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Operating System
Introduction (UNIT I)

Dr. Indrajeet Kumar

Department of CSE
Graphic Era Hill University
Dehradun

Introduction
• OS provides interface
between user and
hardware. USERS

OPERATING
• It is a system software. SYSTEM

SYSTEM HARDWARE
• It manages everything.

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What is an Operating System?

• A program that acts as an intermediary between
a user of a computer and the computer
hardware.
• Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving
user problems easier.
 Make the computer system convenient to use.
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient
manner.

Operating System Definition

• OS is a resource allocator
– Manages all resources (OS as a government).
– Decides between conflicting requests for
efficient and fair resource use.
• OS is a program controller
– Controls execution of programs to prevent
errors and improper use of the computer.
• Resource allocation and control is especially
important when having several users connected
to the same mainframe or microcomputer.

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Operating System Definition (Cont)

• “The one program running at all times on
the computer” is the kernel.
• Operating System works like a
Government, manage everything.

Operating System Design & Goals

• Each OS has different goals and design:
– Mainframe – maximize HW utilization/efficiency.
– PC – maximum support to user applications.
– Handheld – convenient interface for running
applications, performance per amount of battery life.

efficiency convenience

Performance, simplicity of use

resource utilization

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Abstract view of OS
User User User User Program
1 2 3 N interface

Compiler Assembler Text editor MS Word

Level 2 System and application program

Operating User
Level 1 System program
OS
Computer Hardware interface
Level 0

OS Functions
• Operating system controls and
coordinates the use of hardware among
application programs.
• The major services of an operating system are −
• Process Management
• Memory Management
• I/O Device Management
• File Management
• Storage Management
• Security & Protection

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Process Management
• Scheduling processes and threads on the
CPU.
• Creating and deleting user and system
level process.
• Suspending and resuming the process.
• Providing the mechanism for process
synchronization and Process
communication.

Memory Management
• Keeping track of which part of memory are
currently being used by whom.

• Deciding which process & data to move

into and out of memory.

• Allocating and de-allocating memory

space as needed.

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File Management
• Creating and deleting files.
• Creating and deleting directories to
organize files.
• Supporting primitives for manipulating files
and directories.
• Mapping files onto secondary storage.
• Backing up files on stable or nonvolatile
storage media.

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Storage Management
• Free space management.
• Storage allocation.

• Disk Scheduling.
Migration of data from HDD to HW register

Magnetic Main Cache H/W

Disk Memory memory Register

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I/O System Management

• A memory management component that
includes buffering caching, and spooling.
• A general device driver interface.

• Drivers for specific hardware devices.

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Protection & Security

• Protection is a mechanism for controlling
the access of processes or users to the
resources defined by computer system.
• Protection can improve the reliability by
detecting latent errors at the interfaces
between components.

• Early detection can improve the system

performances.

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• To avoid the loss or unauthorized access

of data, system security accounts an
important role.

• It is job of system security to defend a

system from external or internal attacks.

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Evolution of Operating system

Electronic
Generation Year Types of OS Device
device used

First 1945-55 Vaccum Tubes Plug Boards

Second 1955-65 Transistors Batch Systems

Integrated
Third 1965-80 Multiprogramming
Circuits (IC)

Large Scale
Fourth Since 1980 PC
Integration

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Operating System Operations

• Operating systems operate in dual mode:
– Kernel Mode (0)
– User Mode (1)

• With the mode bit, we are able to

distinguish between a task executed by
OS or executed by users.

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Transition from user to kernel

mode
• Transition from user to kernel mode

User Process
User
Mode
User Process Calls system Return from
(bit=1)
executing call system call

Kernel Trap mode bit=0 return mode bit=1 Kernel

Mode
Execute system calls
(bit=0)

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Types of Operating System

• Some of the widely used operating
systems are as:
• Batch Operating System
• Time-Sharing Operating Systems
• Distributed Operating System
• Network Operating System
• Real-Time Operating System
• Clustered System
• Handheld System

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Batch Operating System

• In this type of system, there is no direct
interaction between user and the computer.
• The user has to submit a job (written on cards or
tape) to a computer operator.
• It is the responsibility of operator to sort the jobs
with similar needs.
• Then computer operator places a batch of
several jobs on an input device.
• Jobs are batched together by type of languages
and requirement.

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Batch Operating System Structure

Examples: Payroll System, Bank Statements etc.

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Advantages of Batch Operating

System:
• It is very difficult to guess or know the time
required by any job to complete.
• Multiple users can share the batch
systems.
• The idle time for batch system is very less
• It is easy to manage large work repeatedly
in batch systems.

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Disadvantages of Batch Operating

System
• The computer operators should be well
known with batch systems.
• Batch systems are hard to debug.

• It is sometime costly.
• The other jobs will have to wait for an
unknown time if any job fails.

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Time-Sharing Operating Systems

• Each task is given some time to execute, so that all the
tasks work smoothly.
• Each user gets time of CPU as they use single system.
• These systems are also known as
Multitasking/Multiprogramming Systems.
• The task can be from single user or from different users
also.
• The time that each task gets to execute is called
quantum.
• After this time interval is over OS switches over to next
task.

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Examples: Multics, Unix etc.

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Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages:
– Each task gets an equal opportunity
– Less chances of duplication of software
– CPU idle time can be reduced
Disadvantages:
– Reliability problem
– One must have to take care of security and
integrity of user programs and data
– Data communication problem

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Distributed Operating System

• Various autonomous interconnected
computers communicate each other using
a shared communication network.
• These are referred as loosely coupled
systems or distributed systems.

• Remote access is enabled within the

devices connected in that network

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Examples: LOCUS etc.

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Advantages:
• Failure of one will not affect the other network
communication, as all systems are independent from
each other.
• Since resources are being shared, computation is
highly fast and durable.
• Load on host computer reduces.
• These systems are easily scalable as many systems
can be easily added to the network.
• Delay in data processing reduces.

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Disadvantages:
• Failure of the main network will stop the
entire communication
• To establish distributed systems the
language which are used are not well
defined yet.
• These types of systems are not readily
available as they are very expensive.
• Underlying software is highly complex and
not understood well.

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Network Operating System

• These systems run on a server and provide the
capability to manage data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking
functions.
• These type of operating systems allow shared
access of files, printers, security, applications,
and other networking functions over a small
private network.
• The connected computers are popularly known
as tightly coupled systems.

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Network Operating System Structure

Examples: Microsoft Windows Server 2003, 2008,

UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare etc.

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Advantages:

• Highly stable centralized servers.

• Security concerns are handled through
servers.
• New technologies and hardware up-
gradation are easily integrated to the
system.
• Server access are possible remotely from
different locations and types of systems.

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Disadvantages:

• Servers are costly.

• User has to depend on central location for

most operations.

• Maintenance and updates are required

regularly.

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Real-Time Operating Systems

• These types of OSs serves the real-time
systems.

• The time interval required to process and

respond to inputs is very small. This time interval
is called response time.

• Real-time systems are used when there are

time requirements are very strict like missile
systems, air traffic control systems, robots etc.

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Types of RTOS
Hard Real-Time Systems: Soft Real-Time Systems:
• Where time constraints • These OSs are for
are very strict and even applications where for
the shortest possible time-constraint is less
delay is not acceptable. strict.

• Built for saving life like

automatic parachutes or
air bags which are
required to be readily
available in case of any
accident.

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Examples: Industrial control systems, weapon

systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

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Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages:
– Maximum resource utilization
– Less Task Shifting time
– Error Free

Disadvantages:
– Use heavy system resources:
– Complex Algorithms:
– Specific Device driver and interrupt signals

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Clustered Operating Systems

• Like parallel systems, clustered systems
gather together multiple CPUs to
accomplish computational work.
• Clustered systems differ from parallel
systems, however, in that they are
composed of two or more individual
systems coupled together.
• Clustering is usually performed to provide
high availability.

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Types of COS
• Asymmetric Clustering:
– In this, one machine is in hot standby mode
while the other is running the applications.

– The hot standby host (machine) does nothing

but monitor the active server.

– If that server fails, the hot standby host

becomes the active server.

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• Symmetric Clustering:

– In this, two or more hosts are running

applications, and they are monitoring each
other.

– This mode is obviously more efficient, as it

uses all of the available hardware.

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• Parallel Clustering:

– Parallel clusters allow multiple hosts to

access the same data on the shared storage.

– Because most operating systems lack

support for this simultaneous data access by
multiple hosts, parallel clusters are usually
accomplished by special versions of software
and special releases of applications.

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Handheld Operating Systems

• It includes Personal Digital Assistants
(PDAs), such as Palm-Pilots or Cellular
Telephones with connectivity to a network
like Internet.
• They are usually of limited size due to
which most handheld devices have a small
amount of memory, include slow
processors, and feature small display
screens.

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Types of Operating System

• Some of the widely used operating
systems are as:

• Single User Operating System

• Multi-User Operating System

• Multi-Tasking Operating System

• Multiprocessing Operating System

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Single User Operating System

• As name suggests, OS is designed for one user

to effectively use a computer at a time.

• Examples: DOS, Old versions of window, etc.

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Multi-user Operating Systems

• This type of OS allows multiple users to
simultaneously use the system.
• The processor splits its resources and handles
one user at a time.

• some network systems utilize this kind of

operating system.

• Example: UNIX, Linux, MAC etc.

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Multi-Tasking Operating System

• In this type of OS several applications
maybe simultaneously loaded and used in
the memory.
• While the processor handles only one
application at a particular time it is capable
of switching between the applications
effectively to apparently simultaneously
execute each application.
• Example: Windows OS.

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Multi-processing Operating Systems

• Systems with more than one CPU in close
communication, Also known as multi-
processing systems.

• Tightly coupled system.

Advantages
 Increased throughput.

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Types
• Asymmetric multiprocessing:

– Each processor is assigned a specific task.

– Master processor schedules and allocated

work to slave processors.

– Suitable for extremely large systems.

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• Symmetric multiprocessing:

– Each processor runs and identical copy of the

operating system.
– Many processes can run at once without
performance decline.

– Most modern operating systems support

SMP.

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Advantages:
• Increase throughput: by increasing
number of processors, to get more work
done in less time.
• Economy of Scale: They can share
peripherals, mass storage, and power
supplies etc.
• Increase Reliability: If failure one
processor will not halt the system, only
slow down.

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Abstract View of OS

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View of Operating System Services

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OS services and Functions

• User Interface
• Program execution
• I/O Operations
• File system manipulations
• Communications
• Error detection
• Resource allocation
• Accounting
• Protection & Security

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Architecture of Operating System

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Operating Systems Working

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UNIX OS Structure

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Summary

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Multi-Programmed Systems
• Multi-programming increases CPU utilization by
organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to
execute.
• The operating system keeps several jobs in memory
simultaneously as shown in fig.
• In Multi-programming system,
the Operating system simply
switches to, and execute, another job.
• When that job needs to wait, the
CPU is switched to another job, and
So on.

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OS Features Needed for Multiprogramming

• I/O routine supplied by the system
• Memory management – the system must allocate
the memory to several jobs
• CPU scheduling – the system must choose among
several jobs ready to run
• Allocation of devices

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Multiprogramming
• The OS gives each process a certain timeslice
(quantum) to run.
• Control is passed to another process if:
 Running process ends before time slice expires
 running process leaves the system.
 Running process needs and I/O operation
running
 process joins the I/O device queue,
 Time slice expires
 running process goes back to the CPU queue.

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Process States in a Multiprogrammed OS

.

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Operating System Interface

• There are two fundamental ways for user
to interface with the OS:
– Command interpreter
– Graphical user interface
• Command interpreter allows users to
directly enter commands to be performed
by the OS.
• GUI provides the interface with the OS via
graphical user interface.

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Command Interpreter
• Some OS includes CLI in the kernel.

• Some OS treat CLI as program that is

running when a job is initiated.

• The main function of CLI is to get and

execute the user level command.

• Example: rm file.txt

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Graphical user interface

• A strategy for interfacing with the OS is
through user friendly interface i.e., GUI.

• In this rather entering commands, user

employs a mouse based window and
menu driven desktop system.

• GUI firstly appeared in 1973 at Xerox Alto

computer.

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System Call
• System calls provide an interface to the
services available as by an OS.
• These calls are generally written in C/C++,
or some low-level language.
• Mostly accessed by Application Program
Interface (API)
• Common API is WIN32 API, POSIX API,
JAVA API etc.

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Examples
Copy the content of one file to another file.

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System Call
• System calls provide an interface to the
services available as by an OS.
• These calls are generally written in C/C++,
or some low-level language.
• Mostly accessed by Application Program
Interface (API)
• Common API is WIN32 API, POSIX API,
JAVA API etc.

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Types of system call

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Process control
• End, abort.

• Load, Execute.

• Create process, terminate process.

• Get process attribute, set process attribute

• Wait event, signal event

• Allocate and free memory.

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File management
• Crete file, delete file

• Open file, Close file.

• Read, write, reposition.

• Get file attributes, set file attributes.

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Device management
• Request device, release device

• Read, write, reposition.

• Logically attach or detach device.

• Get device attributes, set device attributes.

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Information management
• Get time or date, Set time or date

• Get system data, Set system data,

• Get process, file or device attributes

• Set process, file or device attributes

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Communication
• Create or delete communication
connections.

• Send, receive message

• Transfer status information

• Attach or detach remote devices

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System Programs
• System programs provide a convenient environment for
program development and execution. They can be divided
into:
– File manipulation
– Status information
– File modification
– Programming language support
– Program loading and execution
– Communications
– Application programs
• Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by
system programs, not the actual system calls

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Operating System Structure

• OS provides interface
between user and
hardware. USERS

OPERATING
SYSTEM
• It is a system software.
SYSTEM HARDWARE

• It manages everything.

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Simple Structure
• Initially OS don’t have well defined
structure.
• Such systems started as small, simple,
and limited systems.
• It was written to provide the most
functionality in the least space.
• Example: MS-DOS

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Structure
Application program

Resident System Program

MD-DOS device driver

ROM BIOS device driver

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Structure
Are able to access the basic I/O
routines to write directly to the
Application program
display and disk drives.

Resident System System programs like loader, linker,

Program etc.

MD-DOS device Contains device driver

driver

Contains ROM and BIOS device

ROM BIOS device driver driver information.

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Limitations
• Interfaces are not well separated.

• Levels of functionality are not well

separated.

• No dual mode of operation.

• No hardware protection.

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Layered Approach
• Provides better control over the computer
and application.

• Developer has more freedom to develop

modular operating system.

• Provides better debugging and verification

facility.

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Structure
Layer N user
interface

Layer 1

Layer 0
(H/W)

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Limitations
• Difficulty with defining the functionality of
layers.
• Requirement of CPU scheduler.

• More overheads during system calls.

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Microkernels
• In the mid 1980’s, microkernel approach is adopted
to expand the UNIX kernel.
• In this all non-essential component of the kernel are
removed and implementing them as user-level
program.
• The size of kernel is reduced.
• It provides minimal process and memory
management.
• It provides communication between the client
program and various services that are running in
user space.

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Structure

Application
File system
Device User
Program driver
Mode

messages messages

Memory CPU
IPC Manage scheduli Kernel
ment ng Mode
Microkernel

Hardware

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Pros & Cons

• It makes extending the OS easier.
• OS is easier to port from one hardware
design to another.
• It provides more security and reliability.
• If a service fails, the rest of the OS remain
untouched.
• Cons:
More system function overhead.

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Modules
• In this kernel has a set of core component.
• Core components link in additional
services via modules either at boot time or
run time.
• The idea for the design is for the kernel to
provide core services while other services
are implemented dynamically.

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Structure

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Advantages
• More flexible than layered structure.
• More efficient than microkernel.

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Hybrid system
• Mac OS X Structure (Mac book, Mac
desktop/Laptop)
• iOS (iPad/iPhone)
• Google Andriod (Mobile phone/Smart TVs)

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Mac OS X structure

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Mac OS X structure
User Interface

Cocoa: Programming language

for application development.
BSD: command interface.

Kernel environment: consist of

microkernel and BSD.
Mach: Helpful in RPC and
memory management.
I/O Kit: development of device
driver.
Kernel Extensions: Dynamically
loadable modules.

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Architecture of Apple’s iOS

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Architecture of Apple’s iOS

Cocoa: Programming language for
application development for mobile.
Provides services for graphics,
audio, and video.
Provides variety of services, like
cloud computing and DBMS.
Core OS based on kernel
environment.

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Android OS

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Applications.

Application framework

ARE: Set of libraries and Dalvik virtual

machine.
DVM: designed for Android and is
optimized for mobile devices with
limited memory and CPU processing
capability.
Libraries: SQLite, webKit, media
framework etc.

Used for process, memory, and

device driver support.

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LINUX/WINDOWS
Operating System

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History
• Linux is a modern, free operating system based on UNIX
standards.
• First developed as a small but self-contained kernel in 1991
by Linus Torvalds, with the major design goal of UNIX
compatibility.
• Its history has been one of collaboration by many users
from all around the world.
• It has been designed to run efficiently and reliably on
common PC hardware, but also runs on a variety of other
platforms.
• The core Linux operating system kernel is entirely original,
but it can run much existing free UNIX software, resulting in
an entire UNIX-compatible operating system free from
proprietary code.

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Components of a Linux System

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Components of a Linux System

• Linux is composed of three main bodies of code: Kernel,
System Library & system utilities.

• The kernel is responsible for maintaining the

important abstractions of the operating system
– Kernel code executes in kernel mode with full access
to all the physical resources of the computer.
– All kernel code and data structures are kept in the
same single address space.

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Components of a Linux System

 The system libraries define a standard set of
functions through which applications interact with
the kernel, and which implement much of the
operating-system functionality that does not need
the full privileges of kernel code

 The system utilities perform individual

specialized management tasks

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LINUX Startup stages

• Press the power button on your system, and
after few moments you see the Linux login
prompt.
• Have you ever wondered what happens
behind the scenes from the time you press
the power button until the Linux login prompt
appears?
• The following are the 6 high level stages of a
typical Linux boot process.

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Linux OS startup stages

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LINUX VS WINDOWS NT

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LINUX VS WINDOWS NT

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Questions
• How to install an operating system?
• What is booting?
• What is difference between Linux and Windows operating
system.
• Which file system is used for LINUX and Windows?
• What is difference between Volatile and Non-volatile storage
media?
• What is the directory structure of Linux and Windows
operating system?
• Difference between user and kernel mode of operating
system.
• Why protection and security is important for OS?

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Thank you

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