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Ece Finals Notes

This document defines control systems and feedback loops, and provides examples of their applications and history. It also discusses open and closed loop system configurations, with closed loops able to correct for disturbances using feedback. The document then covers Laplace transforms and transfer functions, which are mathematical tools used to model and analyze control systems. It provides the definitions and properties of the Laplace transform and discusses using transfer functions to represent system behavior.

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Cassie Cutie
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40 views

Ece Finals Notes

This document defines control systems and feedback loops, and provides examples of their applications and history. It also discusses open and closed loop system configurations, with closed loops able to correct for disturbances using feedback. The document then covers Laplace transforms and transfer functions, which are mathematical tools used to model and analyze control systems. It provides the definitions and properties of the Laplace transform and discusses using transfer functions to represent system behavior.

Uploaded by

Cassie Cutie
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1.

1 Definition and History of Feedback and Control Systems

Definition of Control Systems:


• Assembled subsystems and processes for desired output with specified performance.
Key Performance Measures:
• Transient response: Influences comfort and patience.
• Steady-state error: Critical for safety and convenience.
Examples of Control System Applications:
• Elevator: Input (floor button) → Output (elevator reaches specified floor).
Four Primary Reasons for Building Control Systems:
1. Power amplification
2. Remote control
3. Convenience of input form
4. Compensation for disturbances
History of Control Systems:
1. Liquid-Level Control (Around 300 B.C.):
• Greeks: Water clock by Ktesibios, controlled water trickle.
2. Steam Pressure and Temperature Control (17th Century):
• Denis Papin (1681): Safety valve for steam pressure.

• Cornelis Drebbel in Holland: Mechanical temperature control for egg incubation.


3. Speed Control (18th Century):
• Edmund Lee (1745): Speed control applied to windmill.
• William Cubbit (1809): Improved the idea by dividing the windmill sail into movable louvers.
• James Watt: Invented flyball speed governor for steam engines.
4. Stability, Stabilization, and Steering (19th Century):
• James Clerk Maxwell (1868): Stability criterion. Third-order system.
• Edward John Routh (1874): Inspired by a suggestion from William Kingdon Clifford, expanded the stability criterion
to fifth-order systems. In 1877, Routh's paper "A Treatise on the Stability of a Given State of Motion" won the
Adams Prize, ''The Criterion of Dynamical Stability'', introducing the Routh-Hurwitz criterion for stability.
Additionally, Alexandr Michailovich Lyapunov, a student of P. L. Chebyshev, extended Routh's work to nonlinear
systems in his 189 doctoral thesis, "The General Problem of Stability of Motion."
• Henry Bessemer (1874): used gyro to sense a ship's motion and for ship stability.
5. Twentieth-Century Developments:
• Nicholas Minorsky (1885): Applied theoretical development to ship steering.
• H.W. Bode, H. Nyquist (1920s-1930s): Developed feedback amplifier analysis
• Walter R. Evans: Introduced root locus technique for characteristic equation analysis.
1.2 Control System Configurations
Open Loop Systems:
• Input transducer converts input to controller format.
• Controller drives the process or plant without correcting for disturbances.
• Disadvantages: Sensitivity to disturbances, inability to correct for disturbances.
Closed Loop Systems:
• Input transducer converts input to controller format.
• Output transducer measures output response for feedback.
• System compensates for disturbances by comparing output to input and making corrections.
• No difference between responses means no correction needed.

OPEN LOOP CLOSED LOOP


Simple Complex
No feedback With feedback
No error detection With error detection
Output not varies on input Output varies on the input (due to feedback)
Small bandwidth Large bandwidth
Economically cheap Costly
Stable Subject to instability
Prone to disturbance Not prone to disturbance

Analysis and Design Objectives:


• Analysis: Determines system performance (e.g., transient response, steady-state error).
• Design: Creates or modifies system performance based on analysis.
• Control system is dynamic: Undergoes transient response before reaching steady-state response.
Example System Performance and Response:
• Three major objectives: Desired transient response, reduced steady-state error, and achieving stability.
Control System Design Process:

Test Waveforms:
• Analytical and testing use test input signals.
• Impulse: Infinite at t = 0, zero elsewhere. Approximation places initial energy for transient response.
• Step input: Represents constant command (e.g., position, velocity).
• Ramp input: Linearly increasing command.
• Sinusoidal inputs: Used to test physical systems and arrive at mathematical models.
2.1 Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform is defined as

where a complex variable. Thus, knowing f(t) and that the integral in the equation exists, we can find a function,
F(s), that is called the Laplace transform of f(t).
The notation for the lower limit means that even if f(t) is discontinuous at t=0, we can start the integration prior to the
discontinuity as long as the integral converges. Thus, we can find the Laplace transform of impulse functions. This property has
distinct advantages when applying the Laplace transform to the solution of differential equations where the initial conditions are
discontinuous at t=0.
Using differential equations, we have to solve for the initial conditions after the discontinuity knowing the initial conditions
before the discontinuity. Using the Laplace transform we need only know the initial conditions before the discontinuity.

2.2 Transfer Function


To find the inverse Laplace transform of a complicated function, we can convert the function to a sum of simpler terms for which
we know the Laplace transform of each term. The result is called a partial-fraction expansion.

If where the order of N(s) is less than the order of D(s), then a partial-fraction expansion can be made. If the
order of N(s) is greater than or equal to the order of D(s), then N(s) must be divided by D(s) successively until the result has a
remainder whose numerator is of order less than its denominator.

3.1 Transfer Function of Electrical Networks

Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier is an electronic amplifier used as a basic building block to implement transfer functions. It has the
following characteristics:
1. Differential input
2. High input impedance
3. Low output impedance
4. High constant gain amplification
Inverting Operational Amplifier Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier

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