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80 views151 pagesOOP in Java
oop
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liracam748Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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OOP in Java BCA
THIRD
OY} SEMESTER
Mechi Multiple Campus
Bhadrapur
eM Teor eo 7
LCI sole}
MCA, Purbanchal UniversityUn Introduction to Java [2 Hrs.
Java is an object-oriented, cross platform, multi-purpose programming language produced
by Sun Microsystems. It is 2 combination of features of C and C++ with some essential
additional concepts. Java is well suited for both standalone and web application
development and is designed to provide solutions to most of the problems faced by users of
the internet era.
It was originally designed for developing programs for set-top boxes and handheld devices,
but later became a popular choice for creating web applications.
The Java syntax is similar to C++, but is strictly an object-oriented programming language.
For example, most Java programs contain classes, which are used to define objects, and
methods, which are assigned to individual classes. Java is also known for being stricter than
C++, meaning variables and functions must be explicitly defined, This means Java source
code may produce errors or "exceptions" more easily than other languages, but it also limits
other types of errors that may be caused by undefined variables or unassigned types.
Unlike Windows executables (.€XE files) or Macintosh applications (. APP files), Java
programs are not run directly by the operating system. Instead, Java programs are
interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine, or JVM, which runs on multiple platforms. This
means all Java programs are multiplatform and can run on different platforms, including
Macintosh, Windows, and Unix computers. However, the JVM must be installed for Java
applications or applets to run at all. Fortunately, the JVM is included as part of the Java
Runtime Environment (RE.
Oracle acquired Sun Microsystems in January, 2010. Therefore, Java is now maintained and
distributed by Oracle.
Features of Java
a) Object-Oriented - Java supports the features of object-oriented programming. Its
object model is simple and easy to expand.
b) Platform independent - C and C++ are platform dependency languages hence the
application programs written in one Operating system cannot run in any other
Operating system, but in platform independence language like Java application
programs written in one Operating system can able to run on any Operating system
c) Simple - Java has included many features of C / C ++, which makes it easy to
understand.
d) Secure - Java provides a wide range of protection from viruses and malicious
programs. It ensures that there will be no damage and no security will be broken.
) Portable - Java provides us the concept of portability. Running the same program
with Java on different platforms is possible.
f) Robust - During the development of the program, it helps us to find possible
mistakes as soon as possible.
g) Multithreaded - The multithreading programming feature in Java allows you to
write a program that performs several different tasks simultaneously.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 2h) Distributed - Java is designed for distributed Internet environments as it manages
the TCP/IP protocol.
The most striking feature of the language is that itis a platform-neutral language. Java is the
first programming language that is not tied to any particular hardware or operating system.
Programs developed in Java can be executed anywhere on any stream. We can call Java as a
revolutionary technology because it has brought in a fundamental shift in how we develop
and use programs. Nothing like this has happened to the software industry before.
History of Java
Java is a general-purpose, object-oriented programming language developed by Sun
Microsystems of USA in 1991. Originally called Oak by James Gosling, one of the inventors
of the language, Java was designed for the development of software for consumer
electronic devices like TVs, VCRs and such other electronic machines. The goal had a strong
impact on the development team to make the language simple, portable and highly reliable.
The Java team which included Patrick Naughton discovered that the existing languages like
C and C++ had limitations in terms of both reliability and portability. However, they
modelled their new language Java on C and C++ but removed a number of features of Cand
C++ that were considered as sources of problems and thus made Java a really simple,
reliable, portable and powerful language.
Java Milestones
Year Development
1990 Sun Microsystems decided to develop special software that could be used to manipulate consumer
clectronic devices. A team of Sun Microsystems programmers headed by James Gosling was formed to
undertake this task.
1991 After exploring the possiblity of using the most popular object-oriented language C++, the team
announced a new language named “Oak”
1992 The team, known as Green Project team by Sun, demonstrated the application of their new language to
contro! alist of home appliances using a hand-held device with a tiny touch-sensitive screen
1993 The World Wide Web (WWW) appeared on the Internet and transformed the text-based Intemet into a
graphical-nch environment. The Green Project team came up with the idea of developing Web applets
(tiny peograms) using the new language that could run on all types of computers connected to Internet
1994 The team developed a Web browser called "HoUava” to locate and run applet programs on Internet.
HoUlva demonstrated the power of the new language, thus making it instantly popular among the
Internet users
1995 Oak was renamed “Java”, due to some legal snags. Java is just a name and is not an acronym. Many
Popular companies including Netscape and Microsoft announced their support to Java.
1996 Java established itself not only as a leader for Internet programming but also as a general-purpose,
object-oriented programming language. Sun releases Java Development Kit 1.0.
1997 Sun releases Java Development Kit 1.1 JDK 1.1).
1998 Sun relases the Java 2 with version 1.2 of the Software Development Kit (SDK 1.2).
1999 Sun releases Java 2 Platform, Standard Edition (J2SE) and Enterprise Edition (J2EE).
2000 J2SE with SDK 1.3 was released.
2002 12SE with SDK 1.4 was released.
2004 _J2SE with JDK 5.0 (instead of IDK 1.5) was released. This is known as J2SE 5.0.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 2The Internet and Java’s Place in IT
Earlier Java was only used to design and program small computing devices, but it was later
adopted as one of the platform-independent programming languages, and now according to.
Sun, 3 billion devices run Java.
Java is one of the most important programming languages in today's IT industries.
* JSP In Java, JSP (Java Server Pages) is used to create dynamic web pages, such as in
PHP and ASP.
* Applets - Applets are another type of Java programs that are implemented on
Internet browsers and are always run as part of a web document.
+ IZEE - Java 2 Enterprise Edition is a platform-independent environment that is a set
of different protocols and APIs and is used by various organizations to transfer data
between each other.
© JavaBeans - This is a set of reusable software components that can be easily used to
create new and advanced applications.
© Mobile - in addition to the above technology, Java Is widely used in mobile devices
nowadays, many types of games and applications are being made in Java.
Types of Java Applications and Applets
a) Web Application - Java is used to create server-side web applications. Currently,
Servlet, JSP, Struts, JSF, etc. technologies are used.
b) Standalone Application - It is also known as the desktop application or window-
based application. An application that we need to install on every machine or server
such as media player, antivirus, etc. AWT and Swing are used in java for creating
standalone applications.
c) Enterprise Application - An application that is distributed in nature, such as banking
applications, etc. It has the advantage of the high-level security, load balancing, and
clustering. in Java, EJB is used for creating enterprise applications.
d) Mobile Application - Java is used to create application software for mobile devices.
Currently, Java ME is used for building applications for small devices, and also Java is
a programming language for Google Android application development.
Java Virtual Machine
Java Virtual Machine, or JVM as its name suggest is a “virtual” computer that resides in the
“real” computer as a software process. JVM gives Java the flexibility of platform
independence.
Java code is written in java file. This code contains one or more Java language attributes like
Classes, Methods, Variable, Objects etc. Javac is used to compile this code and to generate
.class file. Class file is also known as “byte code “. The name byte code is given may be
because of the structure of the instruction set of Java program. Java byte code is an input to
Java Virtual Machine. !VM read this code and interpret it and executes the program.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 4Java Code (,java)
Java class is written in Unicode
characters.
JAVAC i i in
Java compiler convert these
Se Unicode characters into Byte
code.
Java Byte code can only be
understandable by JVM.
The JVM has two primary functions: to allow Java programs to run on any device or
‘operating system (known as the "Write once, run anywhere” principle), and to manage and
optimize program memory. When Java was released in 1995, all computer programs were
written to a specific operatin;
developer. So the VM was a
ig system, and program memory was managed by the software
revelation.
Java
Program
"Source Code
Viewal Machine
‘aR,
Real Mache
Process of converting bytecode into machine code
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 5Byte Code — not an Executable Code
Java bytecode is the resulting compiled object code of a Java program. This bytecode can be
run in any platform which has a Java installation in it. The Java bytecode gets processed by
the Java virtual machine (JVM) instead of the processor. It is the job of the JVM to make the
necessary resource calls to the processor in order to run the bytecode.
The Java bytecode is not completely compiled, but rather just an intermediate code sitting
in the middle because it still has to be interpreted and executed by the JVM installed on the
specific platform such as Windows, Mac or Linux. Upon compile, the Java source code is
converted into the .class bytecode.
Procedure-Oriented vs. Object-Oriented Programming
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is 2 high-level programming language where a
program is divided into small chunks called objects using the object-oriented model, hence
the name. This paradigm is based on objects and classes.
© Object - An object is basically a self-contained entity that accumulates both data and
procedures to manipulate the data. Objects are merely instances of classes.
© Glass ~ A class, in simple terms, Is a blueprint of an object which defines all the
commen properties of one or more objects that are associated with it. A class can be
used to define multiple objects within a program
The OOP paradigm mainly eyes on the data rather than the algorithm to create modules by
dividing a program into data and functions that are bundled within the objects. The modules
cannot be modified when a new object is added restricting any non-member function access
to the data. Methods are the only way to assess the data
Objects can communicate with each other through same member functions. This process is
known as message passing. This anonymity among the objects is what makes the program
secure. A programmer can create a new object from the already existing objects by taking
most of its features thus making the program easy to implement and modify.
Procedure-Oriented Programming (POP) follows a step-by-step approach to break down a
task into a collection of variables and routines (or subroutines) through a sequence of
instructions. Each step is carried out in order in a systematic manner so that a computer can
understand what to do. The program is divided into small parts called functions and then it
follows a series of computational steps to be carried out in order.
It follows a top-down approach to actually solve 2 problem, hence the name. Procedures
correspond to functions and each function has its own purpose. Dividing the program into
functions is the key to procedural programming. So a number of different functions are
written in order to accomplish the tasks.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 6Difference between OOP and POP is shown below:
Procedure Oriented Programming
Object Oriented Programming
In POP, program is divided into small parts
called functions.
In OOF, program is divided into parts
called objects.
In POP, Importance is not given to data but
to functions as well as sequence of actions
to be done.
In OOP, Importance is given to the data rather
than procedures or functions because it works
as a real world.
POP follows Top Down approach.
OOP follows Bottom Up approach.
POP does not have any access specifier.
OOP has access specifiers named Public,
Private, Protected, etc.
In POP, Data can move freely from function
to function in the system.
In OOP, objects can move and communicate
with each other through member functions.
To add new data and function in POP is not
so easy.
OOP provides an easy way to add new data
and function.
In POP, Most function uses Global data for
sharing that can be accessed freely from
function to function in the system.
In OOP, data cannot move easily from function
to function, it can be kept public or private so
we can control the access of data.
POP does not have any proper way for
OOP provides Data Hiding so provides more
hiding data so itis less secure. security,
In POP, Overloading isnot possible. In OOP, overloading is possible in the form of
Function Overloading and Operator
Overloading.
Example of POP are : C, VB, FORTRAN,
Pascal.
Example of OOP are : C++, JAVA, VB.NET,
CH.NET.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 7Unit — 2 Tokens, Expressions and Control Structures [5 Hrs.]
Primitive Data Types
Primitive types are the most basic data types available within the lava language. There are 8
primitive cata types: boolean, byte, char, short, int, long, float and double. These types
serve as the building blocks of data manipulation in Java. Such types serve only one purpose
— containing pure, simple values of a kind. Because these data types are defined into the
Java type system by default, they come with a number of operations predefined.
Data types are divided into two groups:
* Primitive data types - includes byte, short, int, long, float, double, boolean and char
+ Non-primitive(Derived) data types - such as String, Arrays and Classes
Data Type | Size _| Description
byte Lbyte | Stores whole numbers from -128 to 127
short Zbytes_| Stores whole numbers from -32,768 to 32,767
int Abytes_| Stores whole numbers from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
long Bbytes [Stores whole numbers from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to
9,223.372,036,854,775,808
float bytes | Stores fractional numbers from 3.4e-038 to 3.4e+038, Sufficient for
storing 6 to 7 decimal digits
double | Sbytes | Stores fractional numbers from 1.7e-308 to 1.7e+038. Sufficient for
storing 15 decimal digits
boolean | 1byte _| Stores true or false values
char 2bytes | Stores a single character/letter
User Defined Data Types
User defined data types are those that user / programmer
classes, interfaces. For example:
imself defines. For example,
MyClass obj
Here obj is a variable of data type MyClass and we call them reference variables as they can
be used to store the reference to the object of that class.
Declaration of Variables and Assignment
In Java, variables are the names of storage locations. After designing suitable variable
names, we must declare them to the compiler. Declaration does three things:
1. It tells the compiler what the variable name is.
2. It specifies what type of data the variable will hold.
3. The place of declaration (in the program) decides the scope of the variable.
A variable can be used to store a value of any data type. That is, the name has nothing to do
with the type. Java allows any properly formed variable to have any declared data type. The
general form of declaration of a variable is:
type variable!, variable2,..... variable
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 8A simple method of giving value to a variable is through the assignment statement as
follows
variableName = value;
For Example:
abe = 100;
xyz = 10.2;
It is also possible to assign a value to a variable at the time of its declaration. This takes the
form:
type vartableName = value: |
Examples:
int finalValue = 100
char yes ° i
double total = 75.36
Type Conversion and Casting
Conversion of one data type to another data type is called type casting. If the two types are
compatible, then Java will perform the conversion automatically. For example, it is always
possible to assign an int value to a Jong variable. However, not all types are compatible, and
thus, not all type conversions are implicitly allowed. For instance, there is no automatic
conversion defined from double to byte. Fortunately, it is still possible to obtain a
conversion between incompatible types. To do so, you must use a cast, which performs an
explicit conversion between incompatible types
Java's Automatic Conversions
When one type of data is assigned to another type of variable, an automatic type conversion
will take place if the following two conditions are mi
* The two types are compatible.
* The destination type is larger than the source type.
When these two conditions are met, a widening conversion takes place. For example, the
int type is always large enough to hold all valid byte values, so no explicit cast statement is
required. For widening conversions, the numeric types, including integer and floating-point
types, are compatible with each other. However, there are no automatic conversions from
the numeric types to char or boolean. Also, char and boolean are not compatible with each
other. As mentioned earlier, Java also performs an automatic type conversion when storing
a literal integer constant into variables of type byte, short, long, or char.
Casting Incompatible Types
Although the automatic type conversions are helpful, they will not fulfill all needs. For
example, what if you want to assign an int value toa byte variable? This conversion will not
be performed automatically, because a byte is smaller than an int. This kind of conversion is
sometimes called a narrowing conversion, since you are explicitly making the value
narrower so that it wil fitinto the target type.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 9To create a conversion between two incompatible types, you must use a cast. A cast is
simply an explicit type conversion. It has this general form:
(target-type) value
Here, target-type specifies the desired type to convert the specified value to. For example,
the following fragment casts an int to a byte. If the integer’s value is larger than the range of,
a byte, it will be reduced modulo (the remainder of an integer division by the) byte’s range.
int a;
byte b;
I]. b= (byte) 0;
The following program demonstrates some type conversions that require casts:
// Demonstrate casts
class Conversion {
b= (byte) i;
System.out.printin("i and bt +44" "+ BI;
System.out .print1n(*\aConver:
i= (int) a;
System.out.printin("d and it yds" t+
on of double to
System.out .print1n(*\nConversion of double to byte.");
b= (byte) dy
System.out.printin("d and bt + ds" "4 b);
)
,
This program generates the following output:
Conversion of int to byte.
i and b 257 1
Conversion of double to int
@ and i 323.142 323
conversion of double to byte
4 and b 323.142 67
Let’s look at each conversion. When the value 257 is cast into a byte variable, the result is
the remainder of the division of 257 by 256 (the range of a byte), which is 1 in this case.
When the d is converted to an int, its fractional component is lost. When d is converted to a
byte, its fractional component is lost, and the value is reduced modulo 256, which in this
case is 67.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 10Garbage Collection
Java garbage collection is the process by which Java programs perform automatic memory
management. Java programs compile to bytecode that can be run on a Java Virtual Machine,
or JVM for short. When Java programs run on the JVM, objects are created on the heap,
which is a portion of memory dedicated to the program. Eventually, some objects will no
longer be needed. The garbage collector finds these unused objects and deletes them to
free up memory.
In C/C++, programmer is responsible for both creation and destruction of objects. Usually
programmer neglects destruction of useless objects. Due to this negligence, at certain point,
for creation of new objects, sufficient memory may not be available and entire program will
terminate abnormally causing OutOfMemoryErrors.
But in Java, the programmer need not to care for all those objects which are no longer in
use. Garbage collector destroys these objects. Main objective of Garbage Collector is to free
heap memory by destroying unreachable objects.
Generally, an object becomes eligible for garbage collection in Java on following cases:
1. All references to that object explicitly set to null e.g. object = null
2. The object is created inside a block and reference goes out scope once control exit:
that block,
3. Parent object set to null if an object holds the reference to another object and when
you set container object's reference null, child or contained object automatically
becomes eligible for garbage collection.
Operators in Java
‘An operator, in Java, is a special symbols performing specific operations on one, two or
three operands and then returning a result.
Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used in mathematical expressions in the same way that they are
used in algebra. The following table lists the arithmetic operators.
Assume integer variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then ~
Operator Description Example
+ (Addition) ‘Adds values on either side of the operator. A+ B will
give 30
~ (Subtraction) Subiracts right-hand operand from left-hand operand. A- B will
give -10
* (Multiplication) | Multiplies values on either side of the operator. A* Bwill
give 200
7 (Division) Divides left-hand operand by right-hand operand B/ A will
give 2
% (Modulus) Divides left-hand operand by right-hand operand and | 6% A will
returns remainder. give 0
++ (Increment) increases the value of operand by 1. B++ gives
21
~ (Decrement) Decreases the value of operand by 1. B- gives
19
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 1Relational Operators
There are following relational operators supported by Java language.
‘Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then —
Operator Description Example
(equal to) _| Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, | (A == 8) is
yes then condition becomes true. not true.
not equal to) | Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if| (A = B) is
values are not equal then condition becomes true. true.
> (greater than) | Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the | (A > B) is
value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. | not true.
= (less than) Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of [(A = B) is
or equal to) to the value of right operand, if yes then concition | not true.
becomes true.
> (right shift)
Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operands
value is moved right by the number of bits
specified by the right operand.
‘A >> 2 will give 15
which is 1111
>>> (uero fill
shift)
right | Shift right zero fill operator. The left operands
value is moved right by the number of bits
specified by the right operand and shifted values
are filled up with zeros.
‘A >>>2 will give 15
which is 0000 1111
Logical Operators
The following table lists the logical operators.
‘Assume Boolean Variables A holds true and variable B holds false, then —
Operator
Description Example
&& (logical and)
Called Logical AND operator. if both the operands | (A && B) is false
are non-zero, then the condition becomes true.
TT (logical or) Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two | (A]| 6)istrue
operands are non-zero, then the condition
becomes true.
1 (logical not) Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to reverses the | (A && B)is true
logical state of its operand. If a condition is true
then Logical NOT operator will make false.
Assignment Operators
Following are the assignment operators supported by Java language —
Operator _| Description Example
= ‘Simple assignment operator. Assigns values from right side operands | C= A+B will
to left side operand. assign value
of A+B into
c
= ‘Add AND assignment operator. it adds right operand to the left|C += A is
operand and assign the result to left operand. equivalent
toC=C+A
= Subtract AND assignment operator. It subtracts right operand fromthe |C -= A is
left operand and assign the result to left operand. equivalent
toC=C-A
Propared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 33Multiply AND assignment operator. It multiplies right operand with the |C *= A is
left operand and assign the result to left operand. equivalent
toC=C*A
7: Divide AND assignment operator. It divides left operand with the right |C /= A is
operand and assign the result to left operand. equivalent
toC=C/A
Modulus AND assignment operator. It takes modulus using two Ais
operands and assign the result to left operand. equivalent
toC=C%A
>= Right shift AND assignment operator. C >= 2 is
same as C =
Co>2
Bitwise AND assignment operator. Cc & 2 is
same as C =
Ca2
bitwise exclusive OR and assignment operator. C= 21s
same as C =
cr2
= bitwise inclusive OR and assignment operator. c i= 2 is
same as C =
c\2
Conditional Operator (?
Conditional operator is also known as the ternary operator. This operator consists of three
‘operands and is used to evaluate Boolean expressions. The goal of the operator is to decide,
which value should be assigned to the variable. The operator is written as —
variable x = (expression) ? value if true : value if false
Following is an example —
public class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int a, bs
1) ? 20: 30;
System.out.println( "Value of bis : "+ b):
Output
b= (a == 10) ? 20: 30;
System.out.println( "Value of bis : "4b ):
Velue of b is : 30
Velue of b is : 20
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA]
14Control Statements
A programming language uses control statements to cause the flow of execution to advance
and branch based on changes to the state of a program. Java’s program control statements
can be put into the following categories: selection, iteration, and jump.
- Selection statements allow your program to choose different paths of execution
based upon the outcome of an expression or the state of a variable.
- Iteration statements enable program execution to repeat one or more statements
(that is, iteration statements form loops).
- Jump statements allow your program to execute in a nonlinear fashion.
Java’s Selection Statements
Java supports two selection statements: if and switch. These statements allow you to
control the flow of your program's execution based upon conditions known only during run
time.
The if statement is Java's conditional branch statement. It can be used to route program
‘execution through two different paths. Here is the general form of the if statement:
if (condition) statement1;
else statement2;
The if works like this: If the condition is true, then statementi is executed. Otherwise,
statement2 (if it exists) is executed. In no case will both statements be executed. For
example, consider the following:
ifla 100) c = 4; // this it
else a= cy 7/ associated with this else
eis 4 to i£(4 == 10)
q // this else rege
Asthe comments indicate, the final else is not associated with if(}100) because itis the closest if
within the same block.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 15The if-else-if Ladder
‘A common programming construct that is based upon a sequence of nested ifs is the if-else-
if ladder. It looks like this:
if(condition)
statement;
else if(condition)
statement;
else if(condition)
statement;
else
statement;
Here is a program that uses an if-else-if ladder to determine which season a particular
month is in.
// Demonstrate if-else-if statements
clase IfElee (
Public static void main(string argell) (
int month = 4; // April
if (month
32 || month
swinter*;
2 || month
else if (month {| month == 4 || month
season = "Spring™
else if (month || month == 7 || month
else if (month I] mos 20 || month == 13)
‘season = "Autumn";
else
‘eason = "Bogus Month';
Systen.out.printin(*April is in the * + season + *
)
Here isthe output produced by the program:
April is in the Spring,
switch
The switch statement is Java’s multiway branch statement. It provides an easy way to
dispatch execution to different parts of your code based on the value of an expression. As
such, it often provides a better alternative than a large series of if-else-if statements. Here is,
the general form of a switch statement:
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 16‘switch (expression) {
‘case valet:
// statement sequence
break;
‘case vulue2:
// statement sequence
break;
‘case nalueN:
// statement sequence
break;
default:
// default statement sequence
:
Here isa simple example that uses a switch statement:
// ® simple example of the switch.
class Sampleswiten
public static void main(String arge(]) (
for(int i=0; i
Output:
‘Sum of two numbers=:
class Box{
double width,height,depth,vol; //data members
void getvolune() { | //method
widt!
height=20;
depth=11.5;
}
double calculate() | //nethos
vol-width*height*depth;
return vol
+
class Volume {
public static void main(string[] args) {
Box objenew Box(); //creating instance of a class Sox
‘obj.getvolume(); _//calling menber function using object
double ressobj.colculate(); //calling
System.out.printIn("Volune of 2 box is “#res)3
r
+
Output:
Volume of a box is 2300.0
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 25Method That Takes Parameters
Passing by value
‘Actual parameter expressions that are passed to a method are evaluated and a value is
derived. Then this value is stored in a location and then It becomes the formal parameter to
the invoked method. This mechanism is called pass by value and Java uses it.
class Box{
double vol; //data menbers
void getvolune(double width, double height, double depth) { //method
volawidth*height*depth;
+
void display() { __//method
‘System.out.printIn("Volume of a box is "+vel);
+
+
class Volune {
public static void main(String{] args) {
Box obj=new Box(); //creating instance of a class Box
‘obj -getvolume(10,20,11.5); //calling menber function using ebject
obj.display(); //calling
+
Output:
Volume of a box is 2300.0
Another Example
class tox{
double width HIRE depth,vol; //data menbers
void getdata(double w, double h, double 4) { //method
widthew
height=h;
depthed:
+
double calculate() { — //method
vol=widthsheight*depth;
+
return vol;
class Volume {
public static void mein(string{] o-gs) {
Box objenew Box(); //creating instance of a class Box
obj.getdata(10,20,11.5); //calling member function using object
double reseobj.calculate(); — //calling
System.out.println("Volune of a box is "#res);
Output:
Volume of a box is 2300.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 26Passing by Reference
We know that in C, we can pass arguments by reference using pointers, and same can be
done in C+ using references.
Java is pass by value and it is not possible to pass primitives by reference in Java. Also
integer class is immutable in java and java objects are references that are passed by value.
So an integer object points to the exact same object as in the caller and but no changes can
be made to the object which gets reflected in the caller function.
Constructors
A constructor in Java is a block of code similar to a method that’s called when an instance of
an object is created. Here are the key differences between a constructor and a method:
= Aconstructor doesn’t have a return type.
+ The name of the constructor must be the same as the name of the class.
* Unlike methods, constructors are not considered members of a class.
+ Aconstructor is called automatically when a new instance of an objectis created.
All classes have constructors, whether you define one or not, because Java automatically
provides a default constructor that initializes all member variables to zero. However, once
you define your own constructor, the default constructor is no longer used.
Following is the syntax of a constructor ~
class Classtione {
Classtane() {
}
>
Default Constructor
The default constructor is a constructor that is automatically generated in the absence of
explicit constructors (ie. no user defined constructor). The automatically provided
constructor is called sometimes a nullary constructor.
Constructor with no Arguments
class BOX{
double 1,b,h,vol;
Box(){
1-105
bss
i
235
y
void calculate() {
vol=1"b"h;
Systen.out.println("Volume of a box is "+vol):
public class Constructor {
public static void main(String[] arg=) {
Box obj=new Box()5
obj.calculate();
+
+
Outpu'
Volume of a box is 165.0
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 27Parameterized Constructor
The constructor which has parameters or arguments is known as parameterized
constructor. In this type of constructor, we should supply/pass arguments while defining
object of a class. The values of arguments are assigned to data members of the class.
class B0x{
double 1,b,h,vols
Box(double x, double y, double 2){
Lexs
+
void calculate() {
vol=1*b*h;
System.out.printIn("Volume of a box is *+vol);
+
+
public class Constructor {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Box objenew Box(10,5,3-3)3
obj.-calculate();
+
y
Output:
Volume of a box is 165.0
The this Keyword
Keyword this is a reference variable in Java that refers to the current object.
The various usages of ‘THIS’ keyword in Java are as follows:
* It can be used to refer instance variable of current class
+ Itcan be used to invoke or initiate current class constructor
+ It'can be passed as an argument in the method call
+ It can be passed as argumentin the constructor call
+ Itcan be used to return the current dass instance
Sometimes a method will need to refer to the object that invoked it. To allow this, Java
defines this keyword. this can be used inside any method to refer to the current object. That
is, this is always a reference to the object on which the method was invoked. You can use
this anywhere a reference to an object of the current class’ type is permitted.
// ® redundant use of this.
Box (double w, double h, double d) {
this.width = w;
this.height = h
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 28/Tlava code for using ‘this’ keyword to
//eefer current class instance variables
class Test
{
int a;
int b;
// Parameterized constructor
Test(int a, int b)
{
this. = a5
this.b = b5
}
void display()
{
//Displaying value of variables a and b
System.out.printin("a =" +a+" b=" +b);
3
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Test object = new Test(1@, 20);
object.display();
Output:
a=10 b=20
Propared by: Raju Poudel [MCA]
29Four Main Features of Object Oriented Programming:
1. Abstraction
2. Encapsulation
3. Polymorphism
4, Inheritance
Abstraction
Abstraction is a process of hiding the implementation details from the user, only the
functionality will be provided to the user. In other words, the user will have the information
‘on what the object does instead of how it does it. In Java, abstraction is achieved using
Abstract classes and interfaces.
Abstract Class
‘A class which contains the abstract keyword in its declaration is known as abstract class.
* Abstract classes may or may not contain abstract methods, i.e., methods without
body (public void get();)
+ But, if a class has at least one abstract method, then the class must be declared
abstract.
+ Ifaclass is declared abstract, it cannot be instantiated (We cannot create object).
* To use an abstract class, you have to inherit it from another class, provide
implementations to the abstract methods in it.
+ If you inherit an abstract class, you have to provide implementations to all the
abstract methods in it.
abstract class Box{
int 1,b,h,vol5
void getdata() {
1-105
void calculate() {
bth
ut.println(“Volume of a box is “+vol);
public class Abstraction extends Box {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Abstraction obj-new Abstraction();
obj.getdata();
obj-ealeulate();
Output:
Volume of a box is 100
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 20Encapsulation
Encapsulation in Java is a mechanism of wrapping the data (variables) and code acting on
the data (methods) together as a single unit. In encapsulation, the variables of a class will be
hidden from other classes, and can be accessed only through the methods of their current
class. Therefore, itis also known as data hiding.
To achieve encapsulation in Java-
* Declare the variables of a class as private.
* Provide public setter and getter methods to modify and view the variables values.
Benefits of Encapsulation
+ The fields of a class can be made read-only or write-only.
+ Aclass can have total control over what is stored in its fields.
class Test{
private String name;
private int age;
public String getname() {
return name;
¥
public int getage() {
return ages
+
public void setnane(String nm)|if
names
+
public void setage(int ag) {
age=2gs
}
+
public class Encapsulation {
public static void main(String args) {
Test objenew Test(
obj -setname("Raaju Poudel”);
obj. setage (27;
System.out-printLn("Name: "“+obj-getname());
System.out.printLn("Age: “+obj.getage());
Output:
Name: Raaju Poudel
Age: 27
Here, we cannot access private data members name and age directly. So we have created
public getter and setter methods to access private data members.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] anPolymorphism
Polymorphism in Java is a concept by which we can perform a single action in different
ways. Polymorphism is derived from 2 Greek words: poly and morphs. The word "poly"
means many and "morphs" means forms. So polymorphism means many forms.
There are two types of polymorphism in Java: compile-time polymorphism and runtime
polymorphism. We can perform polymorphism in java by method overloading and method
overriding.
Polymorphism in Java
‘Compile Time Runtime
(Method Overloading)| (Method Overiding)
Method Overloading
Method Overloading is a feature that allows a class to have more than one method having
the same name, if their argument lists are different. It is similar to constructor overloading
in Java, that allows a class to have more than one constructor having different argument
lists. In order to overload a method, the argument lists of the methods must differ in either
of these:
a) Number of parameters.
add(int, int)
add(int, int, int)
b) Data type of parameters.
add(int, int)
add(int, float)
¢) Sequence of Data type of parameters.
add(int, float)
add{float, int)
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 22Example of method overloading:
class Overload
{
void demo (int a)
{
system.out.println ("a: " + a);
}
void demo (int a, int b)
{
System.out.println ("a and b: "+a + "," +b);
?
double demo(double a) {
System.out.printIn("double a: " + a);
return a
+
Class MethodOverloading
{
public static void main (string args [])
t
Overload 0bj
double result;
Obj .demo(10);
Obj .demo(10, 20);
bj -demo(5.5
System.out.print1n("0/P :
new Overload()s
result
+ result);
Output:
a: 10
a and b: 10,20
double a: 5.5
O/P : 30.25
Here the method demo() is overioaded 3 times: first method has 1 int parameter, second
method has 2 int parameters and third one is having double parameter. Which method is to
be called is determined by the arguments we pass while calling methods. This happens at
compile time so this type of polymorphism is known as compile time polymorphism.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 33Method Overriding
Declaring @ method in sub class which is already present in parent class is known as method
overriding. Overriding is done so that a child class can give its own implementation to a
method which is already provided by the parent class. In this cese the method in parent
class is called overridden method and the method in child class is called overriding method
Let's take a simple example to understand this. We have two classes: A child class Boy and a
parent class Human. The Boy class extends Human class. Both the classes have a common
method void eat (). Boy class Is giving its own Implementation to the eat () method or in
other words it is overriding the eat () method.
class Hunan{
//overridden method
public void eat()
{
Systen.out.print1n("Human is eating”);
Hy
class Boy extends Human{
//overriding method
public void eat(){
systen.out.print1n("Boy is eating");
+
public static void main( string args{]) {
Boy obj = new Boy();
This will ca:
obj.eat();
the child class version of eat()
Output:
Boy is eating
Rules of method overriding in Java
1. Argument list: The argument list of overriding method (method of child class) must
match the Overridden method (the method of parent class). The data types of the
arguments and their sequence should exactly match.
2. Access Modifier of the overriding method (method of subclass) cannot be more
restrictive than the overridden method of parent class. For e.g. if the Access Modifier
of parent class method is public then the overriding method (child class method)
cannot have private, protected and default Access modifier, because all of these
three access modifiers are more restrictive than public.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 34Another Example:
AnimaLjava
public class Animal{
public void sound(){
Systen.out.printIn(“Animal is making a sound");
Horse.java
class Horse extends Aninal{
@override
public void sound(){
System.out.println("Neigh’
+
public static void main(String args[]){
Aninal obj = new Horse();
obj.sound();
Output:
Neigh
Recursion
Java supports recursion. Recursion is the process of defining something in terms of itself. As
it relates to Java programming, recursion is the attribute that allows a method to call itself.
‘A method that calls itself is said to be recursive.
The classic example of recursion Is the computation of the factorial of @ number. The
factorial of a number N is the product of all the whole numbers between 1 and N. For
example, 3 factorial is 1 x 2 x 3, or 6. Here is how a factorial can be computed by use of a
recursive method:
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] as// ® simple example of recursion
clase Factorial {
// this is a recursive method
int fact(int n) (
int result;
if(n==1) return 1;
result = fact(n-1) * n;
return result;
}
}
class Recursion {
public static void main(String args{J) {
Factorial f = new Factorial ();
system.out.printin(*"Factorial of 3 is * + £.fact(3));
System.out .printIn("Factorial of 4 is " + £.fact (4);
System.out.print1n(*"Factorial of 5 is * + £.fact (5));
}
The output from this program is shown here:
Factorial of 3 is 6
Factorial of 4 is 24
Factorial of 5 is 120
Introducing Nested and Inner Classes
It is possible to define a class within another class; such classes are known as nesied classes.
The scope of a nested class is bounded by the scope of its enclosing class. Thus, if class B is
defined within class A, then B does not exist independently of A. A nested class has access to
the members, including private members, of the class in which it is nested. However, the
enclosing class does not have access to the members of the nested class. A nested class that
is declared directly within its enclosing class scope is a member of its enclosing class. It is
also possible to declare a nested class that is local to a block.
There are two types of nested classes: static and non-static. A static nested class is one that
has the static modifier applied. Because it is static, it must access the members of its
enclosing class through an object. That is, it cannot refer to members of its enclosing class
directly. Because of this restriction, static nested classes are seldom used.
The most important type of nested class is the inner class. An inner class is a non-static
nested class. It has access to all of the variables and methods of its outer class and may refer
to them directly in the same way that other non-static members of the outer class do.
The following program illustrates how to define and use an inner class. The class named
Outer has one instance variable named outer_x, one instance method named test{ ), and
defines one inner class called Inner.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 36// Demonstrate an inner class.
class Outer {
int outer_x = 100;
void test() {
Inner inner = new Inner();
inner display ();
}
// this is an inner class
class Inner {
void display() {
System. out .printIn(*display: outer_x = " + outer_x);
}
}
}
clase InnerClaseDemo {
public static void main(String args{]) {
Outer outer = new Outer();
outer.test();
}
}
Output from this application is shown here:
display: outer_x = 100
In the program, an inner class named Inner is defined within the scope of class Outer.
Therefore, any code in class Inner can directly access the variable outer_x. An instance
method named display( ) is defined inside Inner. This method displays outer_x on the
standard output stream. The main( ) method of InnerClassDemo creates an instance of class
Outer and invokes its test{ ) method. That method creates an instance of class Inner and the
display( ) method is called.
Access Control
‘As you know, encapsulation links data with the code that manipulates it. However,
encapsulation provides another important attribute: access control. Through encapsulation,
you can control what parts of a program can access the members of a class. By controlling
access, you can prevent misuse. For example, allowing access to data only through a well-
defined set of methods, you can prevent the misuse of that data.
Java’s access specifiers are public, private, and protected. Java also defines a default access
level. protected applies only when inheritance is involved.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] a7Unit — 4 Inheritance & Packaging [3 Hrs.
Inheritance is an important pillar of OOP (Object Oriented Programming). It is the
mechanism in java by which one class is allow to inherit the features (fields and methods)
of another class.
The process by which one class acquires the properties (dato members) and
functionalities(methods) of another class is called inheritance. The aim of inheritance is to
provide the reusability of code so that a class has to write only the unique features and rest
of the common properties and functionalities can be extended from the another class.
The idea behind inheritance in Java is that you can create new classes that are built upon
existing classes. When you inherit from an existing class, you can reuse methods and fields
of the parent class. Moreover, you can add new methods and fields in your current class
also
Inheritance represents the IS-A relationship which is also known as aparent-
child relationship. inheritance is used in java for the following:
© For Method Overriding (so runtime polymorphism can be achieved).
© For Code Reusability.
Terms used in Inheritance
Class: A class is a group of objects which have common properties. It is a template or
blueprint from which objects are created.
© Sub Class/Child Class: Subclass is a class which inherits the other class. It is also
called a derived class, extended class, or child class.
© Super Class/Parent Class: Superclass is the class from where a subclass inherits the
features. Itis also called a base class or a parent class.
© Reusability: As the name specifies, reusability is a mechanism which facilitates you
to reuse the fields and methods of the existing class when you create a new class.
You can use the same fields and methods already defined in the previous class.
The syntax of Java Inheritance
class Subclass-name extends Superclass-name
{
//methods and fields
+
The extends keyword indicates that you are making a new class that derives from an
existing class. The meaning of "extends" is to increase the functionality.
In the terminology of Java, a class which is inherited Is called a parent or superclass, and
the new class is called child or subclass.
Types of inheritance in java
On the basis of class, there can be three types of inheritance in java: single, multilevel and
hierarchical.
In java programming, multiple and hybrid inheritance is supported through interface only.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] a8Single Inheritance [crea | public class A
)
public class B extends A {
ca
Multi Level inheritances =
public class A{ d
Clase 8 public class B extends A (. }
public class Cextends 8 { }
Multiple Inheritance
public class A...
public class B extends A (.
public class C extends A {..ncnnnnnm)
public class A ( )
public class B (. }
public class Cextends A,B (
11 Java does not support mutiple inheritance
gle Inheritance
Single Inheritance refers to @ child and parent class relationship where a class extends the
another class.
class Animal{
void eat(){
‘System.out.printin("eating...");
3
+
class Dog extends Animal{
void bark(){
System.out.printin("barking...");
3
+
class TestInheritance{
public static void main(String args(]){
Dog
d.bark();
dveat();
jew Dog();
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA]
29eating.
2. Multilevel Inheritance
Multilevel inheritance refers to a child and parent class relationship where a class extends
the child class. For exemple, class C extends class B and class B extends class A.
class Animal{
void eat(){
System.out.printin(“eating
3
+
class Dog extends Animal{
void bark(){
System,out.printin("barking...”
oa
+
class BabyDog extends Doot
void weep(){
System.out.printin("weeping.
3
+
class Testinheritance2{
public static void main(String args[1) {
// declare constant fields
// declare methods that abstract
// by default.
To deciare an interface, use interface keyword. It is used to provide total abstraction. That
means all the methods in interface are declared with empty body and are public and all
fields are public, static and final by default. A class that implement interface must
implement all the methods declared in the interface. To implement interface
use implements keyword.
Why do we use interface?
+ Itisused to achieve total abstraction.
* Since java does not support multiple inheritance in case of cass, but by using
interface it can achieve multiple inheritance.
// & simple interface
interface Player
final int id = 10;
int move();
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] a2Example of Interface
// Java program to demonstrate working of
// interface.
import java.io.*;
J/ & simple interface
interface inl
{
// public, static and final
final int a = 10;
// public and abstract
void display();
3
J] A class that implements interface.
class testClass implements ind
{
// Implementing the capabilities of
I) interface.
public void display()
{
System. out. printin(“Geek");
}
// Driver Code
public static void main (String[] args)
{
testClass t = new testClass();
t.display();
System. out .printin(a);
3
+
Output:
Geek
10
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA]Use of Interface to achieve multiple inheritance
Let us say we have two interfaces A & B and two classes C & D. Then we can achieve
multiple inheritance using interfaces as follows:
interface A{ }
interface B{ }
class C{ }
class D extends C implements A,B { }
Example Program
interface interfacel{
void display1();
t
interface interface2f]
void display2();
W
class A{
void display3() {
System.out.print1n("I am inside class");
}
}
class B extends A implements interface1, interface2{
public void display1() {
System.out.println("I am inside interfacei");
+
public void display2() {
System.out.print1n("I am inside interface2");
+
}
public class Multilevel {
public static void main(String[] args) {
B obj=new B();
obj-display1();
obj.display2();
obj. display3();|
}
}
Output
I am inside interfacel
I am inside interface2
I am inside class
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] a4Another Example
interface interfacel{
int o=20,b=10;
void add();
+
class Ax{|
int diff;
void subtract (int x,int y) {
diff=x-y;
System.out.print1n("Subtraction= "+diff);
)
q
class Bx extends Ax implements interfacel{
int sum;
public void add() {
sum=a+b;
System. out. print1n("Addition=
"+sum) 5
+
public class Multilevel {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Bx obj=new Bx()5
obj.add();
obj.subtract(50, f1);|
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA]
4sDynamic Method Dispatch
Method overriding forms the basis for one of Java’s most powerful concepts: dynamic
method dispatch. Dynamic method dispatch is the mechanism by which a call to an
overridden method is resolved at run time, rather than compile time. Dynamic method
dispatch is important because this is how Java implements run-time polymorphism.
Here is an example that illustrates dynamic method dispatch:
// Dynamic Method Dispatch
class A {
void callme() {
System.out .printIn("Inside A's callme method");
}
4
class B extends A {
// override calime()
void callme() {
System.out .printin("Inside B's callme method") ;
}
'
class C extends A {
// override calime()
void callme() {
System.out.printin("Inside C's callme method") ;
} }
class Dispatch {
public static void main(String args{}) {
Aa = new A(); // object of type A
Bb = new B(); // object of type B
Cc = new C(); // object of type C
Ar; // obtain a reference of type A
r =a; // x refers to an A object
r.callme(); // calls A's version of callme
x= b; // x refers to a B object
r.callme(); // calls B's version of callme
r=; // x refers to a C object
r.callme(); // calls C's version of callme
}
}
The output from the program is shown here:
Inside A’s callme method
Inside B’s callme method
Inside C’s callme method
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 46This program creates one superclass called A and two subclasses of it, called B and C.
Subclasses B and C override callme( ) declared in A. Inside the main( ) method, objects of
type A,B, and C are declared. Also, a reference of type A, called r, is declared. The program
then in turn assigns a reference to each type of object to r and uses that reference to invoke
callme{ ). As the output shows, the version of callme( ) executed is determined by the type
of object being referred to at the time of the call. Had it been determined by the type of the
reference variable, r, you would see three calls to A’s callme( ) method.
Super Keyword
The super keyword in java is @ reference variable that is used to refer parent class
objects. The keyword “super” came into the picture with the concept of Inheritance. It is
majorly used in the following contexts:
1, Use of super with variables: This scenario occurs when a derived class and base class has
same data members. In that case there is a possibility of ambiguity for the JVM. We can
understand it more clearly using this code snippet:
/* Base class vehicle */
class Vehicle
{
+
int maxSpeed - 120;
/* sub class Car extending vehicle */
class Car extends Vehicle
{
int maxSpeed = 180;
void display()
{
/* print naxSpeed of base class (vehicle) */
System.out.printIn( "Maximum Speed: " + super.maxSpeed) ;
}
}
/* Driver program to test */
class Test
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Car small = new Car()5
small.display();
Output:
Maximum Speed: 120
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] a7In the above example, both base class and subclass have a member maxSpeed. We could
access maxSpeed of base class in subclass using super keyword.
2. Use of super with methods: This is used when we want to call parent class method. So
whenever a parent and child class have same named methods then to resolve ambiguity we
use super keyword. This code snippet helps to understand the said usage of super keyword.
/* Base class Person */
class Person
{
void message()
System.out.println(“This is person class");
}
/* Subclass Student */
class Student extends Person
{
void message()
{
System.out.printin("This is student class"
+
J] Note that display() is only in Student class
void display()
J/ will invoke or call current class message() method
message(s
1/ will invoke or call parent class message() method
super.message();
+
}
/* Driver program to test
class Test
t
public static void main(String args[])
{
Student s = new Student()5
I/ calling displey() of Student
s.display();
+
t
Output
This is student class
This is person class
In the above example, we have seen that if we only call method message () then, the current
class message () is invoked but with the use of super keyword, message () of superclass
could also be invoked.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 483. Use of super with constructors: super keyword can also be used to access the parent
class constructor. One more important thing is that, ‘super’ can call both parametric as well
as non-parametric constructors depending upon the situation. Following is the code snippet
to explain the above concept:
/* superclass Person */
class Person
t
Person()
{
System. out.printIn("Person class Constructor
}
}
/* subclass Student extending the Person class */
class Student extends Person
t
Student()
{
// invoke or call parent class constructor
super()5
System.out.printIn("Student class Constructor");
}
+
/* Driver program to test*/
class Test
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Student s = new Student();
t
}
Output:
Person class Constructor
Student class Constructor
In the above example we have called the superclass constructor using keyword ‘super’ via
subclass constructor.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 49Abstract and Final Classes
Abstract class has been discussed already in Unit-3 (Abstraction).
The keyword final has three uses. First, it can be used to create the equivalent of anamed
constant. The other two uses of final apply to inheritance.
Using final to Prevent Overriding
While method overriding is one of Java’s most powerful features, there will be times when
you will want to prevent it from occurring, To disallow a method from being overridden,
specify final as a modifier at the start of its declaration. Methods declared as final cannot be
overridden. The following fragment illustrates final:
class A {
final void meth() {
System.out .printin(*This is a
)
)
1 method.) ;
class B extends a {
void meth() { // ERROR! Can’
System. out .print1n(*Tilegal!*) ;
}
}
Because meth () is declared as final, it cannot be overridden in B. If you attempt to do so, a
compile-time error will result.
Using final to Prevent Inheritance
Sometimes you will want to prevent a class from being inherited. To do this, precede the
class declaration with final. Declaring a class as final implicitly declares all of its methods as,
final, too. As you might expect, it is illegal to declare a class as both abstract and final since
an abstract class is incomplete by itself and relies upon its subclasses to provide complete
implementations.
Here is an example of a final class:
final
W
)
ase A {
// The following class
class B extends A { /
Wi
)
2 {2legal
ROR! Can't subclass A
As the comments imply, itis illegal for B to inherit A Since A is declared as final.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 50The Object Class
There is one special class, Object, defined by Java. All other classes are subclasses of Object.
That is, Object is a superclass of all other classes. This means that a reference variable of
type Object can refer to an object of any other class. Also, since arrays are implemented as
classes, a variable of type Object can also refer to any array.
Object defines the following methods, which means that they are available in every object
Method
Jobject clone( )
boolean equais(Object object)
void finalize )
Class getClass( )
int hashCode( )
void notify( )
[void nouityAlK )
String toString( )
[void wait)
void wait(long milliseconds)
|void waitiiong milisecones,
int nanoseconds)
Purpose
Creates new object that is the same as the object being cloned.
Determines whether one object is equal to another.
Called before an unused object is recycled.
Obtains the class of an object at run time.
Returns the hash code associated with the invoking object.
Resumes execution of a thread waiting on the invoking abject.
Resumes execution of all threads waiting on the invoking object.
Returns a string that describes the object.
‘Waits on another thread of execution,
The methods getClass( ), notify( ), notifyAll( ), and wait( ) are declared as final. You may
override the others. However, notice two methods now: equals( ) and toString( ). The
equals( ) method compares the contents of two objects. It returns true if the objects are
equivalent, and false otherwise.
Package
A Java package Is a group of similar types of classes, interfaces and sub-packages. Package in
java can be categorized in two form, built-in package and user-defined package. There are
many built-in packages such as java, lang, awt, javax, swing, net, io, util, sql etc.
Advantage of Java Package
1) Java package is used to categorize the classes and interfaces so that they can be easily
maintained.
2) Java package provides access protection.
3) Java package removes naming collision.
The package keyword is used to create 2 package in java.
//save as Simple.java
package mypack;
public class Simple
Output :Helle
‘Subpackage in java
Package inside the package Is called the subpackage.
package java.util. Scanner;
class Simplet
public static void main(String args[]){
‘Scanner scan=new Scanner(System.
‘System.out.printin("Enter a number");
int a = scan.nextint();
‘System.out.printin(“Inputted number is: “+a);
+}
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 52Unit — 5 Handling Error/Exceptions [2 Hr:
‘An exception is an unwanted or unexpected event, which occurs during the execution of a
program i.e. atrun time, that disrupts the normal flow of the program's instructions.
Error vs Exception
Error: An Error indicates serious problem that a reasonable application should not try to
catch.
Exception: Exception indicates conditions that a reasonable application might try to catch.
‘An exception (or exceptional event) is a problem that arises during the execution of a
program. When an Exception occurs the normal flow of the program is disrupted and the
program/Application terminates abnormally, which is not recommended, therefore, these
exceptions are to be handled
‘An exception can occur for many different reasons. Following are some scenarios where an
exception occurs.
+ Auser has entered an invalid data.
+ file that needs to be opened cannot be found.
+ Anetwork connection has been lost in the middle of communications or the JVM has
run out of memory.
Some of these exceptions are caused by user error, others by programmer error, and others
by physical resources that have failed in some manner.
Based on these, we have three categories of Exceptions. You need to understand them to
know how exception handling works in Java.
* Checked exceptions - A checked exception is an exception that is checked (notified)
by the compiler at compilation-time, these are also called as compile time
exceptions. These exceptions cannot simply be ignored; the programmer should take
care of (handle) these exceptions.
* Unchecked exceptions - An unchecked exception is an exception that occurs at the
time of execution. These are also called as Runtime Exceptions. These include
programming bugs, such as logic errors or improper use of an API. Runtime
exceptions are ignored at the time of compilation.
«Errors - These are not exceptions at all, but problems that arise beyond the control
of the user or the programmer. Errors are typically ignored in your code because you
can rarely do anything about an error. For example, if a stack overflow occurs, an
error will arise, They are also ignored at the time of compilation.
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 53Hierarchy of Java Exception classes
The java.lang, Throwable class is the root class of Java Exception hierarchy which is inherited
by two subclasses: Exception and Error. A hierarchy of Java Exception classes are given
below:
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] saJava Exception Keywords
There are 5 keywords which are used in handling exceptions in Java.
Keyword |Description
try The "try" keyword is used to specify a block where we should place exception
code. The try block must be followed by either catch or finally. It means, we
can't use try block alone.
catch The “catch” block is used to handle the exception. It must be preceded by try
block which means we can't use catch block alone. It can be followed by
finally block later.
finally ‘The “finally” block Is used to execute the Important code of the program. It is
executed whether an exception is handled or not.
throw The "throw" keyword is used to throw an exception.
throws | The "throws" keyword is used to declare exceptions. It doesn't throw an
exception. It specifies thet there may occur an exception in the method. It is
always used with method signature.
Java Exception Handling Example
Let's see an example of Java Exception Handling where we using a try-catch statement to
handle the exception.
public class JavaExceptionExample{
void main(String args[])
+
Output:
Exception in thread main java.lang.A
rest of the co
hmeticException:/ by zero
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 55Common Scenarios of Java Exceptions
There are given some scenarios where unchecked exceptions may occur. They are as
follows
1) A scenario where ArithmeticException occurs
If we divide any number by zero, there occurs an ArithmeticException
int a=50/0;//Arithmeticexception
2) A scenario where NullPointertxception occurs
If we have a null value in any variable, performing any operation on the variable throws a
NuliPointerException
String s=null;
System. out.printin(s.length());//NullPointerException
3) A scenario where NumberFormat€xception occurs
The wrong formatting of any value may occur NumberFormatException. Suppose | have a
string variable that has characters, converting this variable into digit will occur
NumberFormatException.
String "5
int i=Integer.parseint(s);//NumberFormatéxception
‘abc’
4) A scenario where ArrayindexOutOfBoundsException occurs
If you are inserting any value in the wrong index, it would result in
ArrayindexOutOfBoundsException as shown below:
int a[]=new int[5];
a[10]=50; //ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
Java finally block
Java finally block is a block that is used to execute important code such as closing
connection, stream etc.
Java finally block is always executed whether exception is handled or not. Java finally block
follows try or catch block.
public class TestFinallyBlock2{
public static void main(String args[]){
try{
int data=25/0;
‘System.out.printin(data);,
>
catch(ArithmeticException e){
System.out.printin(e);
3
finally{
‘System.out. printin("finally block is always executed");
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 56+
‘System.out.printin(“rest of the code...");
Exception in thread main java.lang.Arithmeticaxception:/ by zero
finally block is always executed
rest of the code...
Java Multi-catch block
A try block can be followed by one or more catch blocks. Each catch block must contain a
different exception handler. So, if you have to perform different tasks at the occurrence of
different exceptions, use java multi-catch block.
At a time only one exception occurs and at a time only one catch block is executed.
All catch blocks must be ordered from most specific to most general, i.e. catch for
ArithmeticException must come before catch for Exception.
public class MultiplecatchBiock1 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
try{
int a[]=new int[5];
a[5]=30/0;
+
catch(Arithmeticexception e)
Output:
ArraylndexOutofBounds Exception occurs
rest of the code
Java Nested try block
The try block within a try block is known as nested try block in java. Sometimes a situation
may arise where a part of a block may cause one error and the entire block itself may cause
another error. In such cases, exception handlers have to be nested.
Syntay
try
{
statement 1;
statement 2;
try
{
statement 1
statement 2;
}
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA] 58catch(Exception e)
}
}
catch(Exception e)
{
}
Example:
class Excep6{
public static void main(String args[])
System out printin(“other statement);
}eatch(Exception e){
System.out.printin("handeled");
+
System.out.printin("normal flow..");
+
+
Prepared by: Raju Poudel [MCA]
59Java throw keyword
The Java throw keyword is used to explicitly throw an exception.
We can throw either checked or uncheked exception in java by throw keyword. The throw
keyword is mainly used to throw custom exception.
The syntax of java throw keyword is given below.
throw new lOException("sorry device error);
Example:
In this example, we have created the validate method that takes integer value as a
parameter. If the age is less than 18, we are throwing the ArithmeticException otherwise
print a message welcome to vote.
public class TestThrow1{
static void validate(int age){
if(age s2, it returns positive number
si
