express when an action happened. If we say the exact time, we use the Past simple. lnm life |have travelled tool the continents. travelled around Aticain 1998, Form hasihave + past participle velived in Rome. They haven't bought their fat. ‘She'sivedin Londen. __Howlong have they known Peter? Hehasi’tlived here ong. Howvlong has she been married? Short answer Have you always ivedin Budapest? Yes, thave/No, haven't. Use ‘There are three main uses ofthe Present Perfect Unfinished past ‘The Present Perfect expresses an action that began inthe past and, still continues. We've lived in thesame housefor25 years. They've been married for 20 years. Be carefull Mary languages express this idea with a present tens, but in English this is wrong. Jan has been @ nurse for ten years. NOT Janise-nurelforten yeori: Time expressions Notice the time expressions that are common with thisuse. ‘wo years 1970 ‘month August for afewminutes since 8.00 halfan hour Iwas achild ages Christmas ‘We use for witha period of time and since with a pointin time Experience ‘The Present Perfect expresses an experience that happened at some time in one’ life. The action is finished, but the efects ofthe action are stil felt in some way. 1Yve been to the United States (know now what it tke there) Have you everhad an operation? at anytime in your life, so you ‘know now whatit lke to have one) Exactly when the action happened isnot important. Questions and statements about dennite times are expresseain the Fast Simple. When did you goto the United States? I broke my leg once. Time expressions ‘The adverbs ever, never, and before are common with this use Have you ever been to Australia? haven't tried sushi before. Ivenever tried bungee jumping. Present result ‘The Present Perfect expresses apast action that hasa clear present result The action is usually inthe recent past The taxi hasn't arrived yet. (We're still waiting frit) Whathave you dene to your lp? i's bleeding) We often announce news in the Present Perfect Have you heard? The Prime Minster has resigned. ‘Susan's had her baby! More details will be inthe Past Simple. ‘She resigned becouse she lasta vote of no confidence. e50boy twas a very easy birth. Time expressions ‘The adverbs yet, akeady, and jst are common with this use, ‘haven't done my homework yet. (negative) Has the postman been yet? (question) Ive already done my homework. ‘Shes just had some good news Be careful with been and gone, ‘He’ been tothe United States. (experience —he isnt there now) ‘She’ gone tothe United States. (present result~ she's there now)1 The Present Perfect can express unfinished actions. The Past Simple ‘expresses completed actions. Present Perfect Past Simple IWelivedin Texas forsix years. Iived in Texas fr six years (still ive there) {Now llive somewhere else) ve written several books. ‘Shakespeare wrote 30 ploy (Vcanstil write some more) (He can‘t write any more) ‘The Present Perfect refers to indefinite time. The Past Simple efersto definite time. Notice the time expressions used with the two tenses. Present Perfect indefinite Past Simple definite fora long time. yesterday. Ive done it since July. last week. before. two days ago. recently. {did itat eight oclock, Ive already done it. in 1987. Ihavent done it yet foralong time. Be careful with this moming/afterncan, et. Have you seen Amy this oming? t's still merning) id you see Amy thismorning? Its the afternoon or evening) Form hhasihave been + past participle it [hasbeen They _havebeen | S014 Use Ie uses are the same inthe passive asin the active. Two millon cars have been produced sofa this year. (unfinished past) ‘Has she ever been made redundant? (inher ife) ‘Have you heard? Two hundred homes have been washed away by ‘tidal wave! {announcing news) Form hhasihave + been +-ing ‘She's been studying for three years They haven't been working herelong. How long have they been living there? Use ‘The Present Perfect Continuous expresses 1 anactivity that began in the past ands continuing now. (ve been studying English fr thre years. How long have you been working here? Sometimes there isnodiference between the simple and the continuous I've played the piano since | was a boy. Ive been playing the piano sincel was. boy. ‘The continuous can express a temporary activity, while the simple ‘expressesa permanent state {ve been living inthis house forthe pas few months (temporary) Wvelived here ail mylife (permanent) Remember: State verbs (see 3.4 p143) are rarely usedin the continuous. I"ve had this bookfor ages. ve always loved sunny days 2 apastactivty that has caused some result connected with that ‘activity, which is seen in the present now. {ve been working all day. (tm ired now) Have you been crying? (Your eyes are red) ‘The past activity might be finished or it might not. The context usually makes thisclear. Look out of the window!’ been snowing! (i's stopped now!) ‘ve been writing this book fortwo years (stills finished) 1m covered in paint because 've been decorating the bathroom. {Itmightbe finished ort might not. We dor't know) 1 Present Perfect Simple means activity is completed. The present result we talk abouts the reason we've been doing that activity. "ve painted the kitchen. Ilooks fantastic! the result isthe painted kitchen) Present Perfect Continuous expresses an activity over a period ‘of time, which may or may not be completed. if we talk about 2 present result, it isnot usually the purpose ofthat activity, but Some other result connected with doing it ‘ve been painting the kitchen. Thats why ve got paintin my hair. (the results paint in my hat) We use the simple fthe result we talk about isthe final number or ‘quantity, because the simple expresses completion. The continuous Ibvt possible, ‘ve been reading all day. I've read ten chapters. ‘She'sbeen eating ever since shearved. She's eaten ten biscutsakeady. Some verbs have the idea of along time for example, wort, work, play ty lear, ran. These verbs are often found in the continuous. Its been raining al day. ‘Wve been learning English for three years. ‘Some verbs don't have the ides of long time, for example, nd, start, buy, die, lose, break stop. These verbs are more usually found in the simple, Ive lost my passport. Have you started your Christmas shopping yet? ‘These verbs can sometimes be used in both tenses. In the continuous, it means thatthe action has been repeated over a longer period. Ive cut my finger. (One short action) ‘ve been cutting firewood. (Pethaps over several hours) The infinitive 1 Theinfnitiveis used after some verbs. Weve decided to move abroad, _Immtrying to phone Pet want to.90 home. She'd love to meet you 2 Some verbs are followed by a person + the infinitive. Theyasked me tohelp them. He told me to apply forthe job.‘Make and let ae followed by a person + the infinitive without to, ‘Shell make you feel welcome. illet you know when lim coming. ‘The infinitive s used ater some adjectives. tsimpossible to savemoney. Pleased to meet you. Ws greatto see you twas good to hear yournews. ‘The-ing form ‘The ing form is used after some verbs. enjoy reading history books. ‘don’t mind helping you. Hes finished washing the car, Welike walking. Some verbs ae followed by an object + ing. ‘hate people telling me what todo. Youcan'tstop me doing what want. ‘The ing form is used after prepositions Jimgoodat finding things. We're thinking of going to Sweden. Het afraidof being mugged. Imlooking forward to meeting you. ‘© Verb patterns p14a Ur 1 There sno future tens in English. Instead, English has several forms that can refer tothe future, 11 see you later. wil) We're going to seeafim tonight (going to) ‘Ym seeing the doctor tomorrow. Present Continuous) Ifthe traffic’ bad, might be late. (might) Wire rows? Yourmay win may) Take an umbrella. It could rain later. (could) ‘The difference between them snot about near or distant future, ‘or certainty. The speaker chooses a future form depending on how he/she sees the future event. Ita plan, decision, an intention, an offer an arrangement, ora prediction? | Positive and negative 1 see you later. We're going to stay na hotel ‘Ym meeting Jon for lunch. Question When will you be back? Where are you going to stay? What time are you seeing Jan? We avoid saying going to come or going too. We're coming tomorow. Whenare you going home? Facts and predictions will won't be late. Wearen’t going to rent ocottage. Ym not seeing her till 200. ‘The most common use of willis as an auxiliary verb to show future time. Itexpressesa future factor prediction tis called the pure future o the Future Simple, We'll be ancy fortwo weeks. Those flowers won't grow under the tree. It’ too dark. You'll be sckif you eat all those sweets! 2 Willfora prediction can be based more on an opinion than a fact. ‘dont think Laura will pass her exam. She doesnt do any work. Jam convinced that inflaton wil allt three percent next year goingto 1 Going to can also express a prediction, especially when there is ‘evidence now that something i certain to happen. ‘She’ going to have ababy. We can see she's pregnant) IRisntt going tora today. (Lookat that beautiful blue sky.) 2. Often there is no difference between willand going to. | think this government will ain the county. I think this governments going to ruin the country. Plans, decisions, intentions, and arrangements will Willis used to express.a decision intention or offer made at the moment of speaking. Whave the steak please. NOT thavethestedke There’ the doorbell llgoandseewhoitis. NOT bom goingto Going ois used to express a future plan decision or intention made before the moment of speaking. When | row up, m going to be a doctor. We're going to paint ths room blue. We ve bought the pant. ‘Arrangements 1 The Present Continuous can be used to express a future arrangement between peopl. It usually refers to the near future. We're going outwith Jeremy tonight. Ym having my haircut tomorrow. 2. The things you putin your diary ae the kind of events that are ‘expressed by the Present Continuous forthe future, ‘Ym meeting Peter tonight. ‘Ym seeing the doctorin the morning. 3. Youcan't use the Present Simple for this us. ‘im having lunch with Sarah. NOT Hhavecee Whatare you doing thisevening? NOT Whatdoyoudo-n 4 Sometimes there isno difference between an arrangement and anintention, We're going to get marred inthe spring. We're getting married inthe ring. Form ‘May, might, and could are modal verbs. Positive and negative may might could may not seeyoulater | 1 | get the job. Question Questions about future possibility are often asked with Doyou think... wil? Doyou think youll getthejob? a °Use 1 May, might, and couldall express. future possibilty. may Ie | might could rain later, 2 May can be more formal The government may increase income tax. 3. Could suggests something less definite ‘could bea champion if trained hard. The houses nice, butitcould be beautiful ‘There are different ways of making sentences with itis important to.understand the difference between sentences that express: possible conditions = first conditional improbable or impossible conditions = second conditional impossible past conditions = third conditional ro condition = zero conditional Possible conditions Ifisee Dave, teh to cal you. ‘This isa sentence about reality isee Dave... real possibilty tlh to call you. 7 result ofa possible situation Improbable or impossible conditions tad he voy, ebayer, ‘Thisisa sentence whichis different to reality. Itthad the money. ot impossible, but the realityis don't have the money. Vd buy o Mercedes recut ofan improbable situation Some situations that are diferent to realty are impossible to change. If thad longer legs, Ibe able to run reailyfast If thad longer lege... = impossible. The reality i! don't have long lege and |ean't change that Impossible past conditions If known you were coming, Id have cooked you a meal ‘Thisisa sentence about an impossible past situation. It didnt happen, and now its too late to change the result, If thad known... =impossible, cause I didn't know 1d havecooked =the result ofan impossible past situation No conditions. Iftget a headache, Itake an aspirin, metals heated, it expands. ‘These are sentences that are always true. They refer toall time’ and are called zero conditionals. here means when or whenever. Form if Past simple, would + verb Positive If} won some money, ge around the world. ‘My father would kill meif he could see menow. Negative ‘wouldn't give up my job if won the lottery. fl saw a ghost, | wouldn't tak ot Question Whatwould you doi you saw someone shopiting? fyouneeded help who would you ask? Was can change to were in the condition clause. 1 | were ich, wouldn't have to work Other modal verbs are possible in the result clause, 1 could buy some new clothes if had some money. Il saved litle every wee, might be ableto buy acar. Use 11 We use the second conditional to express an unreal situation {andi probable result. The situation or condition is improbable, imposible, imaginary, or different to known facts. tlwere the president of my country, Id increase taxes. (Butits not very likely that will ever be the president) Mmry mother was stl alive she'd be very proud. (Butit’s impossible because shes not alive) 2 Iflwere you, sused to give advice. Mhwere you, Fd refuse Ttakeit easy foro while if were you. 13. When the conditions understood itis common to find the result, ‘clause onits own, What would you dif you had lots of money? "travel. dgiveitallaway. rd buy my mum and dad a nice house. They'd love that! 4 Would can express preference, especially with rather. Véloveacupoftea, "Yd rather havecofee please. Whatwould you rather do, stayin or go out? 5. Would can expressa request Would you open the dor for me? Would you mind ending mea hand? Both conditionals refer tothe present and future. The difference is about probability and possibility, not time.Ftst conditional sentences are real and possible, Second conditional sentences ‘expres situations that will probably never happen, o are impossible, {fl fose myjob,(... (My company is doing badly. There is 2 strong possibilty of being made redundant) If1tost my jo, ..( probably won't lose my job. tm just imagining) If there isa nuclear war, we'll. (Said by a pessimist) If there was a nuclear war, weld... (But | dont thinkit wil happen) fhe world had only 100 people int, 26 of them would be children. (Butit would be impossblefor thereto be only 100 people in the world)Form If Past Perfect, would + have + past participle Positive I'd (had) worked harder, (would) have made more money. They'd (would) have been here hours ago if they'd (had) followed ‘my directions. Negative ItIhadn’t sen it with my own eyes, |wouldn't have believedit. you'd listened to me, you wouldn't have got lost. Question What would you have done ifyou'd been me? the hotel had been full where would you have stayed? Use ‘We us the third conditional to express an impossible situation in the past ands probable result tis too late These things cat change. Mfshe'd known he was cruel, she wouldn't have marred him. -Myparents wouldn't have metifthey hadn't studied at Oxford University, Use ‘Might have done and could have done express possibilities in the past that didnt happen. Thank goodness you went to hospital. You might have died. She could have married enyone she wanted. ‘ney are foun in the result clauses ot third conatitonal sentences. Iffétoldhim had no money, he might have given me some. If férealy wanted, could have been a professional footballer. ‘Might have done and could have done can express criticism. With this use, they are similar to should. You might have told me it wos her birthday! ‘She could have helped tidy the at instead of going out! Use ‘Should have done expresses advice fora past situation, but the ‘advice istoo late! You should have apologized. He wouldn't have been soangry. You shouldn’t have sald she looked ofa. She realy dir ike it ‘Should heve done can express criticism, You should have asked me before you borrowed my car 1 Relative clauses identify which person or thing we are talking ‘about. They give more information about the person or thing The boy has gone to the beach (Which boy?) The boy who lives next door has gane tothe beach. The books very good. (Which book?) The book that you gave me very good. There sa photo ofthe hotel. (Which hotel?) There is photo ofthe hotel where we stayed. We use who/that to refer to people, and which/that to refer to things This book sabouta girl who marries a milionaire. Whatwas the name ofthe horse that won the race? When who or thats the object ofa relative clause, anda new Subjects introduced immediately afterititcan be left out. The person (who) ou need to talk tos on holiday. The fim (that [watched las night vos very good. But when who or that isthe subject ofa relative clause, It must be included, ‘ike people who are kind and considerate. ‘want a computer that's easy touse, Which can be used to refer tothe whole previous sentence or idea ‘passed my diving test onthe irstattempt which was a surprise. Jane can't come tothe party, which is ashame. We use whose to refer to something that belongs to someone. That’ the man whose daughter you met lastnight. That’ the woman whose dog ran away. We can use where to refer to places. The hotel where we stayed wos right onthe beach. We went backto the place where we first met. Participles after a noun define and identity inthe same way as relative clauses. That woman driving the red Porsche's my aunt. The men seen outside the jewellers were probably the thieves. Cia Modal auriliary verbs can express ability obligation, permission, ‘and request, They can alzo express probability, or how certain 2 Situation i. Thereisan introduction to modal auxiliary ves on p15. 11 Must and cant express the logical conclusion of situation ‘must logically probable can’t= logically improbable We are not absolutely sure, but we are nealy certain He must be exhausted, He hasnt slept for 24 hours! ‘Sue can’t havea ten-year-old daughter! She's only 241 ‘Arent they answering? They must bein bed. They can't be out this ate! ‘May/Might/Could express probability in the present or future. ‘May/Might + nots the negative. Could israre inthis use. He might be last. Or he may be stuckin tac. ‘Daveand Beth arent at home. They could beot the concert suppose. We may goto Greece for our holiday. We havent decided yet. Take your umbrella It might an ater. {might not be abe to come tonight. might have to work at, They may not know where wear. ‘The continuous infinitive is formed with be+ ing. You must be joking! They can‘ stllbe eating! Petermight be working late. Theymay be coming ona ater tain.‘Question forms with modal verbs of probability (Might she be ..?) ‘are unusual. We usually use Do you think... ? ‘Doyouthink shes married” She cant be! ‘Where doyou thinkhe' from? Memight be Portuguese! you use a modal ver in the question, it will usualy stil come ‘after Doyou think... ? ‘Doyou think he might be Portuguese? 1 The perfec infinitive is formed with have + past participle. He must have caught aatertrin. They might have ost our phone number. 2. These forms express degrees of probability inthe past. He musthave been exhausted. ‘Shecan't have told him about usyet. Theletter may have got lostin the post. Hemight have changed his mind. ‘They could have moved house. 3. The continuous infinitive is formed with have + been + ing. ‘She must have been joking They cant have been trying veryhard. Cian ‘Anoun phrase 1s @ group oF words nclucing a noun. book book my book this book ‘some books the book that | was reading my favourite cook book. noun phrases ‘Grammatically speaking, these words are: articles ~ the, a/an possessives ~ my, your, his, her. ‘demonstratives~ ths, that, these, those determiners some, any al, each, every. relative pronouns - who, that which . ‘compound nouns notebook, actress book Indefinite ‘The indefinite articles a/an are used: 1 to-say what something or somebody i. This isa book {man optimist. Janesa teacher Hetan idiot 2 torefertoa thing ora person forthe fist time. Shellvesina farmhouse. He going aut with a model. 3. torefertoa thing ora person when it doesn't matter which one, Canyoulendmeapen? Shall wego fora drink? ‘One can be used instead of aan iit’ important to specify ‘the number. We wentto the pub at lunchtime, but we only had one crn, have one brother and two sisters. It's also used to refer to one particular example ina group, ‘Many students said their textbooks were to expensive. One student shared books with another student because ofthis If youte speaking generally, you cant use oe instead of a/an. ‘meta really nice gi atthe beach today. NOT Imetoneraeliynice gitar Definite article The definite article the is used: torefer toa personora thing known to the speaker and thelistener Hove you got thecarkeys? The children arein the garden to,eferto.a person or thing fr the second time. gota book and a computer fr Christmas The book is about politics. Ihaven'tunpacked the computer yt. when tis clear which one(s) we mean. 1m going tothe shops. Do you want anything? Daves nthe kitchen, ‘Have you heard the news? Didyouenjoy theparty? We went tothe same school What's the score? meet youon the corer. to.eferto the only one theres. The sty is grey today. The Earth is definitely round. The governmentin this country needs changing. 10 efer to things n our physical environment that we all know, “ove walking in the country. People always talkabout the weather. We cen seethe sea from ourhouse. ‘with superlatives. Youtethe best teacher. He was thetallest boy inthe class. ‘with some place names ‘the United States of America the Efe! Tower ‘the Pyramids Zero article Noartcle (-)is used the British Museum the Empire State Building to refer to things or people in general Iike(-)cheese. tm afraid of (-) dogs (C) Doctors earn more than (- teachers (CJEnglish i spoken allover the world. in some common phrases. places Hes at(-) work. Shes at (-) home in (-) bed. Hes at (-) school She's at -) university travel travel by (-)carfoustrain.. meals We had lunch at 1200. Whatdo youwantfor(-) dinner? (Oiteis hardtime ido t(-)next week. academic subjects tne goodat(-)maths. ‘games ike (chess. in some place names. ‘ve travelled alot in (-) Europe and (-) South America. vein (-) Station Read. We wailed in (-) Hyde Park The plane left fom (-) Heathrow Airport. meet you ot (-) St Pancras Station. ‘climbed (-) Mount Everest. ‘She studied at (-) Oxford University. (but note She studied atthe University of Oxford) Possessive adjectives and pronouns 1 Possessive adjectives are used with a noun, Thisis my brother. Their teacherisnew. Youmustcome and ee our new house. san her(-)ostyear. ‘The possessive pronouns are: mine yours his cours theirs They are used on their own, Dont touch that!I'smine. _Taket. Its yours. ‘Can youtring those books? They te ours. Apostrophe ‘sands’ ‘sis used with singular nouns. Loma'sdog ‘Whoseis this? ts my brother's! 5 iliend Ive gota week’ holiday. the boy's father = ore boy) ‘is used with regular plural nouns. ‘myparents’ house the boys father(= more than one boy) For iregular plurals we use the chilren’sroom Notice we use with two people. Wewereat Alan and Carls house lastnight ‘is used with some places. bought atthe chemist’ 1m going tothe hairdressers. Youcan buy stamps ata newsagent’. all Allcan be used in diferent ways: 1 all+noun Allmen are bom equal ike ll kinds of musi. Linited all the students in my clas. 2 all+0f+noun invited all ofthe students in my css. ‘Howmuch did you eat?” ‘Allof it: ‘Whodidsheinvte” ‘Allofus’ 3 all+adjective/adverb/preposition Imallwet. She ives all alone. 4 pronoun +l! ‘The sweets re foreveryone. Don‘teat them al Sheloves usa. 5 all+ verb -My frends all ove you. ‘Do you all support Manchester United? We have ll been to university. Every is used witha singular noun, Every student nthe class pasted the exam. Ive been to every country in Europe. alland every 1 Alfonits own snot usualy used to mean everybody/everything. Allthepeoplecametothe party. NOT. Allcamerre Everybody came othe party. ‘She lostall her possessions in thefire. NOT Shelostalin= ‘She lost everything inthe fire 2 Allon its own can mean everything, but ony in relative clauses. Alli want for Christmasisyou. ve tldyouall know. That’ al need. Loveisallyouneed. Reflexive pronouns 1 Reflexive pronouns ar: myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves 22 We use reflexive pronouns when the subject and abject are the same. Jcutmyself shaving. ‘Moke yourselves at home. ‘hope youre enjoying yourselt 13 Theyre often used ater prepositions. Jcanlookafter myselt She looked at herself in the miror. Selsh people onl think of themselves, 4 We use reflexive pronouns foremphasis. ‘Do ou lke the cake? made it myself Themanager himselfinterviewed me. ‘each other Each other expresses the idea of one to another. ‘They looked at each other. We end each other birthday cards lc Se »Uae 1 Its usual forthe verb in the reported clause to move‘one tense back the reporting verb isin the past tense (9. sd, tld. Present = Past Present Perfect + Past Perfect Past —+ Past Perfect vill + would ‘Ym going! _Hesoid he was going. ‘She’ passed her test” Hetold me she had passed her te. “My father died when | was six! She said herfather had dled when she was six. ‘Wlseeyoulater’ She sald she'd see me later ‘The verbalzo moves'one tense back’ when we are reporting ‘thoughts and feelings I didn't krow be was a teacher. |thought he worked ina bonk. ‘forgot you were coming. Never mind. omen. ‘didn't realize you were here. ‘hoped you would cal. 2. Thereisno tense change if the reporting verbs in the present tense (says) “The train willbelate!_He-says the train willbe late. ‘come from Spain’ She says she comes from Spain. the reported speech is about something thats stil true ‘hate football’ told him hate football. ‘Rainforests are being destroyed She told him that rainforests ‘are being destroyed. 3 Some modal verbs change, can-+could will would may» might ‘She can type wel! He oldme she could type well ‘Whelpyou’ She said shel helpme. ‘imay come! She sod she might come, ‘Other medal verbs don't change. ‘You should go to bed! He toidme should goto bed. ‘tmight ain’ She oid she thought it might ain. -Mast stays as must, or changes to had. ‘Imust go! He sod he mustrhad to go. 1) We rarely use say with an indirect object. ‘Shesaidshe was going. NOT Shesaldtomery 2 Tellis always used with an inditect object in reported speech, shew | edector | she nye her husband 2 Wecanie tht ates and etl that he woul be horelite ‘She said (that) sales were down from lastyear. 44 Many verbs are more descriptive than say an tell for example ‘explain promise invite insist admit complain warn offer refuse ‘Sometimes we report the idea, rather than the actual words ‘tilend you some money: He offered tolend me some money. ‘Awontthelp you! Sherefused tohelpme. 5. There ae lfferent verb pattems for reporting ideas. verb +b + infinitive Hetold me to go away. They asked me toteach them English. invited her to come. We encouraged him to apply forthe job. ‘Shereminded meto post her eter. verb + infinitive ‘She promised to help. They offered to lend me somemoney. verb + that + clause He explained that he would be home ate. ‘She complained that she neverhad any fee time. They admitted that soles were down that year. agreed that it would be best to stop tying (© We use tell for reported statements and reported commands, but the form is different. Reported statements Hetold me that he was going. ‘Shetold them what had been happening. Reported commands Hetold meto keep stil Thepolce told peopleto move on. 7. We use ask for reported commands and reported questions, bt the form i dliforont Reported commands He asked me to open my suitcase. ‘She asked me to leave. Reported questions Heasked me what di or lving, ‘She asked me why had come. {8 For negative commands use not before to, He told me not totell anyone. The police warmed people not to go out. 1 The word order in questions different in reported speech. Theres. no inversion of subject and auxiary verb and there is no do/does/d “‘Whyhave you come here?” Jasked her why she had come here. NOT bashed herwhyhadshecome: “What time is it?” He wants to know what time tis. NOT Hewantstoknowwhattimeisit? “Where do you live?’ She asked me where lived. NOT SheaskedmewheredidHive? 2. When qed ti wo i whee ser ci i ssemnarotoor | “tay |sestudwara te 3. Therulesare the same when we report questions that are thoughts I didnt know what was happening ‘wondered where she'd bought her dress. We couldnt understand what they were saying.