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Academic
Encounters
READING
WRITING
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2nd Edition
Jennifer Wharton
Series Editor: Bernard Seal

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UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Scope and sequence iv

Introduction viii
To the student xv
Acknowledgments xvi

Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 4

Chapter 2 The Dynamic Earth 27

51

Chapter 3 Earth's Water Supply 54

Chapter 4 Earth's Oceans 77

101

Chapter 5 Earth's Atmosphere 104

Chapter 6 Weather and Climate 127

151

Chapter 7 Plants and Animals 154

Chapter 8 Humans 179

Weights and Measures 205

Appendix: Academic Word List vocabulary 206
Skills index 207
Credits 208
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it · Planet Earth •
Content Reading Skills Writing Skills
Reading 1 Thinking about the topic Parts of speech
Our Solar System Previewing art Comparative adjectives
Chapter 1 Asking and answering
Reading 2
The Physical Earth's Four Systems questions about a text
Earth Previewing key parts of a
Reading 3 text
page 3
Rocks on Our Planet

Reading 1 Using headings to remember Writing simple and

Plate Tectonics main ideas compound sentences
Chapter 2 Building background Writing definitions
Reading 2
The Dynamic Volcanoes knowledge about the topic Pronoun reference
Earth Reading boxed texts Showing contrast
Reading 3 Illustrating main ideas
page 27 Earthquakes Thinking about the topic
Reading for main ideas

u ·+ '2: Water on Earth • 51

Content Reading Skills Writing Ski Us
Reading 1 Thinking about the topic Identifying topic
The Water Cycle Examining graphics sentences
Chapter 3 Sequencing Identifying topic sentences
Reading 2
Earth's Water Groundwater and Reading about statistics and supporting sentences
Supply Surface Water Increasing reading speed Writing topic sentences
page 54 Reading for main ideas and supporting sentences
Reading 3 Scanning
Glaciers

Reading 1 Thinking about the topic Writing about superlatives

Oceans Building background Describing results
Chapter 4 knowledge about the topic Concluding sentences
Reading 2
Earth's Currents Reading maps Parallel structure
Oceans Examining graphics Both... and and neither ...
Reading 3 Brainstorming nor
page 77 Waves and Tsunamis Reading for main ideas and Reviewing paragraph
details structure

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Vocabulary Skills Academic Success Skills Learning Outcomes

Words from Latin and Greek Highlighting
Cues for finding word Making a pie chart
meaning Answering multiple-choice questions
Learning verbs with their Labeling diagrams
prepositions

Write an academic
paragraph about a
Previewing key words Reading maps place on Earth you like
Prefixes Answering true/false questions
Prepositional phrases
Using grammar, context, and
background knowledge to
guess meaning

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Vocabulary Skills Academic Success Skills Learning Outcomes

Antonyms Understanding test questions
Suffixes that change verbs Answering multiple-choice questions
into nouns Mapping
Countable and uncountable Conducting a survey
nouns irLanguage.com
Subject-verb agreement

Write an academic
paragraph about a
Subject-verb agreement Taking notes water feature on earth
Too and very Highlighting
Adjective suffixes Labeling a map
Organizing ideas

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Uni 3· The Air Around Us 101

Content • Reading Skills (Z> Writing Skills
Reading 1 Previewing key terms Reviewing paragraph
The Composition of the Building background structure
Chapter 5 Atmosphere knowledge about the topic Transition words
Reading 2 Thinking about the topic Writing about height
Earth's
The Structure of the Previewing key parts of a Writing an observation
Atmosphere
Atmosphere text report
page 104 Examining graphics
Reading 3 Previewing art
Clouds

Reading 1 Thinking about the topic Introducing examples

Climates Around the Applying what you have read
Chapter 6
World Previewing key parts of a text
Weather and Increasing reading speed
Reading 2
Climate Storms Reading for main ideas
page 127
Reading 3
Hurricanes

Unit 4: Life on Earth• 151

Content Reading Skills (Z> Writing Skills
Reading 1 Thinking about the topic Writing about similarities
Living Things Building background Writing about differences
Chapter 7 knowledge about the topic Writing about similarities
Reading 2
Plants and Plant Life Previewing key parts of a and differences
Animals text
Reading 3 irLanguage.com
page 154 Animal Life

Reading 1 Thinking about the topic Writing a description

The Brain Applying what you have Writing about the body
Reading 2 read
Chapter 8 The Skeletal and Increasing reading speed
Muscular Systems Asking and answering
Humans
questions about a text
page 179 Reading 3 Scanning for details
The Heart and the Building background
Circulatory System 0�1.>:!1 u�j l!:?.;o
knowledge about the topic
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Sequencing

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G Vocabulary Skills • Academic Success Skills Learning Outcomes

Guessing meaning from Examining test questions
context Taking notes with a chart
Describing parts Using symbols and abbreviations
Playing with words
Colons, such as, and lists
Words from Latin and Greek
When clauses Write an academic
paragraph about the
climate in a place you
Defining key words Understanding averages know
Using a dictionary Using a Venn diagram to organize
Using this/that/these/those ideas from a text
to connect ideas Examining statistics
Synonyms Thinking critically about the topic
Prepositions of location

G Vocabulary Skills Academic Success Skills Learning Outcomes

Word families Answering true/false questions
Defining key words Asking for clarification
Cues for finding word Conducting a survey
meaning Making an outline
That clauses Applying what you have read
Compound words Thinking critically about the topic

Write an academic
Using adjectives Highlighting and taking notes paragraph about the
Gerunds Using a dictionary human body
Words that can be used as Conducting an experiment
nouns or verbs Answering multiple-choice questions
Prepositions of direction Highlighting and making an outline
Playing with words

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The Series
Academic Encounters is a sustained content-based series for English language learners
preparing to study college-level subject matter in English. The goal of the series is to
expose students to the types of texts and tasks that they will encounter in their academic
coursework and provide them with the skills to be successful when that encounter occurs.

Academic Content
At each level in the series, there are two thematically paired books. One is an academic
reading and writing skills book, in which students encounter readings that are based on
authentic academic texts. In this book, students are given the skills to understand texts
and respond to them in writing. The reading and writing book is paired with an academic
listening and speaking skills book, in which students encounter interview and lecture
material specially prepared by experts in their field. In this book, students learn how to take
notes from a lecture, participate in discussions, and prepare short oral presentations.

Flexibility
The books at each level may be used as stand-alone reading and writing books or listening
and speaking books. They may also be used together to create a complete four-skills
course. This is made possible because the content of each book at each level is very
closely related. Each unit and chapter, for example, has the same title
and deals with similar content, so that teachers can easily focus
on different skills, but the similar content, as they toggle from
one book to the other. Additionally, if the books are taught
together, when students are presented with the culminating
unit writing or speaking assignment, they will have a rich and
varied supply of reading and lecture material to draw on.
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" Sustained

A sustained content approach teaches language through the study of subject

matter from one or two related academic content areas. This approach
simulates the experience of university courses and better prepares students
for academic study.

Students benefit from a

sustained content approach
Real-world academic language and skills
Students learn how to understand and use academic language because
they are studying actual academic content .

An authentic, intensive experience

By immersing students in the language of a single academic discipline,
sustained content helps prepare them for the rigor of later coursework.

Natural recycling of language

Because a sustained content course focuses on a particular academic
discipline, concepts and language naturally recur. As students progress
through the course, their ability to work with authentic language
improves dramatically. irLanguage.com

Knowledge of common academic content

When students work with content from the most popular university
courses, they gain real knowledge of these academic disciplines. This
helps them to be more successful when they move on to later coursework.

The Content Areas of Academic Encounters

Level 1 Level 2
The Natural World American Studies
Earth Science American History, Politics,
and Biology Government, and Culture

Level 3 Level 4
Life in Society Human Behavior
Sociology Psychology and
Communication

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www Languagecom

Reading Sk1Us � Writing SkiUs

The reading skills tasks are designed Students Learn how to notice and
to help students develop strategies analyze written texts, develop
before reading, while reading, and critical writing skills, and apply
after reading. these in Longer writing tasks. These
skills and tasks were carefully
selected to prepare students for
university study.

'1 Vocabulary Development 0 Academic Success

Vocabulary learning is an essential Besides learning how to read, write, and
part of improving one's ability to read build their language proficiency, students
an academic text. Tasks throughout also have to learn other skills that
the books focus on particular sets of are particularly important in academic
vocabulary that are important for reading settings. These include skills such as
in a specific subject area as well as Learning how to prepare for a content
vocabulary from the Academic Word List. test, answering certain types of test
questions, taking notes, and working in
study groups.

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Learning to read

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PREPARING TO READ
1 Thinking about the topic (i)
Pre-reading is a crucial step in the
Look at these photographs. Thon discuss 1he
questions bOk>w In a small g,oup.
reading process. Academic Encounters
a.
teaches important skills to help
students succeed when preparing to
read university textbooks.

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2. What do they all have 1n common?
3. What are some Other famous places made
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of rock?
4. What do people use rocks tor? Try to think
of at least lhree uses
5. Did buitderS use any tocks to construc1
your school 0t your home,? Are there any thmgs 1ns1de your school or heme that are
made of rock?

2 Previewing key parts of a text I)

A Read these key parts of the ·text '"Rocks on Our Planet" on pages 19-20:
• 1he t,tle
Reading 3
• the introductory paragraphs
• the headings EARTHQUAKES
• the photographs and Ulus,rations As 197'1 camt to an end and lh� ntw )'t3.r began, animals In
Haicheng, China, started acting strangdy. Snakts normally hibernate
B Answer Hlese ques11ons with a partner. underground during the winter, but they suddenly came out o( thtir
1. How many main types of 1ocks does Earth have? holes. Dogs btgan to bark and run around "'ildly. and horses became
2. What are !heir names? , so upset that some ran away. Why were the animals acting like this?
Many people think that the ;mimals sensed "''hat was coming: On
3. What Is the rock cycle? February 4, 197$, the earth began to shake and buildings collapsed as
a very fargc car1hquakc $truck the cit.y of Haichcng.
18 Unit t Pfanet Earth irLanguage.com Whit CIUHI 11rthqu1kes?
When the 1cctonic plates that makc up Earlh's crust move past tach
"' other, they often bump or rub against each other. The earlh, or
ground, above the pla1e.s moves as welt This movement is called an
earthquake. Sometimes the plates g� stuck. The pressure increases as
the 1v.·o plates try to move past each other but cannot. Tht'y finally
move with a sudden and powerful jerk. 1'his cin also cause an
1� earthquake. During a small carthqu;akc. the ground simply shakes a
littl t', and people may not even notice. However, e. strong movement
can cause the ground to shake and roll violently. It can make buildings
:md bridges fall. It can also caust the ground to splil open and form a

The readings are based on large fault, or crack.

Where do 11rthqu1kes happen?
university textbooks, so students 20 Earthquakes can happen anywhcrt-, but certain places have mort
earthquakes. Thest places sit on tectonic pl::ues that move frcquc-ntly.
improve their ability to read One example is the arta around the Pacific Plate, which includes
China. the Philipplnts. Japan, and the western coasts of Canada,
authentic academic materials. the United States, and South America. Earthquakes arc common in
,. those places. The deadllt'st earthquake in modern limes happened in
1976 in Tangshan. China. It lasted le$$ than two minutes, but more
than 250.000 people died, and more 1han 90 pcn:e.nt or the buildings
collapsed. Earthquake scientists study places such as Tangshan because
of the many faults in these areas and the ac1ivity of thC' tectonic plates.

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The Structure of

!I
-
3 SubJect-verb agreement G
Singular subjects take slngular vems. Remember that. in the present tense, ttm'd·
pec,on oingular vert>s end In·• O< -es.
:j Extensive scaffolding activities
teach students the structure of :,:

:::
subject
lllgRock
ve,1)

weighs unoot 14,970 metric tons. It Is 9 me,.,. high.

academic writing. �

-
subject ::-
·-
ve,1)

Agloci« deep valt,eys as ft ddN over the ground. .. ., .•...

Plural subject& take plural vert>s. Plural verbs do not end In •S.
sul>joct ve,1)
11
r---i !:
Sdo,1Clsla gloc,et'S to loam abolJ1 ""'1d climlltos.

(
lJnco<Ml.- nouns take slngular vert>s.
subt9Ct vwt,
.--, r--1
Wotor CO'ttlR 91 percent of Earth'e surface. !,'

Complete the sentences wrth lhl correct form o1 the verb ., parentneses.
1. A glactef ___ (form) when the snow In an area does not melt. Over bme, mis
snow ___ (tum) into ICe.
2. In .some giacu&rs, the ice ___ (be) thousands ot yea,s otd.
3. Glacterl ___ (contain) more than 75 percent of Earth's freshwater.
4. Every cont.nen1 ___ (have� glaciers exc� Australla.

4 ldent1fy1ng topic sentences and supporting sentences 1210

Many paragraphs In academic English begin with e topk: Mntence.
Supponlng - follow the topic sentence.
i:
' WWW lI;{..uOf':lUlft:Cl
• top6c eenteinceis: stat• the ma.-. id9a of I text
• major...__ dQolJy support a topic oontence;
...,�: answer qu,est,ons such u how, why, Ot wt>ert
• mlncw euS)pOrting dlrecuy support • major supporting serrtence: answer
Hntenc.t: questk>na such as how, why, or when with specific infOfflladon 8 Highlight 1he topic sentenct
C H,gn.ght thl sentences that prov)de meJo, support for the 1opec Nntenct.
A Read tho poragrapn below
Use a MOOnd cdor.
::·
Glaclt"rs ch� the ,1urface o( ow: planet ln different .,.,. .,.ys. One w.y i$ by shaping 0 H9htlght the sentences that provide mn:w (o( � support fo, (ht toplC sentence
the land. For namplc, glacier, carve U-shaptd valleys and form sharp mountaln1op1.
Glad us can also move big rocks 10 other locations. Anolhrr way glaciers change Earth
is by cre-atJng Jakes. For inJta.nee, Mirl"Of" Lau and the Great 1.a.ket in tbt Unit«! States
Use e thtrd colOr.
E Notice 1ha1 the last sentence in the paragrapt, Is the concluding Nnlenef.
"'
wer< fonned by glad<r,. Lake Loulw In Canada I, another oxampl<. Earth would look F An$w,or T foe' true or F fo, talse. Compare an5we,s Wfffl a partner
"Trf dlfftttnt -...ithout lM work of gixins.
_ t . The sentence "'One way is by shaDlr,g the land"' direcuy suopottS the mp, lldN,
_ 2. The paragraph glvN examples to prove the major support,ng s«'llences
72 Unit 2 Water on Earth _ 3. The main Klea of the paragraph � thal glacier.. can car"Ve the land. ::-.
:,..
-·- 5 Wntrng topic sentences and supporting sentences 121
A Look at the tapes. Wnte • loPiC senteflC8 to, Met'l lopc. Remember: Tope sentenc..
stale mwi idea that can be proved. Examples, tlustr.ltions. facts. Of sblllsbcs stlOW
Of prove )'C<lf point.
Examp,le: "
- Topic: GIK*S and climate
TopcHnlttnee: �a:i:w:111..IBZl,ik•.aw
'i
Ma,o,support. fm:i::::511:.,,.:2:IA�'-ln:.:!W:i!jlJl:tzf.i,lkif.J-
Students learn key writing ,· Mlt'IOI' support: Gwcc:r!tW\rn,t;fl'b:-a:i:ifJ?!rWtENV!14PC""".....,,.,h:;"

skills such as summarizing and I: 1. Topte; Lakes and � of freshwauw

Topic sentence-:

avoiding plagiarism. This early -

Map, IUc,port;
focus prepares students for later Minor auppo,1: ;.;

extended writing tasks. I:

2. Top,c; Tho '"'l)Oftal1C4l o1 glad""
Tope Mntence:

MaiOfa.,pport

Mlnor support: ,;.

:,
B Go beck to Step A.. Write one mtfOI' .supporting tentence and one supporting
\)�•�• o�j�.14
fflR)f'

sent«iee for NCh topic.

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Chapt..-' 3 &,,th� Water� 72

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lmmersive

The full-color design mirrors

university textbooks, ensuring that
students not only practice reading
authentic texts, but also receive an
authentic university experience.

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THE WATER CYCLE

We call our planet Earth, but many people say that we should call
it Water. Water covets more than 70 percent of our planet. Wattt ts
C$$Cntial to life on Earth. We drink lt. swim In it, dean wi1h it, and
use it in many other ways. Surprisingly. the amou.nt of water on Earth
, docs not decrease even though we U5C so much oflt every day. This is
because mllurt recycles water in a process called tltc waler eydt. (also
called rhc hydrologic cydc). The water cycle is the movC"mcnt of water
from Eanh Into the atmosphere and back to Earth again.
PREPARING TO READ
Whit ore the 1tep1 of the water cycle?
Ev.tpor.11tion is the fiut step in the water cycle. This is the pro<:C$.S that evaporation the Increasing reading speed u
,o changes water from a Uqujd 10 a gas. t-:ncrgy from the sun produces process <hat
cv1poralion. When the sun heats waler, some of the wa1er turns into chorige:sahe.)tGd Academic classes often require a lot of reading. However, there Is not atways time to
a gas called water *!lapor.Wa1er evaporates anywhere there is sun and liQIJ,dto,:1gas read every text slowty and carefully. Reading speed can be as Important as reading
water. Most evaporation of water on Earth is from the oceans, but compreheosJon. Here are some strategies fo, Increasing your reading speed:
there is also evaporation from lakes, rivers, and even from wet skin • Read the text straight thrOugh. Do not go back to any parts of ft.
·� and clothing.
• Do not stop to look up words In a dtetionary.
• Skip over words you do not know if they do not seem Important.
Chapter 3 Eatf}i's Water Supply • Try to guess the meaning of words that seem Important.
• Slow down a little to understand lmpartant parts, such as deflnttlons and
malnJdeas.

A Read the text "Glaciers." Use the strategies listed abOve. For this task. do not read the
bOxed text on page 70.
www.irLanguage.com 1. Before you begin, fill In your starting time. Starting time; ___
2. Fill in the time you finished.
FinlShlng time: ___
B Calculate your reading speed:
I Reading speed: ---
Number of words in the text (418) + Number
Throughout each unit, of minutes it took you to read the teJCt = your
reading speed

explanatory boxes Your reading $peed • the number of words you can read per minute.
C Check your reading comp,ehension. Circle the COr'tect answers.Do not look at the text.
describe each skill and 1. Glaciers are made of
a. t,eShwater and saltwa.ter.
help students understand b. soil and rocks.

why it is important. c. layers of k:o.

2. Glaciers can move
8. rocks and soil.
b. people and animals.
c. rivers and oceans.
3. Glaciers move
8. quickly.
b.slowty.
c. not at all.

68 Unit 2 Water or, Earth

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Academic Vocabulary
and Writing

Chapter 3 Academic Vocabulary Review Academic vocabulary development

1ne following words appear 1n t.he readings In Chapter 3 They an come from the
Academic Vilord List. a list of words that resean;:hers have discovered occur frequently in
many different types of academe texts For a complete list of 811 the Academic Word List
is critical to student success. Each
words in this chapter and Wl all the reachngs m this book, see the Appendix on page 206.
unit includes intensive vocabulary
accessible generations occu,
practice, including words from the
"""'llY
approximately environment glObal pem,nt
contrast envifonmentahsts la""'•{n) source

Complele th& following sentences with words from the list above.
Academic Word List.
1. ln 2012, about half of the people In the United States drank sooa every day, and 64
--- drank coffee every day.
2. Air and water pollution Is a ___ Pf'Ob!em. People from many different
countries struggle wtth this issue.
3. Some farmers use wind ___ to pump water from the ground.
4. Chewang Norphel's fam,ty has lived ln India for many---·
5. Oceans and riv� are a major ___ or Income for people whO fish their
waters.
6. Most dolphlns live ITT the ocean, but the ptnk river dofphm lives in a freshwater
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7. Mount Koscluszko in Australla is considered an ___ mountain, and more
than 100,000 people climb It every year.
8. Many people enjoy hiking In the mountains, but problems can --� Do not
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hike In the moun1ains unless you are tam1har with the area.
9. ___ often warn us thet we might destroy our planet. They say we must not
pollute the water, land, and air.
10. Today, glaciers cover about 10 percec,t of the land on Earth. This is a huge
--- to twenty thousand years ago; then, glaciets covered 32 percent of the
land on Earth.
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i,l Nl':'i;IOM
1

A Now write the first draft of your paragraph.

B Star1 with a clear topic .sentence. Include at .St th<ee major supporthg detalJs.
Use examples and statisUcs to �aln and support your kteas. Make sore you add
specrflc supporting e:xarnples and statlstics. Use tNs checklist.
Are you lnclucling:
_ a topic sentence that stc1tes the main k:Sea of the paragraph
_ ma}oJ supporting details
_ minor detalls that iftustrate the major or key support
74 Unit 2 Water on Earth _ a concluding sentence lha1 restates the main idea (Be swe to make the
concluding sentance a tlttle different from the topic sentence.)
_ correct paragraph form end structure
_ vocabUlaty you �amed in this chapter
_ corJ8CI senterices wtth subjects and verbs that agree
C Gtve your paragraph a title,

AFTER YOU WAITE

A Exchange paragraphs with a partner and reild each other's work. Then dtscvas the

Students complete each unit by following questions about both paragraphs:

• What ls the most interesting Information In your � paragraph?

applying their skills and knowledge • OOes your partner's paragraph have correct form and structure?
How do )'OU know? Explain.

in an extended writing task that • Do the tapic sentences make a claim about the toptC?
• Are supporting deta�s included, such es exampH'S or tacts?

replicates university coursework. • Ive all of the Ideas presented ln a k>glcal order? What are the tran&!tion words?
• Is all of the Information on topic?
• Ate there $pelling or grammar mistakes?

B Think about Bfly changes to your paragraph that would Improve it. Then write a second
draft of the paragraph.

ir Language.coni 1 ao Unit a The AJr A!Ound u,

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To the student
Welcome to Academic Encounters 1 Reading and Writing: The Natural World!

The Academic Encounters series gets its name because in this series you will
encounter, or meet, the kinds of academic texts (lectures and readings), academic
language (grammar and vocabulary), and academic tasks (taking tests, writing
papers, and giving presentations) that you will encounter when you study an
academic subject area in English. The goal of the series, therefore, is to prepare you
for that encounter.

The approach of Academic Encounters 1 Reading and Writing: The Natural World,
may be different from what you are used to in your English studies. In this book, you
are asked to study an academic subject area and be responsible for learning that
information, in the same way as you might study in a college or university course.
You will find that as you study this information, you will at the same time improve
your English language proficiency and develop the skills that you will need to be
successful when you come to study in your own academic subject area in English.

In Academic Encounters 1 Reading and Writing: The Natural World, for example, you
will learn:

• how to read academic texts

• ways to think critically about what you read
• how to write in an academic style
• methods of preparing for tests
• strategies for dealing with new vocabulary
• note-taking and study techniques

This course is designed to help you study in English in any subject matter. However,
because during the study of this book, you will learn a lot of new information about
research findings and theories in the field of sociology, you may feel that by the end
you have enough background information to one day take and be successful in an
introductory course in sociology in English.

We certainly hope that you find Academic Encounters 1 Reading and Writing: The
Natural World useful. We also hope that you will find it to be enjoyable. It is important
to remember that the most successful learning takes place when you enjoy what you
are studying and find it interesting. irLanguage.com

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Author's acknowledgments
While not as all-consuming as writing the first edition, working on the second edition of The
Natural World allowed me to revisit the process of creating something good. It also allowed
me, once again, to enjoy the collaborative effort that goes into producing a textbook. I
would like to express my sincere thanks to all the people at Cambridge who worked so
hard to ensure that the best book possible would be published, and a special thanks to
Bernard Seal, Series Editor, Christopher Sol Cruz, Editorial Manager, and Susan Johnson,
Senior Development Editor. I would also like to acknowledge the people whose support
and guidance made the book possible the first time around: Kathleen O'Reilly, Amy Cooper,
Donna Prather, Patty Reiss, and Beth Edwards. And mahalo nui loa to Yoneko Kanaoka, for
the many years of friendship and teaching adventures we have shared.

I am also very grateful to Caitlin Mara, Managing Editor, Robin Berenbaum, Associate Editor,
and all of those who made invaluable comments and suggestions.

My students have taught me many things over the years. Like most teachers, I have learned
a lot in the classroom, and I have tried to remember those lessons as I wrote this book.

Finally, I wish to thank my family and friends on the East Coast and in Hawaii, especially my
husband, Patrick, and my daughters, Emma and Fiona, who remind me each day of what
matters most.

Jennifer Wharton

Publisher's acknowledgments
The first edition of Academic Encounters has been used by many teachers in many
institutions all around the world. Over the years, countless instructors have passed on
feedback about the series, all of which has proven invaluable in helping to direct the
vision for the second edition. More formally, a number of reviewers also provided us with
a detailed analysis of the series, and we are especially grateful for their insights. We would
therefore like to extend particular thanks to the following instructors: irLanguage.com
Doreen Ewert, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
Monique Grindell, Pacific University, Forest Grove, Oregon
Anne Lech, Northwest Missouri State University, Maryville, Missouri
Ursala McCormick, Lewis & Clark College, Portland, Oregon
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Unit 1
Planet Earth
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Contents
In Unit 1, you will read and write about the following topics.

Chapter 1 Chapter 2
The Physical Earth The Dynamic Earth

Reading 1 Reading 1
Our Solar System Plate Tectonics
Reading 2 Reading 2
Earth's Four Systems Volcanoes
Reading 3 Reading 3
Rocks on Our Planet Earthquakes

Skills
In Unit 1, you will practice the following skills.

Reading Skills 0 Writing Skills

Thinking about the topic Parts of speech
Previewing art Comparative adjectives
Asking and answering questions about a text Writing complete sentences
Previewing key parts of a text Writing simple and compound sentences
Using headings to remember main ideas Writing definitions
Building background knowledge Pronoun reference
Reading boxed texts Showing contrast
Illustrating main ideas Using correct paragraph form
Reading for main ideas Using correct paragraph structure
Writing first drafts

0 Vocabulary Skills (i) Academic Success Skills

Words from Latin and Greek Highlighting
Cues for finding word meaning Making a pie chart
Learning verbs with their prepositions Answering multiple-choice questions
Previewing key words Labeling diagrams
Prefixes Reading maps
Prepositional phrases Answering true/false questions
Using grammar, context, and background
knowledge to guess meaning

Learning Outcomes
Write an academic paragraph about a place on Earth you like

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Previewing the Unit

Previewing means looking at one thing before another. It is a good idea to preview your
reading assignments. Read the contents page of every new unit. Think about the topics
of the chapters. You will get a general idea of how the unit is organized and what it is
going to be about.

Read the contents page for Unit 1 on page 2 and do the following activities.

Chapter 1: The Physical Earth

A How much do you know about our solar system and planet Earth?
Look at the photographs. Then answer the questions below.

1. Earth is only one of the planets in the universe, but it is very special.
What makes Earth unique, or different from, all the other planets?
2. What makes it possible for people to live on Earth?
What does Earth provide so that we are able to live here?

B Compare your answers in a small group.

Chapter 2: The Dynamic Earth

A Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1. Earth is always moving in different ways. How does Earth move?
Did you ever feel it move? Describe your experience.
2. Why do you think Earth moves?
3. Earth's surface is not flat. It has many natural features such as mountains and lakes.
Make a list of the natural features on Earth. Choose two features from the list and
answer this question: How was each feature created?

B Share your answers with the class.

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Chapter 1
The Physical E_arth
PREPARING TO READ
1 Thinking about the topic ·
Thinking about the topic of a reading before you read can make a text easier to
understand.

The text you are going to read is about the solar system. It discusses some of the objects
we see in the sky. How much do you know about these objects? Discuss the following
questions in a small group.
1. What are some things that you see in the sky during the day?
2. What are some things that you see in the sky at night?
3. Would you like to be a scientist who studies the sky? Why or why not?

2 Previewing art ·
Art in textbooks illustrates ideas in a text. Previewing photographs and illustrations
can help you quickly grasp these ideas.

A Look at the illustration of our solar system on page 5. Then discuss the following
questions with a partner.
1. How many planets are there in the solar system? Do you know any of their names?
2. In what ways are the planets different from one another?
3. Can you find our planet, Earth? If you can, draw an arrow(�) to it.
4. What is at the center of our solar system? Is it a planet?

B Look at the photograph at the top of page 5. Then discuss the following questions with
a partner.
1. Who is the person in the photograph?
2. What is the name of the instrument with him?
3. What do these instruments do? Did you ever look through one?
Describe your experience.

4 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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Reading 1
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM Clyde Tombaugh

Our home in the universe is planet Earth. It is one of eight planets orbit travel in a
that orbit, or circle, the sun. The sun is a star, that is, a giant ball of circle around a
hot gases. It is the center of our solar system. There are billions of larger object
other stars in the sky, but the sun is the star closest to Earth. Our solar
s system also includes moons, which orbit planets. The moon we see in
the night sky orbits Earth. solar system the
sun and the planets
We usually list our solar system's planets in order of their distance that move around it
from the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune. We can divide the planets into two groups: terrestrial
10 planets and gas giant planets.
Terrestrial, or Earthlike, planets have solid, rocky surfaces. terrestrial planet
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are terrestrial planets. Earth is the a planet with a solid,
only planet that has large amounts of liquid water, and it is the only rocky surface
planet that has life. Astronomers (scientists who study the stars and
1s planets) believe that a long time ago, Mars had rivers and oceans, just
like Earth, but that now all the water is either frozen or underground.
Gas giant planets are much larger than terrestrial planets. All gas gas giant planet
giant planets are made of gases, not solid rock. These planets have a planet made of
rings around them. The rings are made of tiny pieces of rock, dust, or gases, not solid rock
20 ice. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are gas giant planets. Jupiter
is the largest planet. It is about a thousand times bigger than Earth.
Outside of our solar system, there are billions of other stars.
Astronomers now know that some of these stars have planets, and the
planets orbit these stars. This means that there are other solar systems
2s in the universe in addition to our own. Perhaps we will even find
another planet with life on it someday.

Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 5

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The Story of Pluto

Are there eight or nine planets in our solar system? Before 1930, everyone thought
there were eight. Then in 1930, a young man surprised the world. Clyde Tombaugh was
24 years old. He was not a professional astronomer. He even made his own telescope.
He looked through his telescope and discovered a new planet in the solar system. He
discovered Pluto. Pluto is very small, smaller than Earth's moon. It is also farther from
the sun than the other planets, so it is colder and darker. After Tombaugh's discovery,
people accepted it as fact that our solar system has nine planets.
Then, in 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) changed the definition of
"planet." According to the new definition, a planet has to have certain features. For
example, it has to make a circular orbit around the sun. It also has to be big enough and
strong enough to move objects in its path away. Pluto differs from the other planets in
both these ways. First, it does not have a circular orbit, and it even crosses Neptune's
orbit. In addition, it is not able to move objects out of its way as it orbits the sun. For
these reasons, the IAU reclassified Pluto from a planet to a plutoid. So now scientists
tell us once again that there are only eight planets.

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6 Unit 1 Planet Earth
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AFTER YOU READ

1 Asking and answering questions about a text
Asking and answering questions about a text checks your understanding.
When you do this, you discover what you know and do not know about the reading.
You can do this alone or with a partner.

Work with a partner to complete the following activities.

A Reread paragraph 1 of the text "Our Solar System." Use the questions below to ask
and answer questions about the text. Add at least two more questions to the list.
1. How many planets are there in our solar system?
2. What does orbit mean?
3. Is the sun a planet or a star?
4. (Add your own question.)
5. (Add your own question.)

B Now reread paragraph 2 of the text. Write two or three questions about the paragraph.
Then take turns asking and answering the questions. irLanguage.com

C Reread the rest of the text and the boxed text "The Story of Pluto." Continue asking
and answering questions with your partner.

2 Words from Latin and Greek

Many English words, or parts of words, come from other languages. Words that come
from Latin and Greek are especially common in science. Look at these examples:
terr- means "earth" or "land"
sol- means "sun"
astro- means "star"
Learning Greek and Latin word parts helps you put new words together.
You can then quickly guess the basic meanings of many new words in science texts.

A Go back to the text "Our Solar System" and the boxed text "The Story of Pluto."
Find words that start with terr-, sol-, or astro- and put a check mark (.I) above them.

B Start a chart of word parts from Latin and Greek in your notebook. Follow this model:

Word part from English

Meaning Meaning
Latin or Greek example
terr- earth, land terrestrial relating to Earth

Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 7

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3 Cues for finding word meaning O

Academic texts will have many new words. However, when you read a text, do not
stop to look up every unfamiliar word. The definition of a new word is often in the text.
Learn to look for cues to its meaning.
Look at these sentences from "Our Solar System":
• It is one of eight planets that orbit, or circle, the sun.
• The sun is a star, that is, a giant ball of hot gases.
• Terrestrial, or Earthlike, planets have solid, rocky surfaces.
• Astronomers (scientists who study the stars and planets) believe that a long
time ago, Mars had rivers and oceans, just like Earth.
Notice that the sentences use three cues to present definitions: or, that is, and
parentheses ( ).

A Read the sentences below. Notice the key words in bold and the definitions.
Find the cues that signal the definitions and circle them.
1. In ancient times, sailors often used constellations (groups of stars that form
imaginary pictures and have names) to safely find their way across the ocean.
2. Astronomers have found more than 750 e xtrasolar planets, that is, planets outside
of our solar system.
3. A supernova, or extremely bright explosion of a star, is a very rare occurrence.
4. The name of our galaxy (a group of stars, gas, and dust held together by gravity) is
"the Milky Way."
B Write the key word from each sentence in Step A and its definition.
1. _______

2. _______

3. _______

4. _______

C Write three sentences with definitions of the following terms. Use or, that is, or
parentheses ( ). Be sure to use correct punctuation. Write on a separate piece of paper.
1. telescope: A telescope (an instrument that makes faraway objects look larger) is an
important tool for an astronomer.
2. solar system:
3. Mercury or Pluto:
4. gas giant planet:

8 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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Words are also parts of speech. Parts of speech say whether a word names, does,
or describes. Understanding the parts of speech in English helps your writing and
reading. You can write clearer, more logical sentences and better understand what
you read. In this chapter, we review three parts of speech:
A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea (planet, moon, belief).
A verb does an action or is a state of being (orbit, be, have).
An adjective describes a noun or pronoun (rocky, giant, hot, it).

A Reread paragraph 1 of the text "Our Solar System." Then do the following.
1. Underline all of the nouns.
2. Draw two lines under all of the verbs.
3. Circle all of the adjectives.

Compare answers with a partner.

B Read the paragraph below. Label each noun (n), verb (v), and adjective (adj).

Mars is an interesting planet. In some ways, it is similar to Earth. It has

weather and seasons. It also has canyons and mountains. However, Mars is a very
different planet from Earth. It is much smaller than Earth, and it is much colder.
In addition, there are no people on Mars.

C Read these sentences. There is a missing word in each one. Decide what part of
speech is missing and write it in the first blank.
verb 1. Pluto two small moons.
2. Mercury is a planet.
3. Saturn has many beautiful _______
4. Earth has one _______
5. Some people _______ that there is life on other planets.

D Now complete each sentence in Step C. Use an appropriate word.

Use the part of speech to help you. Compare your sentences with a partner's.

Example: ---'v=e.:...:
rb'--- Pluto ---'h=a=s__ two small moons.

Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 9

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5 Comparative adjectives 00
A comparative adjective shows the difference between two people, places, or
things. Sometimes a comparison includes a group of people, places, or things.
Look at these examples:
• Tombaugh was younger than most other astronomers when he discovered Pluto.
• Jupiter is farther from the sun than Earth.
• Saturn's rings are more beautiful than Jupiter's rings.
• Venus is hotter than the other planets in our solar system.
To form comparative adjectives, follow these guidelines:
For one-syllable adjectives, add -er. If the adjective ends in -e, add only -r.
small� smaller
dark� darker
close� closer
For one-syllable adjectives that end with a single vowel and a consonant, double
the final consonant and add -er. irLanguage.com
hot� hotter
big� bigger
red� redder
For adjectives with two or more syllables, add more before the adjective. If the
adjective ends in -y, change the - y to -i and add -er.
important� more important
solid� more solid
happy� happier
Irregular adjectives do not follow patterns. Check your dictionary for a complete list.
good� better
bad� worse
far � farther
To compare two nouns in the same sentence, use than after the comparative adjective
and before the second noun.

noun 1 comparative adjective noun 2

I I I I
Earth is smaller than Jupiter.

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1 O Unit 1 Planet Earth irLanguage.com
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A Go back to paragraph 4 of "Our Solar System" and to the boxed text "The Story of
Pluto." Find the comparative adjectives. Underline them. How many did you find?

B Write the comparative form of each adjective.

1. dark
2. hot
3. solid
4. icy
5. small
6. big
7. strong ____
8. rocky

C Complete each sentence with a comparative adjective. Choose an adjective from

the box. Use each word once. Use correct forms and add than. Be sure that each
sentence is true, based on the information in the texts. irLanguage.com

close cold far hot large rocky

1. Uranus is farther from the sun than Mercur.y

2. Pluto is ________ Venus.
3. Mars is Pluto.
4. Earth is ____ to the sun ____ Neptune.
5. Mercury is________ Saturn.
6. Jupiter is Uranus.

D Compare Jupiter and Pluto. Write three or four sentences. Use comparative adjectives
with than.
Example: Jupiter is closer to the sun than Pluto.

1.________________________________
2.--------------------------------
3._______________________________
4_________________________________

Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 11

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PREPARING TO READ

Previewing key parts of a text

Previewing key parts of a text tells you the main ideas of the text. To preview key
parts, look carefully at the title, the introduction, and the headings. It is also a good
idea to read the first sentence of each paragraph.

A Read these key parts of the text "Earth's Four Systems" on page 13.
• the title
• the short introductory paragraph at the beginning of the text
• the headings
• the first sentence of each paragraph
B Answer the following questions with a partner.
1. How many systems does Earth have?
2. What are their names?
C Now complete the chart.
1. Write the names of Earth's systems in the first column.
2. Then match the following key features to the systems. Write the feature next to the
appropriate system:

living things
water
Earth's crust and the top layer of the mantle
air

Name of the system Key feature(s)

lithosphere Earth's crust and the top layer of the mantle

12 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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Reading 2
EARTH'S FOUR SYSTEMS
Think about Earth from the point of view of an astronaut. From
outer space, Earth looks like one solid blue ball. In fact, our planet
is much more complex. It is actually made up of four very different,
but interconnected, systems: the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the
5 atmosphere, and the biosphere.

The lithosphere
The lithosphere is the hard surface of Earth. It has two layers. The first
layer is the crust. The crust is a thin layer of rock that covers the whole
planet. Its thickness ranges from about 5 to 80 kilometers. The second
layer is called the mantle. The mantle is directly under the crust.
10 The lithosphere is not one solid piece of rock. It is made up of many crust Earth's hard
smaller pieces called plates. outer layer

The hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is all the water on Earth, including oceans, lakes,
rivers, glaciers, rain, and snow. Water covers more than 70 percent glacier a very large
of Earth. Approximately 97 percent of Earth's water is saltwater from amount of ice that
15 oceans, and 3 percent is freshwater from glaciers, lakes, rivers, and moves slowly over
groundwater (water under the ground). land

The atmosphere ultraviolet

The atmosphere is the air surrounding Earth. It is made up mostly radiation a form of
of gases. The primary gases are nitrogen and oxygen. Gases in the energy that comes
atmosphere create air for us to breathe, and they protect Earth from from the sun in rays,
20 the sun's ultraviolet radiation. The atmosphere is also where weather or lines, that we
conditions, such as clouds and storms, form. cannot see

The biosphere
The biosphere is made up of
all the living things on Earth.
It includes humans, animals, and
25 plants. Life on Earth is very diverse,

but all living things share certain

features. For example, they all eat,
breathe, and grow.

Rgure 1.1 Earth's four systems

Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 13

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The interconnections of Earth's systems

The lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere
30connect with each other in important ways. We humans are part
of the biosphere, but we live on the lithosphere. We depend on the
atmosphere for air to breathe and on the hydrosphere for water to
drink. In fact, these connections are so strong that a change in one
system can affect the others. Consider this example: Driving a car
flood a large 35 contributes to air pollution in the atmosphere. Air pollution causes

amount of water Earth to grow warmer. Warmer temperatures cause important

covering an area that changes in the hydrosphere: Glaciers melt and ocean levels rise.
is usually dry These changes to the hydrosphere affect the humans, animals, and
plants of the biosphere. For example, people who live in coastal
40 areas along the ocean are in danger of losing their homes because of
natural habitat the
place where an floods. The polar bear is gradually losing its natural habitat because
animal or a plant of warming temperatures in the Arctic. When you think about these
usually lives interconnections among the systems, it is easy to see that our planet is
very complex.
an ua e
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AFTER YOU READ

1 Highlighting 00 ·
Highlight important information in a text. This is one way to remember what you read.
Mark key words and ideas in colors that are easy to see. Remember to highlight only
the important information. A text that has too many highlighted sentences is not useful.

A Go back to the text "Earth's Four Systems." Highlight the names of Earth's systems
and the most important feature of each one.

B Go back to the text again. Find an explanation of how humans are connected to
Earth's four systems. Use a different color and highlight the explanation.

C Compare your work with a partner's.

2 Words from Latin and Greek O

Remember that many words in science come from Latin or Greek. Knowing the
meaning of all the parts can help you better grasp the exact meaning of the word.
For example, hemisphere is made up of hemi- (half) and sphere (ball). Earth is shaped
like a ball. The word hemisphere means "half of Earth."

A Match the word parts with the meanings. Use the information in the reading.

__ 1. litho­ a. water
-- 2. hydro- b. life
-- 3. atmo- c. rock, stone
-- 4. bio- d. gas, vapor

B Circle the correct word in each sentence.

1. A spherical cloud is shaped like a (square I circle I diamond).
2. Lithology is the study of the physical qualities of (rocks I water I gases).
3. Countries that use hydropower to create energy are using (water I rocks I air).
4. Atmospherology is the study of (water I rocks I gases).
5. A biologist works with (rocks I gases I living things).

Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 15

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C Look at the sentences in Step B. Circle two words with -logy.

What do you think the word part -logy means? Write a short definition.

Then add -logy to your chart of word parts from Latin and Greek.

D Add the new word parts from the box above and from step A on page 15 to your chart
of word parts from Latin and Greek. Include the example words given in the box and in
Step B. (Review "Words from Latin and Greek" on page 17 if necessary.)

3 Learning verbs with their prepositions O

Some verbs often occur with specific prepositions, for example: benefit from, pay for,
think about. When you learn a new verb, notice if a preposition follows it. Try to learn
the verb and the preposition together as a unit.

A The verbs in bold frequently occur with specific prepositions. Complete the sentences
with the correct prepositions. Find the verbs in the reading, if needed.
1. Its thickness ranges about 5 to 80 kilometers. (Par. 2)
2. Gases in the atmosphere create air for us to breathe, and they protect
Earth the sun's ultraviolet radiation. (Par. 4)
3. The lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere
connect each other in important ways. (Par. 6)
4. We depend the atmosphere for air to breathe and on the
hydrosphere for water to drink. (Par. 6)
5. Driving a car contributes ____ air pollution in the atmosphere. (Par. 6)

B Complete the sentences. First, add the correct preposition for each verb.
Then choose an appropriate ending from the box.

the sun's dangerous rays -238°C to -228 °C good health

other scientists all over the world a cold environment

""'"i=
1. Scientists use the Internet to connect _ ....,w ..,___
th oth er scientists all over the world
2. Sunscreen and sunglasses protect people _______________
3. The temperature on Pluto ranges ____ ______________
4. Polar bears depend ____ -------------------
5. Drinking clean water and breathing clean air contribute __________

16 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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C Complete these sentences with something that is true for you.

1. I depend ____________________________
2. The summer temperature where I live ranges ______________
3. I want to contribute------------------------

4 Making a pie chart O www.irLanguage.com

Textbooks often use statistics, that is, a group of facts that are stated as numbers.
Sometimes it is helpful to organize a group of statistics in a pie chart. A pie chart
shows the parts of a whole. Pie charts make the statistical information easier to read
and understand.

A Read the following sentence from the text Water and Land on Earth
"Earth's Four Systems." Notice how the pie
chart on the right organizes the information.

Water covers more than 70 percent of Earth.

B Reread paragraph 3 of the text. On a

separate piece of paper, make a pie chart.
Represent the amount of freshwater and
saltwater on Earth in your chart. Look at
your chart and write two sentences about
the information. You can start this way:
Approximately percent of the
water on Earth is freshwater.

C Work in pairs or small groups. Survey your classmates and record their answers.
You can use one of the questions below or ask your own question about our planet.
• Do you think there is life beyond Earth?
• Which of Earth's four systems are you most interested in?

D Make a pie chart to organize the results of your survey. Give the chart a title and write a
few sentences about the information. For example, you might write sentences like these:
In our class, 75 percent of the students think there is life on other planets.
In our class, 40 percent of the students are most interested in learning more about the
hydrosphere.

E Present your pie chart and information to the class.

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Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 17

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PREPARING TO READ
1 Thinking about the topic
Look at these photographs. Then discuss the
questions below in a small group.

a.

1. Do you know the names or locations of

any of the places in the photographs?
2. What do they all have in common?
3. What are some other famous places made
of rock?
4. What do people use rocks for? Try to think
of at least three uses.
5. Did builders use any rocks to construct
your school or your home? Are there any things inside your school or home that are
made of rock?

2 Previewing key parts of a text

A Read these key parts of the text "Rocks on Our Planet" on pages 19-20:
• the title
• the introductory paragraphs
• the headings
• the photographs and illustrations

B Answer these questions with a partner.

1. How many main types of rocks does Earth have?
2. What are their names?
3. What is the rock cycle?

18 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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Reading 3
ROCKS ON OUR PLANET
Earth is a terrestrial planet, that is, a planet with a rocky surface. It is
covered with rocks of all ages. The oldest rocks in Earth's crust are more
than three billion years old. The youngest ones are just a few minutes
old. All rocks are made of minerals, or inorganic (nonliving) matter.
5 Different types of rocks form in different ways, but all rocks come
from the same original hot material, magma, deep inside Earth. The magma very hot
three main types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. melted, or liquid,
rock that is deep
Main types of rocks inside Earth
Igneous means "relating to fire:' When the hot, fiery magma rises up
through Earth's crust, it cools and becomes igneous rock. Sometimes lava hot, melted
10 the melted rock cools under the surface of Earth, but sometimes rock that flows from
magma erupts from a volcano as lava and cools on Earth's surface. a volcano
Granite, basalt, and pumice are examples of igneous rocks.
Rocks are very strong, but wind and rain over time can break off
tiny pieces. These pieces of rock often end up at the bottom of a river
15 or ocean. This layer of little rocks is called sediment. After thousands
of years, many layers of sediment form on top of each other. The
weight of all of the layers presses the sediment tightly together, and it
becomes solid rock. Some common sedimentary rocks are limestone,
sandstone, and shale.
20 The heat and pressure deep inside Earth can actually change one
type of rock into another. This process is called metamorphosis, or
the process of changing one thing into another. Rocks that form in
this way are called metamorphic rocks. For example, great heat and
pressure over a long time can change limestone, a sedimentary rock,
25 into marble, a metamorphic rock.
Magma
The rock cycle
Over time, any type of rock
can change into any other type.
This process is called the rock
cycle. Magma cools and forms Igneous rock Metamorphic rock
igneous rocks. Igneous rocks
30 break into small pieces and form

pressure

t r
Figure 1.2 The rock cycle .____________s_e _d_im_ e_n_ a_ ry_ o_c_k_______.

Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 19

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sedimentary rocks. Deep inside Earth, great heat and pressure act on
sedimentary and igneous rocks and change them into metamorphic
35 rocks. When all three kinds of rock move even deeper into Earth,
they melt and become magma, and the rock cycle begins all over
again. In this way, for millions of years, the rocks in Earth's crust have
continuously changed form. Rocks are natural recyclers.

Save the Rocks!

There is something very unusual in Narendra Luther's living room - a giant, two-billion­
year-old rock. The rock goes all the way up through the ceiling to the second floor. This
rock is just one of many that formed in Hyderabad, India, billions of years ago. The
people gave names to some of the rocks, such as Bear's Nose and Stone Heart. They
used many of them to make temples and some to make billboards. They also had to
destroy a large number of the rocks to make room for new buildings such as offices,
apartments, hotels, and shopping malls. As the city develops, there is less and less
room for these giant reminders of Earth's past.
Many people in Hyderabad want to save some of the rocks. The city now has a
rock park, and several new buildings include rocks as part of their design, just like
Mr. Luther's house. In this way, people can enjoy the new things that come with
development, and they can also save part of their past.

20 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Answering multiple-choice questions O
One common type of question on tests and in textbooks is the multiple-choice
question. Here are some strategies for answering this type of question:
• Read the question several times. Make sure you understand it before you try to
choose an answer.
• Think of the correct answer and then look for it in the choices.
• Read all of the choices before you make a decision. Do not stop reading as soon
as you think you have found the correct answer.

Answer the questions below based on the reading "Rocks on Our Planet."
Then compare your answers with a partner's.
1. What are all rocks made of? 4. Where do many sedimentary rocks
a. lava form?
b. water a. on Earth's surface
c. fire b. under Earth's surface
d. minerals c. in a river
d. in the wind
2. Which one of the following is a type
of rock? 5. What forces create metamorphic
a. sedimentary rocks?
b. organic a. wind and rain
c. terrestrial b. heat and pressure
d. metallic c. cooling and melting
d. erupting and breaking
3. Where do igneous rocks form?
a. on Earth's surface 6. Which process causes rocks to
change form continuously over time?
b. under Earth's surface
a. the formation of sediment
c. in a river
b. the rock cycle
d. both on and under Earth's surface
c. volcanic eruptions
d. the cooling of magma

Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 21

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2 Labeling diagrams O ..
Labeling diagrams with key words helps you understand and remember complex
information in a text. Science texts frequently discuss processes and parts of things,
so this strategy is especially helpful when you read science texts.

A Look at the diagrams below. Review the following terms in the reading and label them
in the diagram: lava, magma, and igneous rock.

A volcano during and after eruption

B Look at the diagram of the rock cycle below. Label the blanks with these terms:
metamorphic rock, sedimentary rock, igneous rock, sediment, and magma.

wind and rain heat and pressure

___________
Sediment

............___ �
forms layers that press together
The rock cycle
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C Look at Figure 1.2 on page 19 to check your work for Step B.

22 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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3 Cues for finding word meaning O

A You learned that there may be cues to the meanings of words in a text.
1. These are three key terms in "Rocks on Our Planet." Find them in the text and
circle them.
• terrestrial planet • inorganic • metamorphosis
2. Underline the definition of each key term. Highlight the cue that helped you find
the definition.
3. Compare your answers with a partner.

B Another cue to the meaning of new words is the phrase "Xis called Y." Look at the
example below. Notice the location of the key term metamorphosis. What is the
meaning of metamorphosis?
The process of changing one thing into another is called metamorphosis.

C Reread the sections of the text below. Find and circle sediment and the rock cycle.
Underline the cues to the meaning of these terms.

Rocks are very strong, but wind and rain over time can break off tiny pieces. These pieces
of rock often end up at the bottom of a river or ocean. This layer of little rocks is called
sediment. After thousands of years, many layers of sediment form on top of each other.
The weight of all of the layers presses the sediment tightly together, and it becomes solid
rock. Some common sedimentary rocks are limestone, sandstone, and shale.
Over time, any type of rock can change into any other type. This process is called
the rock cycle. Magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Igneous rocks break into small
pieces and form sedimentary rocks. Deep inside Earth, great heat and pressure act on
sedimentary and igneous rocks and change them into metamorphic rocks. When all
three kinds of rocks move even deeper into Earth, they melt and become magma, and the
rock cycle begins all over again. irLanguage.com

D Write a sentence for each term that explains the meaning of the term.
You could begin your sentences this way:
Sediment is ...
The rock cycle is ..

Chapter 1 The Physical Earth 23

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Chapter 1 Academic Vocabulary Review

The following words appear in the readings in Chapter 1. They all come from the
Academic Word List, a list of words that researchers have discovered occur frequently in
many different types of academic texts. For a complete list of all the Academic Word List
words in this chapter and in all the readings in this book, see the Appendix on page 206.

area cycle diverse layer (n) primary professional

complex design (n) features period process (n) ranges (v)

Complete the following sentences with words from the list.

1. A marine biologist has studied at a university and has received a
degree in marine science.
2. One of the unique of the planet Mars is its reddish color.
3. T he of changing liquid water into ice requires a minimum temperature
of 0 ° Celsius.
4. Earth is home to many languages and cultures.
5. If an is too cold, people may not want to live there.
6. Humans often have a relationship with nature; they need it to survive
but they don't always take care of it.
7. The of a house is the overall plan of the house.
8. Similar to humans, stars are born, grow, exist, and then die; however, while most
humans live less than 100 years, the life of a star is billions of years.
9. The life span of a butterfly from a few days to 12 months, depending on
the species.
10. Two uses of rocks are for building materials and decorative items.

24 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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Developing_
Writing Skills
In this section, you will learn to write complete sentences. Complete sentences are the
building blocks of all academic writing. You will write eight to ten complete sentences.
You will also use what you learn here to complete the writing assignment at the end of
this unit.

Writing Complete Sentences

A sentence in English must have at least one subject. The subject of a sentence names who
or what the sentence is about. It can be a single noun, a noun phrase (a noun + other words
that give more information about the noun), or a pronoun. Pronouns are words that take the
place of nouns. The subject pronouns are/, you, he, she, it, we, and they.
Common mistakes with subjects:
1. There is no subject in the sentence.
INCORRECT: Discovered a new planet.
To correct this sentence, add a subject.
CORRECT: An astronomer discovered a new planet.
2. The same subject is written twice, usually both as a noun and as a pronoun.
This is called a double subject. In English, sentences cannot have a double subject.
INCORRECT: Earth it is a terrestrial planet.
To correct this sentence, delete one of the subjects.
CORRECT: Earth is a terrestrial planet.
It is a terrestrial planet.
Sentences in English must also have at least one verb. Verbs are words of action (erupt,
press, move) or being (be, have). Sometimes verbs are one word (erupt), sometimes they
are two words (is erupting) or even three words (has been erupting).
Common mistakes with verbs:
1. There is no verb in the sentence.
INCORRECT: Earth terrestrial planet.
To correct this sentence, add a verb.
CORRECT: Earth is a terrestrial planet.
2. There is only half of a verb. This often happens with the -ing form. A verb that ends in
-ing cannot be a verb by itself. It needs a helping verb in order to be a complete verb.
INCORRECT: The volcano erupting.
To correct this sentence, add a helping verb or change the verb to a different form.
CORRECT: The volcano is erupting.
The volcano erupted.
The volcano often erupts.

Chapter 1 Academic Vocabulary Review 25

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A Read the following paragraph. The subject of each sentence is underlined once and
the verb is underlined twice.

The lithosphere js the hard surface of Earth. It has two Layers. The first layer
h the crust. The crust� a thin Layer of rock. It covers the whole planet. The
thickness of the crust ranges from about 5 to 80 kilometers. The second layer ll
called the mantle. The mantle � directly under the crust. The Lithosphere ll not
one solid piece of rock. Instead, .i1.i1 made up of many smaller pieces. Scientists
gLl these pieces plates.

B Now read this paragraph and underline the subject of each sentence once and the
verb twice.

The atmosphere is the air surrounding Earth. It is made up of gases. The primary
gas is nitrogen. The gases in the atmosphere create air for us to breathe.
They also protect Earth from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. Clouds form in the
atmosphere. These clouds produce rain and snow.

C Each sentence in the paragraph below has one mistake. There are three mistakes with
subjects and three mistakes with verbs. Mark the mistakes and correct them. Compare
your answers with a partner. Then rewrite the paragraph on a separate piece of paper.

Narendra Luther having something very unusual in his house. Is a giant, two-billion­
year-old stone. This rock just one of many in the city of Hyderabad, India. The
people in the city they named some of the rocks. Used many to make temples or
billboards. People destroying other rocks to make room for new development.

D Now write eight to ten complete sentences about planet Earth. Imagine that someone
from another planet is coming to visit Earth and that you are the guide. What do you
want to tell the visitor about our planet? Follow the steps below.
1. Have a short conversation with a partner. Talk about the information you want to
share with the visitor. Make a list of your ideas.
2. Now write sentences that express your ideas. Be sure to:
a. Include information about the solar system, Earth's four systems, and rocks.
b. Include new vocabulary from this chapter.
c. Be sure that each sentence has a subject and a verb and that you use the correct
parts of speech.
3. When you finish, exchange sentences with a partner and read each other's work.
a. Look at the structure of the sentences. Do they all have a subject and a verb?
Find and underline the subjects in your partner's sentences. Draw two lines under
the verbs.
b. Check {.I} your partner's three best sentences.
c. Discuss the best sentences. Explain your reasons for your choices. Then, talk
about any problems with subjects and verbs in your partner's sentences.
4. Now reread your own sentences. Make changes to improve your sentences and
rewrite them.
28 Unit 1 Planet Earth
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Chapter 2
The Dynamic Earth
PREPARING TO READ

Previewing key words O

Learn the meaning of key words before you read. Key words are used to express
important ideas in a text. Learning them before you read can make the text easier
to understand.

A Read the following sentences. Think about the meanings of the words in bold.
Use all the words in each sentence to help you.
_e_ 1. Earth has seven continents. Asia is the largest continent, and Australia is the
smallest.
2. The Pacific Ocean surrounds (goes all around) the islands of Hawaii.
3. The Pyrenees are mountains that form a boundary between France and Spain.
4. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean is the longest mountain range
on Earth.
5. The ocean floor is not flat. It has many tall ridges and deep trenches. For
example, in the Pacific Ocean, the Mariana Trench is almost 11,000 meters
below the surface of the ocean.
__ 6. Earth's crust is not solid. It is made up of many different plates.
B Match the definitions with the words in bold above. Go back to Step A. Write the letter
of each definition in the blank.
a. a line that divides two places or areas
b. large pieces of Earth's crust
c. a chain of mountains
d. areas of land completely surrounded by water
e. very large areas of land, often made up of many countries
f. long, narrow, deep holes

Chapter 2 The Dynamic Earth 27

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Reading 1
PLATE TECTONICS
Earth is always moving. You may not feel it, but our whole planet
turns as it orbits the sun. There are movements on Earth's surface, too.
Land moves, and mountains grow taller. For example, each year South
America moves approximately two centimeters farther away from
s Africa, the islands of Hawaii move about seven centimeters to the
northwest, and Mount Everest slowly rises five millimeters upward.
Why are continents, islands, and mountains moving? For many years,
scientists did not have an answer.
Look at the seven continents on a map of the world, and you may
10 notice that they seem to fit together like pieces of a puzzle. In 1912,

a German scientist named Alfred Wegener thought of an interesting

idea. He suggested that millions of years ago, Earth had just one giant
continent. He called it Pangaea (pan-GEE-uh). Pangaea means "all the
Earth" in Greek. Wegener believed that as time passed, Pangaea broke
continental drift 1s apart, and the pieces drifted, or moved, to where the continents are
theory the idea today. He called his idea continental drift theory, but this idea did
that, over time, the
not explain how the continents moved. Wegener didn't know what
continents move
scientists know today. Today, scientists know that the continents move
toward or away from
each other because of plate tectonics.

28 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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Tectonic plates and plate boundaries

20 In the 1960s, scientists discovered that Earth's crust is broken into
large pieces. These pieces are called tectonic plates. No one knows plate tectonics the
the exact number of plates, but many scientists agree that there are movement of large
about 12 large plates and several smaller ones. These plates are under pieces of Earth's
the continents (continental plates) and under the oceans (oceanic crust and the contact
25 plates). The plates, and the continents and oceans on top of them, between them
move in different directions and at different speeds. Tectonic plates
interact at places called plate boundaries. There are three types of
plate boundaries: divergent boundaries, convergent boundaries, and
transform boundaries. irLanguage.com

Divergent boundaries
30 Divergent boundaries are where two plates diverge, or move away,
from each other. When two oceanic plates diverge, the ocean floor
grows wider, and an underwater ridge (mountain range) forms. A
good example is the Atlantic Ocean. Millions of years ag0, the Atlantic
Ocean was a very small body of water. As the plates under it diverged,
35 the ocean grew approximately two centimeters wider each year, and a
ridge formed. Today the Atlantic is a huge ocean, and the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge is the longest mountain range on Earth. Divergent plate boundary

Convergent boundaries
Convergent boundaries are where two plates converge, or come
together. When two oceanic plates converge, they form a trench
40 and a group of islands, such as the Mariana Trench and the Mariana
Islands in the Pacific Ocean. When an oceanic and a continental plate
converge, they create a trench and a mountain range. The Peru-Chile
Trench and the Andes Mountains formed in this way. When two
continental plates converge, a mountain range forms. This process
45 created the Himalayas, the great mountain range in Asia. Convergent plate boundary

Transform boundaries
At transform boundaries, two plates slide past each other. As they
move, they can bump, or hit, each other. This movement often causes
an earthquake, which is a movement of Earth's crust. People who live
along the coast of California often experience earthquakes. They are
50 very common at the transform boundary between the Pacific Plate
and the North American Plate.
Continental drift continues. Even though the plates move just a
few centimeters a year, over a long period of time, they cause Earth to
grow and change in dramatic ways. Transform plate boundary

Chapter 2 The Dynamic Earth 29

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Using headings to remember main ideas · O

After you read a text, look back at the headings. T he headings will help you remember
the main ideas.

A Read these headings from the text "Plate Tectonics."

a. Tectonic plates and plate boundaries c. Convergent boundaries
b. Divergent boundaries d. Transform boundaries
B Work with a partner. Match the headings in Step A with the main ideas below.
Write the letter of the correct heading in the blank.
1. Sometimes two plates move away from each other. This often creates ridges.
2. Sometimes two plates come together, creating mountains, islands, and
trenches.
3. Earth's crust is divided into about 12 large pieces and several smaller ones
that move and interact with each other.
4. When two plates slide by each other, they can bump.
This often causes an earthquake.

2 PrefixesO
A prefix is a word part that comes at the beginning of a word. Each prefix has a
meaning. For example, the prefix re- means "again." To reread a book means to read
it again. To rewrite a letter means to write it again. Knowing the meaning of a prefix
can often help you guess the meaning of a word.
Prefix Meaning
con­ together, with
cent­ 100
in ter­ between two or more things or groups
mii- 1,000

A Work with a partner. Find these words in the text "Plate Tectonics": centimeters,
millimeters, converge, interact. Circle them. Look at the prefixes and guess the
meanings of these words. Use a dictionary if necessary.

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B Here are some new words with the prefixes you learned.

century convention interplanetary millennium

Complete the sentences with the correct words from the box.
1. Do you think that someday there will be flights between Earth and
Mars?
2. The most powerful earthquake of the past happened in Chile in 1960.
It was the strongest earthquake in the last 100 years.
3. This week there is a of astronomers at the university. Hundreds of
astronomers are meeting to talk about their research.
4. Many people had parties to celebrate the start of the new in the year
2000. irLanguage.com

C Think of more words that start with the prefixes cent-, con-, inter-, or mil-.
Make a class list.

3 Prepositional phrases 0
A prepositional phrase is a preposition + a noun (or noun phrase) or a pronoun.
Examples: on Earth's surface, in the 1960s, at different speeds
preposition noun phrase
r-----i I I
Example: on Earth's surface
Prepositional phrases often answer the questions Where?, When?, or How?

A Find the following prepositional phrases in the text. Underline them. Decide what
question each phrase answers. Write Where?, When?, or How? in the blank.
Where? 1. on Earth's surface 4. under the continents
2. along the coast of 5. at different speeds
California 6. in this way
3. (millions) of years ago
B Work with a partner. Find six more prepositional phrases in the text and underline them.
Decide if each phrase answers the question Where?, When?, How?, or none of these.

4 Reading maps O
Maps show different places on Earth's surface. They can help you find the places
you read about. Most maps have a key that includes information to help you read the
map. In addition, the key often has a compass or a drawing that shows the directions:
North, South, East, and West.
•

Chapter 2 The Dynamic Earth 31

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A Look at the map of the world's tectonic plates on page 28. Work with a partner and
find these continents: Eurasia (Europe and Asia), North America, South America,
Antarctica, Australia, Africa.

B Read the statements and answer T (true) or F (false). Use the information from the map.
1. The North American Plate is northeast of the Pacific Plate.
2. The Pacific Plate is smaller than the African Plate.
3. The Nazca Plate is east of the South American Plate.
4. The Australian Plate is south of the Indian Plate and the Philippine Plate.
5. There is no Atlantic Plate.

C Write three sentences about the map. They may be true or false. Exchange sentences
with a partner. Decide if your partner's sentences are true or false.

5 Writing simple and compound sentences 0

You have learned that every English sentence must have at least one subject and one
verb. A sentence with only one subject and one verb is called a simple sentence.
subject verb
I I
'continental drift continues today.
A sentence with more than one subject, more than one verb, and a coordinating
conjunction (connecting word) is called a compound sentence. The most common
coordinating conjunctions are and, or, and but. There is always a comma before these
conjunctions.
coordinating
subject verb conjunction subject verb
I I II II r--i r-1
Some plates are under the continents, and some are under the
plates oceans.
Try to use both simple and compound sentences in your writing. Vary the sentence
structure, and you will make your writing more interesting to read.

A Go back to the text. Find three simple sentences and three compound sentences.
Write these sentences on a separate piece of paper. Underline the subjects once
and the verbs twice. Circle the coordinating conjunctions. Compare your answers
with a partner's.

B Write four or five sentences about what you learned in the reading "Plate Tectonics."
Try not to look back at the text. Include simple and compound sentences. You can use
these words and phrases: continental drift theory, continents, Pangaea, tectonic plates,
divergent boundaries, convergent boundaries, and transform boundaries. Compare
your sentences in a small group.

32 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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PREPARING TO READ
Building background knowledge
Learning basic facts about the topic of a text builds your knowledge of the topic.
This can help tell you what kinds of terms and ideas you will read about.

A Read the following paragraph about volcanoes.

A volcano is a mountain with a hole at the top. When a volcano erupts, it throws
smoke, gas, ashes, and lava (melted rock) out of the hole. Some volcanoes, like Mauna
Loa in Hawaii, are active. This means that they are erupting or that they could erupt at
any time. Other volcanoes are extinct, or dead. Scientists believe these volcanoes will
not erupt again.

B Discuss these questions with a partner.

1. Are there any volcanoes where you
live? Are they active or extinct?
2. Do you know the names of any
famous volcanoes? If so, which
ones?
3. Have you ever seen a volcano erupt?
If so, where did you see it? What did
you see?

C Test your knowledge of volcanoes. Answer these questions with a partner.

1. Which is not a volcano?
a. Mount Fuji (Japan) c. Mount Vesuvius (Italy)
b. Mount Everest (Nepal) d. Krakatau (Indonesia)
2. Which country has no active volcanoes?
a. Japan c. The United States
b. Italy d. Australia
3. Which island was not formed by volcanic activity?
a. Greenland c. The Hawaiian Islands (U.S.A.)
b. Iceland d. Honshu Island (Japan)
4. Which volcano is extinct?
a. Sangay (Ecuador) c. Kohala (Hawaii, U.S.A.)
b. Pinatubo (Philippines) d. Stromboli (Italy)

Chapter 2 The Dynamic Earth 33

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Reading 2
VOLCANOES
One afternoon in 1943, a farmer in Paricutin, Mexico, went to his
cornfield. In the cornfield, he saw something unusual. It was a hole
in the ground with smoke coming out of it. The next day, there was
a 10-meter hill in the same place. Rocks were flying from the hilltop,
s and lava was flowing down its sides. After one year, the hill was 450
meters high, and it continued to erupt. The farmer was amazed, and
frightened, too. He was watching the birth of a volcano.

The formation of volcanoes

When the magma under Earth's crust breaks through to the surface, it
creates a volcano. Volcanoes usually form at plate boundaries, where
10 the crust is the weakest. More than 75 percent of Earth's volcanoes
are located around the Pacific Plate, in a region called the Ring of
Fire. In the Atlantic Ocean, there are many volcanoes at the boundary
between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate. Directly on
top of the two diverging plates is the volcanic island of Iceland.

Figure 2.1 The ring of fire

1s Most volcanoes form near plate boundaries, but a few do not.

Instead, they form in the middle of a plate over a hot spot (a stream
of hot magma that is deep inside Earth). This magma flows up and
breaks through the tectonic plate above it. The lava from the hot

ffi
o�!.e' o<icJ:.;,.re/' spot eventually creates a volcanic island. Hot spots do not move, but
20 tectonic plates do. When the plate moves over the hot spot, the volcano
also moves, so it stops erupting. Nearby, a new volcanic island forms
over the hot spot. Over millions of years, this process results in a whole
ir Language.com chain of islands. This is how the Hawaiian Islands were formed.

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34 Unit 1 Planet Earth
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Active and extinct volcanoes

In the world today, there are approximately 1,500 active volcanoes.
2s Active volcanoes are volcanoes that are erupting or that might erupt
in the future. Active volcanoes can be extremely destructive. Lava,
gases, ash, and rocks can suddenly erupt from a volcano and destroy ash the soft gray or
everything around it. One active volcano is Mount Vesuvius. Mount black powder that is
Vesuvius erupted in 79 CE and buried the city of Pompeii, Italy, in ash. left when something
30 Mount Tambora (Indonesia, 1815), Mount Krakatau (Indonesia, 1883), burns
and Mount Pelee (Martinique, 1902) also caused major destruction.
Some volcanoes will not erupt again. These are called extinct
volcanoes. Scientists generally agree that Hawaii's oldest volcano,
Kohala, is extinct.
35 Volcanoes can be destructive and deadly. However, they can also
have a positive effect on Earth. Volcanoes form new mountains, new
islands, and new land. In this way, volcanic activity is an important
natural process that contributes to our planet's growth.

www irLanguage

The Year Without a Summer

Many scientists believe that the eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia in 1815 was
the most destructive volcanic eruption in the past 10,000 years. People heard the
explosion 2,600 kilometers away. One hundred fifty cubic kilometers of ash fell within
the first 24 hours of the eruption. Huge amounts of ash filled the air. Over the next year,
the large amount of ash in the air blocked the sun's rays from reaching Earth. This had
a dramatic effect on weather patterns on the other side of the world.
In New England and Canada, snow fell during the summer of 1816. Cold weather
killed farmers' crops and caused serious food shortages. In Europe, the situation was
much worse. Cold weather and heavy rains caused famine, or great hunger, in France
and Switzerland. In Ireland, cold rain fell almost every day that summer. Thousands of
people were hungry, and many got a disease called typhus. This terrible illness spread
to other parts of Europe, and all of this trouble started with the volcanic eruption.

Chapter 2 The Dynamic Earth 35

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Answering true I false questions O

True I false questions are common on tests and in textbooks.Here are some
guidelines for answering this type of question:
• Most activities and tests with true I false questions have approximately the
same number of true sentences and false sentences.
• Sentences with words like never, always, only, and all are often false.
• Sentences with words like often, many, and sometimes are often true.

A Write T (true) or F (false) for each statement. Find the answers in the reading "Volcanoes."
1. Volcanoes often form at places where Earth's crust is weak. Par. __
2. The Ring of Fire is in the Atlantic Ocean. Par. __
3. Iceland is directly on top of two divergent plates. Par. __
4. Hot spots are not located near plate boundaries. Par. __
5. One giant volcanic eruption formed the Hawaiian Islands. Par. __
6. Today the world has approximately 15,000 active volcanoes. Par. __
7. Mount Vesuvius in Italy is an active volcano. Par. __
8. Volcanoes always have a negative effect on Earth. Par. __
B Now go back to Step A. Write the number of the paragraph where you found
each statement. irLanguage.com
C Work with a partner. Find the sentences you marked false in Step A and correct them.

2 Writing definitions 0
Writing the definition of a word helps you remember the word.Here are two common
ways to write a definition:
1. (A) is I are (a) ____
A plate is a large piece of Earth's crust.
Marble is a metamorphic rock.
Plates are large pieces of Earth's crust.
2. (A) is I are a that . ..
A planet is a large object that orbits the sun.
Planets are large objects that orbit the sun.
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36 Unit 1 Planet Earth
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A Complete the definitions of the words in bold below. Use the definitions in Reading 2
"Volcanoes," but try not to look back at the text.
1. Ahot spot is a __________________________
2. An active volcano is a volcano that ------------------

B Complete the definitions of the words in bold below. Use the definitions in Reading 1
"Plate Tectonics," but try not to look back at the text.
1. Tectonic plates are------------------------
2. A ridge is ____________________________
3.An earthquake is a _______________________�

C Compare your definitions in Steps A and B with a partner. Now look back at the texts
to check your work.

3 Reading boxed texts www.irLanguage.com

Many academic textbooks include boxed texts. Boxed texts usually contain
interesting material that will add to your understanding of the main text.
Boxed texts can have different purposes. For example, they may:
• give interesting examples of ideas in the main text
• give more details about a topic in the main reading
• discuss a topic that is closely related to the topic of the main text
• help you apply the information from a text to your own life
• present a point of view, or way of thinking about something, that is different
from the one in the main text

A Reread the boxed text "The Year Without a Summer" on page 35.
B In a small group, discuss the purpose of the boxed text. Does it match any of the
purposes in the box above?

C Go back to the boxed texts in Chapter 1on pages 6 and 20. What is the purpose of
each boxed text? Write your answers below.
• "The Story of Pluto":-----------------------
• "Save the Rocks!":------------------------

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4 Illustrating main ideas · O

Drawing a picture of a key point from the text can be a useful way to take notes and
check your understanding of the reading.

A Reread paragraph 1 of "Volcanoes."

B Look at the illustration below. This shows what happened the first day the farmer went
into his cornfield.
Title: _______ wwwtrLanguagecom

the first day the next day one year later

C In the second box, draw a picture of what happened the next day. In the third
box, draw what happened one year later. When you are finished, give your set of
illustrations a title.

D Choose another section of the text to illustrate. Use a separate piece of paper to make
your illustrations.

E Share your illustrations in a small group. Guess which idea each illustration represents.
Do they help you understand the ideas in the text better? Which illustration do you like
the best? Why? irLanguage.com

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PREPARING TO READ
Thinking about the topic
A Work with a partner. Look at the photographs and answer the questions below.

1. What do you see in the photographs?

2. What do you think happened?
3. Where and when do you think the
photographs were taken?

B Discuss the following questions in a

small group.
1. What is an earthquake?
2. Why do some places, such as California and Japan, have so many earthquakes?
3. Does the place where you live have earthquakes?
4. Have you ever been in an earthquake? If so, describe your experience.
5. What are three things people can do to stay safe during an earthquake?

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Reading 3
EARTHQUAKES
As 1974 came to an end and the new year began, animals in
Haicheng, China, started acting strangely. Snakes normally hibernate
underground during the winter, but they suddenly came out of their
holes. Dogs began to bark and run around wildly, and horses became
s so upset that some ran away. Why were the animals acting like this?
Many people think that the animals sensed what was coming: On
February 4, 1975, the earth began to shake and buildings collapsed as
a very large earthquake struck the city of Haicheng.

What causes earthquakes?

When the tectonic plates that make up Earth's crust move past each
10 other, they often bump or rub against each other. The earth, or
ground, above the plates moves as well. This movement is called an
earthquake. Sometimes the plates get stuck. The pressure increases as
the two plates try to move past each other but cannot. They finally
move with a sudden and powerful jerk. This can also cause an
1s earthquake. During a small earthquake, the ground simply shakes a
little, and people may not even notice. However, a strong movement
can cause the ground to shake and roll violently. It can make buildings
fault a large break and bridges fall. It can also cause the ground to split open and form a
in the surface of the large fault, or crack.
earth
Where do earthquakes happen?
20 Earthquakes can happen anywhere, but certain places have more
earthquakes. These places sit on tectonic plates that move frequently.
One example is the area around the Pacific Plate, which includes
China, the Philippines, Japan, and the western coasts of Canada,
the United States, and South America. Earthquakes are common in
25 those places. The deadliest earthquake in modern times happened in
1976 in Tangshan, China. It lasted less than two minutes, but more
than 250,000 people died, and more than 90 percent of the buildings
collapsed. Earthquake scientists study places such as Tangshan because
of the many faults in these areas and the activity of the tectonic plates.
www.irLanguage.com

San Andreas fault

in California

ffi
irLanguage.com
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www.irLanguage.com
Can people prepare for an earthquake?
30 Scientists cannot predict when an earthquake will happen. However,
they are able to tell us the areas where earthquakes are most likely
to happen. This information helps people in those areas to prepare.
They can learn what to do before, during, and after an earthquake.
Engineers in those areas can build bridges and buildings that are
35 better able to survive earthquakes. We cannot stop tectonic plates
from moving, but with accurate information and good planning, we
can help people live more safely on our planet.

Still Standing: Earthquake-Resistant Buildings

Humans can be very daring. They swim with sharks and run with bulls. They fly to the
moon and dive in the ocean. They also build very tall buildings. In 2010, the Burj Khalifa
tower (828 meters) in the United Arab Emirates took the title of world's tallest building
away from Taipei 101 (508 meters) in Taiwan. Most likely, someone will soon build a
tower taller than Burj Khalifa. However, as people build taller and taller buildings, they
must also consider how an earthquake might affect these enormous skyscrapers.
Earthquakes can be very
destructive. Therefore, people who
design buildings try to find way s to
make even the tallest buildings
stronger and more flexible.
They hope their new designs will
make the buildings more earthquake
resistant. For example, Taipei 101
has a giant steel ball hanging in the
middle of the building. If an
earthquake causes the building to
sway, the ball will move in the
opposite direction. This keeps
Taipei 101 balanced and helps
stop it from falling down.
Another good example of an
earthquake-resistant building is the
Sabiha G6k9en International Airport
in Turkey. The main building of the
airport does not touch the ground.
Instead, it sits on top of 300 rubber
and steel bearings. When an
earthquake shakes the ground,
the balls let the tower move side
to side and back and forth.
Without the rollers, the walls of
the building would shake, and it
could collapse.

Chapter 2 The Dynamic Earth 41

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Reading for main ideas

It is very important to learn how to find the main idea of a paragraph or longer text.
To identify the main idea of a text, ask "What is it about?" or "What idea do all the
sentences discuss?"

A Read the sentences. These are main ideas in "Earthquakes." Find each idea in the
reading and then write the number of the paragraph that discusses it.
1. Some places experience more earthquakes than others. Par. __
2. Animals may have predicted the earthquake that struck Haicheng,
China, in February of 1975. Par. __
3. Earthquakes happen when two tectonic plates bump or get stuck as
they move past each other. Par. __
4. Scientists cannot predict when an earthquake will happen, but their
information can help people prepare for one. Par___
B Check (-t) the sentence that expresses the main idea of the whole text.
1. A serious earthquake occurred in Haicheng, China, in 1975.
2. Earthquakes, caused by the movement of tectonic plates, can happen
anywhere, and people need to prepare for them.
3. It is impossible to prepare for earthquakes because no one knows when they
will happen.
4. Earthquakes usually last a very short period of time, but they can kill
thousands of people and cause buildings to collapse.

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2 Using grammar, context, and background knowledge

to guess meaning O
Sometimes you can use grammar, context, and background knowledge to guess the
meaning of new words.
Grammar: Look at the part of speech. It tells you if the new word is a thing (noun), an
action (verb), or a descriptive word (adjective).
Context: Look at the words and sentences before and after a new word. They often
include a definition or a description that can help you guess the meaning.
Background knowledge: Consider what you might already know about a new word.
You may recognize a word part or know something about the context's topic.

A Read the following paragraph from "Earthquakes." www.irLanguage.com

As 1974 came to an end and the new year began, animals in Haicheng, China,
started acting strangely. Snakes normally hibernate underground during the winter,
but they suddenly came out of their holes. Dogs began to bark and run around wildly,
and horses became so upset that some ran away. Why were the animals acting like this?
Many people think that the animals sensed what was coming: On February 4, 1975, the
earth began to shake and buildings collapsed as a very large earthquake struck the city
of Haicheng.

B Work with a partner. Match the words in bold in Step A with the definitions below.
Use the strategies for guessing meaning. irLanguage.com
Example: Snakes normally hibernate underground during the winter.
Strategies
• grammar You can guess that the word hibernate is a verb (an action).
• context The other words in the sentence tell you that hibernate is
something that animals do underground during the winter.
• background knowledge You may know that some animals sleep during the winter.
hibernate a. sleep during the winter
b. felt something without seeing or hearing it
c. make a loud animal noise
d. fell down
e. worried, unhappy

C Discuss your answers in a small group. Tell which strategies you used to guess
each word.

u�'�' u�j �JD

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3 Pronoun reference 0

-
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. Read the sentence below. Notice
that the pronoun he refers to "professor." The pronoun it refers to "test."

Next week, my professor will give us a test on plate tectonics. He told us that we
should review our notes to prepare for tt. j
Skillful writers use pronouns to replace nouns. Pronouns can add interest and help
connect sentences and ideas. Find the noun that a pronoun refers to, and you will
understand the meaning of the pronoun.
Follow these rules to find the noun that a pronoun refers to:
• Look for the noun that comes before the pronoun. Pronouns usually come after the
nouns that they refer to.
• Notice if the pronoun is singular or plural. That will tell you to look for a singular
noun or a plural noun.

. ..-:-- ---
A Read these sentences from the text "Earthquakes." The pronouns are underlined.
Draw an arrow from each pronoun to the noun or noun phrase it refers to.

1. When the tectonic plates that make up Earth's crust move past each other, they
often bump or rub against each other.
2. The pressure increases as the two plates try to move past each other but cannot.
They finally move with a sudden and powerful jerk.
3. However, a strong movement can cause the earth to shake and roll violently. 11 can
make buildings and bridges fall. It can also cause the earth to split open and form a
large fault, or crack.
4. The deadliest earthquake in modern times happened in 1976 in Tangshan, China.
11 lasted less than two minutes, but more than 250,000 people died, and more than
90 percent of the buildings collapsed.

B Compare your work with a partner's.

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4 Showing contrast 0
Writers contrast (show the difference between) ideas with words such as however
and but.
The word however often starts a sentence. There is always a comma after it.
An active volcano may not have erupted in thousands of years. However, it could
erupt sometime in the future.
The word but is a coordinating connector. It comes in the middle of a sentence and
has a comma before it. It contrasts two ideas in a compound sentence.
Most volcanoes form near plate boundaries, but a few do not.

A Complete these sentences with but or however. Then find the sentences in the text
"Earthquakes" and check your answers.
1. During a small earthquake, the earth simply shakes a little, and people may not even
notice. , a strong movement can cause the earth to shake and roll violently.
2. Earthquakes can happen anywhere, certain places have more
earthquakes because they sit on tectonic plates that move frequently.
3. Scientists cannot predict when an earthquake will happen. , they are
able to identify the areas where earthquakes are most likely to occur.
4. We cannot stop tectonic plates from moving, with accurate information
and good planning, we can help people live more safely on our planet.
B Write your own sentences with but and however. Follow the example. Use correct
punctuation and capital letters where necessary. Use a separate piece of paper.
1. Volcanoes are destructive.
Volcanoes are destructive, but they also create new land on Earth.
Volcanoes are destructive. However, they also create new land on Earth.
2. California has earthquakes every day.
3. Small earthquakes do not shake the ground very much.
4. You may not feel the ground move.

Chapter 2 The Dynamic Earth 45

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Chapter 2 Academic Vocabulary Review

The following words appear in the readings in Chapter 2. They all come from the
Academic Word List, a list of words that researchers have discovered occur frequently in
many different types of academic texts. For a complete list of all the Academic Word List
words in this chapter and in all the readings in this book, see the Appendix on page 206.

accurate dramatic major region

collapsed eventually normally survive
create interact predict theory

Complete the sentences with words from the list.

1. One of the world that has a lot of earthquakes is the west coast of
South America.
2. Volcanic eruptions can many problems for the people who live nearby.
The lava can destroy houses, and the ash can cause breathing difficulties.
3. people do not feel the earth move beneath their feet, but sometimes
they do feel an earthquake shake the ground.
4. Did huge volcanic eruptions kill the dinosaurs on our planet? That is one idea.
Another is that the dinosaurs died because an asteroid hit Earth.
5. It is important not to panic in an earthquake. You can ____ an earthquake,
but you must stay calm and get to a safe place .
6. When scientists collect data, it is important that the information is ____
Incorrect information could ruin their research.
7. Scientists study the recent activity of a volcano to try to when it
will erupt.
8. The roof of the house when a large rock fell on it.
9. It is often useful to with your classmates outside of school. You can
make new friends and help each other study.
10. There is one problem with staying up all night to study for a test.
You are often too tired to remember the information the next day!

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Practicing
Academic Writing
In Unit 1, you learned about planet Earth and its physical features. Based on everything
you have read and discussed in class, you will write a paragraph about this topic.

A Special Place
You will write one academic paragraph about a place on Earth that you like.
You might choose a place that you think is beautiful, interesting, or fun.

PREPARING TO WRITE
1 Using correct paragraph form
A paragraph is a group of sentences about the same topic. In general, paragraphs in
English have six to ten sentences, but they can be shorter or longer. When you write a
paragraph, follow these rules of form:
• Indent the first sentence of a paragraph. That means, start the first sentence five
spaces from the left margin. Sometimes you will see paragraphs that do not follow
this rule. However, in your writing, you should always indent the first sentence.
• Begin each sentence with a capital letter. End each sentence with punctuation such
as a period or question mark.
• Write one sentence directly after another sentence. Do this until you get to the end
of a line. Do not use a separate line for each sentence.

A Look at the following paragraph. With a partner, identify the three ways this paragraph
uses correct form.

Look at the seven continents on a map of the world, and you may notice that
they seem to fit together like pieces of a puzzle. In 1912, the German scientist Alfred
Wegener suggested that millions of years ago, Earth had just one giant continent.
He called it Pangaea, which means "all the Earth" in Greek.

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B The following text does not follow the rules of correct paragraph form. Rewrite the
text as a paragraph. Use a separate piece of paper. Use correct paragraph form and
correct punctuation.

There are four basic types of volcanoes: shield volcanoes,

composite volcanoes, cinder cone volcanoes, and supervolcanoes.
shield volcanoes are generally very large, and lava usually flows down their sides.
Composite volcanoes are smaller than shield volcanoes.
They can have both small eruptions and big eruptions
The smallest type of volcano is the cinder cone volcano.
For example, the Paricutin volcano was a cinder cone volcano.
the largest and most dangerous volcanoes are supervolcanoes, and they can
cause a lot of destruction.
Scientists continue to study these four types of volcanoes to learn more about our
planet.

C Compare your paragraph with a partner's.

2 Using correct paragraph structure

In addition to following correct paragraph form, academic paragraphs often have a
specific structure:
• The first sentence of the paragraph is the topic sentence.
It explains the main idea of the whole paragraph.
• The middle sentences of a paragraph are supporting sentences.
They give details and examples that explain the main idea.
• The final sentence, or concluding sentence, ends the paragraph by reminding the
reader about the main idea of the paragraph.
Not all academic paragraphs follow this structure, but many do. Be sure to learn this
pattern. It will help you read and understand academic texts.

A Reread paragraph 3 of the text "Earthquakes." Underline and label the topic sentence
(TS). Next, bracket ([]) and label the supporting sentences (SS). Then draw two lines
under the concluding sentence and label it (CS).

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48 Unit 1 Planet Earth

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B Read the following paragraph. ffi

irLanguage.com

There is no way to stop an earthquake, but there are several things you can do to
prepare and protect yourself. Before an earthquake happens, you should make an
emergency plan. You should also prepare an emergency supply kit with a battery­
powered radio, a flashlight, and enough food and water for three days. Remember
to do these things during an earthquake: Stay away from windows and tall furniture
inside a building. Get on the floor, cover your head, and hold on to something until
the shaking stops. Find a place away from buildings and trees outside and get on the
ground. After the earthquake stops, check for injuries - are you hurt? Listen to the
radio for instructions. If you are in an unsafe building, go outside. An earthquake can
be a frightening experience, but knowing what to do before, during, and after it will
help you stay safe.

C Work with a partner. Answer these questions about the paragraph in Step B.
1. Does the paragraph have a topic sentence? If so, underline it, and label it (TS).
2. How many supporting sentences are there? Bracket ([ ]) and label them (SS).
3. Does the paragraph have a concluding sentence? If so, draw two lines under it, and
label it (CS).

NOW WRITE
Writing first drafts www.irLanguage.com

Your first piece of writing on a topic is a first draft. Very few people write a "perfect"
first draft. A first draft gets some ideas and sentences down on paper so you can then
read the paragraph and find ways to improve it.

A Think about your favorite place on Earth. It can be a continent, an island, a mountain
range, a river, a lake, or some other place. Consider places that you visited or learned
about in a book, a movie, or on the Internet.

B Write about this place on a piece of paper for five minutes. Do not stop to erase idea�
or correct mistakes. Just freewrite about the place without stopping. The purpose of
this task is to write down as many thoughts and ideas as you can. irLanguage.com

C Have a short conversation with a partner. Tell each other about your favorite places.

Chapter 2 Practicing Academic Writing 49

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D Now write a paragraph about your favorite place.

1. Use this topic sentence to begin. Choose the word that best describes your place.
topic sentence: The most (interesting I exciting I beautifu� place on Earth that I
know is _______
2. Write five or six supporting sentences that show why your topic sentence is true.
3. Complete this sentence to end your paragraph.
concluding sentence: For a/I these reasons, _______ is my favorite place.
4. Remember to use correct paragraph form and structure.
5. Try to include some of the new vocabulary that you learned in this chapter.
6. Try to vary your sentence structure. Use simple and compound sentences.
Try to include prepositional phrases, and use pronoun references correctly.

AFTER YOU WRITE

After you complete your first draft, you can revise it. When you revise, you find ways
to make your writing better. Often, it helps to have another person read your writing
and offer suggestions for improvement.

A Exchange paragraphs with a partner and read each other's work.

Then discuss the followiog questions.
1. Are your favorite places similar or very different?
2. Does your partner's paragraph use correct paragraph form? Are there any problems
with form that need to be corrected?
3. Does your partner's paragraph have a clear topic sentence at the beginning and a
clear concluding sentence at the end? If not, help your partner write one.
4. Do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence? Are there any sentences
that do not? Cross off any sentences that do not support the topic sentence.
Do you think the paragraph has enough supporting sentences? If not, help your
partner write more sentences.
B Make any changes to your paragraph that you think will improve it.
C Rewrite your paragraph.

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Unit 2
Water on Earth

In this unit, you will look at the importance of water to life on Earth.
In Chapter 3, you will examine the natural process that continues to recycle
water on our planet. You will also focus on the sources of freshwater, such as
rivers, lakes, and glaciers. In Chapter 4, you will discuss Earth's oceans and
the activity of currents and waves.
www.frenglish.ru

Contents
In Unit 2, you will read and write about the following topics.

Chapter 3 Chapter 4
Earth's Water Supply Earth's Oceans

Reading 1 Reading 1
The Water Cycle Oceans
Reading 2 Reading 2
Groundwater and Surface Water Currents
READING 3 Readfog 3
Glaciers Waves and Tsunamis

Skills
In Unit 2, you will practice the following skills.
www.irLan
Reading Skills (Z> Writing Skills
Thinking about the topic Identifying topic sentences
Examining graphics Identifying topic sentences and supporting
Sequencing sentences
Reading about statistics Writing topic sentences and supporting
Increasing reading speed sentences
Reading for main ideas Writing about superlatives
Scanning Describing results
Building background knowledge about the Concluding sentences
topic Parallel structure
Reading maps Both ... and and neither . .. nor
Brainstorming Reviewing paragraph structure

0 Vocabulary Skills 0 Academic Success Skills

Reading for main ideas and details

Antonyms Understanding test questions

Suffixes that change verbs into nouns Answering multiple-choice questions
Countable and uncountable nouns Mapping
Subject-verb agreement Conducting a survey
Too and very Taking notes
Adjective suffixes irLanguage.com Labeling a map
Organizing ideas

Learning Outcomes
Write an academic paragraph about a water feature on Earth

52 Unit 2 Water on Earth LX irLanguage.com

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Previewing the Unit

www.irLanguage.com

Previewing means looking at one thing before another. It is a good idea to preview
your reading assignments. Read the contents page of every new unit. Think about
the topics of the chapters. You will get a general idea of how the unit is organized and
what it is going to be about.

Read the contents page for Unit 2 on page 52 and do the following activities.

Chapter 3: Earth's Water Supply

A Look at the photographs and answer the question.

b. _______ C.

The photographs show types of freshwater features. Do you know their names?
Write the names that you know under the appropriate photographs.

B Discuss these questions with a partner.

1. How are the water features above similar and different?
2. What are some important water features where you live?
3. Have you visited a famous water feature? Talk about your experience.

Chapter 4: Earth's Oceans

A Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1. Is swimming in an ocean different from swimming in other places?
2. Did you ever try sailing, surfing, or scuba diving?
Describe the ocean at that time. How did it look, smell, and sound?

B The words on the left are connected to oceans. Match the words and definitions.
1. the Pacific a. winds that blow from west to east
2. salty b. a famous explorer who named the Pacific Ocean
3. tsunami c. the taste of ocean water
4. Magellan d. Earth's largest ocean
5. the westerlies e. a very big and dangerous ocean wave

Unit 2 Water on Earth 53

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Chapter 3
Earth's Water Supply
PREPARING TO READ

1 Thinking about the topic

A Read this information from the text "The Water Cycle." Then answer the questions with
a partner.

We call our planet Earth, but many people say that we should call it Water.
Water covers more than 70 percent of our planet. Water is essential to life on Earth.
We drink it, swim in it, clean with it, and use it in many other ways. Surprisingly,
the amount of water on Earth does not decrease even though we use so much of it
every day.

1. Is Water a good name for our planet? Why or why not?

2. Where is water on our planet? Name some places.
3. Use the context to guess the meaning of these words: essential and decrease.

B People use a lot of water every day. How much water do you use?
Make a list and compare your list with your partner's. Discuss these questions:
1. Who uses more water?
2. Are you surprised at how much water you use in one day?
3. Why do you think the amount of water on our planet never decreases?

2 Examining graphics
A You are going to read about Earth's water cycle. First, look at the diagram of the water
cycle on page 56. Then think of what you learned in Chapter 1 about the rock cycle.
What does cycle mean?

B With a partner, study the diagram of the water cycle again. What is the water cycle?
Try to complete the following sentence.
The water cycle is . . .

54 Unit 2 Water on Earth

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THE WATER CYCLE

We call our planet Ear th, but many people say that we should call
it Water. Water covers more than 70 percent of our planet. Water is
essential to life on Earth. We drink it, swim in it, clean with it, and
use it in many other ways. Surprisingly, the amount of water on Earth
s does not decrease even though we use so much of it every day. This is
because nature recycles water in a process called the water cycle (also
called the hydrologic cycle). The water cycle is the movement of water
from Earth into the atmosphere and back to Earth again.

What are the steps of the water cycle?

Evaporation is the first step in the water cycle. This is the process that evaporation the
10 changes water from a liquid to a gas. Energy from the sun produces process that
evaporation. When the sun heats water, some of the water turns into changes a heated
a gas called water vapor. Water evaporates anywhere there is sun and liquid to a gas
water. Most evaporation of water on Earth is from the oceans, but
there is also evaporation from lakes, rivers, and even from wet skin
1s and clothing. 0�1.>:!1 ot,.j I!?.><>
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om

condensation the Condensation is the second step in the water cycle. Water vapor
process that changes rises into the atmosphere. It cools and changes back into droplets
water vapor into (very small drops) ofliquid water. This process is called condensation.
droplets of water When water vapor condenses, it forms clouds.
when it cools
20 The third step in the water cycle is precipitation. Water droplets
combine (join together) to form larger drops. The larger drops fall to
precipitation rain, earth as rain, snow, or hail. Some of this water goes into the ground,
snow, or hail and some ofit goes into lakes, rivers, and oceans. Eventually, the water
that returns to Earth will evaporate and rise into the atmosphere, and
the water cycle will continue. irLanguage.com
How long is the water cycle?
The fastest water cycle on Earth occurs in tropical rain forests that
are near the equator. Tropical rain forests are wet environments. The
whole water cycle happens in just one day. In contrast, the slowest
water cycle occurs in deserts. Deserts are very dry. It may not rain for
30 years in a desert, so it can take years to go through the whole cycle.
Water on Earth is always moving. It flows down rivers, travels
across oceans, evaporates into the atmosphere, and falls to Earth as
rain, snow, or hail. The total amount of water on Earth stays the same
year after year because of the water cycle. In fact, the water on Earth
35 now is the same water that was on our planet millions ofyears ago. This

means that the glass of water you drink today is millions ofyears old.

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Understanding test questions O
College courses often test you on what you read in the course. It is impo:rtant to think
carefully about each question on the test. First, identify the key words, or important
words, in the question. Then decide what the question is asking. Here are some
guidelines to help you:
Where questions ask for names and descriptions of places.
Q: Where is the Amazon River?
A: It's in South America.
Q: Where does the slowest water cycle occur?
A: It occurs in deserts, which are very dry.

Why questions ask for explanations or reasons.

Q: Why does the amount of water on Earth always stay the same?
A: The amount of water stays the same because nature recycles it.

How many or how much questions usually ask for amounts or numbers.
Q: How much of our planet is covered by land?
A: Less than 30 percent of our planet is covered by land.

A Read each question. Underline the key words. What question is being asked?
Use the strategies in the box to decide. Then find the answer in the reading.
1. How much of Earth is covered by water?
2. How many steps does the water cycle have?
3. Where does water evaporate from?
4. Why does water vapor change back to liquid water?
5. Where is the fastest water cycle on Earth?
6. Why is the water on Earth today actually millions of years old?

B Now write two more questions about the text on a separate piece of paper.

C Exchange your questions with a partner and answer each other's questions.

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2 Sequencing
Scientific information often includes a process, or a series of steps. To understand
a process, you need to understand each of the steps and the correct sequence, or
order, of the steps.

A Reread paragraphs 2-4 of "The Water Cycle" and review Figure 3.1. Then work with a
partner. Look at the steps of the water cycle listed below. Put the steps in order (1-8).
Try not to look back at the text. irLanguage.com
a. The water vapor moves up into the atmosphere.
b. Some of the raindrops fall into lakes, rivers, and oceans.
c. The sun comes out and begins to warm the water in the ocean again.
d. The water vapor cools and changes into droplets of water.
e. The small water droplets inside the cloud combine into bigger water drops,
and the bigger water drops fall from the cloud as rain.
f. Some of the water in the ocean becomes water vapor.
_1 _ g. The sun heats the water in an ocean.
h. A cloud forms.
B Complete the diagram of the water cycle. Draw the sequence in Step A and label the

--------o�
steps. Include arrows to show the process.

\ I
----...._
I \
�

The water cycle

C Look back at Figure 3.1 on page 56 to check your work.

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3AntonymsO
Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings. For example, cold and hot are
antonyms. Learning antonyms is a good way to add words to your vocabulary.

A All of the words below are from the reading. Match the antonyms.
1. cools a. slowest
2. rise b. large
3. evaporation c. dry
4. fastest d. heats
5. wet e. fall
6. small f. condensation

B Choose three pairs of antonyms from Step A. On a separate piece of paper, use the
antonyms to write sentences with but and however. Follow this example:
Tropical rain forests are wet environments, but deserts are dry environments.
Tropical rain forests are wet environments. However, deserts are dry environments.

4 Suffixes that change verbs into nouns O

You can change many verbs into nouns by adding a suffix, or ending. Two common
suffixes that change verbs into nouns are -ment and -ion/-ation. If the verb ends in -e,
drop the -e before adding the suffix. irLanguage.com
Look at these examples:
Verb Noun
erupt eruption
contribute contribution
inform information
argue argument
assign assignment

A Look at the verbs. The noun forms of the verbs are in the reading. Find and circle the
noun forms. Write each noun form next to the appropriate verb.
Verb Noun Form
1. move (Par. 1)
2. evaporate (Par. 2)
3. condense (Par. 3)

Now look at the nouns. The verb forms are in the reading. Find and circle the verb
forms. Write each verb form next to the appropriate noun.
Noun Verb Form
1. formation _____ (Par. 3)
2. combination ______ (Par. 4)
3. continuation ______ (Par. 4)
Chapter 3 Earth's Water Supply 59
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B The following sentences need a verb or a noun. Read each sentence. Choose V (verb)
or N (noun) and write the letter in the blank. Then circle the correct word to complete
the sentence.
1. Our teachers always (assign I assignment) a lot of homework.
2. Last year I saw a volcanic (erupt I eruption). It was amazing!
3. In an emergency, listen to the radio for (inform I information).
4. Don't leave a glass of water in the sun. The water will (evaporate I evaporation),
and then the glass will be empty.
5. The students found the (locate I location) of the Sahara Desert on a map.
6. The water in a river (movement I moves) downhill until it reaches the ocean.

5 Identifying topic sentences Qi

Many paragraphs in academic English begin with a topic sentence, which explains
the main idea of the paragraph.

A Look back at paragraphs 2, 3, and 4 of the text "The Water Cycle." Underline the topic
sentence of each paragraph. Read the sentences again. Notice that these three topic
sentences help you understand the steps of the water cycle.

B Read the paragraph. Then do the following activities.

_________________________ Jnfact,over
half of Earth's plant species live in these very wet environments. We use many of the
plants for food or medicine. There are more than 3,000 types of fruit in rain forests,
including avocados, coconuts, and guavas. Tropical rain forests also contain a large
number of vegetables such as corn,potatoes,and yams,and spices like black pepper,
chocolate, and cinnamon. In addition, 70 percent of the plants that can help fight
cancer and other diseases are in the rain forest. This rich plant life makes tropical rain
forests a very important feature of Earth.

1. What is the main idea of the paragraph? Write it here: ___________

2. Check (w"') the best topic sentence for the paragraph.
a. Tropical rain forests are an important part of the water cycle.
b. Many plants and animals live in tropical rain forests.
c. Tropical rain forests are home to a wide variety of plants.

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PREPARING TO READ

1 Thinking about the topic ·

Discuss these questions with a partner or in
a small group.
1. Freshwater is water that does not
have salt in it. Does Earth have more
freshwater or saltwater?
2. Freshwater can be ice or liquid.
Does Earth have more ice or more
liquid water?
3. Where do you get your drinking water?
4. Is your drinking water clean and safe?
Do most people have safe drinking
water?
5. Will our planet ever run out
of safe drinking water?
6. How can we increase the
amount of safe drinking
water on our planet?
7. How long can a person live
without food? How long can
a person live without water?

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2 Examining graphics ·
Before reading a text, it is helpful to look at any graphs, charts, or diagrams.
This will give you an idea of the content (the information that the text contains).

You are going to read about the distribution of freshwater and saltwater on our planet.
Work with a partner. Look at Figure 3.2 on page 62 and answer these questions.
1. Is most of the water on our planet freshwater or saltwater?
2. How much of Earth's water is in the oceans?
3. How much of the freshwater is under the ground (groundwater)?
4. How much of it is in the form of ice?
5. How much freshwater is accessible, or easy to get and use?

Chapter 3 Earth's Water Supply 61

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Reading 2
GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER
Fresh, clean water is essential to life on Earth. Plants, animals, and
humans all need it to survive. People grow plants for food, and
that requires a lot of water. In fact, we use four-fifths of the world's
freshwater supply for agriculture. To stay healthy, people also have to
s drink a lot of freshwater every day.
Unfortunately, most of the water on our planet (almost 97 percent)
is not freshwater but saltwater. Only about 3 percent is freshwater, and
more than three-quarters of that water is frozen, or ice. This means
that only a small amount of the water on Earth is freshwater that we
10 can drink. Most of this drinkable water is deep under the ground
(groundwater), where we cannot get to it; only about 1 percent is on
the surface (surface water) and accessible. irLanguage.com

Groundwater
Inside the lithosphere are trillions of liters of freshwater.
Rain and snow fall from the sky, and the water goes down
15 into the ground. It fills the spaces between the sand and
the rocks. The water goes farther down and reaches an
area full of water. This area is called the zone of saturation.
This saturation zone can vary in size. Areas where there is
enough groundwater for people to dig a well and pump it
20 out are called aquifers. Water in an aquifer may leak out of
cracks in the earth and come to the surface, where it goes
into lakes and rivers. Most groundwater is too difficult to
get or pump out of the earth, however. Out of 33 trillion
Groundwater Accessible {33,000 billion) gallons in the ground, only 76 billion
20% Surface Water 1 % gallons are pumped out for use in the U.S.A. - in other
25

Accessible words, only 0.23 percent.

Surface
Water Surface water in lakes
Lakes are an important source of accessible freshwater.
They provide a large supply of freshwater to the planet.
Figure 3.2 The distribution of How? First, there are a lot of them. There are millions of lakes on
water on Earth 30 Earth, and almost half of them are in Canada . One very large lake,

Lake Baikal in Siberia, contains 20 percent of all the freshwater on the

surface of our planet. Another way lakes provide a lot of water is that
lake water is easy to get - land surrounds a lake on all sides and makes
the water fairly calm and quiet. Last, the freshwater supply in lakes can
aquifer an area of
35 come from different sources, instead of just one source. Most lakes are
rock and soil that
holds a lot of water in areas that glaciers covered in the past. Some lakes form when rocks
that can be pumped stop a river from flowing. Lakes also form when rainwater fills the
out and used opening of an extinct volcano.

62 Unit 2 Water on Earth

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Surface water in rivers

Rivers are another source of freshwater. Rain and snow fall in the
40 mountains, and some of the water goes into the ground. However,
some of the water stays on the surface and flows downhill. This
movement often creates a small mountain stream, and this stream
may eventually join with other streams to form a river. A young river
flows quickly downhill and changes the shape of the land. It cuts a
45 path down the mountain and forms a V-shaped valley. The valley
grows larger, the mountain becomes less steep, and the river becomes
deeper and wider. Finally, the river reaches flatter land and flows more
slowly until it reaches the ocean. The largest river in the world is the
Amazon River. In fact, the Amazon contains more than one-fifth of
50 the world's total river water.

Today, concern is growing that Earth's freshwater supply will run

out. As the planet's population increases, the global demand for water
increases, too. Many people worry that the demand for water could
grow higher than the supply. One way to solve the problem may be
55 to find ways to use saltwater. In 2012, a company in California began

an experiment to change saltwater from the ocean into freshwater.

Another solution is to conserve water, that is, to not use too much.
Water is essential to life on Earth. It is extremely important to protect
this valuable resource. If we are careful and creative, future generations
oo will also have access to fresh, clean water for everyday use.

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Bottled Wate:r or Tap Water?

Where does the water you drink come from? Do you drink tap water from the faucet,
or do you drink bottled water? Many people think that bottled water is cleaner and
safer than tap water. Surprisingly, this is usually not true. In some parts of the world, the
public water supply is polluted, and bottled water is a good choice. In most parts
of the world, however, the water supply is clean, safe, and easily accessible.
Bottled water is very popular in several countries. For example,
more than 50 percent of Americans, Canadians, and Italians drink it. Why do
they drink bottled water? Some people think it is more natural. The labels
on the bottles often show mountain streams and beautiful waterfalls,
so the water appears to come directly from nature. In fact, more
than 25 percent of all bottled water that is sold in the United ...---.
1A -
States is purified water, and this water comes from
a faucet, not a mountain stream. Other people think
bottled water tastes better than tap water. However,
some tests say that most people cannot taste the
difference. Therefore, if you do have access to a good
water supply, you may want to turn on the faucet for your
next drink. You'll save money, and the water will be clean,
safe, and good tasting.

Chapter 3 Earth's Water Supply 63

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Answering multiple-choice questions O
Students often focus on the choices in multiple-choice questions, but it's important to
think about the questions. Pay special attention to questions that include the word not.
Example: Which one of the following is not a step in the water cycle?
a. evaporation
b. saturation
c. condensation
In the example, choices a and c (evaporation and condensation) are steps in the water
cycle. The correct answer is b, because saturation is not a step.

A Review "Answering Multiple Choice Questions" on page 21. Use the information in the
reading to answer the following questions. Pay special attention to questions with not.
1. How much of the freshwater on Earth is accessible surface water that we can drink?
a. about 97 percent c. about 3 percent
b. about 75 percent d. about 1 percent
2. Most of the freshwater on our planet is--·
a. under the ground c. in oceans
b. frozen d. in lakes
3. An aquifer is --·
a. under the ground c. very small
b. on the surface d. sand and rocks
4. Which one of the following is not an example of surface water?
a. a river c. an aquifer
b. a lake d. an ocean
5. Which phrase does not describe lakes?
a. freshwater c. calm water
b. surrounded by land d. flow from mountains to the ocean
6. Rivers do not --·
a. flow downhill c. create U-shaped valleys
b. change the shape of the land d. flow into oceans
B Compare your answers with a partner.

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2 Mapping O
Make a map of a text to take notes. One way to do this is to draw lines and circles to
show relationships among the facts and ideas.

A Look at the illustration below. It is the beginning of a map of "Groundwater and Surface
Water." The circle in the center is large and its content is general. The other circles
become smaller as the content becomes more specific.
B Complete the map. Fill in the blank circles with information from the text. Then compare
your map with a partner.

Water
Freshwater on
Earth

3 Conducting a survey O
Surveys are often used in academic research. Two types of surveys are written
questionnaires and interviews. In questionnaires, people write answers to questions
on paper. In interviews, a person asks questions and then writes down people's
answers. A good survey does the following:
• poses a clear question
• often asks for comparisons: Is X better than Y?; Is X different from Y?
• uses yes I no and multiple-choice questions
Note that yes I no and multiple-choice questions provide information that is easy to
calculate. When the survey is complete, researchers usually present the results in a
report or chart.

Chapter 3 Earth's Water Supply 65

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A Conduct a survey to answer this question: Can most people tell the difference between
bottled water and tap water?
1. Ask at least six people to participate in your survey.
2. Prepare four cups of water for each person. Fill three cups with bottled water and
one cup with tap water. Label the cups A, B, C, and D. Be sure to secretly note
which cup contains the tap water.
3. Do not tell your participants what the cups contain - this is called a "blind" taste test.
4. Have each person drink from the four cups. Ask each person, "Which cup do you think
contains tap water?" Record their names and answers on a separate piece of paper.
B How many people correctly identified the tap water? How many did not? Calculate the
numbers. Make a pie chart to show the results. Share the results with the class.

4 Countable and uncountable nouns 0 www irLanguage

English nouns can be divided into two groups:

1. Countable nouns are things that we can count.
• Countable nouns have both singular and plural forms: river I rivers
• Countable nouns can take a determiner: a, an, the, or a number
A river is a source of freshwater.
The longest river in Canada is the Mackenzie River.
Two rivers in Russia are the Volga River and the Don River.
2. Uncountable nouns are things that cannot be counted.
• Uncountable nouns are often:
Liquids Gases Ideas Things made up of little pieces
water ox ygen love rice
coffee carbon dioxide peace dust
• Uncountable nouns do not have plural forms. They take singular verbs.
Water is essential for life on Earth.
When water condenses, it forms clouds.
• Uncountable nouns do not take a, an, or a number. You can use the noun
alone or with the.
CORRECT: Water is dripping from the faucet.
The water in a lake is freshwater.
INCORRECT: A water is good for your health.
Note: Do not confuse a plural countable noun with a third-person singular verb:
I have a pair of skis. (plural countable noun) He skis on the river. (verb)

A Reread paragraph 3 of "Groundwater and Surface Water." Find three countable nouns
and three uncountable nouns. Circle them. Write the words in the blanks.
Countable nouns: ________ ____
Uncountable nouns: ____________
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B Read the sentences. Label each underlined noun C (countable) or U (uncountable).

1. The United States is between two oceans: the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
2. When Mount Vesuvius erupted, lava covered the city of Pompeii, Italy.
3. Most of Antarctica has a thick cover of ice.
4. The Nile River and the Amazon River are two of the longest rivers on Earth.
5. An example of an aquifer is the Ogallala Aquifer in the midwestern part of the United
States.

5 Reading about statistics

Statistics are numerical facts, or facts that are stated as numbers. Statistics are often
used to support ideas. Understanding the statistics in an academic text will help you
understand the ideas. Statistics can be stated in different forms:
• whole numbers (50, 1,000, 32 billion)
• fractions (one-third, one-half, four-fifths, 1/3, 1/2, 4/5)
• percentages (33%, 50%, 80%)

A Read the questions and answer with a partner. Use the statistics in the main reading
and the boxed text.
1. Do people use more water for agriculture or for drinking?
2. What percentage of water on Earth is freshwater?
3. Is most freshwater in liquid form or frozen?
4. Does all bottled water come from natural sources, such as streams?

B Statistics stated in a text may be stated differently in questions. For example:

Text: Fifty percent of people in Canada drink bottled water.
Question: What fraction of people in Canada drink bottled water?
Answer: one-half (1/2)
Match the fractions with the percentages.
__ 80 percent a. one-fourth (1/4)
__ 50 percent b. one-tenth (1/10)
__ 33 percent c. four-fifths (4/5)
__ 20 percent d. one-fifth (1 /5)
__ 25 percent e. one-third (1/3)
__ 10 percent f. one-half (1/2)

C Answer the questions. Use the statistics in the reading and the boxed text.
1. What percentage of the world's freshwater supply is used for agriculture?
2. What fraction of Earth's surface freshwater is found in Lake Baikal?
3. What percentage of the world's lakes is in Canada?
4. What fraction of bottled water in the United States is purified water?

D Compare your answers to steps A-C with a partner's.

Chapter 3 Earth's Water Supply 67
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PREPARING TO READ

Increasing reading speed

Academic classes often require a lot of reading. However, there is not always time to
read every text slowly and carefully. Reading speed can be as important as reading
comprehension. Here are some strategies for increasing your reading speed:
• Read the text straight through. Do not go back to any parts of it.
• Do not stop to look up words in a dictionary.
• Skip over words you do not know if they do not seem important.
• Try to guess the meaning of words that seem important.
• Slow down a little to understand important parts, such as definitions and
main ideas.

A Read the text "Glaciers." Use the strategies listed above. For this task, do not read the
boxed text on page 70. irLanguage.com
1. Before you begin, fill in your starting time.
Starting time: ____
2. Fill in the time you finished.
Finishing time: ____
B Calculate your reading speed:
Reading speed: ----
Number of words in the text (418) + Number
of minutes it took you to read the text = your
reading speed
Your reading speed = the number of words you can read per minute.
C Check your reading comprehension. Circle the correct answers. Do not look at the text.
1. Glaciers are made of
a. freshwater and saltwater.
b. soil and rocks.
c. layers of ice.
2. Glaciers can move
a. rocks and soil.
b. people and animals.
c. rivers and oceans.
3. Glaciers move
a. quickly.
b. slowly.
c. not at all.

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Reading 3
GLACIERS
In a small town in Alberta, Canada, there is a giant rock called Big
Rock. This rock is 9 meters high, 41 meters long, and 18 meters wide.
It weighs almost 14,970 metric tons. Thousands of years ago, Big Rock
moved approximately 400 kilometers to its present location. How
5 could such a huge rock move so far? It got a ride from a glacier.
Glaciers are layers of ice that move. Some people call them rivers of
ice. Glaciers begin to form when snow falls and does not melt. More
snow falls, presses down, and turns the snow underneath to ice. This
cycle eventually forms thick layers of ice. The cycle continues until the
10 layers of ice become very heavy and begin to slide over the ground.
When they begin moving, the layers of ice are called a glacier. They
slide slowly down hills and valleys until they melt or reach the ocean.
Glaciers may move slowly, but they are powerful. They can carve,
or cut out, deep valleys and create beautiful landscapes over time.
15 They are very strong and can move large amounts of soil and pull fjord valley near
rocks of all sizes out of the ground. This is called plucking. Several the ocean, originally
glaciers can surround a mountain and pluck rocks from all sides. This created by a glacier,
is the process that created the sharp mountaintop of the Matterhorn that has filled with
in Switzerland. ocean water
20 Glaciers are usually wider than rivers. They create wide U-shaped
valleys, not narrow V-shaped ones, as they move across the land.
Sometimes a glacier will carve a U-shaped valley near the ocean. After
the glacier melts, the ocean water sometimes fills these valleys. This
creates a landform called a fjord (fee-YORD). Norway has the world's
25 most famous and beautiful fjords, but there are also fjords in Alaska
and Japan.

Kayakers at Kenai
Fjords National Park,
Alaska, U.S.
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climate the usual Scientists study glaciers to learn about world climates and climate
weather conditions in change. They measure how fast glaciers move, and they measure
a particular place changes in size. Today, scientists report that Earth's glaciers are melting
30 more quickly than they melted 100 years ago. This is an important
sign that Earth is warming up.
Glaciers are also important because they contain more than 75
percent of all the freshwater on our planet. When they melt, they provide
drinking water and water for crops in some dry parts of the world.
35 However, some glaciers are melting too quickly. They are decreasing in
size, and eventually they will melt and disappear. As a result, many people
will lose their main source of water. Scientists and environmentalists all
over the world are trying to solve this serious problem.

Artificial Glaciers
Sometimes, nature makes life difficult. For example, farmers in Ladakh, India, need
water in April to prepare the fields and plant seeds, but there is no water in Ladakh in
April. Melting glaciers from the Himalayan mountains provide water to grow crops, but
the glaciers are high in the mountains and don't begin to melt until June. Unfortunately,
the farmers need the water in April, and June is too late to have a good harvest. As a
result, the people in this area are very poor and must work hard to survive.
One person, however, can change the
lives of thousands. Chewang Norphel lived
his whole life in Ladakh. He worked as an
engineer and learned to build bridges and
canals. He understood that the farmers
needed more water in April, and he found
a way to solve their problem. Norphel
built a system of canals to catch the
water that flows in the glacial streams in
the summertime. They store this water in
reservoirs until winter. In the winter, the
water refreezes and becomes an artificial,
or human-made, glacier.
The artificial glaciers are lower in the
mountains than natural glaciers, so they
melt earlier. In fact, they melt in April.
This provides water for the farmers just
when they need it. Norphel has built 12
artificial glaciers. He hopes to create
many more. Today, the people in Ladakh
can grow more food, and their living
situation is improving.

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Reading for main ideas

A Look at the main ideas of "Glaciers." Find the paragraphs in the reading where they are
discussed. Write the numbers in the blanks.
1. Glaciers create Li-shaped valleys, and some of these eventually Par. __
become fjords.
2. Glaciers are large, slow-moving layers of ice. Par. __
3. Studying glaciers can provide information about world climates. Par. __
4. Glaciers can move huge rocks hundreds of kilometers. Par. __
5. Glaciers can create valleys, pull rocks out of the ground,
and shape mountains. Par. __

B Check (.1) the sentence that expresses the main idea of the whole text.
1. Glaciers are very powerful, and they can lift heavy objects.
2. Glaciers are melting quickly, and we need to find a way to save them.
3. Glaciers are layers of ice that shape the land, and they can teach us about
climate.
4. Glaciers are layers of ice that move slowly over the land.

2 Scanning · O
Scanning a text means reading it quickly to find specific information. To scan, you
do not read every word. Instead, you pass your eyes quickly over the text to find
only the information you need. You can use scanning to study for a test or prepare
for a writing assignment.
Scan for:
• names of people, places, or things
• facts or statistics
• signal words that show order or examples
Search the text for:
• capital letters, to find names of people or special places
• numbers or percent symbols(%), to find amounts or measurements
• words such as first, second, last, or for example to find signals

Scan the text ''Glaciers" and the boxed text "Artificial Glaciers" to find the information.
1. Where is Big Rock located? ____
2. How long is Big Rock? ____
3. How many kilometers did Big Rock move? ____
4. What is the shape of a valley that a glacier creates? ____
5. What are three places that have fjords? ____
6. Where is Ladakh? ____
7. How many glaciers has Chewang Norphel made? ____

Chapter 3 Earth's Water Supply 71

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3 Subject-verb agreement (!'I

Singular subjects take singular verbs. Remember that, in the present tense, third­
person singular verbs end in -s or -es.
subject verb
Big Rock weighs almost 14,970 metric tons. It is 9 meters high.
subject verb
I I
A glacier carves deep valleys as it slides over the ground.
Plural subjects take plural verbs. Plural verbs do not end in -s.
subject verb
I I
Scientists study glaciers to learn about world climates.

I I I I
Water covers 97 percent of Earth's surface.

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb in parentheses.
1. A glacier (form) when the snow in an area does not melt. Over time, this
snow (turn) into ice.
2. In some glaciers, the ice (be) thousands of years old.
3. Glaciers (contain) more than 75 percent of Earth's freshwater.
4. Every continent (have) glaciers except Australia.

4 Identifying topic sentences and supporting sentences 0

Many paragraphs in academic English begin with a topic sentence.
Supporting sentences follow the topic sentence.
• topic sentences: state the main idea of a text
• major supporting directly support a topic sentence;
sentences: answer questions such as how, why, or when
• minor supporting directly support a major supporting sentence; answer
sentences: questions such as how, why, or when with specific information

A Read the paragraph below.

Glaciers change the surface of our planet in different ways. One way is by shaping
the land. For example, glaciers carve U-shaped valleys and form sharp mountaintops.
Glaciers can also move big rocks to other locations. Another way glaciers change Earth
is by creating lakes. For instance, Mirror Lake and the Great Lakes in the United States
were formed by glaciers. Lake Louise in Canada is another example. Earth would look
very different without the work of glaciers.

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B Highlight the topic sentence.

C Highlight the sentences that provide major support for the topic sentence.
Use a second color.

D Highlight the sentences that provide minor (or indirect) support for the topic sentence.
Use a third color.

E Notice that the last sentence in the paragraph is the concluding sentence.

F Answer T for true or F for false. Compare answers with a partner.

1. T he sentence "One way is by shaping the land" directly supports the main idea.
2. T he paragraph gives examples to prove the major supporting sentences.
3. T he main idea of the paragraph is that glaciers can carve the land.

5 Writing topic sentences and supporting sentences 0

A Look at the topics. Write a topic sentence for each topic. Remember: Topic sentences
state main ideas that can be proved. Examples, illustrations, facts, or statistics show
or prove your point.
Example:
Topic: Glaciers and climate
Topic sentence: Glaciers can tell us about climate.
Major support: For example, glaciers can show signs of global warming.
Minor support: Glaciers that melt fast can show that Earth is getting hot.
1. Topic:Lakes and sources of freshwater irLanguage.com
Topic sentence:-------------------------

2. Topic: The importance of glaciers

Topic sentence: _________________________

B Go back to Step A. Write one major supporting sentence and one minor supporting
sentence for each topic.

Chapter 3 Earth's Water Supply 73

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Chapter 3 Academic Vocabulary Review

The following words appear in the readings in Chapter 3. They all come from the
Academic Word List, a list of words that researchers have discovered occur frequently in
many different types of academic texts. For a complete list of all the Academic Word List
words in this chapter and in all the readings in this book, see the Appendix on page 206.

accessible energy generations occur

approximately environment global percent
contrast environmentalists labels (n) source

Complete the following sentences with words from the list above.
1. In 2012, about half of the people in the United States drank soda every day, and 64
____ drank coffee every day.
2. Air and water pollution is a ____ problem. People from many different
countries struggle with this issue.
3. Some farmers use wind to pump water from the ground.
4. Chewang Norphel's family has lived in India for many ____
5. Oceans and rivers are a major ____ of income for people who fish their
waters.
6. Most dolphins live in the ocean, but the pink river dolphin lives in a freshwater

7. Mount Kosciuszko in Australia is considered an ____ mountain, and more

than 100,000 people climb it every year.
8. Many people enjoy hiking in the mountains, but problems can . Do not
hike in the mountains unless you are familiar with the area.
9. often warn us that we might destroy our planet. They say we must not
pollute the water, land, and air.
10. Today, glaciers cover about 1 O percent of the land on Earth. This is a huge
____ to twenty thousand years ago; then, glaciers covered 32 percent of the
land on Earth.

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Developing_
Writing Skills
In this section, you will practice writing topic sentences and two types of supporting
sentences. You will also use what you learn here to complete the writing assignment
at the end of this unit.

Types of Major and Minor Support

Remember that the topic sentence states the main idea and that supporting
sentences follow the topic sentence. Here is more information about types of support:
Major support (major details):
• directly support or explain the topic sentence
• can include major examples and illustrations
Minor support (minor details):
• directly support or explain the major supporting sentences
• can include examples, illustrations, facts, and statistics
• develop the major details and make the main ideas stronger and more convincing

A Read the paragraph. Think about the types of ideas: main, major, and minor.

The first type of desert is the hot desert. For instance, the Mojave and the Sahara
are both hot deserts. These deserts have high temperatures in the daytime, cooler
temperatures at night, and just a little rain. Their average temperatures are
20 °-25 ° ( and most receive less than 15 centimeters of rain each year. Only a few
plants, such as prickly pears and acacias, can live in hot deserts. The second type
of desert is the cold desert. The Gobi and Namib are both examples of co,ld deserts.
Some cold deserts have high temperatures in the summer, but very cold temperatures
in the winter. The average winter temperatures are -2 ° to 4 ° C. Cold deserts have
almost no rain, but some snow. On average, they receive 15-26 centimeters of snow
each year. There are only a few plants, such as sagebrush, in cold deserts. These
differences clearly show that all deserts may be dry, but they are not all the same.

B Work with a partner. Find the support in the paragraph. Circle the major details.
Underline the minor details. Then answer the following questions.
1. How many major details are there? _______
2. What signal words introduce the major details? _______
3. What are the types of minor details? _______

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C Now think about the main idea. The topic sentence of the paragraph is missing.
Write one in the blank. Compare your sentence with your partner's.

D Read the following pieces of information. T hink about major and minor details.
Read the descriptions of the types of details in the box above again if you need to.
• One leaky faucet can waste more than seven liters of water each day.
• Many people believe that the Nile River is the longest river in the world.
• Try to take shorter showers.
• It is more than 6,500 kilometers long and flows through nine countries, including
Egypt, Kenya, and Tanzania.
• For example, if you take a 5-minute shower instead of a 10-minute shower, you
could save almost 100 liters of water.
• The Yangtze River is the most famous river in China.
• Check the faucets in your home for leaks, and fix any problems.
• It is about 4,990 kilometers long and divides northern China and southern China.

E Work with your partner. Sort the sentences above into two groups (Set A and Set 8),
by topic. Then sort the sentences again by type of detail. Write the sentences in the
chart below.

Set A
Main idea:
• Check the faucets in your home for leaks, and fix any problems.

•
•
•
Set B
Main idea:
•
•
•
•
F Now look at the details above. What is the main idea of each set of details?
Write the main idea for Set A and for Set 8. Compare your answers with a partner.

G Imagine that you must write a paragraph on this topic: How do rivers and lakes affect
our lives? Work in a small group. Discuss the information in this chapter and your own
ideas. Write a topic sentence. Write details to support it. Remember: minor details
make your ideas convincing. Share your ideas with the class.

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Chapter 4
Earth's Oceans www.irLanguage.com

PREPARING TO READ

1 Thinking about the topic ·

You are going to read about the oceans on Earth. How much do you know about this
topic? Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1. How many oceans are there? Name the ones you know.
2. How are oceans different from rivers and lakes?
3. How does ocean water taste?
4. What are some living things that you can find in the ocean?
5. Why are oceans an important part of life on our planet? irLanguage.com
6. What problems connected to oceans do people worry about these days?

2 Building background knowledge about the topic ·

The word coast refers to land that is next to or close to an ocean. Read the list of facts
about coastal areas. Then discuss the questions with your classmates.

Facts About Coastal Areas

• More than half of the people on Earth live less than 100 kilometers from an ocean.
• Almost two-thirds of the world's largest cities are in coastal areas.
• Since 1970, almost 50 percent of the construction of new homes and businesses in
the United States has been in areas along the coasts.

1. Why do so many
people live near an
ocean?
2. What are some
advantages of living
near an ocean?
3. How do large
populations who live
near an ocean affect
the ocean's water
and animals?
4. How do high water
levels of the ocean
affect people's lives?

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0�1.>:!1 oitj e:?JD OCEANS

www.irLanguage.com One nickname for Earth is "the blue planet:' From outer space, all
the ocean water makes the planet look mostly blue. There are four
main oceans on Earth: the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, and the
Arctic. Many scientists include the Southern Ocean, also called the
5 Antarctic Ocean, as a fifth ocean. Together, the oceans cover more
than 70 percent of Earth's surface, and they flow into each other.
Therefore, from outer space it looks as if Earth has one huge blue ocean.

The main oceans

The Pacific is the largest and deepest of the main oceans. It contains
approximately half of the ocean water on our planet. The first time
10 that the explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed on this huge ocean, it

was a calm day. That's why Magellan named the ocean Mar Pacifico -
that is, "peaceful ocean" or "calm ocean' ' in Magellan's native language
of Portuguese. Today, however, we know that the Pacific Ocean is
not always peaceful. There are frequent earthquakes and volcanic
15 eruptions.

The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest ocean. It covers about

a fifth of Earth's surface. The Indian Ocean is sometimes called the
calmest ocean. It is a little smaller than the Atlantic. The Arctic Ocean
is Earth's smallest and coldest ocean.

The salinity of oceans

salinity a measure 20 Ocean water is salty. You cannot drink the water; you'll notice the salt
of the amount of salt right away. Ocean water is about 96.5 percent water and 3.5 percent
in ocean water salt. The salinity of an ocean varies, depending on two main factors:
the amount of evaporation and the amount of freshwater that is added.
Ocean water evaporates and leaves salt behind. Oceans that have a
25 lot of evaporation are saltier than oceans that have less evaporation.
Rivers or rain bring freshwater to an ocean, and this makes the ocean
less salty. The freshwater dilutes, or weakens, the salt.

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the equator an
In areas near the equator, oceans are very salty. The heat of the sun imaginary line around
causes a lot of evaporation. There is not a lot of rain, so there are Earth that divides
30 high levels of salinity in the warm ocean water. In cold areas near the it into two equal
North Pole and the South Pole, oceans are not as salty. There is less halves: the Northern
evaporation, and the oceans receive freshwater from melting glaciers. and Southern
Therefore, salinity is lower in polar areas. The lowest salinity levels Hemispheres
occur where large rivers empty into an ocean. That's why the place
35 where the giant Amazon River flows into the Atlantic Ocean is less
North Pole Earth's
salty than the rest of the ocean.
northernmost point,
which is located in
The role of oceans in our lives the Arctic Ocean
Oceans do not provide our drinking water, but they affect us in
many ways. First, oceans are an important part of the water cycle.
Most of the evaporation on Earth is from ocean water. Oceans also South Pole Earth's
40 provide us with food and jobs. Millions of people work in the fishing, southernmost point,
shipbuilding, offshore oil and gas industries, international shipping which is located in
and trade, and ocean science. In addition, the ocean is home to many Antarctica
of our planet's plants and animals. Finally, coastal areas are popular
places to live. Today, about 50 percent of the world's people live dose
45 to an ocean.
l u

Dirty Water
Oceans are an essential part of life on our planet, but unfortunately we don't always
treat them with respect. Many of us use the ocean as a trash can. Some areas of the
ocean look like garbage dumps, with plastic bottles, old fishing nets, tires, straws,
cigarettes, plastic bags, and other trash floating in the water. Every ocean has
problems with marine debris. In the summer of 2012, scientists from the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) removed 50 metric tons of garbage
from the Pacific Ocean waters and the shorelines of the Northwestern Hawaii Islands.
Marine debris is very dangerous. Each year, the trash kills thousands of ocean
animals. Old fishing nets trap seals, birds, whales, fish, and turtles. Animals often think
the pieces of garbage, especially plastic pieces, are food. For instance, turtles like to
eat jellyfish. To turtles, plastic bags look like jellyfish, so they eat them. T hen, they get
sick and sometimes die. Plastic has been found in seabirds, turtles, fish, and whales. In
fact, scientists found a bird that had swallowed more than 400 pieces of plastic, and a
gray whale with plastic bags, surgical gloves, rope, fishing line, duct tape, towels, and
a golf ball in its stomach.
It is clear that marine debris is a serious problem
in many places. However, a few simple changes can
improve the health of Earth's oceans. We can replace
plastic bottles and bags with reusable ones, and this
will decrease the amount of plastic that goes into
the oceans. We can decide not to litter. We can also
participate in neighborhood cleanups. Small changes
can have a big effect on the oceans.

u�IJ:!I 01,,j (!?y:,

Chapter 4 Earth's Oceans 79
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AFTER YOU READ

1 Taking notes O
Learning to take good notes is very important. Good notes can help you remember
and review a text you have read. People usually have their own ways of taking notes,
but everyone should follow these basic guidelines:
• Be sure to include all the important ideas and examples.
• Organize the notes in a logical way.
• Write only important words, not complete sentences. ;
• Use abbreviations and symbols.
,·.

Look at this page from a student's notebook. It shows the beginning of the student's
notes on the text "Oceans." Use the information in the reading to complete the notes.
Then compare your notes with a partner's.

Oceans
General info
5 oceans: Pacific, _____________
Arctic, Southern
Cover % of Earth's surface
Main oceans & features
Pacific: largest,------, often violent
Atlantic: 2nd , covers------ of
Earth's surface
Indian: calmest, than Atlantic
Salinity (=saltiness)
Ocean water =96. 5% water + salt
Depends on: 1) amount of-------
2) amount of freshwater
Higher near the equator, lower near the _______ & the
places where--------------­
Importance of oceans
Ex: 1. Role in water cycle
2. Provide ______
3. Provide jobs
4. Home for many _______ + _______
5. People like to live nearby

�ron Earth
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Most maps have a key that helps you read them. The key explains the marks and
symbols used on the map.

A Study the map below. It shows general patterns of ocean salinity.* Read the key.
What do the three colors show?

. -,
Atlantic
Pacific
·� Ocean
C·:.•

--------
'• .

Key D

less saline more saline

*Note that salinity levels vary within these general patterns.

B Find these areas on the map in Step A. Use the map and the key to decide the level of
salinity of each area. Write L (low}, M (medium), or H (high).
1. area A 3. area C
__ 2. area B __ 4. areaD
C Compare your answers with a partner.

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3 Writing about superlatives 0

Academic texts often compare or describe results. A superlative adjective is used to
compare three or more people, places, or things in a group. Superlatives begin with
the. Look at these examples:
The Pacific is the deepest ocean in the world. It is deeper than all the other oceans.
Some people think Columbus is the most famous explorer. They think he is more
famous than Magellan or Vasco da Gama.
To form superlative adjectives, follow these guidelines:
For one-syllable adjectives, add -est. If the adjective ends in -e, add -st.
deep -+ the deepest
wide -+ the widest
For one-syllable adjectives that end with a single vowel and a consonant, double
the final consonant and add -est.
hot -+ the hottest
big -+ the biggest
For adjectives with two or more syllables, add the most before the adjective.
careful -+ the most careful
patient -+ the most patient
dangerous -+ the most dangerous
interesting -+ the most interesting
If an adjective ends in -y, change the -y to -i and add -est.
rocky -+ the rockiest
cloudy -+ the cloudiest
Irregular adjectives do not follow a pattern. Some common ones are:
good -+ the best
bad -+ the worst
far -+ the farthest

A Reread the text "Oceans." Circle all of the superlative adjectives. How many did you find?
B Write the superlative form of each adjective below. irLanguage.com
1. large ________
2. cold ________
3. small ________
4. salty ________
5. peaceful ________
6. important--------

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C Complete the sentences with the superlative form of an adjective in the box.
One adjective is not used.

calm small successful violent

1. The Pacific is the deepest ocean in the world. It is deeper than all the other oceans.
2. The Pacific might also be ocean. It has many earthquakes and volcanoes.
3. The Indian Ocean might be ocean. The water is usually quiet.
4. The Arctic Ocean is __________ ocean. All the other oceans are larger.

D Work with a partner. On a separate piece of paper, write about the ocean. You could write
about a specific ocean, plant or animal life in the ocean, or people's interactions with the
ocean. Write four or five sentences and use a superlative adjective in each sentence.
Example: The most popular ocean sport in Hawaii is surfing.

4 Describing results 0
A sentence beginning with therefore or that's why explains the effect or result of
something. The preceding sentence (the sentence that comes before) tells the cause
of the result or effect. Look at these examples:
cause effect (result)
Ocean water contains about 3.5 percent salt. Therefore, it tastes salty.
cause effect (result)
Ocean water contains about 3.5 percent salt. That's why it tastes salty.
Notice that therefore is followed by a comma.

A Reread the text "Oceans." Find the sentences with therefore and that's why. Underline
them. Notice the cause-and-effect relationships. Look at the sentence that comes
before therefore or that's why. Does it state a cause?

B Study the examples in the box above. Then work with a partner. Match the effects and
causes. Make pairs of sentences using therefore and that's why.
Cause Effect (Result)
1. The five oceans flow into each a. He named the ocean Mar Pacifico,
other. which means "peaceful ocean."
2. When Magellan first sailed on b. From outer space, it looks as if Earth
the Pacific, it was calm. has one huge ocean.
3. In areas near the equator, there c. The place where the Amazon River
is a lot of evaporation and not empties into the Atlantic Ocean is
a lot of rain. less salty than the rest of the ocean.
4. Fresh river water dilutes the d. Ocean water near the equator usually
salt in ocean water. has higher levels of salinity.

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5 Concluding sentences 0
Remember that many paragraphs in academic English end with a concluding
sentence. The concluding sentence restates the main idea of the paragraph in
different words.

A Look back at paragraph 1 of "Oceans." Label the concluding sentence (CS). Compare
the concluding sentence with the topic sentence.

B Read the following paragraph. It is missing a concluding sentence.

The Arctic and the Southern Oceans differ in several ways. The Arctic Ocean is
located at the North Pole, and it is surrounded by Canada, Norway, Greenland, Russia,
and the United States. The Arctic Ocean is approximately 12 million square kilometers,
and it is Earth's smallest ocean. It is also the coldest ocean. Its surface is often frozen in
the winter, and much of its ice never melts. The Southern Ocean is at the South Pole.
The Southern Ocean surrounds Antarctica. It is more than 20 million square kilometers
and, therefore, larger than the Arctic Ocean. It is also warmer than the Arctic Ocean.
Temperatures in the Southern Ocean range from -2 ° to 10°C (28° to 50° F), and strong
winds often blow across its surface. In fact, the Southern Ocean is the windiest ocean
on Earth.----------------------------

Check (./') the best concluding sentence for the paragraph above.
1.Therefore, the Arctic Ocean is smaller than the Southern Ocean.
2. Clearly, the Arctic and Southern Oceans are important to life on our planet.
3. The facts clearly show that the Arctic and Southern Oceans are different in
location, size, and weather.

C Read the following paragraph. It is missing a concluding sentence. Write one.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910-1997) was a French explorer. Cousteau

dedicated his life to understanding and protecting the oceans. As a
young man, he joined the French navy, and he began to do underwater
research. He and an engineer, Emile Gagnan, created the Aqua-Lung.
The Aqua-Lung is a piece of scuba-diving equipment that allows people
to stay underwater for long periods of time. For more than 40 years,
Cousteau and his crew explored Earth's oceans and conducted research
on his ship, the Calypso. He shared his knowledge and love of
the oceans through his television films and books, and he
helped people understand the need to protect this
valuable resource.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau

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PREPARING TO READ

1 Thinking about the topic ·

A The text you are going to read is about ocean currents. Read this description of a current:
A current is like a river of warm or cold water that flows through the ocean.

B Discuss these questions in a small group.

1. What do you think causes ocean currents?
2. Do you know the names of any currents?
3. Why are currents important?
4. What is a rip current? Make a guess.

2 Examining graphics ·
Work with a partner. Look at Figure 4.1 on page 86. It shows several currents on the
surface of the oceans. Also, look at the drawing of a rip current on page 87. Then read
the statements below and write T (true) or F (false).
1. Near the equator, most currents flow from east to west.
2. Farther away from the equator, most currents flow from east to west.
3. In general, currents flow in a circle.
4. All currents are warm currents.
5. In the Atlantic Ocean, there is a warm current that flows along the east coast
of North America.
6. Rip currents can be dangerous for swimmers.
7. Rip currents are very wide.
__ 8. There is no way to escape from a rip current.

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Reading 2
CURRENTS
In May 1990, a cargo ship was traveling from South Korea to the United
States. Soon after it left South Korea, a huge wave swept 21 containers
of Nike shoes off the ship and into the waters of the northern Pacific
Ocean. Six months later, people on the beaches of northern California,
s Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia found hundreds of these
shoes in the sand Ocean currents had carried the shoes thousands of
kilometers across the Pacific Ocean.
Rgure 4.1 Major ocean
currents Key
• North Pole

- Ellu*w --------

Surface currents and winds

A current is like a river of warm or cold water that flows through
the ocean. The currents in the top layer of the ocean ( down to
r
10 approximately 200 metes) are called surface currents, and they move

in different directions. The main cause of surface currents is wind.

In general, surface currents in the ocean follow a circular path. They
travel west along the equator, turn as they reach a continent, travel
east until they reach another area of land, and then go west along
1s the equator again. For example, near the equator, there are winds
called tropical trade winds. Trade winds blow from east to west, and
they create several currents near the equator. These currents move
in a westward direction. Between the poles and the equator, there is
another wind system, the westerlies. These winds blow from west to
20 east, and they create currents that move in an eastward direction.

The role of surface currents

Surface currents help spread the heat from the sun around Earth. They
move water in big circles. This causes cold water to move to warmer
places, and warm water to move to cooler places. It prevents, or stops,
warm water near the equator from becoming too hot. It also prevents
2S cold water near the North and South Poles from becoming too cold.

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Currents affect the temperature of ocean water and the temperature on

land. The moving water of currents heats or cools the air around them.
As a result, ocean currents can influence climate. A good example is
the Gulf Stream. This huge warm-water current begins in the Gulf of
30 Mexico, flows past the East Coast of North America, and eventually
reaches northern Europe. The warm water of the Gulf Stream causes
parts of Ireland and England to have warmer temperatures than they
would normally have that far north.

Currents and climate change

Since ocean currents influence climate, changes in the way currents
35 move can cause climate change. For example, thousands of years
ago, the Gulf Stream stopped flowing. As a result, air temperatures in ice age long
Europe decreased, and there was a small ice age until the Gulf Stream period of time in
returned. Scientists tell us that similar changes in ocean currents could which temperatures
gradually decrease
occur in the future. They continue to study the relationships between
and thick sheets of
40 oceans and climates. This will help them better understand climate ice cover large areas
conditions today and the changes that may come in the future. of land

Rip Currents
Rip currents are small currents that flow away from the shore and out into the ocean.
Unlike the Gulf Stream and other huge currents that travel for thousands of kilometers,
rip currents flow only a few hundred meters. These currents are small, but they can be
extremely dangerous because they travel very fast. A powerful rip current can carry a
swimmer too far out into the ocean in less than a minute.
More than 100 people drown in rip currents in the United States every year. This
is often what happens: A swimmer feels that he or she is suddenly moving quickly
away from the shore. The swimmer gets very nervous and tries to swim back to shore
against the powerful current. This is extremely tiring. The swimmer becomes too tired
to swim anymore and then drowns.
Rip currents occur at many beaches around the world. Here are some guidelines that
will help keep you safe in the ocean:
• Swim only at beaches with lifeguard� ::mri nPvPr �wim �lnnP
• If you find yourself in a rip current,
stay calm. Do not try to fight the
current.
• Swim parallel to (go in the same
direction as) the shore until you
are out of the rip current.
• If that does not work, try to float
and let the current carry you to its
end. Then swim back to shore.

Chapter 4 Earth's Oceans 87

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Highlighting O ·
Don't forget to highlight. Highlighting is a helpful way to remember important
information, such as the main ideas and key terms in a text.

A Highlight the following key words in the reading and the boxed text. Then use the
information to write the definition of each term.

currents Gulf Stream rip currents trade winds westerlies

B Read these questions about the main ideas of the text. Find the answers in the text
and highlight them. Use a different color from the one you used in Step A.
1. What causes surface currents?
2. What path do surface currents usually follow?
3. What do surface currents do?
4. How do currents affect water and land?
5. What is the name of a famous warm-water current? Where does it flow?
6. What are rip currents? Why are they dangerous? irLanguage.com

2 Labeling a map O
A Look at this map of ocean currents. Label the compass N (north), S (south), E (east),
W (west). Locate the following places and label them: equator (EQ), North Pole (NP),
South Pole (SP), the westerlies (WS), trade winds (TW), Gulf Stream (GS).

-- 20------­

'' '
n5�� +---.......
9 )
�
irLanguage.com 0-
B Look back at the text "Currents" and Figure 4.1 to check your work.

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3 Subject-verb agreement O
In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the be verb agrees with the noun
after it.
singular form of be singular noun
There 1s a warm current off the coast of Alaska.
If a subject has a prepositional phrase after it, the verb agrees with the subject of
the sentence, not with the object of the preposition. Many students find it helpful to
cross out prepositional phrases in a sentence. This helps them find the subject of the
sentence more easily.
prepositional phrase
plural subject object of the preposition plural verb
I I r----1
Winds near tho equator blow from east to west.

A Circle the correct form of each verb in parentheses.

1. There (is I are) a cold ocean current near the coast of California.
2. A warm current near the coast of Japan (flow I flows) from south to north.
3. Currents by the equator generally (travel I travels) in a westward direction.
4. There (is I are) winds called tropical trade winds near the equator.
5. Currents in the ocean (have I has) an effect on Earth's climates.
B Go back to Step A. Cross out prepositional phrases and underline the subjects.

4 Too and very O

The words too and very before an adjective give more detail about a description.
Too before an adjective usually has a negative meaning. Use too to show that
something is more than you need or more than you want.
The water is too cold. We can't go swimming.
Use very to emphasize, or give importance to, an adjective.
The water was very cold when we went swimming.

A Go back to the boxed text "Rip Currents." Find uses of too and very and underline
them. Then take turns with a partner and explain the writer's choice for each use.
B Choose the correct word to complete each sentence.
1. The sun was (too I very) hot. We couldn't stay out because the heat made us sick.
2. The sun was (too I very) hot. We put on sunscreen and enjoyed the warm weather.
3. The waves were (too I very) big. It was a good day for surfing.
4. The waves were (too I very) big. The lifeguard said it was dangerous to swim.
C Write three sentences about a water activity such as surfing, swimming, or sailing.
Use too or very in each sentence.
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PREPARING TO READ

1 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is one way to explore a topic before you read. Often one idea leads to
another idea, and this then leads to a different idea. Therefore, it is important to think
openly and freely about the topic. When you brainstorm:
• Pose a question and answer it.
• Think of as many ideas as you can.
• Think quickly.
• List all ideas.
• Judge later.
• Organize later.

In a small group, brainstorm the ways that oceans influence people's lives. Try to think of
all the ways (both good and bad) that oceans affect us. Set a time limit so that you will
think quickly. Choose one person in your group to make a list of everyone's ideas.

2 Organizing ideas()
After you brainstorm, it is useful to organize your ideas into categories. This will help
you think, talk, and write about the ideas in a logical way.

In your group, organize the ideas that you brainstormed. Use a chart like the one below.

How oceans
Ideas from your brainstorming list
influence our lives
Good ways

Bad ways

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WAVES AND TSUNAMIS

The ocean can be both beautiful and enjoyable. Many people like
walking on the beach and watching the water. Others enjoy swimming,
surfing, and sailing. However, the ocean is not predictable, and it can
be very dangerous. Wind can create big waves that knock people
5 down, sink boats, and damage the shoreline. Giant waves, called
tsunamis, can kill people and wash away entire towns. The ocean is
truly a place of great beauty and great danger. irLanguage.com

Wind and waves

In addition to causing currents, the wind creates waves as it blows
across the surface of the ocean. The stronger the wind is, the bigger
10 the waves are. You may remember the beach on a windy day or a
calm day. On windy days, big waves crash onto the shore. On a calm,
windless day, the surface of the water is flat.
Scientists measure waves from their highest point, the crest, to
their lowest point, the trough. Most waves are neither very big nor
15 dangerous. However, some waves, such as those in a violent storm, are
large enough to damage ships and hurt people on the shore. Careful
swimmers and surfers do not go into the ocean when the waves are
too big, and ship captains often change direction to stay away from a
storm. The power of the wind and the waves can be deadly.

Tsunamis
20 The biggest, most powerful waves on our planet are called tsunamis.
Neither winds nor waves create tsunamis. Tsunamis form when an
underwater volcano erupts or an earthquake occurs on the ocean floor.
Tsunamis move very quickly across the open ocean. Some tsunamis
25 travel as fast as airplanes - more than 800 kilometers an hour. In the
deep ocean, tsunamis do not look like giant waves. In fact, they are
usually less than one meter high. However, as they approach land and
move into shallow water, they are forced to slow down. This causes the
waves to suddenly rise up high in the air and then slam down on the
30 land. In shallow coastal waters, tsunamis can cause waves to rise more
than 30 meters high and cause terrible damage to the coast. They kill
people and destroy buildings and crops.

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In 1960, a huge earthquake occurred off the coast of Chile. Fifteen

minutes later, a tsunami hit the Chilean coast. Fifteen hours later,
another tsunami hit Hilo, Hawaii. Seven hours after that, another
35 tsunami hit Japan. Thousands of people died because of the tsunamis
that occurred after the Chilean earthquake. However, the deadliest
series of tsunamis happened on December 26, 2004, when a powerful
earthquake occurred in the Indian Ocean. The earthquake caused
tsunamis that hit a dozen countries, including Indonesia, India, Sri
40 Lanka, and Thailand. The tsunamis killed more than 250,000 people
and destroyed hundreds of towns.
The next time you go to the beach, take a few moments to
appreciate both the beauty and the danger of the ocean. Never forget
what the power of the waves can do.

A tsunami wave breaking

near Monterey, California

Surviving the 2004 Tsunami

On December 26, 2004, most people had no warning that tsunamis were moving
across the Indian Ocean and would soon reach land. As a result, thousands of people
died. However, on the Indian island of South Andaman, one group of people, the
Jarawa tribe, seemed to know that a tsunami was coming. The Jarawa is one of the
oldest tribes on Earth, perhaps 70,000 years old. All 250 members of the tribe escaped
safely. They left the coast and went into the jungle before the tsunami arrived. They
stayed in the jungle for several days. How did the Jarawa know that the tsunami was
coming? The Jarawa people do not like to talk to people outside their tribe. They did
not explain. However, some scientists think they have an explanation. The Jawara
know the movements of the ocean, earth, and wind, and the behavior of birds. They
have a great knowledge of nature. These scientists believe that the ancient tribe used
this knowledge to predict the tsunami and survive.

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Reading for main ideas and details

The sentences below are main ideas or details from the reading. Write M (main idea) or D
(detail) in the blanks. (Hint: There are three main ideas in the list.)
1. The wind creates waves as it blows across the surface of the ocean.
2. On windy days, big waves crash onto the shore.
3. Storm waves can damage ships and hurt people.
4. Tsunamis are the biggest waves on our planet, and they can cause
terrible damage.
5. Tsunamis can travel 800 kilometers per hour.
6. The deadliest series of tsunamis happened on December 26, 2004.
7. The ocean is both beautiful and dangerous.
8. Tsunamis rise high in the air as they approach land.

2 Adjective suffixes O
Many nouns and verbs can be changed into adjectives by adding suffixes such as
-ful, -able, and -ous. Some words are both nouns and verbs. Look at these examples:
Noun and I or verb Adjective
truth (n) truthful
prevent (v) preventable
love (n, v) lovable
mountain (n) mountainous

A Read the list of nouns and verbs. Find the adjective forms in the reading and circle
them. Then write the adjective form of each word in the blank.
Adjective form
1. beauty (n) ______ (Par.1)
2. enjoy (v) ______ (Par.1)
3. predict (v) ______ (Par.1)
4. danger (n) ______ (Par.1)
5. care (n, v) ______ (Par. 3)
6. power (n) ______ (Par. 4)

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B Complete the sentences with adjectives from Step A.

1. Swimming at the beach on a sunny day can be ____
2. It is too to be on the beach when a tsunami reaches land.
3. Rocket ships need engines to travel into space.
4. A swimmer never goes swimming alone.
5. Earthquakes are not , but you can prepare for them.
6. Last night the sunset over the ocean was very ____

C Work with a partner. On a separate piece of paper, write four or five sentences that
describe a water feature such as a tsunami, an ocean, or a river. Use the adjectives in
Step A.

3 Parallel structure 0
In a sentence with a conjunction such as and, the words or phrases before and after
the conjunction must have the same part of speech. This creates parallel structure in
the sentence.
Look at these examples:
adjective conjunction adjective
r--,
Waves can be large and powerful.
verb (simple past) conjunction verb (simple past)
11 I I
The tsunami destroyed buildings and killed many people.
-ing form of verb conjunction -ing form of verb
r--,
Many people like walking on the beach and watching the water.

A Reread paragraph 1 of "Waves and Tsunamis." Find five examples of parallel structure
and underline them. Then compare answers with a partner.

B Find the error in parallel structure in each sentence. Use the strategies in the box
above. Write the correct sentences on a separate piece of paper. Look back at the text
to check your answers .
1. The ocean can be beautiful and enjoyment.
2. Many people like walking on the beach and to watch the water.
3. The wind can create big waves that knock people down, sink boats, and damaged
the shoreline .
4. The power of the windy and the waves can be deadly.
5. The tsunamis killed more than 250,000 people and destroying hundreds of towns.

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4 Both ... and and neither ... nor 0

Both ... and and neither ... nor are two-part conjunctions that require parallel
structure. In other words, the parts of speech that follow each conjunction must be
the same. Look at these examples:
conjunction adjective conjunction adjective
I I I I r----i I
The Great Lakes are both deep and wide.
conjunction noun conjunction noun
I I 1----i I I
Neither lakes nor rivers are as salty as oceans.

A Look back at the text "Waves and Tsunamis." With a partner, find sentences with
both ... and and neither. . . nor and mark them. How many did you find? Which
words have the same form in each sentence?

B Complete the sentences with a word from the box. Be sure to use parallel structure.

dangerous preventable Southern volcanoes waves

1. Wind creates both currents and ____

2. The Pacific Ocean is violent. It has both earthquakes and ____
3. Neither the Arctic Ocean nor the ____ Ocean is as large as the Atlantic Ocean.
4. Earthquakes are neither predictable nor ____
5. The ocean is both beautiful and ____

5 Reviewing paragraph structure '11

Read the incomplete paragraph below. Complete the topic sentence and add a
concluding sentence.

. He was born in 1890 in Honolulu,

Hawaii, and he spent his whole life near the ocean.
Kahanamoku enjoyed swimming and canoeing, but he
was most famous for his skill in surfing. In fact, many
people consider him the father of surfing. He traveled
frequently and introduced surfing to people all over the
world. He won five Olympic medals in swimming. When
Kahanamoku was born, very few people surfed. By the time
he died, surfing was a sport that millions of people enjoyed.

Duke Kahanamoku

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Chapter 4 Academic Vocabulary Review

The following words appear in the readings in Chapter 4. They all come from the
Academic Word List, a list of words that researchers have discovered occur frequently in
many different types of academic texts. For a complete list of all the Academic Word List
words in this chapter and in all the readings in this book, see the Appendix on page 206.

affect factors parallel similar

appreciate guidelines removed varies
approach jobs series widespread

Complete the sentences with words from the list.

1. Rip currents and surface currents are in that they both consist of
moving water.
2. The temperature of ocean water depending on location. Water near the
poles is colder than water near the equator.
3. Pollution is a problem. Human actions have dirtied the water, land, and
air in many places on our planet.
4. After a large natural disaster, people are sometimes from the area.
They cannot return until the area is safe.
5. Many people like to walk to the ocean along the beach. That way, they
can enjoy the wonderful scenery without getting wet.
6. Experts predict that the number of in health care and education will
increase in the future.
7. Students decide on a field of study based on many , including personal
interest and career potential.
8. Do not a monk seal on the beach. Monk seals are endangered, and it is
illegal to get too close to them.
9. Garbage in the ocean can ocean animals and many people such as
fishermen.
1O. The more people learn about the interconnectedness of life on Earth, the more they
____ the need to protect our planet.

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Practicing
Academic Writing
In this unit, you learned about water on our planet. Based on everything you read and
discussed in class, you will write a paragraph about this topic.

A Water Feature
You will write one academic paragraph about any water feature on Earth. For example,
you may write about the location and size, history, or special features of an ocean,
lake, or glacier. Use information from this unit and your own ideas. Find additional
information in the library or on the Internet.

PREPARING TO WRITE

Choosing a topic, exploring ideas, and making a

simple outline
There are several steps to completing a writing task. The first is preparing, and
preparing is also divided into steps.
• First, make sure you understand the assignment.
• Next, choose a topic and explore it.
• Third, make a simple outline to organize your ideas.
Each step is important. For example, exploring helps you decide if you are really
interested in the topic and have enough information to complete the assignment.
Stating and summing up your ideas in a simple outline helps you understand the ideas
and the basic relationships between them.

A Work with a partner or in a small group. Read the writing prompt again.
Answer the following questions.
1. How much are you supposed to write?
a. a sentence c. two paragraphs
b. a paragraph d. an essay

2. What are you supposed to write about?

a. an ocean and a lake c. a glacier
b. a volcano d. a water feature

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3. Where should you find extra information to help you write about the topic?
a. in the textbook c. from your classmates
b. from your own knowledge d. from the library and Internet
Note: If you have any questions about the assignment, ask your teacher now.

B Now that you understand the assignment, it is time to choose a topic.

1. Look at the photographs of water features to get ideas. Then, with your partner or
group, make a list of familiar water features. Include the water features discussed
in this unit as well as others, such as waterfalls, seas, gulfs, bays, streams, ponds,
straits, canals, and channels.

2. On your own, choose two water features

that interest you. On a piece of paper,
brainstorm the first water feature for
five minutes. Then, on a separate piece
of paper, brainstorm the second water
feature that you chose. When you
brainstorm, ask yourself lots of who,
what, where, why, and how questions such as these:
• Where is the water feature?
• How old is it?
• How did it form? Did nature or humans create it?
• Who discovered it?
• Is it famous? Is it important? Why or why not?
• How big is it?
• Has it changed over the years? In what ways?
• Is it dangerous? Why?
• Are people concerned about this water feature? Why?
Remember to list every idea.

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3. With your partner or group, discuss the two water features you chose.
4. Choose the water feature that most interests you and find more information about it.
You can interview other people or do research in the library or on the Internet.
Take notes on what you find.
5. Review your brainstorming list and notes. Then choose three important ideas that
you want to include in your paragraph. Think of at least one detail or example to
support each idea.
6. Fill in the simple outline below. This will help you organize your ideas before you
begin to write.
Topic Sentence:-------------------------
Main Idea #1: __________________________
Main Idea #2: --------------------------
Main Idea #3: __________________________

NOW WRITE
Write the first draft of the paragraph.
• Write a topic sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph.
• Write five to seven supporting sentences based on the outline you created.
• End the paragraph with a concluding sentence that restates the main idea. (Be sure to
make the concluding sentence a little different from the topic sentence.)
• Remember to use correct paragraph form and structure.
• Try to include some of the vocabulary you learned in this chapter.
• Make sure the subject and verb in each sentence agree with each other.
• Give your paragraph a title.

AFTER YOU WRITE

After you write your paragraph, look for ways to improve it. One way to do this is to make
sure you wrote on topic.

Writing on topic
After you write a paragraph once (first draft), read it again to make sure that all the
sentences are on topic. Identify any irrelevant sentences - that is, sentences that do not
support the topic - and cross them out. This will make the paragraph stronger and more
focused. Then rewrite the paragraph (second draft).

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A Read the following paragraph. It has two irrelevant sentences. One is crossed out.
Find the other sentence and cross it out.

One of the most important currents on Earth is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.
This current flows from west to east in the Southern Ocean. Strong westerly winds
blow the current around the continent of Antarctica through the waters of the Atlantic,
Pacific, and Indian Oceans. These three oceaas aJso hw.•e maay other c\irreats. The
Antarctic Circumpolar Current is the largest ocean current in the world, and it moves
more water around the globe than any other current. It also keeps warm ocean water
away from Antarctica. Ocean water is warm near the equator. That's why the ice there
does not melt.

B Read the following paragraph. Find two irrelevant sentences. Cross them out.

Like the Gulf Stream Current, the Humboldt Current has a strong effect on the
climate of the land it flows past. This cold-water current travels south along the
west coast of South America, from northern Peru to the southern end of Chile. Air
temperatures in Chile are cooler than we expect because of this ocean current. The
California Current makes the climate of the Hawaiian Islands cooler than we might
expect, too. The Humboldt Current also affects climate in another way: It makes areas
of northern Chile, southern Peru, and Ecuador extremely dry. Peru and Ecuador are
countries in South America.

C Reread your paragraph and cross out any irrelevant sentences.

D Exchange paragraphs with a partner and read each other's work.
Then discuss the following questions about both paragraphs:
• Which idea in your partner's paragraph do you think is the most interesting?
• Does your partner's paragraph have a topic sentence that states the main idea?
• Are all the supporting sentences on topic? Are there any irrelevant sentences?
• Are major and minor supporting details included? irLanguage.com
• Does the paragraph have a concluding sentence that restates the main idea?

E Think about any changes to your paragraph that might improve it.
Then write a second draft of the paragraph.

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Unit 3
The Air Around Us

In this unit, you will look

at the air that surrounds our
planet and at Earth's weather
and climates. In Chapter 5,
you will examine what Earth's
atmosphere is made of, why
it is important, and how it
is structured. You will also
learn about clouds. In Chapter
6, you will focus on weather
conditions in the atmosphere.
You will look at different
climates around the world and
at several types of storms.
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Contents
In Unit 3, you will read and write about the following topics.

Chapter 5 Chapter 6
Earth's Atmosphere Weather and Climate

Reading 1 Reading 1
The Composition of the Atmosphere Climates Around the World
Reading 2 Reading 2
The Structure of the Atmosphere Storms
Reading 3 Reading 3
Clouds Hurricanes

Skills
In Unit 3, you will practice the following skills.

(ZI Writing Skills

Previewing key terms Reviewing paragraph structure
Building background knowledge about the Transition words
topic Writing about height
Thinking about the topic Writing an observation report
Previewing key parts of a text Introducing examples
Examining graphics
Previewing art
Applying what you have read
Increasing reading speed
Reading for main ideas

Vocabulary Skills Academic Success Skills

Guessing meaning from context Examining test questions
Describing parts Taking notes with a chart
Playing with words Using symbols and abbreviations
Colons, such as, and lists Understanding averages
Words from Latin and Greek Using a Venn diagram to organize ideas
When clauses from a text
Defining key words Examining statistics
Using a dictionary Thinking critically about the topic
Using this / that/ these/
those to connect ideas
Synonyms
Prepositions of location ruage

Learning Outcomes
Write an academic paragraph about the climate in a place you know

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Previewing the Unit

Previewing means looking at one thing before another. It is a good idea to preview your
reading assignments. Read the contents page of every new unit. Think about the topics
of the chapters. You will get a general idea of how the unit is organized and what it is
going to be about.

Read the contents page for Unit 3 on page 102 and do the following activities.

Chapter 5: Earth's Atmosphere

A Go outside or open a window and then do the following. Work with a partner.
Take notes and share ideas.
1. Take a deep breath of air. The air is part of our planet's atmosphere. Can you see the
atmosphere? Can you smell it or feel it? Is the atmosphere the same everywhere?
2. Next, look up into the air. Do you see birds? What do you see? Make a list of
everything that you see in the atmosphere.
3. There are some things in the air that you cannot see, such as rockets that carry
astronauts far beyond Earth. Add some of these things to your list.
4. Do you see clouds? What can clouds tell us about the weather?

B Discuss the results of your activities in Step A in a small group or as a class.

Chapter 6: Weather and Climate

A People often describe air temperature, wind, rain, or snow to talk about weather. In a
small group, describe the weather in your hometown. Compare climates with your group.

B Storms are an important part of weather conditions. Work in a small group to complete
these activities.
1. Read these names of storms. Check (.1) the storms that are common in your area.
__ rainstorms __ hurricanes
__ snowstorms __ tornadoes
__ thunderstorms

2. Discuss big storms that you remember. Then answer these questions:
• Which type of storm is the most common where you live now?
• Which type of storm is most common on our planet?
• Which type of storm is the most deadly?

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Chapter 5
E�Atmos�P�h�e�r�e����-
PREPARING TO READ

1 Previewing key terms · O

A The first reading in this chapter is "The Composition of the Atmosphere." What does
composition mean? Look up the word in a dictionary if you do not know.

B Read this definition of atmosphere. Then work with a partner and answer this question:
What is the atmosphere? Use your own words to explain. Do not repeat the definition
below.

The atmosphere is a blanket of gases that covers every part of our planet Earth.
It is the air around us.

C Now explain the title of the reading. What does "composition of the atmosphere"
mean? Exchange ideas with your partner.

2 Building background knowledge about the topic

A The atmosphere is composed of 12 different gases. What names of gases do you
know? Make a list. Are any of these gases part of the atmosphere?

B People often use chemical symbols to represent gases. For example, the symbol for
argon is Ar. Work with a partner and complete the following activities.
1. Look at this list of six gases in the atmosphere. Match the gases with the symbols.
1. hydrogen a. 03
2. oxygen b. CO 2
3. nitrogen c. He
4. ozone d. H2
5. helium e. N 2
6. carbon dioxide f. 02

2. How much do you know about these gases? Try to answer these questions.
1. Which two gases make up most of Earth's atmosphere?
2. Which gas makes balloons float?
3. Which gas protects life on our planet from harmful light from the sun?
4. Which gas makes soda bubbly?
5. Which gas is very flammable (catches fire easily)?

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Reading 1
THE COMPOSITION OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is a blanket of gases that Other 1 %
covers every part of our planet Earth. It
is the air around us. You cannot see air,
but you can feel it when the wind blows.
s Every time you take a breath, air goes into
your lungs.
What goes into your lungs when
you breathe? Our air is composed of a
mixture of 12 gases: nitrogen, oxygen, Nitrogen 78%
10 argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, neon,
helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen,
ozone, and xenon. The two main gases
are nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere
consists of 78 percent nitrogen and
1s 21 percent oxygen. The other gases
make up only a small percentage of the Figure 5.1 The gases in Earth's atmosphere
atmosphere, but they are very important.

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meteor a piece Humans need the atmosphere for many reasons. First, our bodies
of rock or metal need the oxygen in the air to keep us alive. Second, humans need
from outer space 20 plants, and plants need the nitrogen in the air to grow. In addition, the

that makes a bright atmosphere acts like a shield around Earth. It protects us from objects
light in the sky as that fall from space, such as meteors. The ozone in the atmosphere also
it falls into Earth's protects us. It blocks harmful rays from the sun; without ozone, the
atmosphere rays would burn us. Finally, some gases help control temperatures on
2s Earth. Carbon dioxide, for example, prevents the air from becoming
too cold. The special combination of gases in the atmosphere allows
life on Earth to exist.

Oxygen
Oxygen is one of the main gases in Earth's atmosphere. Its chemical symbol is 02
(as an element its symbol is 0). Oxygen has no color, odor, or taste. It makes up 21
percent of Earth's atmosphere, 90 percent of the water in our oceans, and nearly 50
percent of Earth's crust. It also makes up about 60 percent of the human body. Almost
all living things need oxygen. irLanguage.com
Oxygen also has other important uses. For example, factories use oxygen to
produce steel, plastics, and textiles such as cotton and silk. Space rockets use liquid
oxygen for fuel. Doctors may give nearly pure oxygen to patients with breathing
problems. In addition, airplanes and spacecraft use a mix of oxygen with other gases
that helps people breathe better at high altitudes.
Today, oxygen even provides recreation. "Oxygen bars" appeared in Japan in the
late 1990s; now they are in airports, health clubs, and many other places. By 2012,
some bars were even selling "flavors" of oxygen, such as lavender and peppermint.
Customers believe that the oxygen improves energy and lowers stress. For about
US $1 a minute, they breathe air with more oxygen than the usual 21 percent in the
atmosphere. Some stores now sell cans of oxygen for people to enjoy anywhere.
Does oxygen help with altitude sickness, jet lag, and headaches? The can
manufacturer says that it does, but scientific studies have not proven these benefits.

Customers at an
oxygen bar

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Examining test questions O ·
Always examine the language of test questions. Test questions may express ideas
differently from the way they are expressed in a reading.

A Read the questions. Find the answers in the reading "The Composition of
the Atmosphere."
1. How many gases combine to create the atmosphere?
2. Which are the two most common gases?
3. Which gas do plants need to grow?
4. Which gas helps keep us safe from the sun?
5. Which gas prevents the air from becoming too cold?
6. What makes life on Earth possible?

B Work with a partner. Underline the words and phrases in the reading that answer the
questions in step A. Discuss the differences between the language in the questions
and the language in the reading.

2 Guessing meaning from context 0

T he context of a new word, that is, the words and phrases that surround it, can often
help you guess the meaning.

Find the words on the left in the reading "The Composition of the Atmosphere." Use the
context of each word to guess the meaning. Then match the words and definitions.
__ 1. blanket a. beams of light from the sun
__ 2. lungs b. something that covers something else to protect it from
__ 3. shield harm or damage
__ 4. meteor c. the parts of the body that help a person breathe
__ 5. rays d. a layer that covers something
e. a bright light from a piece of rock or metal when it falls
from space into Earth's atmosphere

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3 Describing parts O
There are many ways to say what a thing is made of. Learn the following words.
The phrases are used to describe content or to say that a thing has parts.
composed of (Xis composed of A, 8, and C.)
consists of (X consists of A, 8, and C.)
make up I made up of (A, 8, and C make up X. IXis made up of A, 8, and C.)

A Go back to the reading. Find three phrases that say that a thing has parts. Circle them.

B Complete these sentences about the composition of the atmosphere. Use information
from the text, Figure 5.1 on page 105, and the boxed text on page 106. Fill in each
blank with one word.
1. Earth's ____ consists ____ 78 percent ____ and ____
percent oxygen.
2.Ten gases ________ less than one ____ of the atmosphere.
3.The ____ is ____ of12 ____
4. The atmosphere is ____ ____ several gases that are essential for human
life.
5. Oxygen ________ almost ____ percent of Earth's crust.
6.The atmosphere of less than carbon dioxide.

4 Reviewing paragraph structure $

Remember that many paragraphs in academic writing have the following structure:
• The topic sentence is usually the first sentence. It tells readers the main idea of
the paragraph, with no details.
• Supporting sentences follow the topic sentence. They provide specific details
and examples to show that the topic sentence is true. They also explain the topic
sentence more fully. They are put in logical order.
• The concluding sentence is the last sentence. It repeats the main idea of the
paragraph, but it is not a copy of the topic sentence.

Go back to the reading. Find the paragraph with an "academic" structure. That is, the
paragraph must have a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a conclusion.
Check (..-') it. Compare your answers with a partner's.

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5 Transition words �
It is important to organize ideas in your writing. This helps a reader understand
your ideas. After you write the topic sentence, consider how to organize the
supporting sentences.
Transition words show the connection between ideas. Look at these transitions and
their meanings:
First, the most important idea; the first that occurs in time
Second, the next most important idea; the next that occurs in time
In addition, a point or idea that is added to a previous one
Also, a point or idea that is added to a previous one
Finally, the last idea

A Read the sentences and find the transition words. Then put the ideas in order.
Number the sentences 1-8. Do not look at the text.
a. In addition, the atmosphere acts like a shield around Earth.
b. The special combination of gases in the atmosphere allows life on Earth to exist.
c. Second, humans need plants, and plants need the nitrogen in the air to grow.
d. Humans need the atmosphere for many reasons.
e. First, our bodies need the oxygen in the air to keep us alive.
f. Finally, some gases help control temperatures on Earth.
g. It protects us from objects that fall from space, such as meteors.
h. The ozone in the atmosphere also protects us. It blocks harmful rays from
the sun ...

B Write a paragraph with transitions. The topic is the atmosphere. Go back to the text
and Figure 5.1 for information. Do not copy from the text. Follow these steps.
1. Begin your paragraph with a topic sentence that states your main idea, without
details. This makes a claim about the atmosphere.
2. Give one or more details to prove or illustrate your main idea, and use complete
sentences. This is your support.
3. Use transition words to order your information.
4. End with a concluding sentence that restates the main idea.
5. Compare your paragraph with a partner's. Check that the information is
ordered correctly.

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PREPARING TO READ
1 Thinking about the topic ·
Where does the atmosphere start? Read the following quotation and see if you change
your answer.

Look at your feet. You are standing in the sky. When we think of the sky, we tend to
look up, but the sky actually begins at the earth. - Diane Ackerman

2 Previewing key parts of a text ·

Remember to preview key parts of a text before you read. Previewing will help you
understand the main ideas.

Preview the title, the introductory paragraph (par. 1), and the headings in the reading on
pages 111-112. Then answer the following questions with a partner.
1. What is the text about?
2. How many layers does the atmosphere have?

3 Examining graphics ·
Look at Figure 5.2 on page 111. Then answer the following questions in a small group.
1. What is the name of the bottom layer of the atmosphere?
2. What is the name of the top layer of the atmosphere?
3. Which layer is the largest?
4. In which layers do airplanes fly?
5. In which layer of the atmosphere do satellites orbit Earth?
6. Which layer contains living things?
7. In which layer can we see meteors?

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Reading 2
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere around Earth extends far above the
surface of the planet. No clear boundary, or line, marks
the end of the atmosphere. The air just gets thinner and
thinner. In other words, the upper atmosphere has. less
5 oxygen, and it eventually blends into space. Scientists
divide the atmosphere into five layers: the troposphere, the
stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the
exosphere.

The troposphere
The troposphere is the first layer of the atmosphere. It
10 extends from Earth's surface to an average of 12 kilometers
above the surface. There is a lot of movement and activity
in this layer. It contains all the familiar parts of our world:
the oceans, the mountains, the clouds, and all living things.
Most of the water in the atmosphere is located here, so
15 weather conditions, such as rain, snow, and thunder, occur
in the troposphere. In addition, the air in the troposphere
is always moving. The movement creates turbulence, that
is, a very unstable flow of air.

The stratosphere
20 The second layer of the atmosphere is the stratosphere. It
starts at 12 kilometers and ends at about 50 kilometers above
Earth. There is no wind or weather in the stratosphere, and
there are few clouds. The air is very stable (still) and clear.
As a result, pilots sometimes fly in the stratosphere, above
25 the troposphere, to enjoy a smooth ride. The ozone layer is
in the stratosphere. The ozone layer is very important for
life on Earth. It absorbs dangerous ultraviolet radiation, or
invisible rays of energy that come from the sun. Without
the ozone layer, humans and animals would probably die 50km
30 from the sun's radiation.
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The mesosphere a.
VI Ozone Layer
About 50 kilometers above Earth, the stratosphere ends, B
and the mesosphere begins. The mesosphere is the third ....�
VI

layer of the atmosphere. The mesosphere extends from 50

kilometers to 80 kilometers above the surface of Earth. The
35 air in this layer becomes very thin, and the temperature
drops to as low as -93 °C. In fact, the mesosphere is the
coldest layer of the atmosphere. Most people will never
go to the mesosphere, but sometimes we can see events Figure 5.2 The layers of
the atmosphere

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i rLanguage.,om happening there. Every day millions of meteoroids enter our
40 atmosphere from outer space, and they burn up in the mesosphere.
International
Space Station a
Sometimes we can see their trails as shooting stars in the night sky.
structure in space
that many countries
The thermosphere
built together to The fourth layer of the atmosphere is the thermosphere.
support space The thermosphere is located approximately 80 kilometers above
research Earth's surface. In this layer, the temperature starts to increase again.
45 In fact, the thermosphere is the hottest layer of the atmosphere.
Astronauts in their spacecraft orbit Earth in the thermosphere. The
International Space Station also orbits Earth in the thermosphere.
Otherwise, humans do not travel to this layer. irLanguage.com

The exosphere
satellite (made by
humans} an object Finally, approximately 550 kilometers above Earth, we reach the
that goes into space 50 exosphere. The exosphere is the last layer of the atmosphere. At the
to collect information edge of the exosphere, the air becomes extremely thin. Is there any
or to become part of sign of human activity this high up? Yes. Thousands of satellites from
a communications several countries orbit Earth in this layer.
system
The next time you look up at the sky, remember this: Each layer of
ss the atmosphere is important. Together the layers produce breathable
air, water, and protection from harmful things in space. As far as we
know, Earth may be the only planet with atmospheric layers that can
support developed life.

The International Space Station

In 1998, construction began on the International Space Station (ISS). Space agencies
from Canada, Europe, Japan, Russia, and the United States built the Station. Its mission
is to "enable long-term exploration of space and provide benefits to people on Earth."
We can see the ISS in the night sky. It orbits Earth 16 times a day - the same distance
as going to the moon and back every day. It is about the size of a football field, or 110
meters by 49 meters. The Station has a modular, or piece-by-piece, design. It has a
command module, storage module, labs, gym, living quarters, two bathrooms, and a
large bay window. Spacecraft from Earth deliver equipment and supplies.
In November 2010, the ISS marked the 10th anniversary of continuous
human occupation. More than 200 people from more than 15 countries and
regions, such as the United States, Russia, Canada, Japan, Europe,
South Korea, Malaysia, and South Africa, have steadily come to the
ISS. Crew members usually stay three to six months.
Crew members operate and maintain the ISS. They conduct
astronomy and meteorology experiments and research how
living in space affects human health. The ISS also inspires future
scientists, engineers, artists, and explorers from around the world.
Astronauts Acaba, Padalka, and Revin traveled 52,906,428 miles and orbited Earth 2,000 times.

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Taking notes with a chart O

Put your notes in chart form. Charts can show the information in a way that is easy to
remember. A chart can help you review information quickly for a test.

A Look at the chart. It shows the beginning of a student's notes on the reading "The
Structure of the Atmosphere." Notice that the chart has four columns. The columns
include the names, height, and special features of each layer of the atmosphere.
Complete the chart with information from the text. In the last column, try to write two
pieces of information for each layer of Earth's atmosphere.

Layer Name Height Special Features

1 •
•
2 from 12 km to __ km •
•
3 mesophere •
•
4 •
•
5 from __ km to? • satellites in this layer
•

B Compare your chart with a partner's.

2 Playing with words G

Play games with words. This will help you learn and remember them. Play with
words' similarities and differences and have fun. This is a good way to develop your
knowledge and understanding of new and familiar words.

This game is called Odd One Out. Work with a partner. Look at the words in each row.
Choose the word that does not belong and explain why.
1. spacecraft bird satellite plane
2. spacecraft bird satellite tree
3. spacecraft bird cloud tree
4. spacecraft plane astronaut space station
5. rain snow cloud thunder
6. atmosphere exosphere mesosphere stratosphere

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3 Colons, such as, and lists O

Use a colon (:) after a complete sentence to introduce a list.
Air is composed of a mixture of 12 different gases: nitrogen, oxygen, argon,
carbon dioxide, water vapor, neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen,
ozone, and xenon.
Use such as to introduce a list that is not complete. That is, such as introduces
items that are examples from a larger list. Notice these things about such as: It is not
followed by a colon, it does not begin a sentence, and a comma often comes before it.
Air is composed of a mixture of many different gases, such as nitrogen, oxygen,
argon, neon, and helium.
Notes:
In lists of more than two items, there is a comma after each item.
The word and comes before the last word in a list.
A comma is used before such as to introduce lists that restrict or limit meaning.
Remember that a list is not a complete sentence - the first word is not capitalized.

A Look back at paragraphs 1 and 2 of the reading "The Structure of the Atmosphere."
Find two lists that follow a colon and one list that follows such as. Underline them.
B Find the error in each sentence below. Discuss why the sentence is incorrect with a
partner. Then, on your own, rewrite it correctly.
1. There are four main types of wet weather: rain, snow, hail, sleet.
There are four main types of wet weather: rain. snow. hail. and sleet.
2. There are several types of wet weather such as: rain, snow, and hail.

3. There are four main types of wet weather: rain, snow, and hail, and sleet.

4. There are several types of wet weather. Such as rain, snow, and hail.

5. There are several types of wet weather, rain, snow, and hail.

6. There are several types of wet weather such as, rain and, snow and, hail.

7. There are many types of wet weather: Rain, snow, hail, and sleet.

C Write two sentences about Earth's atmosphere. Use a list with a colon in one sentence.
Use a list with such as in the other sentence. Compare sentences with your partner.

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4 Writing about height

Writing about height means writing about how high something is. Height is often
included in a description of a thing. When you write about height or altitude in science
you may also describe the location and range of something. Here are some structures
you can use to express how high something is, including its location and range:
• A is located X above B.
The exosphere is located 550 kilometers above Earth's surface.
• A extends from X to Y above B.
The mesosphere extends from 50 kilometers to 80 kilometers above Earth.
• A starts I begins at X and ends at Y above B.
The thermosphere starts at approximately 80 kilometers and ends at 550
kilometers above Earth.

A Find the expressions of height in the reading. Underline them. Compare your answers
with a partner's.
B Complete these sentences about the layers of the atmosphere. Include the structures
in the box. Include words and numbers. Check your answers in the text and Figure 5.2.
1. The ____ extends ____ our planet's surface ____ an average of
12 kilometers above the surface.
2. The is located 30 kilometers above the stratosphere.
3. The mesosphere ____ at 50 kilometers and ____ at 80 kilometers above
Earth.
4. The thermosphere ____ located kilometers Earth.
5. Satellites hundreds of kilometers above the planet in the

C Now write four sentences of your own about the atmosphere. Use an expression of
height in each sentence.
1, _______________________________

2, _______________________________

3, _______________________________

4. _______________________________

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PREPARING TO READ

1 Previewing art ·
A Look at the photos in the reading on pages 117-118 then look at the drawings of these
clouds.

B Answer the questions with a partner.

1. What are the names of the clouds? Write each name on the blank in step A.
2. Do you know the names of other clouds? Name the clouds you know.
3. Describe the weather when you see the clouds in Step A. Use the words in the box
to help you.

bad weather cold good weather rain sunny warm

blue sky fog ice snow stormy wet

2 Building background knowledge about the topic ·

A Study the pictures below. They show the three forms (states) of matter that water
can take.

liquid solid gas

B Describe the states of matter that water can take in Earth's atmosphere. Write gas,
liquid, or solid in the blanks.
1. Water in ice is in the form of a ____
2. Water in raindrops is in the form of a ____
3. Water that is neither a liquid nor a solid is a ____,, (It is called water vapor.)

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Reading 3
CLOUDS
Clouds are a familiar sight in the troposphere. We see them in the
sky almost every day. Do you ever wonder what they are made of?
Clouds are composed of billions of tiny water droplets or ice crystals.
How are they formed? Consider this special feature of water: It can
5 change from a gas (vapor) to a liquid (water) to a solid (ice) and back
again. Clouds form when warm water vapor in the air rises in the
atmosphere. As the warm water vapor moves higher into cooler air,
the air in the vapor cools. It then becomes tiny drops of water or ice.
These droplets of water or ice join together in the sky and form clouds.
10 Clouds come in many different shapes and sizes, but there are three
main types: cumulus, cirrus, and stratus.
Cumulus clouds
Cumulus clouds are fluffy, white clouds. They
look like balls of cotton in the sky. Children
often draw cumulus clouds in their pictures.
15 When you see cumulus clouds, the weather is

generally good, and the sky is blue. Cumulus

clouds are low-level clouds. They are usually
close to the ground, about 460 to 915 meters
above Earth's surface. A cumulus cloud
20 forms when sunshine warms water vapor in
the air. The warm water vapor rises and cools
as it moves higher. The cool water vapor then
changes into water droplets, and the droplets
join together and form a cumulus cloud.
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Cirrus clouds
25 Cirrus clouds are thin, wispy white clouds.

They look like the tail of a horse or a curl of

hair. When you see cirrus clouds in the sky,
it usually means that stormy weather is on
its way. Cirrus clouds are located very high
ao in the sky. They are about 5 to 12 kilometers
above the ground in the troposphere. It is
very cold high in the troposphere, so cirrus
clouds are made up of tiny ice crystals, not
water droplets. A cirrus cloud forms when
as cold air moves under an area of warm air.
The cold air pushes the warm air higher in
the troposphere. The warm air cools, changes
into ice crystals, and a cirrus cloud forms.

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Stratus clouds
Stratus clouds look like gray, shapeless
40 blankets that cover most of the sky. They are

usually only about 0.8 kilometer thick, but

they can be almost 1,000 kilometers wide.
When you see stratus clouds, you might soon
see rain. Stratus clouds are low-level clouds
45 that are located quite close to the ground.
In fact, sometimes they lie on the ground
or the ocean, and then they are called fog.
A stratus cloud forms when warm, wet air
moves slowly over an area of cooler air. The
so warm air rises, cools, and changes into water
droplets. The droplets join together and
create a stratus cloud.
Stratus clouds
There are many other types of clouds. Each one forms in a different
way, and each one can tell you something about the coming weather.
55 If you pay careful attention to the types of clouds in the sky, you can
predict the weather fairly accurately.

Figure 5.3
Common types
of clouds in the
troposphere

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The Latin origin of cloud names

Scientists often use Greek or Latin words to name plants, animals, and other things in
nature. Cloud names come from the Latin language. Cumulus is the Latin word for a
large heap or lump. Cirrus means "curl" in Latin, and stratus refers to a blanket or layer.
Cumulus, cirrus, and stratus can also combine with other Latin words. For example,
nimbus means "rain" or "storm," so cumulonimbus clouds are big heaps of rain clouds.
Another example is alto. Although alto means "high," scientists use it as a prefix to
describe midlevel clouds. For instance, altostratus clouds are layers of clouds that are
neither very high nor very low in the sky. Finally, asperatus is the Latin word for "rough."
Scientists may have discovered a new type of cloud. This cloud looks like choppy
ocean waves that cover the sky. They named these new formations asperatus clouds.
After you learn the Latin words, you will be able to understand the name of almost
every cloud in the sky.

Asperatus clouds

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Taking notes with a chart O
The chart below shows the beginning of a student's notes on the reading "Clouds." Fill in
the missing information. In the last column, draw a picture of each type of cloud.

Cloud name Description Picture �--

Cumulus

• thin. wispy. white

• looks like a thin curl of hair
• found 5-12 km above ground

2 Using symbols and abbreviations 00

It is important to write quickly when you take notes. As in texting messages, you do not
use complete words or sentences. Try to abbreviate (shorten) words and use symbols to
represent them. Look at these examples of common abbreviations and symbols.
You can also create your own to make your notes especially meaningful to you.
Abbreviation Symbol
m meters & and
@ at = approximately
b/c because - causes or leads to

A Work with a partner. Guess the meanings of the symbols and abbreviations below.
Then add three more to the list.
1. info 4.+ 7. __
2. ex 5. t 8. __
3. km 6. = 9. __
B Share your answers with your classmates.

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C Below are some notes on a paragraph in the reading "Clouds." Work with a partner.
Take turns using the notes to make sentences about cumulus clouds.

Cumulus clouds
• fluffy & white
• usually= good weather
• low level(:::: 460-915 m above ground)
• sun warms water vapor --+ water vapor rises -+ water vapor cools
--+ water droplets = cumulus clouds

D Complete these notes on the paragraph about cirrus clouds.

Cirrus clouds
• thin, wispy. white
• usually = soon
• high level( )
• b/c cold@ high level, made of ice, not _____,,===,,..,,-­
cold air moves under warm air --+ warm air-=�-----
-+ warm air cools -� ________

E Now write your own notes on the paragraph about stratus clouds on a separate piece
of paper.

3 Words from Latin and Greek 0

Remember that many scientific words come from Latin or Greek.

A Read the names below. T hese are two more types of clouds. Guess what these clouds
look like. Use the information from the boxed text on page 119 to describe them.
• nimbostratus
• cirrostratus

B Draw a picture of each cloud in Step A. Compare your drawings with a partner.

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C Look at the following list of word parts from Greek and Latin and their meanings.

astro­ star -graph write, written photo­ light

bio­ life -logy study -scope observe, see
geo- earth, rock -meter measure tele- far, distant

D Work with a partner and guess the meanings of the following words. Then check your
answers in a dictionary.
1. telescope 5. biology
2. geology 6. astrophotography
3. astrometry 7. telephoto
4. biometrics 8. photometer
E What other words can you make in English with the word parts in the box? Make a list
and share it with the class.

4 When clauses O
Sentences in English often have more than one clause. A clause is a group of words
that has a subject and a verb. In the examples below, each sentence has a when
clause and a main clause.
when clause main clause
When warm air rises, it turns into water vapor.
when clause main clause
When water vapor cools, it turns into tiny drops of water or ice.
The when clause and the main clause can also be in the reverse order. In that case,
there is no comma between the two clauses.
main clause when clause
Warm air turns into water vapor when it rises.
main clause when clause
Water vapor turns into water or ice when it cools.

A Find six sentences in the reading with a when clause. Underline the sentences.
Do commas separate the when clause from the main clause? In how many sentences?

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B Complete the sentences with a when clause or a main clause. Use information from
the reading and the boxed text. Use commas correctly. Compare your sentences with
a partner's.
1. When water vapor rises ______________________
2. It is probably not going to rain--------------------
3. When children draw clouds---------------------
4. We call it fog--------------------------
5. When you see cumulonimbus clouds-----------------

5 Writing an observation report G

Students in science classes often have to write observation reports. In these reports,
they record what they see and examine that information carefully.

Write an observation report about clouds and weather. Follow the instructions below.
Work with a partner on parts 1 and 2.
1. Go outside or look out the window and look up at the sky. What is the weather like
today? What kinds of clouds do you see? Use many details to describe the weather
and clouds.
2. Do your observations of the clouds and the weather agree with the information in
the text "Clouds"? Explain why or why not.
3. Write a report about your observations. You can use the model below for help, but
remember that it is just a brief example. Write as many details as you can about the
clouds and the weather. Include a picture of the different types of clouds you saw.

Name: _________
Date: _________
Observation Report
Today there are clouds in the sky. They are
_________ clouds.According to the reading "Clouds,"
when you see clouds,the weather is usually
---------· This is true I not true about the weather today.
Today's weather is, in fact,-------------

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Chapter 5 Academic Vocabulary Review

The following words appear in the readings in Chapter 5. They all come from the
Academic Word List, a list of words that researchers have discovered occur frequently in
many different types of academic texts. For a complete list of all the Academic Word List
words in this chapter and in all the readings in this book, see the Appendix on page 206.

conduct equipment maintain symbol

construction finally stress unstable
enable invisible structure vehicles

Complete the following sentences with words from the list.

1. Headphones, transmitters , and antennas are part of the ____ for special
radios on the International Space Station.
2. Some companies are building electric to try to reduce the air pollution
from cars and trucks that use gasoline.
3. Hikers should watch out for rocks. Loose rocks can make people slip
and fall.
4. Many dentists earn a high salary, but they may also experience a high degree
of because of their jobs. In fact, problems with patients cause many
dentists to lose sleep at night.
5. Five layers of air compose the of the atmosphere.
6. For many people, a white dove is a of peace.
7. The International Space Station took more than 12 years to build, but it was
____ finished in 2011.
8. Sometimes air pollution is , but other times people can actually see
black smoke from factories and cars in the air.
9. The budget of most space agencies is very large. It costs a lot of
money to build spacecraft.
10. Improvements in technology astronauts to video chat with students in
schools on Earth.

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Developing
Writing Skills
In this section, you will practice taking notes and using notes to write a paragraph. You will
also use what you learn here to complete the writing assignment at the end of this unit.

Using Your Own Words When You Write

Writing in college courses means showing that you understand what you read. Using your
own words to write about ideas is a skill. The key is taking notes. Here are some guidelines:
• Read the text once to understand the main ideas. Read the text again and take notes.
• Do not take notes on every detail. Focus on main ideas, major supporting details, and
a few specific examples and facts.
• Use symbols and abbreviations to put ideas in yoi.;:- own words.
• Close your book and practice writing out ideas in your notes.
• Explain the main ideas to someone else. Use your notes, not the book.
• Use your notes, not the book, to complete a writing assignment.

A Use the strategies in the box to complete the activities.

1. Read the paragraph.

A meteoroid is a piece of rock or metal that travels through outer space.

Meteoroids can be as tiny as dust or as large as 10 meters. However, most are
small, like a pebble. Meteoroids move very quickly. The fastest meteoroids travel
about 42 kilometers per second. A meteor is a piece of rock or metal from outer
space that makes a bright light in the sky as it falls into Earth's atmosphere and
burns up. Millions of meteoroids enter Earth's atmosphere every day, and their
meteors Look like .,shooting stars" in the night sky. A meteorite is a meteoroid
that lands on the ground. More than 100 meteorites hit Earth each year.

2. Read the paragraph again and take notes. Then write sentences from your notes.
Use your own words. Remember to use symbols and abbreviations.
3. Work with a partner. Look at the notes below that a student took on the same
reading. Some are correct and some are not. Check (.I) the two notes that are NOT
correct and rewrite them.
a. Meteoroid = rock or metal from space
b. Fastest meteoroids go 42 km/hr
c. Shooting stars = meteors = meteroids burning up in atmos.
d. Meteorites > 1 00 fall to Earth each yr
4. Compare the corrected notes to your own notes. Do they match?

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B Remember that your assignment is to write a paragraph from notes. The topic of your
paragraph is auroras. An aurora is a natural sight in the atmosphere.
1. Look at the photograph and read the notes about auroras.

Auroras
• auroras = beautiful lights in sky
• usually green-yellow (can be red,
blue, violet)
• diff shapes & sizes
• occur in thermosphere
• 100-300+ km above Earth
• particles from sun + atmospheric
gases above N. and S. poles -+ auroras
• ex. of famous auroras:
1 . aurora borealis = Northern Lights
best seen from Alaska, E. Canada,
Iceland (Sept.-Oct. & Mar.)
2. aurora australis = Southern Lights
best seen from Antarctica

Aurora borealis

2. Discuss the meanings of the symbols and abbreviations in the notes with a partner.
Use a dictionary to look up the new words. Work alone and write the notes out into
complete sentences. Then take turns expressing the ideas in your own words with
your partner.
3. Now write a paragraph about auroras. Remember to:
• include a topic sentence, at least five supporting sentences, and a concluding
sentence.
• order ideas logically. Use transitions to guide the reader through your paragraph.
• use when clauses and expressions of height where appropriate.
4. Exchange paragraphs with a partner. Check for a clear topic sentence with support,
transitions, when clauses, correct descriptions of height, and a conclusion. Check
that ideas are stated correctly and match the notes shown in item 1.
5. Consider ways to improve your paragraph. Write a second draft. Correct any errors
in spelling and grammar.

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Chapter 6
W er ancLClimate
PREPARING TO READ

Thinking about the topic

Work with a partner or in a small group and
do the following activities.

A Look at the title of the chapter.

How can you describe weather and
climate? Brainstorm words that
name and describe weather, such
as wind, rain, hot, cold, cloudy,
and sunny. Make a list. Think of
at least 15 words.
1. Describe the weather
today. Use words that you
brainstormed.
2. Look at the photograph
and describe the weather.

B Think about weather that is

similar in different places.
1. How is the weather in the
photograph similar to the weather
where you live? How is the weather
different?
2. Read this list of places. Do any have
similar weather? Divide the places into
three groups. List them in the chart below.
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Gobi Desert, China Sahara Desert, Africa
Hawaii (U.S.A.) Rub' al-Khali, Saudi Arabia
Nord, Greenland Thailand
Northern Canada

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

3. Discuss your chart with your classmates. Explain your reasons for your groupings.

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Reading 1
CLIMATES AROUND THE WORLD
What is the weather like today? Is it hot or cold? Is it sunny, rainy, or
snowy? Weather is the atmospheric conditions at a particular time.
Climate is different from weather. Climate means the average weather
conditions of an area over a long period of time, at least 30 years. An
s area's climate includes its average temperat�re and its average amount
of precipitation. Climate determines the kinds of plants and animals
that live in an area. For example, tropical rain forests grow in hot, wet
climates, and polar bears live in cold climates.
Scientists divide Earth into climate zones, or areas, according to
10 temperature and precipitation. Some of the main climate zones are
tropical, dry, mild, and polar. Tropical climates are located near the
equator. They have warm temperatures all year and a lot of rain.
Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Thailand all have tropical climates. Dry
climates have very little precipitation, so they do not have a lot of plant
1s life. The Gobi Desert in China and the Sahara Desert in Africa are
good examples of dry climates.

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Mild climates have neither very hot nor very cold temperatures.
It rains, but not as heavily as in tropical climates. For example, San
Francisco and London are cities with mild climates. Polar climates are
20 the coldest areas on Earth. Even during the warmest months, average
temperatures are below 10° Celsius (50° Fahrenheit). Polar climates
are also very dry, with less than 38 centimeters of precipitation each
year. The Arctic (including parts of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and
other areas around the North Pole) has a polar climate.
2s Scientists tell us that Earth's climate is changing in important ways. global warming the
For example, air and ocean temperatures have been rising in recent increase over time in
years. This change is called global warming. Scientists believe that the temperature of
global warming is causing other climate changes on our planet, such as Earth's atmosphere
an increase in heat waves and more powerful storms all over the world.

Cherrapunji: A Place of Extremes

Does it rain very much where you live? Do you get tired of wearing a raincoat and
carrying an umbrella? If so, be glad you don't live in Cherrapunji, India. Some people
think Cherrapunji may be the wettest place on Earth. In fact, it is one of the rainiest
places on our planet, with an average rainfall of more than 1,143 centimeters per year.
It rains in Cherrapunji all year; in fact it is the only place in India that receives rain
year round. However, most of the rain falls during six months of the year. Cherrapunji
actually has a shortage of water during the other six months. How is this possible?
Cherrapunji is a mountain town in the northeastern state of Meghalaya. For six
months of the year, winds called monsoons blow from the southwest, and they bring
extremely heavy rain. The other half of the year, the monsoons blow from the northeast;
they bring some rain, but not very much. In the past, the area around Cherrapunji was
mostly forest. The trees protected the soil and kept it in place. Therefore, the ground
could hold water from the rainy season for use throughout the year. However, in recent
years the town grew, and people cut down large numbers of trees; they wanted space
for new homes and
businesses. Now that
the trees are gone, most
of the rainwater runs
down into the valley. It
no longer goes into the
ground. That's why one
of the rainiest places in
the world must bring in
water from other areas
during the dry season.

Cherrapunji, India

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Applying what you have read · O
Apply what you have read to new subject matter. This can show how well you
understood the text.

Study the chart below. Look at each place, with its average temperature and
precipitation. Then predict the climate. Write tropical, dry, mild, or polar. Go back to the
reading if necessary.
'

Average annual Average annual

Place Climate
temperature precipitation
1. Manila, Philippines 27 ° C I 81 ° F 206 cm/81.1 in

2. Inuvik, Canada -9.5 ° C I 15 ° F 27 cm/ 10.6 in

3. Namib Desert, Namibia 16 ° C I 61 ° F 5 cm/2 in

4. Yakutsk, Russia -10 ° c I 14 ° F 20 cm/7.9 in

5. Monrovia, Liberia 26 ° c / 79 ° F 513 cm/202 in

6. Santiago, Chile 14 ° C/57 ° F 38 cm/ 15 in

2 Defining key words O

In academic texts, look for the definitions of key words in the margins as well as in
the text.

Look at the list of key words from "Climates Around the World." Find the words in the
reading. Then match the words and definitions.
1. __ precipitation a. a scale for measuring temperature
2. __ equator b. an increase in the temperature of Earth's atmosphere
3. __ climate zone c. rain, snow, sleet, and hail
4. __ Celsius d. an imaginary line around the middle of Earth
5. __ global warming e. an area of land that has similar average
temperatures and amounts of precipitation in
every part

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3 Understanding averages
An average is a general number that represents a level, amount, or degree of
something that is usual for a group or class of people or things. Scientific texts often
use averages for things that can be measured in numbers, such as temperature or
precipitation. To calculate an average, add the number of each member of the group
and get a total, then divide the total by the number of members in the group. For
example, the average temperature of 20 °c, 10 °c, and 30 ° C is 20°c. Add 20 ° + 10 ° +
30 °= 60 ° and divide 60 ° + 3= 20° .

A Look at Amman, Jordan's average monthly temperatures.

Temperature 212 - 100
Average Monthly Temperatures in Amman scales* 194 90
176 80
January 8° C July 25 ° C 158 70
February goc August 26 °c 140 60
122 50
March 12 °c September 24 °c 104 40
April 16 ° C October 21 °c Fahrenheit 86 30 Celsius
68 20
May 21 °c November 15 °c 50 10
° ° 32 0
June 24 c December 10 c 14 -10
-4 -20
Now study how to calculate Amman's average -22 -30
annual (yearly) temperature. -40 -40

Average annual temperature= sum of monthly temperatures + 12 months:

Monthly temperatures: 8° + 9 ° + 12 ° + 16 ° + 21° + 24 ° + 25 ° + 26 ° + 24 ° + 21° + 15 ° + 10 °
Total of monthly temperatures= 211 °
Total of monthly temperatures, divided by 12 months= 211 ° + 12 = 17.6 °
The average annual temperature in Amman, Jordan, is 17.6 ° C (63.7 ° F).

B Calculate the average annual temperature in Buenos Aires, Argentina, from the
information below. Write the answer on a separate piece of paper in a complete sentence.

Average Monthly Temperatures in Buenos Aires

January 23 °c May 13 °c September 13 °c
February 22 °c June 10 °c October 16 ° C
March 20 °c July 10 °c November 19 °c
April 16 ° C August 11 °c December 22 °c

C Calculate the average summer temperatures in Amman (June, July, August) and
Buenos Aires (December, January, February). Write the answers in a compound
sentence on your piece of paper from step B.

· You can find formulas for converting one temperature scale to another on page 205.
Chapter 6 Weather and Climate 131
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4 Introducing examples O
Good writing shows and tells. It includes details to prove a point. Include specific
examples to show the reader what you mean. Specific examples also make your writing
stronger and more interesting. Look at these two phrases that introduce examples:
For example introduces a sentence:
For example, rain forests grow in hot, wet climates.
Such as introduces a noun or a list of nouns within a sentence:
Rain forests have many types of animals, such as gorillas, parrots, and crocodiles.
Notice that there is a comma after for example and a comma before such as.

A Go back to the reading. Mark uses of for example and such as to introduce examples.
B Read this text about global warming.

Our planet is getting warmer. Some temperature change is natural. However,

temperatures on Earth increased much faster than expected in recent years.
Global warming is causing some troubling climate changes. Unfortunately, people
around the world are adding to the problem. They are using more and more energy for
heat, electricity, and transportation. Burning fossil fuels produces most of this energy,
and this increases global warming. To slow global warming and help prevent further
damage to the planet, people need to make some changes in their daily lives.

C The sentences and phrases below give examples that explain ideas in the text in Step
B. Match the examples to the ideas. Then rewrite the text from Step B on a separate
piece of paper with the new examples below.
1. For example, they could recycle more things, walk more, and drive less.
2. For example, some areas are having more heat waves, others are getting heavier
rain, and polar areas are getting warmer.
3. such as oil, gas, and coal
4. For example, over the 100 years of the twentieth century, temperatures increased by
0.5 ° C. However, before that time, it took 400 years for temperatures to increase by
the same amount.

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PREPARING TO READ
Previewing key parts of a text
A Preview the title, the headings, and the photographs on pages 134-135 to get a
general idea of the reading. Then read the first two sentences of each paragraph to get
more specific ideas.
Answer the following questions.
1. What is the text about? Check the correct answer.
__ two kinds of storms that cause a lot of damage
__ ideas about two kinds of dangerous storms
__ descriptions and statistics for two types of storms

2. What two types of storms does the text discuss? Write the names of the storms
next to the pictures below.

B Write T (true) or F (false) for each statement.

1. There are only a few thunderstorms every year.
2. Most thunderstorms do not last a long time.
3. Thunderstorms can cause tornadoes.
4. Tornadoes are most common in Europe.

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STORMS
Thunderstorms
At this moment, almost 2,000 thunderstorms are occurring around the
world. Thunderstorms are different from rain showers. Rain showers
do not create thunder and lightning, but thunderstorms do. Lightning
5 is electricity that moves between clouds, or between a cloud and the
ground. Lightning heats the air around it. The hot air expands. Then
it quickly contracts as it cools down. This movement of air makes the
sound called thunder. Thunder and lightning happen at almost exactly
the same time. However, light moves faster than sound, so people see
lightning a flash lightning before they hear thunder.
of bright light in 10 Approximately 90 percent of thunderstorms are small and last no
the sky, caused by
longer than 30 minutes. These short thunderstorms bring cool rain
electricity during a
thunderstorm
on a hot, humid day. However, 10 percent are powerful storms that
can produce hail, strong winds, heavy rain, and tornadoes. Severe
thunderstorms can continue for hours and even days, and they can
15 cause a lot of damage. Lightning strikes occur over 40 million times

every year, and every year, lightning causes over 7,000 forest fires,
hundreds of injuries, and more than 90 deaths in the United States.
Hail is another destructive and costly problem. Hail consists of balls
of ice called hailstones. Hailstones can be as small as a pea or as large
20 as a grapefruit. Hail causes almost $1 billion of damage each year.

However, the most dangerous part of severe thunderstorms is the

heavy rain. Heavy rain can cause flooding, and flooding can be more
dangerous to people and property than lightning or hail.

Tornadoes
Severe thunderstorms can also cause tornadoes. Tornadoes, or
25 "twisters;' are tall, spinning, funnel-shaped clouds that touch the
ground. They usually last 15 minutes or less, but they move quickly
and can cause a great deal of damage in just a few seconds. The air
inside a tornado spins very fast, more than 480 kilometers per hour,
as it moves quickly upward. Tornadoes can lift trees, cars, people,
30 animals, and even houses into the air.
Tornadoes occur throughout the world. These dangerous storms
are most common in the United States. More than 1,000 tornadoes
occur each year in the United States. Most of them occur in "Tornado
35 Alley:' Tornado Alley is an area in the central part of the country. The

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states of Texas and Oklahoma experience the most tornadoes in this

area. On average, more than 100 tornadoes strike Texas each year.
That is approximately the same number of tornadoes that strike the
whole country of Canada in one year.
Tornado "seasons" arve difficult to predict. For example, in 2012, an
40 unusual number of tornadoes occurred in the United States in January.
However, May, normally the most active month, was very quiet. Today,
scientists still have many questions about severe thunderstorms and
tornadoes. They continue to do research in order to better understand,
predict, and prepare people for these destructive storms.

Green Skies
Often the sky is blue. Sometimes it is gray. But have you ever seen a green sky? Yes,
green skies are real, but they are rare.
Many people believe that a green sky is a sign of a tornado. Scientists cannot
find evidence to support this belief, but they do say that there is evidence of green
thunderstorms. Usually people see green skies during a severe thunderstorm. Although
scientists are not sure why the sky turns green, many think it is because thunderstorms
have a lot of water. Water is naturally blue, and sunlight is often red, especially at
sunset. When the large amount of blue water mixes with the red sunlight, the sky can
look green. In fact, green skies are most common in the late afternoon and evening.
Whatever the reason the sky turns green, it usually means that a dangerous
thunderstorm is close by. Often, hail and tornados occur with the thunderstorm.
Therefore, if you see green skies, you should move to a safe place as quickly as you can.

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Using a Venn diagram to organize ideas from a text O ·

Science and other types of academic texts often discuss classes and types of
things. They present related information, or information that is common to a class,
and information that is specific to a member of the class. A Venn diagram organizes
information from related texts and can show the following:
• in one circle, information that is true only for topic A
• in the other circle, information that is true only for topic B
• in the overlapping part of the circles, information that is true for both topics (A+ B)

• forms • precipitation • forms

drops balls

A Look at the information from "Storms." Sort facts that are true only for thunderstorms,
only for tornadoes, or for both types of storms. Write TH for thunderstorms, TO for
tornadoes, or B for both storms.
__ are fast moving __ can lift houses into the air
__ can cause a lot of damage __ can produce lightning and hail
__ are tall, spinning clouds __ happen throughout the world
__ happen more than 1,000 times a day __ can cause dangerous flooding

B Complete the diagram. Write the facts from Step A in the correct places.

T hunderstorms Tornadoes

C Add at least one more fact from the reading to each circle of the Venn diagram.
Then add another fact to the overlapping area.

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2 Using a dictionary O
Sometimes you will need a dictionary to help you figure out the meaning of a word
in a text. Many words have more than one definition. It is important to choose the
definition that is appropriate for the context in which you see the word.

Read the sentences from "Storms." Each word in bold has more than one meaning.
Use the context and a dictionary to choose the correct meaning and part of speech.
Then write the meaning and part of speech in the blank. Follow the example.
Example:
The hot air expands. Then it quickly contracts as it cools down.
Dictionary definition: irLanguage.com

contract /'kan-trrekt/ (n) 1. a written legal agreement between

two people or companies that says what each will do
2. an agreement to kill someone for money
/k<>n'trrekt/ (v) 1. to get an illness. 2. to become smaller

Correct definition: (v.) to become smaller

1. These short thunderstorms bring cool rain on a hot, humid day.
Correct definition:-------------------------
2. Approximately 90 percent of thunderstorms are small and last no longer than 30
minutes.
Correct definition:-------------------------
3. Every year, lightning causes over 7,000 forest fires, hundreds of injuries, and more
than 90 deaths in the United States.
Correct definition:-------------------------
4. They are usually over in 15 minutes or less, but they move quickly and cause a
great deal of damage in just a few minutes.
Correct definition:-------------------------
5. On average, more than 100 tornadoes strike Texas each year.
Correct definition:-------------------------

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3 Using this I that I these I those to connect ideas O

Writers often use this, that, these, or those, followed by a noun or noun phrase, to

-----������--,,-���noun phrase
help connect the ideas in sentences.

Hail sometimes falls during a severe thunderstorm. These balls of ice can hurt
people and damage crops.
The phrase "These balls of ice" refers to hail in the preceding sentence and helps the
reader understand that hail means "balls of ice."

Reread paragraphs 1, 2, 4, and 5 ofthe text. Fi nd ex amples of phrases with this, that,
these, or those. Write each phrase andthe i dea it refersto.
1. Paragraph 1
Phrase: This movement of air...
Refers to: The hot air expands. Then quickly contracts ...
2. Paragraph 2
Phrase:���������������������������­
Refersto:���������������������������
3. Paragraph 4
Phrase:���������������������������­
Refersto:���������������������������
4. Paragraph 5
Phrase:���������������������������­
Refersto:���������������������������

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4 Examining statistics O
College courses test understanding of statistical information. You will often find statistics
that are general, that is, not exact, in texts. Instead, the words almost, approximately,
over, and more than may be stated before a statistic to make it less exact.
Hail causes almost $1 billion of damage each year.
The word almost makes the statistic ($1 billion) less exact. The sentence means that
hail causes less than $1 billion of damage each year, but very close to $1 billion.

A Find statistics in the reading "Storms." Underline them. Then circle the word or phrase
that makes each statistic less exact. irLanguage.com

B Now answer these questions.

1. How many thunderstorms might be happening at this moment around the world?
a. 1,000
b. 1,987
c. 2,238

2. Last week there was a tornado in Texas. How many minutes did it probably last?
a. 10
b. 25
c. 50

3. How many tornadoes will probably occur in the United States next year?
a. 100
b. 1,000
C. 1,100

4. Lightning strikes happen ____ million times every year.

a. 38
b. 41
c. 70

5. Firefighters think that lightning will cause ____ forest fires next year.
a. 6,800
b. 7,200
c. 7,000

6. How many tornadoes will probably strike Canada next year?

a. 110
b. 50
c. 1,000

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PREPARING TO READ
1 Thinking about the topic ·
Work with a partner to complete the following activities.
A The text you are going to read is about hurricanes. What are hurricanes?
Look the word up in a dictionary. What kind of words and ideas do you expect
to find in the reading about hurricanes?

B Did you ever experience a hurricane? Where were you? What happened?
Describe your experience.

2 Increasing reading speed ·

A Read the text "Hurricanes." Use the strategies for increasing reading speed on
page 68. For this task, do not read the boxed text on page 142.
1. Before you begin, fill in your starting time.
Starting time: ____
2. Fill in the time you finished. Finishing time: ____
B Calculate your reading speed:
I Reading speed: ____
Number of words in the text (493) 7 Number
of minutes it took you to read the text = your
reading speed

Your goal should be about 80-100 words per minute.

C Check your reading comprehension. Circle the correct answers. Do not look at the text.
1. Hurricanes form over (warm waters I cold waters I land).
2. Hurricanes have (one I two I three) main parts.
3. Hurricanes can cause a lot of (noise I damage I warm water).
4. Hurricanes can be (deadly I costly I deadly and costly).
5. Many scientists think there will be (more I fewer I no) hurricanes in the future.

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Reading 3
HURRICANES
People in China call them typhoons. People in India refer to them as
tropical cyclones. People in the United States call them hurricanes.
Different parts of the world use different names, but they are all
referring to the same thing: a very powerful, spinning storm that
5 causes strong winds, heavy rain, and giant waves.

The formation of a hurricane

A hurricane begins near the equator, over warm tropical waters.
It might start in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean, the
Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, or the East Pacific Ocean. The
storm starts as an area of thunderstorms. It continues to grow, and the
10 winds blow furiously in a circular path. When the winds reach 118

kilometers per hour, the storm is called a hurricane. The source of a

hurricane's energy is the warm ocean water it travels over. As it moves
over colder waters or over land, it weakens.
The parts of a hurricane
Hurricanes have three main parts: the eye,
15 the eyewall, and the spiral, or curving, rain

bands. The eye of a hurricane is a calm area

with only light winds. The eye is in the middle
of the spinning storm. The eyewall is a wall of
clouds around the eye. The eyewall contains the
20 strongest winds and the most rain. Rain bands
are long strips of thunderclouds that also follow a
circular path around the eye of the hurricane, but
they are farther away than the eyewall. Like the
eyewall, rain bands bring rain and strong winds.

Hurricane damage
25 The hurricane's strong winds move it across

the ocean. When a hurricane reaches land, the

powerful winds, heavy rain, and storm surge can
cause death and destruction. Hurricane winds can
blow more than 320 kilometers per hour. They can
30 knock down trees, destroy buildings, and blow heavy objects through the
air. The strong winds can cause great harm, but water usually produces storm surge a
sudden rise in the
the most damage. More than 60 centimeters of rain can fall in one day,
ocean's water level
and the storm surge can be as high as 6 meters. All of this water can wash as it moves closer to
away beaches, roads, bridges, homes, crops, animals, and people. land during a stonn

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I u
35 Hurricane damage can be overwhelming. In 2005, Hurricane
Katrina caused more than $80 billion of damage. It killed more
than 1,500 people and destroyed more than 250,000 homes in the
southeastern part of the United States. Although Katrina was the
costliest hurricane in United States history, the Galveston, Texas,
40 hurricane in 1900 was the deadliest. More than 8,000 people died
in that storm. However, the deadliest hurricane of all was the 1970
Bangladesh cyclone. It killed more than 300,000 people and devastated
the country.
Hurricanes and global warming
Hurricanes are the most destructive storms on Earth, and science

at
4s is searching for a way to stop them. In 2008 and 2009, some scientists
suggested adding smoke, very cold water, and even a giant ice cube to
hurricanes to stop them. Others recommended adding cold water on
top of the ocean to weaken a hurricane. However, no one has found a
way to stop them yet. Many scientists believe that ocean temperatures
1rLanguage.,om so will continue to rise with global warming, and there will be more
and more hurricanes in the future. Throughout the world, people are
working to improve hurricane forecasting and emergency planning
wind turbine a tall, and to better prepare us for these devastating storms. At the same
thin, metal windmill
time, people are looking for ways to slow down global warming and to
that produces
electricity ss reduce its extremely destructive effects.

The Benefits of Wind

Hurricane and tornado winds can be destructive and deadly. However, wind can also
be a positive force. In fact, some people are using the power of wind to produce
energy. For example, Germany, Spain, and the United States use wind turbines to
generate electricity in some areas, and these turbines are becoming more popular in
other countries, too.
Wind energy has many advantages. It is a cheap way to produce electricity, it is a
clean source of power, and it is unlimited. As long as the wind blows, people can use it
to produce energy. However, wind energy has a few disadvantages. For example, wind
turbines are useful only in areas with strong, regular winds, so they cannot be used
everywhere. In addition, some people think they are ugly and dangerous to birds.
There may be problems, but wind power is a clean, low-cost, and renewable way to
produce energy. It may also help us Ive o o our anet's most serious problem�
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AFTER YOU READ

1 Reading for main ideas
A Look at the paragraph topics of "Hurricanes." Find the paragraph for each topic in the
reading and write the number in the blank.
1. the three parts of a hurricane Par. __
2. the connection between global warming and hurricanes Par. __
3. different names for hurricanes Par. __
4. the power of a hurricane Par. __
5. the damage that specific hurricanes have caused Par. __
6. how hurricanes form Par. __
B Check (.I) the sentence that expresses the main idea of the whole text.
1. Scientists believe that global warming may cause more hurricanes in the future.
__ 2. Hurricanes have spinning winds, a calm eye, and an eyewall.
__ 3. Hurricanes are powerful storms that can cause a lot of damage and destruction.
C Compare answers with a partner.

2 Synonyms@
Synonyms are words that have similar meanings (for example, big and large). You can
use synonyms to avoid repeating the same words. This will make your writing more
interesting.

Go back to the reading and complete the following activities.

A Find the following words and underline them.
1. call (v) (Par. 1) 4. destruction (n) ____ (Par. 4)
2. begins (v) ____ (Par. 2) 5. destructive (adj) ____ (Par. 6)
3. strong (adj) (Par. 4)
B Find a synonym for each word in Step A in the same paragraph. Circle it. Note that the
synonym will be the same part of speech. Write the synonym in the correct blank above.
C Write two sentences with one pair of synonyms from Step A. Use the second synonym
to connect the meaning of the two sentences.
Last year, there was a devastating tornado in my city. The destructive storm caused
hundreds of injuries.

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3 Prepositions of location O
Prepositions of location show the spatial relationship
between two or more things. For example, in the
0
D
diagram on the right:
• the circle is over the square.
• the square is near the heart.
• the triangle is in the heart.
• the heart is around the triangle.

A Read the sentences. Circle the preposition of location in each sentence. Underline the
two things that it connects in space. Then draw a simple diagram to show the spatial
relationship between these two things.
1. Hurricanes form near the equator.

2. Some hurricanes form over the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico.

3. The eye of a hurricane is in the middle of the spinning storm.

4. Rain bands circle around the eye of the hurricane.

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B Look at the photograph below. Work with a partner and take turns describing what you
see. Use prepositions that show location.
Examples:
The boat is in the street.
The cars are in deep water.

4 Thinking critically about the topic O

In class and on tests, you will often have to think about the ideas in a text in relation
to your own knowledge and experience.

Discuss the following questions in a small group.

1. What have you noticed or heard about Earth's changing climate?
2. What are some things you can do to help slow global warming?
3. Some people, companies, and countries have made changes to help slow global
warming, and others have not. Why do you think this is true?

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Chapter 6 Academic Vocabulary Review

The following words appear in the readings in Chapter 6. They all come from the
Academic Word List, a list of words that researchers have discovered occur frequently in
many different types of academic texts. For a complete list of all the Academic Word List
words in this chapter and in all the readings in this book , see the Appendix on page 206.

approximately contracts (v) global period

benefits (n} expand injuries positive
consists generate located research (n)

Complete the sentences with words from the list.

1. Flooding and drought are problems. Almost every country has to deal
with issues of too much water and not enough water.
2. Houses that are in Tornado Alley may get damaged every year.
3. One of the of thunderstorms is the water they bring to the land.
4. Scientists often publish the results of their so that other people can
learn about their discoveries.
5. When you take a breath of air, your lungs ____
6. More people should wear seat belts to prevent traffic ____
7. There are 7.042 billion people in the world.
8. The most common of time for Atlantic hurricanes is June through
November.
9. A balanced diet of protein, whole grains, dairy, fruits, vegetables, and
healthy fats.
10. Hurricanes often a dangerous storm surge. This is why people should
stay away from the ocean during a hurricane.

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Practicing
Academic Writing
In Unit 3, you learned about Earth's atmosphere and weather conditions. Based on
everything you read and discussed in class, you will write a paragraph about this topic.

Climate
You will write one academic paragraph about the climate in a place you know.
Describe the climate in as much detail as you can. Discuss the weather conditions
that are common in the area.

PREPARING TO WRITE
1 Using a cluster diagram as a prewriting strategy
Using graphic organizers is often a good way to take notes on a reading. A graphic
organizer, such as a cluster diagram, can also help you generate ideas on a topic.
Cluster diagrams "cluster" your ideas, information, and details around a topic.
They can help you prepare to write because they help you develop ideas. When you
are finished diagramming, they will also show you which key points have the most
support and which might be good points to include in a paragraph.
Follow these steps to create a cluster diagram.
1. Write your topic in the largest circle.
2. Write key ideas about the topic in
the smaller circles.
3. Write details that support the key
ideas in the smallest circles. Cluster diagram
Think fast and carefully and jot your
ideas down. You can add more ideas
by adding circles.

A Choose the place you are going to write about. Think about your favorite places or
places that you did not like. The place can be from your past or present, such as your
home now, an old home, or a place that you visited or like to visit.

B Brainstorm your topic. Explore the climate of the place you chose with a cluster
diagram. Get a separate piece of paper. Write your topic in a large circle in the middle
of the paper. Add the major climate details in smaller circles around the topic. Think
about temperature, precipitation, seasons, or storms, for example. Next, you need to
add specific support.

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2 Using specific support in your writing
You learned in this unit that examples and statistics can be an effective way to
include specific support. Examples and statistics make writing more interesting and
"real." They help prevent writing from becoming too general and vague. When you
use statistics, you don't always have to give exact numbers. It is usually easier for
a reader to understand a text with rounded numbers. You can round numbers up or
down to the nearest whole number.
Examples:
• rounding up: 46. 7 - 47
• rounding down: 46.3 -+- 46
w

A Read the following information about one type of powerful storm.

Nor'easters are powerful storms. Winds that blow from the northeast create these
storms. Nor'easters can be very dangerous and can cause many problems. Some
noreasters become so famous that people talk about them for many years.

B Notice that the paragraph is very general. It lacks specific examples and statistics.
C Read the details below.

Nor'easters
• occur along the East Coast of the United States.
• occur between October and April.
• can bring heavy snow, rain, winds, and giant waves with flooding.
• can cause serious damage.
• can kill people.
The Blizzard of 1978
• caused $502 million of damage.
• lasted 32 hours and 40 minutes.
• damaged 9,406 houses.
• destroyed 2,163 houses.
• killed 73 people in Massachusetts. irLanguage.com
• dumped 66 centimeters of snow on the city of Boston, Massachusetts.
• forced 17,008 people to go to emergency shelters.

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D Revise the paragraph in Step A. Include specific examples and statistics from Step C.
Remember to do the following:
• use numbers, words, and phrases to make the statistics less exact (almost,
approximately, over, more than)
• use for example and such as to introduce examples
• use your own words to state your information

E Go back to the cluster diagram that you created for your paragraph in Task 1, Step B.
Does it include specific details, examples, and statistics? Brainstorm specific details
now and write them down in your diagram. Find additional details in the library or on
the Internet as needed.
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NOW WRITE
A Now write the first draft of your paragraph.
B Start with a clear topic sentence. Include at least three major supporting details.
Use examples and statistics to explain and support your ideas. Make sure you add
specific supporting examples and statistics. Use this checklist.
Are you including:
__ a topic sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph
__ major supporting details
__ minor details that illustrate the major or key support
__ a concluding sentence that restates the main idea (Be sure to make the
concluding sentence a little different from the topic sentence.)
__ correct paragraph form and structure
__ vocabulary you learned in this chapter
__ correct sentences with subjects and verbs that agree
C Give your paragraph a title.

AFTER YOU WRITE

A Exchange paragraphs with a partner and read each other's work. Then discuss the
following questions about both paragraphs:
• What is the most interesting information in your partner's paragraph?
• Does your partner's paragraph have correct form and structure?
How do you know? Explain.
• Do the topic sentences make a claim about the topic?
• Are supporting details included, such as examples or facts?
• Are all of the ideas presented in a logical order? What are the transition words?
• Is all of the information on topic?
• Are there spelling or grammar mistakes?
B Think about any changes to your paragraph that would improve it. Then write a second
draft of the paragraph.

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In this unit, you will look at living things in the natural world. In Chapter 7,
you will discuss the features that all living things share. You will also examine
plant and animal life. In Chapter 8, you will focus on parts of the human
body: the brain, the skeletal and muscular systems, and the heart and the
circulatory system.
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Contents
In Unit 4, you will read and write about the following topics.
Chapter 7 Chapter 8
Plants and Animals Humans

Reading 1 Reading 1
Living Things The Brain
Reading 2 Reading 2
Plant Life The Skeletal and Muscular Systems
Reading 3 Reading 3
Animal Life The Heart and the Circulatory System

Skills
In Unit 4, you will practice the following skills.

G)1 Reading Skills (Zj Writing Skills

Thinking about the topic Writing about similarities
Building background knowledge about the Writing about differences
topic Writing about similarities and differences
Previewing key parts of a text Writing a description
Applying what you have read Writing about the body
Increasing reading speed irLanguage.com
Asking and answering questions about a text
Scanning for details
Sequencing

0 Vocabulary Skills 0 Academic Success Skills

Word families Answering true/ false questions
Defining key words Asking for clarification
Cues for finding word meaning Conducting a survey
That clauses Making an outline
Compound words Thinking critically about the topic
Using adjectives Highlighting and taking notes
Gerunds Conducting an experiment
Using a dictionary Answering multiple-choice questions
Words that can be used as nouns or verbs Highlighting and making an outline
Prepositions of direction
Playing with words

Learning Outcomes
Write an academic paragraph about the human body

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Previewing the Unit

Previewing means looking at one thing before another. It is a good idea to preview
your reading assignments. Read the contents page of every new unit. Think about
the topics of the chapters. You will get a general idea of how the unit is organized and
what it is going to be about.

Read the contents page for Unit 4 on page 152 and do the following activities.

Chapter 7: Plants and Animals

A Go outside or look out the window. What do you see? Make a list of the living things.
Then make a list of things that are not alive. Compare lists with a partner. What do you
think all living things have in common?

B Read these features of plants and animals. Label each feature P (plants) or A (animals).
Then add one feature of plants and one feature of animals.
1. have leaves 4. can make their own food
2. have a brain 5. can communicate with each other
3. raise their young 6. produce oxygen

Chapter 8: Humans
A This chapter focuses on various parts of the human body. How much do you know
about the body? Read the statements. Write T (true) or F (false).
1. The heart is a muscle. __ 4. Bones are heavy.
2. The brain is a bone. __ 5. There are 105 muscles in the body.
3. The brain is bigger than the heart. __ 6. The rib bones protect the heart.

B Look at the pictures below. Which one shows the skeletal (bone) system? Which one
shows the muscular system? Label each picture with the correct name.

a. ____ b. ____
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Chapter 7
Plants and Animals
PREPARING TO READ

1 Thinking about the topic

A Read the sentences below and check (.t) the ones that are true.
1. All living things need water.
2. All living things move from place to place.
3. All living things need a place to live.
4. All living things need air to breathe.
5. All living things need food.
6. All living things communicate with each other.
7. All living things grow.
8. All living things die someday.

B Compare your answers with a partner.

C With your partner, add two more true sentences to the list. Share your ideas with the
class.

2 Building background knowledge about the topic

A Read the following information about cells.

All living things are made up of cells. A cell is the smallest unit of life. All cells have an
outer covering called a cell membrane. Inside every cell is a jellylike material called
cytoplasm. Most cells also have a nucleus in the middle of the cytoplasm.

B Look at the diagram of a cell below and label the three main parts: cell membrane,
cytoplasm, and nucleus.

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LIVING THINGS
What is the difference between a rock on the ground and a plant that
grows next to it? What is the difference between the ocean and a fish
that lives there? What is the difference between a cloud in the sky and
a bird that flies through it? What do plants, fish, and birds have in
s common? They are all organisms, or living things. Rocks, the ocean,
and clouds are inorganic, or nonliving, things.
organism a living
Life on Earth is extremely diverse, or full of many different types
thing
of things. When you look around, you notice that organisms are many
different shapes and sizes. Some, like ants, are very small. Others,
10 like whales, are quite large. Organisms also live in a variety of places.
Some live in the air, others live in or on the earth, and many live in
the ocean. Although organisms are different from each other in these
ways, they are similar in other ways. For example, they all need water,
food for energy, and a place to live. In addition, all organisms grow,
,s develop, and eventually die.

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cell the smallest unit Another important similarity is that all organisms are composed of
of life cells. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Most cells are so small that you
can only see them with a microscope. All cells have an outer covering,
called a cell membrane. This membrane keeps the cell material inside
microscope a 20 the cell. It also controls the movement of things into and out of the
scientific instrument cell. For example, the membrane allows water to move into and out
that makes very small of a cell, but it does not allow dangerous materials to enter. Inside
objects look bigger every cell is a jellylike material called cytoplasm. Most cells also have
a nucleus in the middle of the cytoplasm. The nucleus controls all
25 activity in the cell.
Most organisms on Earth are made up of just one cell. For example,
both bacteria and algae are single-celled organisms. Other, larger
organisms, such as some plants and all humans, are multicellular
organisms. They are made up of many cells. In fact, the human body is
30 made up of billions of cells.

Bacteria cells Leaf cells

The cells in multicellular organisms work together. A group of cells

that work together to do one job is called tissue. For example, one
group of thousands of cells forms muscle tissue in the body. When two
35 or more different types of tissue work together, they form an organ,

such as a person's heart, an elephant's ear, or a plant's leaf. When a

number of organs work together, they form an organ system, such
as the circulatory system (the system that transports food and gases
through the body with the help of the heart and lungs).
Biologists (scientists who study living things) continue to learn
40 more and more about the organisms on our planet. Some of their
research findings may help us protect the rich diversity of life on Earth
in the future.

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Answering true/false questions O
A Review the strategies for answering true/false questions on page 36. Read the
statements below and find the answers in the reading. Answer T (true) or F (false).
Then write the number of the paragraph where you found the information.
1. Some organisms need water. Par. __
2. Organisms grow and die. Par. __
3. Humans, animals, and plants have organs. Par. __
4. Bacteria and humans are multicellular organisms. Par. __
5. All cells have cell membranes, cytoplasm, and a nucleus. Par. __
6. Rocks, fish, and birds are all organisms. Par. __
7. You often need a microscope to see a cell. Par. __
8. Some organisms are made up of many cells. Par. __

B Work with a partner. Correct the sentences you marked false in Step A.

2 Word families 0
When you learn a new word, try to learn some other words in its word family as well.
This will develop your vocabulary. For example, when you learn the verb destroy, you
can also learn the related words destruction (n) and destructive (adj).

A Look at each word below. Find a related word in the reading. Write the parts of speech
next to the words. Use the abbreviations n, v, and adj.
.
1. life J.oL livin� (adi) 4. cell _______
2. difference _______ 5. movement _______
3. similarity _______ 6. diversity _______
B Complete each sentence below with an appropriate word from Step A.
1. Fish and birds live in ____ places.
2. Bacteria are made up of just one ____
3. Many materials into and out of a cell.
4. Plant cells are ____ to animal cells. They have many things in common.
5. There is a lot of on Earth. There are many different kinds of organisms.

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3 Asking for clarification O

As a student, you will have many occasions when you do not understand a word, an
idea, or what your instructor says. When you are not sure what something means, you
can ask questions to find out. T his is asking for clarification.
To clarify means to restate something or to say it again so people understand.To ask
for clarification means to ask someone to restate or to say something again so that
you or other people can better understand.
Here are some structures you can use to ask for clarification:
• I'm sorry.I don't understand. Can you say that again?
• I'm not sure what the author means when she says that ...
• Could you explain what the word ____ means?
• Could you give me an example of ?
• I don't understand what the text means in paragraph--· It says ...

A Read the following clarification questions and statements about the reading.
1. I'm not sure what the author means in paragraph 3 when she says that a cell is the
smallest unit of life.
2. Could you explain what the word circulatory in paragraph 5 means?
3. Could you give me an example of another organ system in addition to the circulatory
system?
4. I don't understand what the text means in paragraph 2 where it says that all
organisms develop.
B With a partner, answer the clarification questions in Step A.
C Find other words and ideas in the reading that you would like to clarify.
With your partner, take turns asking and answering clarification questions.

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4 Writing about similarities�

In academic texts, writers often use certain expressions to compare two or more
people, places, things, or ideas. These expressions show how things are similar
(alike in some way). Look at the examples below.
Here are some ways to compare two things:
• Humpback whales and bottlenose dolphins are similar (to each other) in
many ways.
• They have many features in common.
• Both humpback whales and bottlenose dolphins live in the ocean.
• One similarity is that they are both mammals.
• Another similarity is that they both eat fish.
Here are some ways to compare more than two things:
• Whales, walruses, and seals are similar (to each other) in many ways.
• They have many features in common.
• One similarity is that they are all mammals.
• All mammals have body temperatures that stay about the same.

A Go back to the reading. Underline the expressions of similarity.

B Complete these expressions of similarity. Use the structures in the strategies box as
a guide.
1. Roses, tulips, and orchids are ____ in many ways. One ____ is that they
are popular flowers.
2. Dogs and wolves are natural hunters.
3. tissues and organs are made of cells.
4. ____ living things need food to eat and a place to live.

C Write three sentences of your own. In each sentence, compare two animals and
identify one similar feature between them. Compare your sentences with a partner.

1--------------------------------�

2--------------------------------�

3--------------------------------�

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D Read the following paragraph and discuss the questions below.

Lions and tigers are similar in three ways. One similarity is the food they eat.
Lions and tigers are both meat eaters that hunt other large and medium-size animals.
Another similarity is that both animals are part of the cat family. Lions are also similar
to tigers in size. Both animals are about the same weight and height.

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1. What two things is the writer comparing?

2. How many points of comparison does the writer discuss? What are they?
3. Underline all the expressions of similarity in the paragraph.

E Now write a paragraph about the similarities of dogs and cats. Remember to start
with a topic sentence. Include points that the animals have in common and use some
expressions of similarity. End with a concluding sentence.

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PREPARING TO READ

1 Conducting a survey O
The text you are going to read is about plants. Plants are an important part of life on our
planet. They give us oxygen and food, add beauty to our world, and provide the materials
for many products.

A Survey five people for information about plants. First copy this chart. Then ask each
person the questions in the chart. Record their names and answers.

Why are plants

Name What are three products we get from plants?
important?
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

B Share your survey results with the class.

2 Previewing key parts of a text

A Preview the title, headings, and photographs on pages 162-163. This will give you a
general idea of what the text is about. Then read the first sentence of each paragraph.

B Now read the statements below and answer true (7) or false (F).
1. There are thousands of different types of plants on Earth.
2. There are three general categories of plants.
3. Earth has more seed plants than seedless plants.
4. We could survive on Earth without plants.
5. Plant life on Earth is decreasing.

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Reading 2
PLANT LIFE
The diversity of plants
There are approximately 300,000 types of plants on Earth. Plants grow
almost everywhere. For example, moss and lichen grow in cold polar
climates. Palm trees and orchids grow in hot, wet, tropical climates.
Cacti and ocotillos grow in warm, dry climates. Plants are similar to
5 other organisms in several ways, but they also have their own special
features.

Plant size and structure

Just like other organisms, plants come in many different sizes. There
are very small plants and very large ones. For example, you can only
see tiny ferns with a microscope; in contrast, you cannot see the top
10 of some of the giant redwood trees in northern California that grow
to more than 100 meters. Plants also have some structural features
in common with other organisms. Like other living things, plants are
made up of cells that have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and a nucleus.
One difference is that plant cells also have a thick, rigid cell wall that
15 surrounds the membrane. These cell walls give the plant structure
and support, and allow it to grow straight and tall. Cell walls also help
protect the cells.

Seedless plants and seed plants

spore a cell Scientists divide plants into two categories: seedless plants and seed
produced by plants. Seedless plants grow from spores, not seeds. Spores are tiny
seedless plants 20 cells that grow into new plants. Seedless plants do not have flowers,
and some other and most grow in places that are damp (a little wet). Mosses and ferns
organisms that is are examples of seedless plants.
able to grow into
a new plant or
Seed plants are much more common than seedless plants. All seed
organism plants have roots, a stem, and leaves. Unlike seedless plants, many also
2s have flowers. The flowers produce the seeds, and these seeds grow
into new plants. The roots take in water from the soil. The water then
travels through the stem to the leaves. The leaves take in sunlight and
carbon dioxide from the air. In this way, seed plants get the materials
they need to make their own food. Roses and sunflowers are examples ,
30 of seed plants.

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Plants as providers
Plants give us many of the things that we need to live. They provide
food, clothing, paper, and wood. Some plants even function as natural
medicines. However, the most important thing plants provide is
oxygen, which all organisms need for survival. irLanguage.com
35 Plants add oxygen to the air through their food-making process, photosynthesis
called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of the process by which
plants. It works this way: Plants take in sunlight, carbon dioxide, and a plant uses energy
water to make their food, called glucose. Glucose is a kind of sugar. from the sun to make
This process also creates oxygen. However, plants do not need as its own food
40 much oxygen as they produce. Therefore, they release the oxygen into
the air. When plants take carbon dioxide out of the air and put oxygen
into it, they create air we can breathe. In fact, one acre of trees in a
forest releases enough oxygen in a year to keep 18 people alive.

Plant loss
45 Plants are essential for all life on Earth, but many plants die each year.
Natural disasters, such as fires, and human activities have destroyed
approximately SO percent of the world's forests. Also, today, there is
a growing demand for land. People want more building materials
so and more space to raise animals, grow crops, and build houses. As
a result, many trees are cut down. There are several negative effects
of deforestation, or destruction of trees on wide areas of land. First,
large numbers of plants and animals lose their habitats. In addition,
scientists believe that deforestation can cause drought (a long period
55 of time without rain). Moreover, fewer trees means less oxygen in

the air for us to breathe. There is also more carbon dioxide, and this
contributes to global warming. For all of these reasons, our green
Earth is turning browner every day.

Dangers in the Garden

Plants are very useful to humans. We eat them, build homes with them, and enjoy
their beauty. However, plants can also cause harm.
Since plants cannot run away from a predator, they need ways to defend
themselves. Some plants, such as rose bushes and cacti, have thorns. The thorns
on these types of plants can poke, scratch, or cut people. Other plants, such as
poison ivy and stinging nettles, irritate the skin. These plants can cause a red, itchy
rash if someone touches them. Toxic or poisonous plants can cause dangerous,
and even fatal, reactions. Many plants have poisonous leaves, stems, or flowers
that negatively affect the human body and can cause death, sometimes
very quickly. Oleander, deadly nightshade, and castor bean plants are
examples of these types of plants.
As helpful and as beautiful as plants are,
they are not always harmless.

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Making an outline O ·
An outline is a very good way to organize notes. Outlines can make ideas clear,
easy to read, and easy to review. The numbers and letters of an outline show the
relationships between the different parts of the text.

Complete the outline below with information from the reading. Notice that Roman
numerals (/, II, Ill, etc.) introduce the main ideas, and capital letters (A, B, C, etc.)
represent the main details.

I. Diversity of plants
A. = 300,000 types of plants on Earth
6. grow in lots of different _ ______
II. Plant size and structure
A. different sizes

I
6. plant structure: made up of _______ , which have eel

and cell _______

Ill. Seedless plants
A. grow from , not seeds
6. do not have flowers and most grow in _ ______ places
IV. ______
A. more common than seedless plants
6. they have , and _______
and they can have _______
V. Products from plants
A. provide us with food, clothing, paper, wood, and medicine
6. most importantly, they provide _______
VI. ______
A. takes place in plant leaves
6. the process: plants take in_______ _______
_______ , and they make ____ ___
C. process puts into the air and takes out

VII. Plant loss

A. causes: __________ __________

6. effects: ____________________

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2 Defining key words G

A Match the words and definitions.
1. stem a. the parts of a plant that get water from the soil
2. oxygen b. the part of a plant that is related to making seeds
3. roots c. the gas that a plant releases into the air
4. carbon dioxide d. the part of a plant that carries water from the roots
5. leaves to the leaves
6. flower e. the gas that a plant takes from the air
f. the parts of a plant that make food from water, the
sun's rays, and carbon dioxide

B Label the plant diagram with the key words from Step A.

C Add the following words to the diagram below: sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, and
oxygen. What process does the diagram show? Write the name of the process under
the diagram.

D Look back at the reading to check your work.

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3 Cues for finding word meaning O

Remember that the definition of a new word is often in the text. Learn to recognize
different kinds of clues, and you will find the definitions. You already know some of
these clues:
____ (definition)
____,, that is, ____

Other clues may be the verb be and the word called:

• A root is a plant part that takes in water from the soil.
• Healing plants are plants that people use to treat medical conditions.
• Every cell has a jellylike material inside, called cytoplasm.

Look at the words in the chart below. Find these words and their definitions in the
reading. Then fill in the chart. Write the definition of each word and the clue that helped
you find it.

Word Definition Clue

1. spores (Par. 3)

2. photosynthesis (Par. 6)

3. glucose (Par. 6)

4. deforestation (Par. 7)

5. drought (Par. 7)

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4 Writing about differences �

Studies of subjects often need to contrast people, places, things, or ideas. In
academic texts, you will often see structures that indicate contrast or difference. Look
at these examples:
• Sunflowers grow in dry places. In contrast, ferns grow in places that are damp.
• One difference between sunflowers and ferns is that sunflowers grow from
seeds, but ferns grow from spores.
• Unlike ferns, sunflowers have flowers.
• Sunflowers and ferns are (very) different types of plants.

A Find the expressions of difference in the reading. Underline them. Compare your
answers with a partner.
B Complete the expressions of difference in the sentences below. Use the structures in
the box above as a guide.
1. Mosses and palm trees are very ____ types of plants.
2. Mosses grow in cold climates. __ , palm trees grow in tropical climates.
3. One between moss and palm trees is their height. Palm trees are tall, but
moss is short.
4. Palm trees absorb water through roots, ____ moss does not.
5. moss, palm trees grow from seeds.
C Choose two different plants. Write three or four sentences that contrast the plants.
Use the structures in the box. Compare your sentences with a partner's.

1--------------------------------�

2--------------------------------�

3--------------------------------�

4--------------------------------�

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D Read the following paragraph. Then discuss the questions below.

There are several differences between the cacao tree and the plant called deadly
nightshade. One difference is the places where they grow. Cacao trees grow in Central
and South America. In contrast, nightshade grows in parts of Europe, Africa, Asia,
and North America. The cacao tree and nightshade also look very different. The c" -ao
tree grows about eight meters high, but nightshade grows only to about one meter. Tot.
most important difference between the cacao tree and nightshade is in the fruit they
produce. Cacao trees produce huge berries called cacao pods. Inside the pods are the
seeds that are used to make chocolate. Unlike the cacao fruit, nightshade berries are
poisonous and can be fatal when eaten. As you can see, nightshade and the cacao tree
are two very different plants.

A deadly nightshade plant

A cacao tree

1. What two things is the writer contrasting?

2. How many points of contrast does the writer discuss? What are they?
3. Underline all the expressions of difference.

E Write about the differences between two plants you know. You may use the two plants
you chose in Step C or other plants. Start with a topic sentence. Describe two or three
differences between the plants. Use some expressions of difference that you learned in
this chapter. End with a concluding sentence. Now you have a paragraph. Compare it
with a partner's.

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Thinking about the topic

The text you are going to read is about animals. There are many types of animals on our
planet. Scientists group them in a variety of ways.

A Read the names of the animals in the box. Think about their similarities and differences.

bird elephant lion spider

cow fish monkey turtle
crab kangaroo mosquito whale
dog ladybug mouse worm

1. Work with a partner or small group. Divide the animals into groups.
Use a dictionary for help if necessary. Put your list on a separate piece of paper.
2. Look again at the list of animals in the box. Group the animals again, but use
different categories this time.
3. Discuss your choices for groups with the class.
What basis did you use for the groupings?

B Look at the photographs. Notice that each one

shows a relationship between two types of organisms.
Then discuss the questions below in a small group.

1. In photograph a, what kind of relationship do the rhinoceros and the birds have?
2. In photograph b, what kind of relationship do the turtle and the fish have?
3. In photograph c, what kind of relationship do the mosquito and the human have?

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Reading 3
ANIMAL LIFE
Animal life on Earth is very diverse. There are even more kinds of
animals than there are plants. Scientists have identified and named
species a group more than 1.8 million species of animals. They believe there are still
of animals or plants millions more to identify in the future.
that have the same
main features Vertebrates and invertebrates
and can produce 5 There are two main groups of animals: vertebrates and invertebrates.
animals or plants like Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone. A backbone is a line of
themselves bones that goes down the middle of the animal's back. The backbone
supports the animal. It also protects the spinal cord. The spinal cord
is an important group of nerves that send messages between the brain
,o and the rest of the body. Every vertebrate also has a head with a skull.
The skull surrounds and protects the brain. Fish, snakes, birds, and
monkeys are all vertebrates.
Invertebrates are animals that do not have backbones, such as
worms and spiders. About 95 percent of all animals are invertebrates.
15 Many of them have a hard, protective covering, such as a shell.
Invertebrates are found everywhere, but most, like the starfish and the
crab, live in the ocean.

Symbiotic relationships
Animals connect with each other in various ways. One way is by
forming relationships, called symbiotic relationships, with other
20 organisms. Symbiosis is any close relationship between living things.

There are three categories of symbiotic relationships: mutualism,

commensalism, and parasitism.
Mutualism is when both organisms benefit from the relationship.
For example, some small birds sit on water buffaloes and eat the insects
25 that bother the animals. In this relationship, the birds benefit and the
water buffalo benefits. The birds get food, and the water buffalo gets
fewer insect bites. Commensalism is when one organism benefits and
the other is not affected. For example, a fly may land on a cow that is
walking across a field. The fly gets a ride to a new place, but the fly
30 neither helps nor hurts the cow. The fly benefits, but the cow is not
affected.

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Parasitism is when one organism benefits, and the other is hurt.

For example, ticks often attach themselves to the skin of other animals,
such as dogs. The tick drinks the dog's blood and gets food, but the
35 tick can make the dog sick. The tick benefits, but the dog can get hurt.

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Human activities can be dangerous for animals as well as for plants.
Deforestation and environmental changes such as global warming can
harm them both. Many animal species are losing their habitats. Some
are endangered (in danger of becoming extinct); others are already
40 extinct. Many biologists and environmentalists think these changes in
animal life are a clear warning about the future health of our planet.

Animal Communication
How do animals communicate? Do they talk? Can they have conversations and share
information? Although animals do not communicate in the same way that humans
do, many have their own special languages. They use their languages for different
purposes. For example, animals "talk" to establish relationships with other animals:
They attract mates, scare away their enemies, mark their territories, and identify
themselves through communication. Many animals use several different techniques.
Two common ones are auditory and tactile communication.
Auditory communication refers to the sounds that animals make. Coyotes, for
example, are very noisy. They use barks, yips, and howls to mark their territory and to
identify themselves, that is, to let other coyotes know where they are.
Tactile means the sense of touch, and tactile communication refers to
communicating through touch. Animals use touch to show power or to form
connections with others. For example, a dog may
push another dog onto its back to show power
and position. That is, the top dog is the "boss."
Female monkeys kiss and hug their babies, and
cats rub cheeks with other cats to show
affection and form friendly connections.

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Applying what you have read O

A Work with a partner. Look at the pictures and name the animals that you know.
Then label each picture V (vertebrate animal) or I (invertebrate animal).

6. _______ 8. _______

B Read the descriptions . They show different symbiotic relationships between two
animals. Write M (mutualism), C (commensalism), or P (parasitism).
1. A shrimp digs a hole in the sand. It lives there with a goby fish. The shrimp
cannot see well. The shrimp and the goby fish go outside the hole. When
there is danger, the goby fish touches the shrimp to warn it. Both animals go
back into the hole and both are safe.
2. The suckerfish and the shark travel together. When the shark finds something to
eat, the suckerfish also eats some of the food. This does not bother the shark.
3. A tapeworm lives inside a dog. The tapeworm is safe and eats food from the
dog's intestine. The dog does not get the nutrients from the food.
4. An ant protects a butterfly from enemies. The butterfly provides food for the ant.
5. A mosquito bites a bird and drinks its blood. The mosquito needs a
substance in the blood to produce eggs. The bird feels uncomfortable and
sometimes gets sick from the bite.

C Write endangered or extinct to describe the condition of each animal below.

1. Dinosaurs: These animals lived on Earth until about 65 million years
ago. There are no dinosaurs on our planet today.
2. Siberian tigers: There are only about 400 Siberian tigers in the world
today. Many have been killed, and many have lost their homes because
of deforestation and building. These tigers may eventually disappear.

D Compare your answers to Steps A-C in a small group.

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2 That clauses O
Remember that sentences in English can have more than one clause. A that clause
is one type of adjective clause. It functions the same way as an adjective: It modifies,
or describes, a noun or noun phrase. In the examples below, each sentence has a
that clause and a main clause. That clauses always follow the nouns they modify.
main clause adjective clause
noun phrase
A crab is a small animal that has a shell.
main clause adjective clause
noun phrase
Earth is a beautiful planet that has a lot of diverse forms of life.

A Go back to the reading. Find sentences with that clauses. Underline the clauses.
Then circle the nouns they modify. Compare answers with a partner.

B Complete the that clauses in the following sentences with your own ideas.
Compare your sentences with a partner.
1. Plants are organisms that _______
2. Birds are animals that _______
3. Human activities cause environmental changes that _______
4. Some animals form relationships that _______
5. Earth is a planet that _______

3 Compound words O
Compound words are made up of two or more words. You can often guess the
meaning of a compound word by combining the meanings of its parts. For example,
starfish is made up of the two words star and fish. A starfish is an invertebrate that
lives in the ocean. It is shaped like a star.

A Guess the meanings of the compound words below. Use your knowledge of the
smaller words that make up these compound words.
1. backbone 4. racehorse 7. houseboat
2. jellyfish 5. brainstorm 8. armchair
3. redwood (tree) 6. mountaintop 9. toothpaste

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B Use the words in the box to make as many compound words as you can.

bird fish rain song thunder

earth flower shell storm water
fall quake shine sun worm

C What other compound words do you know? Work with a partner. Make a list of
compound words and share it with the class.

4 Writing about similarities and differences 0

For some assignments, you will have to write about both the similarities and the
differences between two or more people, places, things, or ideas. In other words, you
will have to compare and contrast them. Here are some guidelines:
• Write a topic sentence that states the main idea. For example:
X and Y are similar to, and different from, each other in several ways.
• Following the topic sentence, explain the similarities.
• Then explain the differences. First, however, write a transition sentence to signal the
change in subject from similarities to differences. Here are two examples:
X and Y have similarities, but they also have differences.
Although X and Y have similarities, they also have important differences.
• Explain the differences.
• End with a concluding sentence that restates the main idea.

A Read the following paragraph and answer the questions below.

Sharks and jellyfish are similar to, and different from, each other in several ways.
One similarity is that both animals live in the ocean. Another similarity is that both
sharks and jellyfish can hurt people and other animals. A shark can bite with its sharp
teeth, and a jellyfish can sting with its tentacles. Although there are similarities between
these animals, there are also important differences. One difference is that sharks are
vertebrates, and jellyfish are invertebrates. This means that, unlike sharks, jellyfish do
not have backbones or brains. Sharks and jellyfish also have different life spans. Most
jellyfish live only a few months. In contrast, most sharks live 15-20 years. These facts
show that sharks and jellyfish are similar and different at the same time.

1. What two things does the writer compare and contrast?

2. What are the similarities? What are the differences?
3. Underline the transition sentence that signals the change from similarities
to differences.
4. Underline all the expressions of similarity and difference.

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B Compare and contrast two organisms. Choose two different animals, two different
plants, or a plant and an animal. Imagine that you are going to write a paragraph and
do the following.
1. Choose the two organisms you want to compare and contrast.
2. Brainstorm a list of differences and similarities between the two organisms.
3. Write a topic sentence that states the main idea.
4. Next, write a sentence that introduces the similarities and then explain the similarities.
5. Write a transition sentence. Indicate that you are changing subjects from similarities
to differences.
6. Explain the differences.

5 Thinking critically about the topic O

A Discuss the following questions with your classmates.
1. Do you know of any animals that are endangered or extinct? If so, name them.
2. Deforestation and global warming are two reasoris that animals may become
endangered or extinct. What are some other reasons?

B Reread the boxed text "Animal Communication." Then discuss the following questions
with a partner or in a small group.
1. Have you ever seen animals communicate with each other? If so, describe the
situation.
2. What are some communication techniques that animals use? Give examples.
3. What are some ways that animals communicate with people? Give examples.

C Look at the cartoon. What do

you think is the main idea?

,.

Frankly. I think we should stop trying to communicate with

Humans: They' re simply not smart enough to understand us

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Chapter 7 Academic Vocabulary Review

The following words appear in the readings in Chapter 7. They all come from the
Academic Word List, a list of words that researchers have discovered occur frequently in
many different types of academic texts. For a complete list of all the Academic Word List
words in this chapter and in all the readings in this book, see the Appendix on page 206.

attach contributes release (v) survival

categories establish rigid techniques
communicate function (v) structure transport (v)

Complete the following sentences with words from the list above.
1. Trees in a small forest ____ enough oxygen in one year to keep several
people alive.
2. Some language experts believe that people only 30% of their
messages with words, and the other 70% through nonverbal cues.
3. A newborn human baby's depends on his or her caregivers.
4. It's very important to create a good business plan to a new business.
5. Many people an identification tag to their pet's collar. An ID tag can
make it easier to find a lost pet.
6. Can you take a pineapple on an airplane? Ask security first. Many countries do not
allow passengers to fresh fruit across international boundaries.
7. The Queen of the Andes blooms only once in its 80- to 100-year lifetime. This fact
____ to the beauty and mystery of the plant.
8. Trainers use many different to help animals learn how to behave.
9. There are five different of hurricanes, from hurricanes that cause some
damage to hurricanes that cause severe damage.
10. There are many types of plants, with different parts. However, the of a
normal house plant may include roots, stem, and flowers.

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Developing
Writing Skills
In this section, you will work with classification. You will also use what you learn here to
complete the writing assignment at the end of this unit.

Classification
In science, many things are classified. To classify means to sort things with similar
features into groups or categories. Scientists use several different classification systems.
T hey may group by basic type or by location, composition, structure, size, weight, or
origin. For example, science sorts Earth into four systems (lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, and biosphere) and living things into two basic categories (plant life and
animal life). Classes are often discussed in textbooks in the following way:
Naming a class and examining its members:
• the class is named (such as "living things" or "vertebrates")
• the system used to classify the things is named (such as by type, size, weight)
• the members of the class are named and their similar features are described
It is important to note that classes include only things of true similarity.

A Answer true (7) or false (F). Use the guidelines in the box to help you.
1. Two basic types of things on Earth are living things and rocks.
2. Rocks can be classified as nonliving things.
3. Two kinds of living things are vertebrates and invertebrates.
4. Astronomers also classify planets by composition (terrestrial or gas giant).
5. Plants and human beings are in the same class.
B Look at question 5 above. How is the statement true? How is it false?
C Study these descriptions of two kinds of vertebrates. T hen answer the questions below.
mammals amphibians
backbone backbone
skeleton inside body skeleton inside body
warm-blooded cold-blooded
do not lay eggs lay eggs
take care of young young take care of themselves
1. What features do mammals and amphibians have in common?
2. How are they different from each other?
3. Why are mammals and amphibians both classified as vertebrates?

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D Work with a partner to complete the following activities.

1. Read the paragraph.

One way scientists class;fy plants is by how they get water. The first group is
vascular plants. Vascular plants have tubes in their roots, stems, and leaves. They
use these tubes to carry water to all the different parts of the plant. Vascular
plants stand up tall. Examples of vascular plants include fems and trees. The
second group of plants is nonvascular plants. These plants do not have roots,
stems, and leaves to carry water. Instead, they soak up water from the ground,
like a sponge. The water is then passed from cell to cell within the plant.
Nonvascular plants grow in wet places and are not very talL Moss and liverwort
are nonvascular plants. In short, vascular and nonvascular plants have different
ways of getting the water that all plants need to survive.

2. Discuss these questions:

1. What is the paragraph classifying?
2. What are the basic members of the class?
3. What classification system does the paragraph use?

3. Fill in the flowchart with information from the paragraph. Include the name of the
two groups and specific examples of plants in each group.

Plants

E Choose an item from the list below and present it as a class. Make a flowchart like the
one above. Include examples and brief descriptions of members. Use the strategies in
the box and the paragraph in Step D to help you. Look up any unfamiliar words in the
dictionary. Choose a second item and repeat the process.
a. animals d. nonliving things
b. trees e. computers
c. living things f. vehicles

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Chapter 8
Humans
PREPARING TO READ

Thinking about the topic

Work with a partner to complete the following activities.

A This chapter is about human beings. Humans are

unique. Why are they different from all other organisms?
Brainstorm ideas with your partner. Make a list.

B The brain is one of the most important organs in the body.

It controls almost everything we do. It even influences
what we see. Look at the picture on the right. Describe
what you see.

C Did you and your partner see the same thing in the
picture? Look again. Try to find two images. If you see only
one image, look at the picture from farther away.

D Discuss the images you saw in Step B with the class. Then read the information below.

The brain is always trying to understand the world around us. For example, our
eyes send information to the brain, and the brain tries to understand it. Our brain tries
to match the new information to information already in our memory. Usually, this is
easy, but sometimes it is not. For example, look at the picture below. It looks like two
different things. Your brain sees this image and then compares it to things in your
memory. This can take a few minutes. Why? The brain sees a white vase against a black
background. It also sees the black heads of two men, two silhouettes, with white space
between them. The brain switches back and forth between the idea of a white vase and
two black silhouettes. It tries to decide which one the picture shows.

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Reading 1
THE BRAIN
Just like other organisms, humans are made of cells. All cells grow,
develop, and eventually die. However, as far as we know, only humans
are able to think about ideas, and only humans have a sense of self
(that is, a sense of uniqueness, of being an individual). An important
s reason for these differences is the human brain. Some animals have
larger brains, but the human brain is much more complex than any
other. It is the center of our thoughts, actions, feelings, dreams, and
memories. Some organisms can make simple tools and communicate
in basic language. However, the human brain makes it possible for us
10 to do much more. For example, we are able to use complex language,
make music, create art, and develop complex tools and technologies.

Composition, structure, and function

When scientists describe the brain, they note several key features.
Surprisingly, the brain is quite small, even though it is complex. An
average brain is about the size of two fists, and it weighs approximately
1s 1.4 kilograms. Some people describe the brain as looking like a soft,
pink, wrinkled rock. Others say it looks like a sponge. This important
organ consists of three parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the
brain stem.

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The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It controls most of our cerebrum the part
20 thinking and speaking, and our five senses: sight, hearing, touch, taste, of the brain that
and smell. The cerebrum is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. controls thinking,
The left hemisphere is important for speech, language, logic, and math learning, language,
skills. The right hemisphere is important for creative abilities, such as memory, feelings,
playing a musical instrument, drawing, painting, and writing books. and personality
25 Some people seem to use one hemisphere a little more than the other.

For example, a concert pianist might use the right hemisphere more.
A mathematician might use the left hemisphere more. However, in the
human brain, the two hemispheres work together so that we are able
to do a wide variety of things.
30 The cerebellum controls the body's movements, balance, and cerebellum the
muscle coordination (the way the muscles work together). The brain part of the brain that
stem is the smallest part of the brain. It connects the brain to the controls movement
spinal cord and the rest of the body. It controls some of the body's of the body
basic functions, such as the heartbeat and breathing. It also handles all
3s the messages between the brain and the body.
cerebrum
The processing of messages
Every second of your life, your brain receives
messages from the parts of your body and
the world around you. The brain interprets,
40 or figures out, these messages, and it tells you
what to think and how to act. For example,
imagine that you drop a book on your foot.
Your brain, not your foot, tells you what
happened and if it hurts. Similarly, your eyes
45 send messages to the brain, and the brain
tells you what you see. In this way, the brain
interprets almost everything you do. brain stem

Brain research
Figure 8.1 The brain
The brain is still a mystery, but scientists
are learning more about it all the time. irLanguage.com
Medical researchers are improving the treatment of brain injuries,
so diseases, and disabilities, such as Alzheimer's disease and autism.
Others are experimenting with computer chips and paralysis. They
implant computer chips in the brain, and a computer helps paralyzed
people move again. Some brain researchers are applying their brain stem the
knowledge to the classroom. They examine how the brain learns. part of the brain
55 With this knowledge, teachers can teach more effectively, and students
that controls basic
functions, such as
can learn more easily. Science has made wonderful advances in brain breathing, sleeping,
research, and many scientists believe that brain research is one of the body temperature,
most interesting and exciting areas for future study. and the heartbeat

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Highlighting and taking notes O

Highlighting important information in a text is a helpful first step in taking notes.
Try this method for highlighting:
• Read the text, but do not highlight it. Try to understand the main ideas and
key points.
• Read the text a second time. As you read, highlight the main points and
supporting details.
Other information:
• Do not highlight every sentence. A text with more than half of the sentences
highlighted is not useful. You cannot clearly see the most important points.
• Highlight in different colors to show the types of information. For example, highlight
the main points in one color and the supporting details in a different color.
• Identify the highlighted information. Note what it is and I or why it is important.
Write the note in the margins of the textbook.

A Below is paragraph 6 of the reading "The Brain."Look at the student's highlighted

notes. Then discuss the questions below the paragraph with a partner.

he brain is still a m�ste but scientists are leamin more atiout - brain research
b:ain injuries.\___ it all the time. Medical researchers are improving the treatment
diseases+ of brain injuries, diseases, and disabilities, such as Alzheimer's
disabilities disease and autism. Others are experimenting with computer
chips and paralysis. They implant computer chips in the brain,
/and a computer helps paralyzed people move again. Some brain
computer rcsea�chers are applyi�g their knowledge to the classroom. They better learning
_ . /
chip implants examme how the brain learns. With this knowledge, teachers + teaching
can teach more effectively, and students can learn more easily.
Science has made wonderful advances in brain research, and
many scientists believe that brain research is one of the most
interesting and exciting areas for future study.

1. Which highlighted idea is the main idea, and which ideas are details?
2. Do you agree with the student's method? Would you highlight different things?
What would you highlight?
3. Are the notes in the margins clear to you? How would you note the highlighted
information? Which notes would you change?

B Reread paragraphs 1-5 of "The Brain." Highlight the main ideas and supporting details.
Then identify the type of information in the margins, such as "example," "key point,"
etc. You may find that some paragraphs have more than one main idea.

C Compare your work with your partner's.

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2 Using adjectives O
Adjectives describe people, places, and things. They tell which one (this hat, that
house, those shoes), what kind (color, shape, size, texture or "feel"), and how many
(three books, many, some). Adjectives give details to add information and interest.
For example, compare these two sentences:
• The brain looks like a rock.
• The brain looks like a soft, pink, wrinkled rock.
The second sentence gives a better picture of the brain. However, do not use too many
adjectives. Too many adjectives make descriptions hard to read and understand.

A Read the text below. It is about a man named Phineas Gage. Underline the adjectives.
Notice how they add information about the man and make the text more interesting.

Phineas Gage was a railroad employee. He was a good worker and a respected man.
His employer and his employees liked him. Phineas was smart and responsible, and he
was a fair boss. One day in 1848, there was a terrible accident. A heavy iron bar went
completely through Gage's head. Surprisingly, he did not die, but a large section of the
front part of his brain was destroyed.
Phineas's personality changed dramatically. When he went back to work the
next year, everyone noticed enormous changes. Before the accident, Gage was calm,
hardworking, responsible, and friendly. However, after the accident, he became angry,
childish, rude, and impatient. Friends said they did not know this Phineas. For many
years, scientists discussed Phineas Gage and the roles of the mind and the brain.
Could damage to a certain part of the brain affect personality? Years later, scientists
discovered that the front part of the brain controls personality. This explains why
Gage's personality changed so much after his injury.

B On a separate piece of paper, rewrite these sentences. Add one or two appropriate
adjectives to each one.
1. The brain is an organ.
2. Humans have brains.
3. There are plants on Earth.
4. Mosquitoes are insects.
5. Elephants are animals.

C Describe an organism, but do not name it. Use adjectives to make the description clear
and interesting. Write three or four sentences.

D Exchange sentences from Step C with a partner. Guess what organism is being
described. How did you know, or why did you not know?

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3 Gerunds O irLanguage.com

A gerund is an -ing form of a verb. A gerund is used as a noun. It can be the subject
of a sentence or the object of a verb.
gerund as subject
Exercising keeps your body healthy.
verb gerund as object of verb
I really �
hke exercising.
Be careful! Not all -ing forms are gerunds. Some -ing forms are verbs. It is important
to recognize the difference, or you may not understand what you read.
-ing form as verb
We are exercising in the gym for one hour today.

A Read the sentences. They use -ing words as nouns and verbs. Underline the -ing
words, then identify the gerunds. Write G (gerund) next to the sentences with gerunds.
1. Thinking is something our brains do all day long.
2. Many scientists are doing brain research.
3. Experts say that sleeping is very important for healthy brain development.
4. Hearing and seeing are two senses that the brain controls.
5. Scientists are learning more about the brain every day.

B Complete the sentences with gerunds. Use information from the reading "The Brain."
1. The cerebrum controls most of a person's ____ and ____
2. The right hemisphere of the brain is important for creative abilities, such as
____ and ____
3. The brain stem controls some of the body's basic functions, such as ____

C Work with a partner. Take turns asking and answering questions with gerunds.
For example, ask about places (visit), food (eat), clothes (wear), movies (watch), music
(listen), and holidays (celebrate).
Which ____ do you enjoy ____-ing?
Which places do you enjoy visiting?
What is your favorite hobby?
____. (Listening to music.)

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4 Applying what you have read

Today many scientists and educators discuss the right and left hemispheres of the brain.
People use different strategies to learn. T hese hemispheres affect their choices.
Reread paragraph 3 of the text and complete the following activity.

A Are you a right-brain or a left-brain person? Check (.I) each sentence that describes you.
1. I always look at the clock, and I like to wear a watch.
2. Before I make a difficult decision, I write down the pros (advantages) and the
cons (disadvantages).
3. I often change my plans. I don't like to follow a schedule.
4. I like to draw a map to give somebody directions. I think it's easier.
I can explain better with a map than with just words.
5. I learn math easily.
6. I like to draw.
7. People tell me I'm always late.
8. I learn music easily.
9. I like to have a "to-do" list.
10. I always read the directions first when I have to put something together, such
as a piece of furniture or electronic equipment.

B Now look at the key at the bottom of this page. Go back to Step A. Write L (left
hemisphere) or R (right hemisphere), according to the key, next to each sentence that
you checked.

C Count your Ls and Rs. Read the information below to find the learning strategies that
might work best for you.

Did you check more Ls? You may use the left half of your brain a little more than
the right half. In that case, the following learning strategies might work best for you:
• Study in a quiet place.
• Work independently, not with other people.
• Memorize new words and information.
Did you check more Rs? You may use the right half of your brain a little more than
the left half. In that case, the following learning strategies might work best for you:
• Work in groups.
• Draw pictures to support your notes.
• Do hands-on activities, such as conducting surveys and doing experiments.
Did you check the same number of Ls and Rs? You probably use both halves of your
brain equally. In that case, a variety of learning strategies might work best for you.

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5 Writing a description 0
You will frequently need to describe people, places, things, or ideas in your academic
assignments in almost every subject. For example, in science classes, you may need
to describe a landform, a plant, an animal, or a part of the body.
Basic descriptions include key details, such as the height, weight, color, shape, and
size of a person or thing. This means that you will use adjectives to describe nouns. A
good description uses adjectives to create a clear picture for the reader.

A Read the description of a body organ from the reading. Then answer the questions
below.

The 11111 is small and complex. An average 11111 is about the size of two fists, and
it weighs approximately 1.4 kilograms. Some people describe the - as looking like
a soft, pink, wrinkled rock. Others say it looks like a sponge....

1. Circle the adjectives that make the description clearer.

2. Underline the other details that help you "see" what the writer is describing.
3. What is the writer describing? Exchange ideas with a partner. Explain the reasons
for your answer.

B Look at your eyes in a mirror. Then look at the eyes of some of your classmates.
What do they look like? Think about their shape , color, size, and any other details that
help describe them. Write some notes about the eyes on a separate piece of paper.

C Now write a paragraph that describes the human eye. Write as many specific details as
you can. Include adjectives and sizes where appropriate.

D Draw a picture of an eye to go along with your description.

E Compare your paragraph with a partner's.

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PREPARING TO READ
1 Thinking about the topic
The phrases below describe bones and I or muscles. Read each description.
Write B (bones), M (muscles), or B IM (bones and muscles).
1. are hard on the outside
2. need exercise and a good diet to stay healthy
3. help you digest food
4. are made of cells
5. can get shorter
6. (some) protect the body's organs
7. make up a "skeleton"
8. are used to move

2 Increasing reading speed

A Read "The Skeletal and Muscular Systems." Use the strategies for increasing reading
speed on page 68. For this task, do not read the boxed text on page 189.
1. Before you begin, enter your starting time.
Starting time: ____
2. After you finish, enter your ending time.
Finishing time: ____
B Calculate your reading speed:
Reading speed: ____
Number of words in the text (606) 7
Number of minutes it took you to
read the text = your reading speed

Your goal should be about 80-100 words per minute.

C Check your reading comprehension. Choose the correct answers.

Do not look at the text.
1. There are (52 I 206 I 690) bones in the human body.
2. Bones (support the body I help the body move).
3. Muscles (support the body I help the body move).
4. The human body has (more muse/es than bones I more bones than muscles).
5. You (can I cannot) control all the muscles in your body.

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Reading 2
THE SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR SYSTEMS
In just one day, our bodies move in thousands of ways, and we make
some of those movements over and over. For example, we walk an
average of 5,000 steps every day, and we usually bend our bodies
200-400 times a day. Some of our movements are unconscious, that is,
5 we do not think about them. For instance, we normally blink our eyes
over 10,000 times a day. If we did not have both bones and muscles,
we would not be able to walk, talk, sit, bend, blink, or smile. In fact, we
would not be able to move at all.

Bones
skeleton a frame of Inside the body is a framework of 206 bones, called a skeleton. Bones
bones that supports 10 are made of living cells and tissue, and they give shape and support
the body to the body. They are both lightweight and strong. The outside of a
bone is hard and solid, and the inside has some empty spaces. The
empty spaces make the bone weigh less. An average skeleton weighs
only about 10 kilograms, but it is strong enough to support the body
15 and hold it upright.
Bones have two main purposes.
Some bones protect the internal organs.
scapula For example, the skull bones protect
(shoulder blade) the brain, the ribs protect the heart,
20 and the backbone protects the spinal

cord. Other bones, such as the femur, or

thighbone, help support the body. The
rib femur is the longest bone in the body.
It is an average of 48 centimeters long,
25 and it supports the weight of the body

as we walk and run.

Muscles
Muscles are also made of cells, but they
are very different from bones. Muscles
contract and relax to allow the body
30 to move. When a muscle contracts, it
gets shorter and tighter. Some muscles
contract and relax automatically. These
muscles are called involuntary muscles,
and we cannot control them. For
35 example, the stomach muscles contract

and relax to digest food, and the cardiac

muscle in the heart contracts and relaxes
each time the heart beats.

Figure 8.2 Major bones in the body

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Muscles that we can control are called voluntary muscles, or

35 skeletal muscles. There are over 600 of these muscles attached to the
skeleton. Voluntary muscles pull on the bones that they are attached to.
In this way, they control every movement that we make. For example,
the biceps and triceps muscles in our arms, and the hamstring and
quadriceps muscles in our legs, are the major muscles that help us
40 walk or pick things up. However, in order to move, we also need the
smaller muscles. The smaller muscles work with the major muscles.
In fact, it takes hundreds of muscles to take one step, 43 muscles to
frown, and 17 muscles to smile.
Bone and muscle health
You may walk, talk, run, and smile, but you
45 probably do not think about your bones and

muscles. In fact, you probably take these parts

of your body for granted unless they become
injured. However, it is very important to keep
bones and muscles strong. Regular exercise
50 and a healthy diet can do this. Weight-bearing

exercise like running and tennis makes your

muscles stronger. This type of exercise also
helps new bone tissue grow, and this makes
your bones stronger, too. Eating foods that have
55 a lot of calcium, such as milk, beans, and dark

leafy green vegetables, helps your bones stay

strong. Eating foods that have a lot of protein,
such as lean meats and fish, helps your muscles
stay strong. Take good care of your skeletal and
60 muscular systems, and you will enjoy movement

and strength for many years to come. Jogging is one way to keep
bones and muscles strong.

Meet Ecci
It took three years and millions of dollars, but in 2011, 25 scientists at
the University of Zurich in Switzerland built a unique robot. They call
the robot Eccerobot, or Ecci. Ecci is amazing. The robot has a brain
that lets it learn from its mistakes. Ecci is the first robot to learn in
this way. It is also the first robot to have "muscles" and "bones." The
robot's muscles and bones are not real. They are made from a special
kind of plastic. However, Ecci's muscles and bones allow it to move
in complex ways, like a human moves. Scientists want to understand
more about human movement, and they want to build better artificial
arms and legs. They hope that Ecci can help teach them.

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Asking and answering questions about a text

Remember that asking and answering questions about a text is a good way to make
sure you have understood what you read.

Work with a partner to complete the following activities.

A Take turns asking and answering these questions about paragraphs 1-3 of the reading
"T he Skeletal and Muscular Systems."
1. What are some ways our bodies move every day?
2. What parts of the body allow us to move in so many ways?
3. What is a skeleton? Why is it important?
4. Describe a bone.
5. What are the two main purposes of bones?
6. Give one example of a bone and explain its purpose.
B Take turns asking and answering questions about paragraphs 4-6 of the reading.

2 Highlighting and taking notes O

Many writers identify important information in a text in the text's margins. Taking notes
in the margins about highlighted information is a useful strategy. Together, the margin
notes and the highlighting focus your attention on important information in a text and
help you remember it. It is often even more effective to use a separate piece of paper
to write more detailed notes based on your highlighting.

A Go back to the reading. Highlight the main ideas and important supporting details in
paragraph 3. Remember to use one color for the main ideas and a different color for
the details. Make notes in the margins about the information you highlighted.
B Review the skills in the strategies box above and also on page 182. Go back to your
highlighted information from Step A. On a separate piece of paper, write more detailed
notes. Can you classify any of the information? Can you describe it in more detail?
C Compare notes with a partner.
D Choose another paragraph in the text. Highlight and take notes on the main ideas and
important details.

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3 Scanning for details

Scan the reading and the boxed text to find the following information.
Look only for answers to the questions. Do not reread the text.
1. How many steps do people usually take in one day?
2. How many bones does your body have?
3. How much does an average human skeleton weigh?
4. Which is the longest bone in the body? How long is it?
5. How many skeletal muscles does your body have?
6. Does it take more muscles to smile or to frown?
7. Which foods have a lot of calcium? Which foods have a lot of protein?
8. When was Ecci built?

4 Using a dictionary O · O
Read each sentence. The word in bold has more than one meaning. Write the correct
definition and the word's part of speech in the blank. Use the dictionary and the context
of the sentence to help you.
1. For example, we walk an average of 5,000 steps every day.
Correct definition:-------------------------
2. Bones are made of living cells and tissue, and they give shape and support to the
body.
Correct definition:-------------------------
3. Some muscles contract and relax automatically.
Correct definition: -------------------------
4. Some muscles contract and relax automatically.
Correct definition:-------------------------
5. We also need all the smaller muscles that work with the major muscles.
Correct definition:-------------------------
6. It is important to eat a healthy diet and exercise regularly to keep the bones and
muscles strong.
Correct definition:-------------------------

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5 Words that can be used as nouns or verbs G

English has many words that can be used as either nouns or verbs. Learning both
uses of these words will help increase your vocabulary.

A Read the sentences. They use the words in bold as either nouns or verbs:
• Bones give shape (n) to the body. • A smile (n) uses 17 muscles.
Bones shape (v) the body. It takes 17 muscles to smile (v).
B The sentences below use the words in bold as nouns. Rewrite each sentence and use
the word in bold as a verb.
1. The femur gives support to the body when we run.

2. Doctors listen to the beat of a patient's heart to make sure it is healthy.

C Choose two words from the box. Look back at the text to see how the words are used.
On a piece of paper, write two sentences for each word. In one sentence, use the word
as a noun. In the other sentence, use the word as a verb.

control frown walk work

6 Writing about the body 0

The human body is a subject in many academic courses, such as medicine and
anthropology. These courses look at the body in different ways. For students, writing
about the body may also mean describing it in different ways. When you write about
the body as a whole or as related to other living organisms, you may describe its
general composition, functions, and structures. When you write about its individual
systems, organs, and parts, you may need to include more details about size, weight,
color, and shape in your description.

Work in a small group to complete the following activities.

A Look back at the reading "The Skeletal and Muscular Systems." Which paragraphs
include descriptive writing? Underline the descriptive words and information.
B Describe a human bone. Then name and describe the system it belongs to. What is the
purpose of the system? What does it do?
C Describe your hand. What does it look like? How does it feel - is it soft or hard? What
adjectives would you use to describe it? Take notes on your discussion.
D Write descriptions of a body part or body system. Make a list. Do not write your name
on your paper. Exchange lists with another group and guess what is being described.

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PREPARING TO READ

1 Building background knowledge about the topic

A Read the following information about the circulatory system.

Blood is always circulating, or moving, through the heart and around the body.
It is part of the circulatory system. The circulatory system transports materials to and
from all the cells. The other two parts of this system are the heart and the blood vessels.
The heart pumps, or pushes, the blood through the body. When blood leaves the
heart, it travels through small tubes, called blood vessels. The blood delivers oxygen,
water, and nutrients to all of the body's cells. On the trip back to the heart, the blood
picks up waste products, such as carbon dioxide, so that the body can get rid of them.
This circulating supply of blood keeps the body working well.

B Answer these questions with a partner.

1. What does the circulatory system do?
2. Name the three main parts of the circulatory system. What does each part do?

2 Conducting an experiment O
In science classes, you will often conduct experiments. An experiment is a hands-on
way to find out or to test information.

The blood moves through the body with each beat of the heart. You can feel this
movement at pulse points, such as the neck and the wrist. Find out how fast your heart is
beating. Follow the steps below.

A Hold one hand in front of you, palm up. Place the first two fingers of your other hand
on the inside of your wrist. Feel for your pulse.

B When you find your pulse, count the beats for 15 seconds. Multiply this number by 4.
The result is your pulse rate per minute. Record your pulse rate: __

C When you move quickly, your body needs more oxygen-filled blood than when you are
resting. This means that your heart must pump faster. Run in place for one minute and
take your pulse again. Record your pulse rate now: __

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Reading 3
THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The heart is only about the size of a fist, but it is the most important
muscle in the body. It weighs about 300 grams, and it is mostly red,
just like the other muscles. The heart normally pumps, or beats,
between 60 and 100 times a minute, and it delivers more than 7,500
s liters of blood each day to all the cells in the body. On average, the
heart beats approximately 100,000 times a day and about 2.5 billion
times in a lifetime.
Features of the circulatory system
circulatory The heart is the center of the circulatory system. The circulatory
system the system system also includes blood vessels and blood. It is the body's internal
that carries food and 10 transportation system. Blood travels through small tubes called blood
gases to the cells of vessels to all parts of the body. It carries the gases, water, and nutrients
the body that people need to live and stay healthy.
Every time the heart beats, it pushes blood through the body's
blood vessels. There are more than 96,000 kilometers of blood vessels
1s inside the body. If they were stretched out, they would circle Earth
more than two times. Arteries and veins are blood vessels. Arteries
carry blood away from the heart to all parts of the body. Veins
carry blood from the body back to the heart. Arteries and veins are
connected by tiny blood vessels called capillaries.
The flow of blood through the heart
20 The heart is divided in half, and each half has two chambers. The
four chambers hold blood that is entering and leaving the heart. The
flow of blood works this way: Blood from all over the body enters
the heart through the top right chamber, called the right atrium. This
blood flows to the bottom right chamber, called the right ventricle.
The heart then pumps the blood out of the right ventricle, through the
pulmonary artery, into the lungs.

To the body

right atrium

right ventricle
figure 8.3 The flow of
blood through the heart

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The blood picks up oxygen in the lungs. Then it returns to the heart
through the left atrium. Next, it flows to the left ventricle. The heart
then pumps the blood out of the left ventricle into the aorta, the largest
30 artery in the body. The blood travels through the aorta and other smaller
arteries to all parts of the body and delivers oxygen to all the cells. The
blood then travels through capillaries to veins that lead back to the heart.
From the veins, the blood goes into the right atrium of the heart to begin
the process again. The whole cycle takes about 30 seconds.

Heart health
35 Your heart works hard. It started beating before you were born, and it
will continue to beat for your whole life. A healthy heart has a strong
heart muscle and clean, open arteries. Blocked arteries that supply
blood to the heart can cause a heart attack. According to research,
smoking can be dangerous to the heart. Exercise and a good diet help
40 keep the heart in good shape.

Dr. Christiaan Barnard and the First Human Heart Transplant

Louis Washkansky, a 55-year-old man in South Africa, knew he was dying.
His heart was failing, and his doctors could not help him. On December 3, 1967,
cardiac surgeon Dr. Christiaan Barnard performed the first human heart transplant at
Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town. After the nine-hour operation, Mr. Washkansky
had a new heart.
Dr. Barnard proved that heart transplants were possible.
He became famous around the world. He continued
to perform heart transplants, and he tried to solve the
problems with them. The body could reject the new
heart, and the medicine for this could be dangerous.
Mr. Washkansky did not live long after his operation due
to complications with medicine, but one patient lived for
24 years after her heart transplant in 1969.
In the 1980s, scientists developed better
medicines to give patients after their heart
operations. As a result, today many patients
live long and healthy lives after transplant
surgery. Recently, doctors have transplanted
artificial hearts into some patients with very
diseased hearts. An artificial heart allows a
patient to survive while he or she waits for
a new heart to become available. In the
future, people may be able to live many
years with an artificial heart.

Dr. Christiaan Barnard

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AFTER YOU READ

1 Answering multiple-choice questions O

Review the strategies for answering multiple-choice questions on pages 21 and 64. Then
read the questions and circle the correct answers. Use the information from the reading.
Compare answers with a partner. irLanguage.com

1. Which sentence is not true?

a. The heart is a muscle. c. The heart pumps blood through
b. The heart normally beats between the whole body.
60 and 100 times an hour. d. The heart beats billions of times in
a lifetime.
2. __ is not part of the circulatory system.
a. The heart c. Blood
b. A blood vessel d. The femur
3. __ is not a blood vessel.
a. An artery c. A capillary
b. A vein d. The heart
4. The largest artery is the --·
a. vein c. lung
b. aorta d. right atrium
5. The blood is in the __ before it goes to the lungs.
a. right ventricle c. left ventricle
b. right atrium d. left atrium
6. Blood gets oxygen from the --·
a. left ventricle c. right ventricle
b. aorta d. lungs
7. One whole cycle of blood flow through the heart takes --·
a. seconds c. hours
b. minutes d. days
8. __ is healthy for the heart.
a. A heart attack c. Exercise
b. Smoking d. A bad diet
9. Which sentence is not true?
a. The circulatory system is the body's c. Your heart starts beating when you
internal transportation system. are born.
b. Each half of the heart has two d. Blocked arteries can cause heart
chambers. attacks.
10. Dr. Barnard proved that --·
a. arteries can become blocked c. lung disease always follows
b. heart transplants are possible heart surgery
d. people cannot live long after
heart surgery

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2 Sequencing · O
A Look at the steps of blood circulation. Work with a partner. Review paragraphs 4 and 5
of "The Heart and the Circulatory System" and Figure 8.3. Then number the steps 1-7.
__ Blood flows to the left ventricle.
__ Blood returns to the heart through the right atrium.
__ Blood flows to the right ventricle.
__ Blood travels through the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
_1_ Blood enters the heart through the right atrium.
__ Blood travels through the aorta to all parts of the body.
__ Blood picks up oxygen and returns to the heart through the left atrium.

B Complete the diagram on the right. pulmonary artery

Draw arrows to show the blood's
path through the heart.

C Look back at Figure

8.3 on page 194 to right atrium
check your work.

left ventricle
right ventricle

3 Highlighting and making an outline O

A The reading provides information about blood vessels. Go back and highlight the main
ideas and key supporting details in paragraph 3. Write short notes in the margins about
this information.

B Below is an incomplete outline for part of the text on blood vessels. First, review
"Making an outline" on page 164. Then complete the outline with your highlighted
information in paragraph 3.

Ill. 61ood vessels

r
A. Arteries: ������������������-
6.
C.
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C What does the text say about heart health? Highlight the important information in
paragraph 6 and make notes in the margins. Organize your information on a separate
sheet of paper in outline form. Start your outline this way.

VI. Heart health

A Healthy heart=------------- --------

D Compare your outlines in Steps B and C with a partner.

4 Prepositions of direction O
Prepositions of direction show movement from one place to another.
Some common prepositions of direction are from, to, out of, into, and through.

>•
B
from to out of into through

Veins carry blood from the body to the heart.

Blood moves out of the right atrium into the right ventricle.
Blood travels through the pulmonary artery to the lungs.

A Look back at paragraphs 4 and 5 of the reading. Underline the prepositions of

direction. Compare your answers with a partner.

B Read the sentences. Complete each sentence with the correct preposition of direction.
1. Arteries carry blood away the heart all parts of the body.
2. Blood travels blood vessels.
3. Blood carries oxygen the lungs all the cells in the body.
4. Dr. Barnard transplanted a new heart the body of Louis Washkansky.
5. Blood travels capillaries veins.
6. The heart pumps blood the left ventricle and the aorta.

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C Write three sentences about other parts of the human body, such as the brain, lungs,
eyes, or ears. Use at least one preposition of direction in each sentence.
1. The brain receives messages from the body through the spinal cord.
2.�������������������������������-
3.�������������������������������-
4-�������������������������������-

5 Playing with words O

Work with a partner. Look at the words in each row. Choose the word that does not
belong and explain why.
1. bones heart blood vessels blood
2. gases water nutrients lungs
3. right atrium left ventricle aorta left atrium
4. heart lung brain body
5. artery blood capillary vein
6. smoking good diet running swimming

6 Writing a description �
A Complete the chart about the key features of the heart. Use information from the
reading and Figure 8.3 to help you.

Key features of
Notes
the heart
size

weight

color

main parts

B Now describe the heart. Use your notes from the chart to write a paragraph about it.
Remember that the topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph and makes a
point about the topic. What will your point about the heart be? Include key details and
descriptive adjectives to create a good and correct picture of the heart.

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Chapter 8 Academic Vocabulary Review

The following words appear in the readings in Chapter 8. They all come from the
Academic Word List, a list of words that researchers have discovered occur frequently in
many different types of academic texts. For a complete list of all the Academic Word List
words in this chapter and in all the readings in this book, see the Appendix on page 206.

automatically framework interprets reject

computer individuals logic unique
coordination internal medical voluntary

Complete the following sentences with words from the list above.
1. Earth is . It is the only planet in our solar system that has life.
2. Holding a conference for 250 people requires a lot of . Many
departments, such as security, food services, and maintenance, must work
together to make the event a success.
3. Some doors open only when someone pushes or pulls the handle. Other doors
open ; no one has to touch them.
4. Many people use the Internet to research an important concern.
However, it is better to ask a doctor about your health issues.
5. You do not have to attend the additional study session for Biology 100 on Friday
night. The session is , not mandatory.
6. People in a car accident should have a doctor check them. They may not have
visible marks on their bodies. However, they may have injuries that you
cannot see.
7. A is a very useful tool. It's much faster than a typewriter, and students
use it to write papers. They also use it to research information and communicate
with friends.
8. Scientists often use to answer their research questions. That is, they
use reason, and they test their ideas with experiments.
9. The skeleton makes a for the human body. This supports the body and
protects it.
10. The body can an artificial heart. However, now there are better
medicines that help the body accept it.

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Practicing_
Academic Writing
In Unit 4, you learned about living things. Based on everything you have read and
discussed in class, you will write a paragraph about this topic.

The Human Body

You will write one academic paragraph about the human body. You will choose a
part of the body, such as the heart, brain, or circulatory system. You will classify the
part and then describe it in detail.

PREPARING TO WRITE
Classifying and describing
Classifying and describing are things that we often do. We classify people, animals,
and things. For example, we classify people we know as friends, acquaintances, or
co-workers, and then we may describe these people.
When scientists classify, they also describe. However, in science, describing is very
important. It helps to identify things exactly.

A Complete the following activities with a partner.

1. Read the three paragraphs.
a.
The planet Earth is made up of four very different but interconnected
systems: the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere.
The lithosphere includes Earth's crust and the top layer of the mantle. The crust
is a thin layer of rock that covers the whole planet. Its thickness ranges from
about 5 to 80 kilometers. The mantle is the section of Earth directly under the
crust. The lithosphere is not one solid piece of rock. Instead, it is broken into
many smaller pieces called plates.

b.
Invertebrates are animals, such as worms and spiders, that do not have
backbones. About 95 percent of all animals are invertebrates. Many of
them have a hard, protective covering, such as a shell. Invertebrates can live
anywhere, but most, like the starfish and the crab, live in the ocean.

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c.
Muscles that we can control are called voluntary muscles, or skeletal
muscles. There are over 600 of these muscles attached to the skeleton.
Voluntary muscles pull on the bones that they are attached to. In this way, they
control every movement that we make. For example, the biceps and triceps
muscles in our arms, and the hamstring and quadriceps muscles in our legs,
are the major muscles that help us walk or pick things up. However, in order
to move, we also need the smaller muscles. The smaller muscles work with
the major muscles. In fact, it takes hundreds of muscles to take one step, 43
muscles to frown, and 17 muscles to smile.

2. Answer these questions for each paragraph above:

1. What class is discussed?
2. What members of the class are named?
3. How are the class and its members described?
3. Study this list of descriptive methods and classify the descriptions below.
• definition
• function
• division into parts
• numerical facts or statistics
• examples
• details of size, weight, composition, smell, sound, or other sensory data
• comparison to other things
• contrast with other things
• location within a larger group or setting
Use the list to classify the following descriptions. More than one answer may
be possible.
a. There are over 600 of these muscles attached to the skeleton.

b. Invertebrates are animals that do not have backbones ...

c. Voluntary muscles ... control every movement that we make.

d .. .. but most, like the starfish and the crab, live in the ocean.

e. In fact, it takes hundreds of muscles to take one step, ...

f. About 95 percent of all animals are invertebrates.

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4. Go back to the paragraphs in Step A and discuss the following questions:

1. How many descriptive methods are used? What are they?
2. Are the descriptions exact? If so, what makes them exact?
B Now get ready to write about the human body. First, choose a topic. You might
freewrite for a few minutes. Discover what topics interest you. What did you write
about the most? Next, choose your topic and then brainstorm for 5-10 minutes.
Include what you already know about it, questions you want to answer about it, and
ideas to describe it. Make a flowchart like the one in "Developing Writing Skills" in
Chapter 7 to organize your information.
C Find a picture and more information about your topic in the library or on the Internet
as needed. Discuss your topic with others in small groups. Add information from your
discussions to your list.

NOW WRITE
A Write the first draft of your paragraph.
B Review the paragraphs in Step A to get started. Look at your flowchart. Now start
your paragraph with a clear topic sentence. Include supporting details. Use as many
descriptive methods as you need to sufficiently classify and describe your topic.
Use this checklist.
Are you including:
__ a topic sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph
__ major supporting details
__ minor details that illustrate the major or key support
__ a concluding sentence that restates the main idea (Be sure to make the
concluding sentence a little different from the topic sentence.)
__ correct paragraph form and structure
__ vocabulary you learned in this chapter
__ descriptive adjectives and details
__ different types of descriptive methods
__ correct sentences with subjects and verbs that agree

C Give your paragraph a title.

Chapter 8 Practicing Academic Writing 203

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AFTER YOU WRITE

Exchange paragraphs with a partner. Read each other's work and discuss these questions:
• Does your partner's paragraph have correct form and structure?
• What classification system did your partner use?
• Are the class and its members clearly defined and described?
• Does the paragraph include specific examples?
• Are all the ideas clear and in logical order?
• Are there any irrelevant sentences?

Revising and editing

Revising and editing is a way to improve your work. You can improve the content,
form, style, grammar, and spelling of your text. Be sure to revise and edit your work
to create a good paragraph.

A Revise your paragraph.

• Review your partner's suggestions.
• Think about your own ideas for revision.
• Make necessary changes.

B Edit your paragraph.

Read it again. Look for errors in spelling, verb tense or form, and other grammar
mistakes. Correct any errors.

204 Unit 4 Life on Earth

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Weights and Measures

The metric system is the system of measurement that all scientists use. It is
[R i r Language.com

also used by people in most countries of the world. In the United States, most
non-scientists use the U.S. system. Some Web sites offer a free converter that
you can use to convert measurements from one system to the other.

EXAMPLES OF THE METRIC SYSTEM EXAMPLES OF THE U.S. SYSTEM

AND ITS EQUIVALENTS IN THE U.S. AND ITS EQUIVALENTS IN THE METRIC
SYSTEM SYSTEM
The metric system is based on the number Units of length www.trLanonage.com
10, and it uses different prefixes for smaller U.S. system Metric system
and larger units. For example, a kilometer is
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters
1,000 meters, a centimeter is one-hundredth
of a meter (.01 meter), and a millimeter is 12 in = 1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 meters
one-thousandth of a meter (.001 meter). 3 ft = 1 yard (yd) = 0. 9144 meters
Units of length 1760 yd = 1 mile (mi) = 1.609 kilometers
(5,280 ft)
Metric system U.S. system
1 millimeter (mm) = 0.03937 inch Units of weight
10 mm = 1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch U.S. system Metric system
(cm) 1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 grams
100 cm = 1 meter (m) = 39.37 inches 16 oz = 1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kilograms
1000 m = 1 kilometer = 0.6214 mile 2,000 lb = 1 ton = 90 7.18 kilograms
(km)
Units of liquid volume
Units of weight
U.S. system Metric system
Metric system U.S. system
1 fluid ounce = 0.007813 = 29.57
1 milligram (mg) = 0.000035 ounce (fl oz) gallons (gal) milliliters
1000 mg = 1 gram (g) = 0.035 ounce 32 fl oz = 0.25 gal= = 0.9464 liters
1000 g = 1 kilogram = 2.205 pounds 1 quart (qt)
(kg) 128 fl oz = 1 gal = 3. 785 liters
1000 kg = 1 metric ton = 2,205 pounds

Units of liquid volume Temperature Scales

Scientists and most countries in the world
Metric system U.S. system
use the Celsius, or centigrade, scale (0 C) to
1 milliliter (ml) = 0.03 fluid ounces
measure temperature. In the United States,
1000 ml I= 1 liter (l) = 33.81 fluid ounces most people use the Fahrenheit scale (° F).
3.785 liters = 1 gallon
To convert temperatures from one scale to
the other, use these formulas:
degrees Fahrenheit = ( ° Celsius x 1.8) + 32
degrees Celsius = ( Fahrenheit - 32)
°

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Weights and Measures 205

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Appendix__
u�'Y-' u�j E-'>"
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Academic Word List vocabulary

access cycle internal relax

accessible definition interprets relaxes
accurate design invisible release
accurately designs job releases
administration distribution jobs removed
affect diverse labels requires
affects diversity layer research
affected dramatic layers researchers
appreciate element located resource
approach enable location rigid
approximately energy logic role
area enormous maintain series
areas environment major similar
attach environmental medical similarity
attached environmentalists negative similarly
automatically equipment negatively source
available establish normally sources
benefit eventually occupation stable
benefits evidence occur stress
categories expand occurred structural
chemical factors occurring structure
collapse feature occurs survival
collapsed features parallel survive
communicate finally participate surviving
communicating flexible percent symbol
communication framework percentage tape
communications function period techniques
complex functions positive theory
computer generate predict transform
conduct generations predictable transportation
consists global primary transport
construction granted process unique
contract guidelines processing uniqueness
contracts identified professional unstable
contrast identify range varies
contributes individuals ranges vary
coordination injured reactions vehicles
create injuries region voluntary
created instance regions widespread
creates interact reject
creative

206
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Skills Index
Adjective suffixes 93 Previewing key parts of a text 12, 18, 110, 133, 161
Answering multiple-choice questions 21, 64, 196 Previewing key terms 104
Answering true/false questions 36, 157 Previewing key words 27
Antonyms 59 Pronoun reference 44
Applying what you have read 130, 172, 185 Reading about statistics 67
Asking and answering questions about a text 7, 190 Reading boxed texts 37
Asking for clarification 158 Reading for main ideas 42, 71, 143
Both... and and neither ...nor 95 Reading for main ideas and details 93
Brainstorming 90 Reading maps 31, 81
Building background knowledge about the topic Reviewing paragraph structure 95, 108
77, 104, 116, 154, 193 Scanning 71
Building background vocabulary 33 Scanning for details 191
Colons, such as, and lists 114 Sequencing 58, 197
Comparative adjectives 10 Showing contrast 45
Compound words 173 Subject-verb agreement 72, 89
Concluding sentences 84 Suffixes that change verbs into nouns 59
Conducting an experiment 193 Synonyms 143
Conducting a survey 65, 161 Taking nctes 80
Countable and uncountable nouns 67 Taking notes with a chart 113, 120
Cues for finding word meaning 8, 23, 166 That clauses 173
Defining key words 130, 165 Thinking about the topic 4, 18, 39, 54, 61, 77, 85,
Describing parts 108 110, 127, 140, 154, 169, 179, 187
Describing results 83 Thinking critically about the topic 145, 175
Examining graphics 54, 61, 85, 110 Too and very 89
Examining statistics 139 Transition words 109
Examining test questions 107 Understanding averages 131
Gerunds 184 Understanding test questions 57
Guessing vocabulary from context 107 Using adjectives 183
Highlighting 15, 88 Using a dictionary 137, 191
Highlighting and making an outline 197 Using grammar, context, and background
Highlighting and taking notes 182, 190 knowledge to guess meaning 43
Identifying topic sentences 60 Using headings to remember main ideas 30
Identifying topic sentences and supporting Using symbols and abbreviations 120
sentences 72 Using this/that/these/those to connect ideas 138
Illustrating main ideas 38 Using a Venn diagram to organize ideas from
Increasing reading speed 68, 140, 187 a text 136
Introducing examples 132 When clauses 122
Labeling diagrams 22 Word families 157
Labeling a map 88 Words from Latin and Greek 7, 15, 121
Learning verbs with their prepositions 16 Words that can be used as nouns or verbs 192
Making a pie chart 17 Writing a description 186, 199
Making an outline 164 Writing about the body 192
Mapping 65 Writing about differences 167
Organizing ideas 90 Writing about height 115
Parallel structure 94 Writing about similarities 159
Parts of speech 9 Writing about similarities and differences 174
Playing with words 113, 199 Writing about superlatives 82
Prefixes 30 Writing definitions 36
Prepositional phrases 31 Writing an observation report 123
Prepositions of direction 198 Writing simple and compound sentences 32
Prepositions of location 144 Writing topic sentences and supporting sentences
Previewing art 4, 116 73

207
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Credits
The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material and are grateful for the permissions
granted. While every effort has been made,it has not always been possible to identify the sources of all the material used.
or to trace all copyright holders. If any omissions are brought to our notice.we will be happy to include the appropriate
acknowledgements on reprinting.

Text Credits
Page 20: "Save the Rocks" is abridged and adapted from Page 35: "The Year Without a Summer" is abridged and
"Where Concept of a 'Pet Rock' Has Reached Its Apex" adapted from "1816: The Year Without a Summer"
from The New York Times. August 17, 2007 © 2007 The published on exn.ca Discovery Channel Canada Online
New York Times. All rights reseNed. Used by permission (now www.discoverychannel.ca) 2005 © Gloria Chang,
and protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States. www.gJoriachang.com. irlanguage.com
The printing,copying,redistribution, or retransmission of the
Material without express written permission is prohibited.

Illustration Credits
Page 1 3.1 7, 19,22.28,29,34,56,58,62.81 ,86.87, Page 6: Roger Penwill
88, 105, 1 11,120.123, 133. 154,165.179. 181. 194,
197: Kamae Design Page 38, 116 (top), 118.193: Tom Croft

Page 5. 87,116 (bottom). 1 53, 172.1 88: Mark Duffin Page 175: © Cartoonstock.

Photography Credits
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208
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Preparing students for

academic coursework
Features
• Students develop academic skills and vocabulary by studying
authentic and adapted university texts.
• Extensive scaffolding helps students master the academic skills
they need.
• The sustained content approach provides an immersive experience
that prepares students for university study.

Skills for academic preparation

tteading Skills � Writing Skills
help students engage with academic include analysis of texts, controlled
texts before, during, and after reading. practice, and extended academic
writing.

0 Vocabulary Skills Q Academk Success

throughout each unit focus on is ensured by developing critical
the Academic Word List and thinking and test taking skills.
content-area words.

Component Level 1 Level 3

Reading and Writing
978-1-107-68363-1 978-1-107-64791-6 978-1-107-65832-5 978-1-107-60297-7
Student's Book
Reading and Writing
978-1-107-69450-7 978-1-107-62722-2 978-1-107-63137·3 978-1-107-60300-4
Teacher's Manual
Listening and Speaking
Student's Book 978-1-107-67463-9 978-1-107-65516-4 978·1-107-67314-4 978-1-107-60298-4
with lectures on DVD
Listening and Speaking
978-1-107 ·64492-2 978-1-107-68883-4 978-1-107-62547-1 978-1·107-60301-1
Teacher's Manual
Listening and Speaking
978-1-107-63825-9 978-1-107-63266-0 978-1-107-69784-3 978-1-107-60302-8
Class Audio CDs

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www.cambridge.org/academicencounters
More information I Additional resources