What is Spread Spectrum?

 The increasing demand for wireless communications has problems due

to limited spectrum efficiency and multipath propagation.
 The use of spread spectrum communication has simplified these
problems. In the spread spectrum, signals from different sources are
combined to fit into larger bandwidth.
 Most stations use air as the medium for communication, stations must
be able to share the medium without an interception and without being
subject to jamming from a malicious intruder.
 To achieve this, spread-spectrum techniques add redundancy means it
uses extended bandwidth to accommodate signals in a protective
envelope so that more secure transmission is possible.
 The spread code is a series of numbers that looks random but are
actually a pattern. The original bandwidth of the signal
gets enlarged (spread) through the spread code as shown in the figure.

Principles of Spread Spectrum process:

1. To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the bandwidth allocated to
each station should be much larger than needed.
2. The spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the source.
Characteristics of the Spread Spectrum are:
1. Higher channel capacity.
2. Ability to resist multipath propagation.
3. They cannot easily intercept any unauthorized person.
4. They are resistant to jamming.
5. The spread spectrum provides immunity to distortion due to multipath
propagation.
6. The spread spectrum offers multiple access capabilities.
Two types of techniques for Spread Spectrum are:
1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), different carrier frequencies
are modulated by the source signal i.e. M carrier frequencies are modulated by
the signal. At one moment signal modulates one carrier frequency and at the
subsequent moments, it modulates other carrier frequencies. The general
block diagram of FHSS is shown in the below figure.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

A pseudorandom code generator generates Pseudo-random Noise of some
pattern for each hopping period Th. The frequency corresponding to the
pattern is used for the hopping period and is passed to the frequency
synthesizer. The synthesizer generates a carrier signal of that frequency. The
figure above shows the spread signal via FHSS.
Advantages of FHSS:
 Synchronization is not greatly dependent on distance.
 Processing Gain is higher than DSSS.
Disadvantages of FHSS:
 The bandwidth of the FHSS system is too large (in GHz).
 Complex and expensive Digital frequency synthesizers are required.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
In DSSS, the bandwidth of the original signal is also expanded by a different
technique. Here, each data bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code
called chips, and the bit rate of the chip is called as chip-rate. The chip rate is n
times the bit rate of the original signal. The below Figure shows the DSSS block
diagram.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

In wireless LAN, the sequence with n = 11 is used. The original data is
multiplied by chips (spreading code) to get the spread signal. The required
bandwidth of the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the
original signal.
Advantages of DSSS:
 The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively.
 The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to FHSS.
 Interference is minimized against the signals.
Disadvantages of DSSS:
 Processing Gain is lower than DSSS.
 Channel Bandwidth is less than FHSS.
 Synchronization is affected by the variable distance between the
transmitter and receiver.

Difference between Radio wave and Infrared waves

1. Radiowave Transmission:

The radio waves have frequency range from 3 KHz to 1 GHz. These waves are
easy to generate and these can travel along long distances. These waves are
omni directional in nature which means that they can travel in all the
directions. They are widely used for the communication between both indoor
and outdoor because they have the property that they can penetrate through
the walls very easily. These waves are usually used for AM and FM radio,
television, cellular phones and wireless LAN.

Figure: Radiowave Transmission

3. Infrared Waves :
Infrared Waves are electromagnetic waves that have frequency range between
300 GHz to 400 GHz. These cannot travel along long distances. These waves are
used for short range communication and they also use line-of-sight of
propagation. These waves cannot pass through solid objects like walls etc.
These also not penetrate through walls. The most common application of the
IR waves is remote controls that are used for TV, DVD players, and stereo
system.
Sr.
No. Basis Radiowave Infrared wave

These are
These are omni-directional in
1. Direction unidirectional
nature.
in nature.

They cannot
At low frequency, they can
penetrate
penetrate through solid objects
2. Penetration through any
and walls but high frequency
solid object and
they bounce off the obstacle.
walls.

Frequency
Frequency
3. Frequency range: 3 KHz to 1GHz. range: 300 GHz
range
to 400 GHz.

These offers
4. Security These offers poor security.
high security.

Attenuation is
5. Attenuation Attenuation is high.
low.

6. Government Some frequencies in the radio- There is no

Sr.
No. Basis Radiowave Infrared wave

need of
waves require government government
License
license to use these. license to use
these waves.

Setup and usage Cost is Usage Cost is

7. Usage Cost
moderate. very less.

These are not

These are used in long distance used in long
8. Communication
communication. distance
communication.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The IEEE 802.11 standard, commonly known as Wi-Fi, outlines the architecture
and defines the MAC and physical layer specifications for wireless LANs
(WLANs). Wi-Fi uses high-frequency radio waves instead of cables for
connecting the devices in LAN. Given the mobility of WLAN nodes, they can
move unrestricted within the network coverage zone. The 802.11 structure is
designed to accommodate mobile stations that participate actively in network
decisions. Furthermore, it can seamlessly integrate with 2G, 3G, and 4G
networks.

The Wi-Fi standard represents a set of wireless LAN standards developed by

the Working Group of IEEE LAN/MAN standards committee (IEEE 802). The
term 802.11x is also used to denote the set of standards. Various specifications
and amendments include 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11e, 802.11g, 802.11n etc.
Important Terminologies of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
Station: Stations (STA) comprise all devices and equipment that are connected
to the wireless LAN. It can be of two types:
 Wireless Access Point (WAP): WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
wireless routers that bridge connections for base stations.
 Client: Examples include computers, laptops, printers, and smartphones.
Access Point: It is a device that can be classified as a station because of its
functionalities and acts as a connection between wireless medium and
distributed systems.
Distribution System: A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and
integrated LANs to create an ESS.
Frame: It is a MAC protocol data unit.
SSID (Service Set Identifier): It’s the network name for a particular WLAN. All-
access points and devices on a specific WLAN must use the same SSID to
communicate.
SDU: It is a data unit that acts as an input to each layer. These can be
fragmented or aggregated to form a PDU.
PDU: It is a data unit projected as an output to communicate with the
corresponding layer at the other end. They contain a header specific to the
layer.
Network Interface Controller: It is also known as network interface card. It is a
hardware component that connects devices to the network.
Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks
IEEE 802.11 Architecture and Services
In the year 1990, IEEE 802.11 Committee formed a new working group, the
IEEE 802.11 standard which defines protocols for Wireless Local Area Networks
(WLANs). Just like how Ethernet provides services for wired media, IEEE 802.11
architecture is designed to provide features for wireless networks.
An AP supports both wired and wireless connections. The 802.11 standard calls
the upstream wired network the distribution system (DS). The AP bridges the
wireless and wired L2 Ethernet frames, allowing traffic to flow from the wired
to the wireless network and vice versa. Each wireless network has a unique
SSID.
The 802.11 architecture provides some basic services for WLANs whose
implementation is supported by MAC layer:
Basic Service Set
The Basic Service Set configuration consists of a group of stations and relies on
an Access Point (AP), which serves as a logical hub. Stations from different BSSs
interact through the AP, which functions as a bridge, linking multiple WLAN
cells or channels.
Operating Modes
Depending upon the mode of operation, BSS can be categorized into the
following types:
 Infrastructure BSS: Communication between stations takes place
through access points. The AP and its associated wireless clients define
the coverage area and form the BSS.

Infrastructure BSS
 Independent BSS – Supports mutual communication between wireless
clients. An ad-hoc network is spontaneously created and does not
support access to wired networks.
Independent BSS
Independent Basic Service Set
In the IBSS configuration, also referred to as independent configuration or ad-
hoc network, no single node is required to act as a server. The stations
communicate directly with one another in a peer-to-peer basis. Generally, IBSS
covers a limited area instead of a large network. Typically covering a specific
area, IBSS is used for specific, short-term purposes with a limited number of
nodes.
Extended Service Set
ESS connects multiple BSSs and consists of several BSS cells, which can be
interlinked through wired or wireless backbones known as a distributed
system. Multiple cells use the same channel to boost aggregate throughput to
network. The equipment outside of the ESS, the ESS and all of its mobile
stations comprise a single MAC layer network where all stations are virtually
stationary. Thus, all stations within the ESS appear stationary from an
outsider’s perspective.
Other components include:
 Distribution System (DS): Links APs within the ESS.
 Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks.
Architecture for IEEE 802.11 Configuration
Advantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 Fault Tolerance: The centralized architecture minimizes the bottlenecks
and introduces resilience in the WLAN equipment.
 Flexible Architecture: Supports both temporary smaller networks and
larger, more permanent ones.
 Prolonged Battery Life: Efficient power-saving protocols extend mobile
device battery life without compromising network connections.
Disadvantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 Noisy Channels: Due to reliance on radio waves, signals may experience
interference from nearby devices.
 Greater Bandwidth and Complexity: Due to necessary data encryption
and susceptibility to errors, WLANs need more bandwidth than their
wired counterparts.
 Speed: Generally, WLANs offer slower speeds compared to wired LANs.
Applications of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 Home Networking: Connecting devices, laptops, smart TVs, speakers,
gaming consoles etc.
 Wi-Fi Hotspots: Free or paid internet access to visitors in coffee shops,
hotels, airports, malls and restaurants.
 Connectivity in Campus: Provide internet access in university, colleges,
schools or corporate campuses.

Differentiate between infrastructure mode and

the ad hoc mode of IEEE 802.11
802.11 architecture uses two types of modes, which are as follows −
Infrastructure Mode
The most popular mode used to connect clients like laptops and smartphones
to another network such as company intranet or internet.
This mode is shown below −

In infrastructure mode every client is associated with an Access point which is

in turn connected to another network. The client sends and receives its packet
via Access Point.
Ad-Hoc Mode
Collections of computers are associated so that they can directly send frames
to each other. There is no Access Point in Ad hoc, because Internet access is the
killer application for wireless. Ad hoc networks are not very popular.
This mode is shown below −

Differences
The major differences between Infrastructure and ad hoc mode are as follows −

Infrastructure mode ad hoc mode

In this mode, the transmitter and In the ad hoc mode transmitter and
receivers are in direct range of the receivers can communicate directly with
access point (AP). each other.

In this mode AP handles all wireless In ad hoc mode there is no need for an
nodes within the range. access point in the range.

In this mode each client's security Since in ad hoc mode there is no AP, the
setting must be configured to match network users have to configure what
the security setting of the access are the correct security settings and it
point (AP). must have to match with each client’s
security settings in the network.

In this mode, a client or a system can Since ad hoc is peer to peer mode with
only communicate with connected no central access point, it also allows
clients in managed mode. internet between any two connected
Infrastructure mode ad hoc mode

clients.

More widely used. Most of the IEEE 802.11 transmitter and

Generally used at airport lounge, receivers support the ad hoc mode.
hotel lobby, railway station etc. Generally used in the Military arena (for
sharing information among
soldiers),local area networks for
communication among a fixed group of
people etc.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is universal for short-range wireless voice and data communication.
It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for
exchanging data over smaller distances. This technology was invented by
Ericson in 1994. It operates in the unlicensed, industrial, scientific, and medical
(ISM) band from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz. Maximum devices that can be
connected at the same time are 7. Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters. It
provides data rates up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the version. The
spreading technique that it uses is FHSS (Frequency-hopping spread spectrum).
A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a collection of interconnected
piconets is called scatternet.
What is Bluetooth?
Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using
radio waves. It can be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth
but it should be within the estimated communication range to connect. When
two devices start to share data, they form a network called piconet which can
further accommodate more than five devices.
Points to remember for Bluetooth:
 Bluetooth Transmission capacity 720 kbps.
 Bluetooth is Wireless.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost short-distance radio communications standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 Bluetooth is cable replacement technology that can be used to connect
almost any device to any other device.
 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.
Bluetooth Architecture:
The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
1. Piconet
2. Scatternet

Piconet:
Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called
the master node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus,
we can say that there is a total of 8 active nodes which are present at a
distance of 10 meters. The communication between the primary and secondary
nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible communication is only
between the master and slave; Slave-slave communication is not possible. It
also has 255 parked nodes, these are secondary nodes and cannot take
participation in communication unless it gets converted to the active state.
Scatternet:
It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet
can act as master or we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node
can receive a message from a master in one piconet and deliver the message to
its slave in the other piconet where it is acting as a master. This type of node is
referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be mastered in two piconets.
Bluetooth protocol stack:

1. Radio (RF) layer: It specifies the details of the air interface, including
frequency, the use of frequency hopping and transmit power. It performs
modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals. It defines the
physical characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines two types of
physical links: connection-less and connection-oriented.
2. Baseband Link layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth
system and is equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the
connection establishment within a piconet, addressing, packet format,
timing and power control.
3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the
already established links which includes authentication and encryption
processes. It is responsible for creating the links, monitoring their health,
and terminating them gracefully upon command or failure.
4. Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol layer: It is also
known as the heart of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the
communication between upper and lower layers of the Bluetooth
protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper layers
into the form expected by lower layers. It also performs segmentation
and multiplexing.
5. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) layer: It is short for Service Discovery
Protocol. It allows discovering the services available on another
Bluetooth-enabled device.
6. RF comm layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for Radio
Frontend Component. It provides a serial interface with WAP and OBEX.
It also provides emulation of serial ports over the logical link control and
adaption protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on the ETSI standard TS
07.10.
7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to
exchange objects between 2 devices.
8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet
access.
9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony
service. The basic function of this layer is call control (setup & release)
and group management for the gateway serving multiple devices.

10.Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.

Types of Bluetooth
Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market nowadays. Let us look at
them.
 In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker system without
the use of mobile phones.
 Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music players at home.
 Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of Bluetooth with their
laptop or phone.
 Bluetooth-equipped Printer: The printer can be used when connected via
Bluetooth with mobile phone or laptop.
 Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To use GPS in cars, one can
connect their phone with car system via Bluetooth to fetch the directions
of the address.
Advantage:
 It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.
 It can also penetrate through walls.
 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.
Disadvantages:
 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
 It has a slow data transfer rate: of 3 Mbps.
 It has a small range: 10 meters.
 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.
 The issues of handoffs have not been addressed.
Applications:
 It can be used in laptops, and in wireless PCs, printers.
 It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.
 It can connect a digital camera wirelessly to a mobile phone.
 It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files from
one cell phone to another cell phone or computer.
 It is used in the sectors of Medical health care, sports and fitness,
Military.

Wireless Application Protocol

The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a set of communication protocols
and an application programming model based on the World Wide Web
(WWW). Its hierarchical structure is quite similar to the TCP/IP protocol stack
design.
What is Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)?
WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for
micro-browsers and it enables access to the internet in mobile devices. It uses
the markup language WML (Wireless Markup Language and not HTML), WML
is defined as an XML 1.0 application. It enables the creation of web applications
for mobile devices. In 1998,
WAP Forum was founded by Ericson, Motorola, Nokia and Unwired Planet
whose aim was to standardize the various wireless technologies via protocols.
WAP protocol resulted from the joint efforts of the various members of WAP
Forum. In 2002, WAP forum was merged with various other forums in the
industry resulting in the formation of
Open Mobile Alliance (OMA)

WAP Model
The user opens the mini-browser in a mobile device. He selects a website that
he wants to view. The mobile device sends the URL encoded request via
network to a WAP gateway using WAP protocol.
The WAP gateway translates this WAP request into a conventional HTTP URL
request and sends it over the internet. The request reaches to a specified web
server and it processes the request just as it would have processed any other
request and sends the response back to the mobile device through WAP
gateway in WML file which can be seen in the micro-browser.
WAP Protocol stack

1. Application Layer: This layer contains the Wireless Application

Environment (WAE). It contains mobile device specifications and content
development programming languages like WML.
2. Session Layer: This layer contains Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). It
provides fast connection suspension and reconnection.
3. Transaction Layer: This layer contains Wireless Transaction Protocol
(WTP). It runs on top of UDP (User Datagram Protocol) and is a part
of TCP/IP and offers transaction support.
4. Security Layer: This layer contains Wireless Transport Layer
Security (WTLS). It offers data integrity, privacy and authentication.
5. Transport Layer: This layer contains Wireless Datagram Protocol. It
presents consistent data format to higher layers of WAP protocol stack.
Why Use WAP?
The following advantages for wireless network operators, content producers,
and end users were put out by WAP when it was first introduced in 1999:
Operators of wireless networks and mobile phones: WAP was created with
the intention of enhancing already-existing wireless data services, such as
voicemail, and facilitating the creation of new mobile applications. Without
making any further infrastructure adjustments or phone modifications, these
applications might be created.
Content Provider: For third-party application developers, WAP opened up a
market for extra applications and mobile phone features. It was suggested that
developers use the WML programming language to write applications for
mobile devices.
End users: Access to online services like banking, entertainment, messaging,
and other information on mobile devices should be simple and safe for users of
mobile phones. WAP could also permit access.
Advantages of Wireless Application Protocol
The benefits of Wireless Application Protocol, or WAP, are listed below:
 WAP is a rapidly evolving technology.
 Wireless Application Protocol is an open source that is totally free of
cost.
 WAP can be used over multiple platforms.
 Neither it nor network standards are affected.
 Higher controlling possibilities are offered.
 It follows a model that is similar to the Internet.
 You can send and receive real-time data with WAP.
 WAP is supported by the majority of current mobile phones and devices.
Disadvantages of Wireless Application Protocol
The following is a list of various Wireless Application Protocol, or WAP,
drawbacks:
 WAP connection speed is slow and number of connections are less.
 At some places it is very difficult to access the Internet, and also at some
places it is totally impossible.
 Less secure.
 WAP provides a small User interface (UI).