Chapter 1 Class Notes on Electromagnetic Fields – ECEg 2110

Chapter 1
REVIEW OF VECTOR CALCULUS

1.1 A Short Review of Vector Calculus

a. Field

E lectromagnetic theory is essentially a study of some particular field. We

define a field as a function which specifies a particular quantity
everywhere in a region. If the quantity is a scalar (or vector), the field is said to
be scalar (or vector) field. Examples of scalar fields include temperature
distribution in a building, sound intensity in a theater and electric potential in
a region. The gravitational force on a body in space, the velocity of raindrops in
the atmosphere and the velocity of fluid particles in a fluid motion are
examples of vector fields. The field may change with time (time-varying field)
or remains the same (static/ stationary field).

b. Line, Surface and Volume Integrals

Given a vector field A and a curve L, the integral
b

∫
L
A ⋅ dl = ∫ A cos θ dl
a
1.1

is called the line integral of A around L (fig. 1.1).

b
A

c
θ
dl

fig. 1.1

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on Electromagnetic Fields – ECEg 2110

It is the integral of the tangential component of A along the curve L. If the path
of integration is a closed curve, such as abca, Eq. 1.1 becomes a closed contour
integral

∫ A ⋅ dl
L
1.2

which is called the circulation of A around L.

Exercise 1
If B = x 2 y a x + xy 2 a y , find the circulation of B around the path L shown below.
y
(Answer: 0)

1
2
1

x
3 1

Exercise 2
Given that F = x 2 a x − xz a y − y 2 a z , calculate the circulation of F around the closed

path shown below. (Answer: − 16 )

z

4 3

1 y
2 1
1

Given a vector field A, continuous in a region containing the smooth surface S,

the surface integral or flux of A through S (fig. 1.2) is defined as

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on Electromagnetic Fields – ECEg 2110

∫
ψ = A ⋅ ds
S
1.3
= ∫ A ⋅a n ds = ∫∫ A cos θ ds
S S

where at any point on S, an is the unit normal to S. For a closed surface

(defining a volume), Eq.1.3 becomes

∫
ψ = A ⋅ ds
S
1.4

which is referred to as the net outward flux of A from S. Notice that a closed
surface defines an open surface while a closed surface defines a volume.

an
θ

fig 1.2

The integral

∫ ρ dv = ∫∫∫ ρ dv
V
v v 1.5

is defined as the volume integral of the scalar ρv over the volume V.

The physical meaning of a line, surface or volume integral depends on the

nature of the physical quantities represented by A or ρv.

Note that in Cartesian coordinates:

dl = dx a x + dy a y + dz a z
ds = dydza x + dxdz a y + dxdy a z
dv = dxdydz

∇)
c. The Del Operator (∇

The del operator,∇, is the vector differential operator. In Cartesian coordinates:

∂ ∂ ∂
∇≡ ax + ay + az 1.6
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on Electromagnetic Fields – ECEg 2110

The operator is useful in defining:

i. The gradient of a scalar V, written as ∇V

ii. The divergence of a vector A, written as ∇ ⋅ A

iii. The curl of a vector A, written as ∇ × A , and

iv. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇ 2V .

i. The Gradient of a Scalar

The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude
and directions of the maximum space rate of increase of V.

Let V1, V2, and V3 be surfaces on which V, say temperature, is constant.

Let dV be the difference in the field between points P1 and P2 (fig. 1.3). We
want to know how V changes over the infinitesimal distance dl.

V3
∆V
V 2 = V 1 +∆ V
V1

P1 G
θ
P2

∆V
fig. 1.3

∂V ∂V ∂V
dV = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂V ∂V ∂V 
= 
∂
ax +
∂
ay +
∂
(
a z  ⋅ dx a x + dy a y + dz a z )
 x y z 
∂V ∂V ∂V
Let G= ax + ay + az ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
then dV = G ⋅ dl = G cos θ dl , or

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on Electromagnetic Fields – ECEg 2110

dV
= G cos θ
dl
where dl is the differential displacement from P1 to P2 and θ is the angle
dV
between G and dl. is maximum when θ = 0, i.e., when dl is in the direction
dl
of G, hence:
dV
=G
dl max

Thus G has its magnitude and direction as that of the maximum rate of change
of V. By definition, G is the gradient of V. Therefore,

∂V ∂V ∂V
grad V ≡ ∇V = ax + ay + az 1.7
∂x ∂y ∂z

Fundamental Properties of the gradient of a scalar field V:

1. The magnitude of ∇V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit

distance.

2. ∇V points in the direction of maximum rate of change in V.

3. ∇V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface which passes

through that point.( dV = ∇V ⋅ dl = 0 ⇒ ∇V ⊥ dl )

4. The projection (or component) of ∇V in the direction of a unit vector a is

∇V ⋅ a and is called the directional derivative of V along a.
Example 1
A metal plate occupies the region 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 of the xy plane. The temperature
of the plate is known to be T = xy (1 − x)(1 − y ) . In what direction should an insect at the
point (¼, ⅓) move in order to cool off as quickly as possible?

Exercise 3
1. Prove:
i. ∇(U + V ) = ∇U + ∇V
ii. ∇(UV ) = U∇V + V∇U
 U  V∇U − U∇V
iii. ∇  =
V  V2
iv. ∇U n = nU n−1∇U

2. Find the gradient of the following scalar fields:

b. U = e − z sin 2 x cosh y

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on Electromagnetic Fields – ECEg 2110

c. V = x 2 y + xyz
dW
3. Given W = x 2 y 2 + xyz , compute ∇W and the directional derivative in the
dl
direction 3a x + 4a y + 12a z at (2,-1,0). (Answer: − 13
44
).

4. Given Φ = xy + yz + xz , find the gradient of Φ at point (1,2,3) and the directional

derivative at the same point in the direction toward (3,4,4). (Ans: 5a x + 4a y + 3a z ,7)

ii. Divergence of a Vector Field and the Divergence Theorem

The net outflow of the flux of a vector field A from a closed surface S is
obtained from the integral ψ = ∫ A ⋅ ds (Eq. 1.4.) The divergence of A is
S

defined as the net outward flow of flux per unit volume over a closed
incremental surface. In other words, the divergence of A at a given point
P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
Hence:

div A = ∇ ⋅ A = lim
∫ A ⋅ ds
S
1.8a
∆V → 0 ∆V

In Cartesian coordinates:

∂Ax ∂A y ∂Az
∇⋅A = + + 1.8b
∂x ∂y ∂z

The divergence of a vector field can be viewed as simply the limit of the
field’s source strength per unit volume (or source density). It is positive
at a source point and negative at a sink point in the field, or zero where
there is neither sink nor source.

P P
P

Positive Divergence Negative Divergence Zero Divergence

fig 1.4

The Divergence Theorem: From Eq. 1.8, one can derive the relation

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on Electromagnetic Fields – ECEg 2110

∫ A ⋅ ds = ∫ ∇ ⋅ A dv
S V
1.9

It is called the divergence theorem. It states that the total outward flux of a
vector field A through a closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of
the divergence of A.

iii. Curl of a Vector Field and Stokes’s Theorem

We defined the circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L as the
integral ∫ A ⋅ dl
L
(Eq. 1.2). The curl of A is defined as an axial (or rotational)

vector whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the
area tends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area
where the area is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum. That is:



curl A = ∇ × A =  lim
∫ A ⋅ dl  a
L
1.10
n
 ∆S →0 ∆S  max
 

where the are ∆S is bounded by the curve L; an is the unit vector normal to the
surface ∆S and is determined using the right-hand rule.

In Cartesian coordinates

ax ay az
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×A =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az

The physical significance of the curl of a vector field provides the maximum
value of the circulation of the field per unit area (or circulation density) and
indicates the direction in which this maximum value occurs. It can also be
considered as a measure of the circulation or how much the field curls around
a point P (fig. 1.5).

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on Electromagnetic Fields – ECEg 2110

P P P

Curl at point P out Curl at point P into Curl at point P is zero

of the page of the page

fig 1.5

Stokes’s Theorem: From Eq. 1.10 we can derive:

∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ (∇ × A) ⋅ ds
L S
1.11

It is called Stokes’s theorem. It states that the circulation of A around a closed

path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S

ds

S dl

Fig 1.6
bounded by L (fig 1.6)

iv. Laplacian of a Scalar

The Laplacian of a scalar field V, ∇ 2V , is defined as the divergence of the

gradient of V. Thus, in Cartesian

Laplacian V = ∇ ⋅ ∇V ≡ ∇ 2V
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V 1.12
= + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

A scalar field is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian vanishes

in that region, i.e.,

∇ 2V = 0 1.13

The solution for V in Eq. 1.13 is harmonic (it is of the form of sine or cosine).

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on Electromagnetic Fields – ECEg 2110

The Laplacian of a vector A is defined as the gradient of the divergence of A

minus the curl of the curl of A. i.e.,

∇ 2 A = ∇(∇ ⋅ A) − ∇ × ∇ × A 1.14

In Cartesian

∇ 2 A = ∇ 2 A x a x + ∇ 2 A y a y + ∇ 2 Az a z
 ∂ 2 A x ∂ 2 Ax ∂ 2 A x   ∂ 2 Ay ∂ 2 Ay ∂ 2 Ay 
a +  ∂ Az + ∂ Az + ∂ Az 
2 2 2
= + + a x +  + + a z
 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2   ∂x 2 ∂ y 2
∂z 2  y  ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 
     
1.15

d. Classification of Vector Fields

For a given vector field A, if ∇ ⋅ A = 0 , then A is said to be solenoidal or
divergenceless. Such a field has neither source nor sink of flux. From the
divergence theorem

∫ A ⋅ ds = ∫ ∇ ⋅ A dv = 0
S V

hence, flux lines of A entering any closed surface must also leave it. Examples
of solenoidal fields are incompressible fluid, magnetic fields, and conduction
current density under steady state conditions.

Since for any vector F, ∇ ⋅ (∇ × F) = 0 , a solenoidal field A can always be

expressed in terms of another vector F, i.e.,

if ∇ ⋅ A = 0 , then
A = ∇×F 1.16

A vector field is said to be irrotational or potential if curl-free, i.e., ∇ × A = 0 .

From Stokes’s theorem

∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ ( ∇ × A ) ⋅ ds = 0
L S

hence, in an irrotational field A, the circulation of A around a closed path is

identically zero. This implies that the line integral of A is independent of the
path chosen. Therefore, an irrotational field is also known as a conservative
field. Examples of irrotational fields include electrostatic fields and
gravitational fields.

Since ∇ × (∇V ) = 0 , an irrotational field A can always be expressed in terms of a

scalar field V; i.e.,

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on Electromagnetic Fields – ECEg 2110

if ∇ × A = 0 , then
A = −∇V 1.17
(the negative sign is inserted for physical reason.)

For this reason, A may be called a potential field and V the scalar potential of
A.

A vector field A is uniquely prescribed within a region by its divergence and its
curl. If we let
∇ ⋅ A = ρv (source density), and 1.18a
∇× A = ρs (circulation density) 1.18b
any vector A satisfying Eq. 1.18 with ρv and ρs vanishing at infinity can be
written as the sum of two vectors: one irrotational and the other solenoidal.
This is called Helmholtz’s theorem. Thus
A = −∇V + ∇ × B 1.19
If we let A i = −∇V and A s = ∇ × B , then ∇ × A i = 0 , ∇ ⋅ A s = 0 , showing that Ai is
irrotational and As is solenoidal.

Exercise 4
Prove the following identities.
1. ∇ ⋅ ( A + B) = ∇ ⋅ A + ∇ ⋅ B
2. ∇ × ( A + B) = ∇ × A + ∇ × B
3. ∇ ⋅ (VA) = V∇ ⋅ A + A ⋅ ∇V
4. ∇ ⋅ (∇ × A) = 0
5. ∇ × (∇V ) = 0
6. ∇ × (VA) = ∇V × A + V (∇ × A)
7. ∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇ ⋅ A) - ∇ 2 A

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Class Notes on
1.2. ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES Electromagnetic Fields ECEg-2110

1.2 Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates

Consider the equation:
f (x, y, z) = u (1.1)
where u is a constant. It defines a family of surfaces in space, each member
characterized by a particular value of the parameter u.

Example 1.1: x = u defines surfaces parallel to the yz-plane in Cartesian coor-

dinate.

Example 1.2: x = u1 , y = u2 , z = u3 are planes which are perpendicular to the

x-, y-, and z- axes respectively as shown in Fig.1.7
• The intersection of two planes is a line (example: RPQ: x = u1 , y = u2 )

• The intersection of three planes is a point (example: P(x, y, z))

• If P is (1, −5, 3), then P is the intersection of planes x = 1, y = −5, and

z = 3.

Consider now three equations:

f1 (x, y, z) = u1 , f2 (x, y, z) = u2 , f3 (x, y, z) = u3 , (1.2)

defining three families of surfaces that are mutually orthogonal. The inter-
section of three of these surfaces, one from each family, then defines a point in
space, and u1 , u2 , u3 are the orthogonal curvilinear coordinates of that point
(see Fig. 1.8).

Let dl1 be an element of length normal to the surface u1 . This is the distance
between the surfaces u1 and u1 + du1 . Then

dl1 = h1 du1 (1.3)

where h1 is, in general, a function of the coordinate u1 , u2 , u3 . Similarly,

dl2 = h2 du2 , dl3 = h3 du3 (1.4)

so that
dl = dl1 û1 + dl2 û2 + dl3 û3 (1.5)
The unit vectors û1 , û2 , û3 are normal to the u1 , u2 , u3 surfaces, respectively,
and are oriented toward increasing values of these coordinates. We assign
the subscripts 1,2,3 to these coordinates such that û1 × û2 = û3 .

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Class Notes on
1.2. ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES Electromagnetic Fields ECEg-2110

The surface element is

ds = dl2 dl3 û1 = h2 h3 du2 du3 û1
= dl1 dl3 û2 = h1 h3 du1 du3 û2 (1.6)
= dl1 dl2 û3 = h1 h2 du1 du2 û3

The volume element is

dv = dl1 dl2 dl3 = h1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3 (1.7)

The u’s and the h’s can be derived for Cartesian, Cylindrical and Spherical
coordinates.

1. Cartesian Coordinates (x, y, z):

f1 (x, y, z) = x, f2 (x, y, z) = y, f3 (x, y, z) = z,
so

u1 = x, u2 = y, u3 = z (1.8)
û1 = ax , û2 = ay , û3 = az (1.9)

The differential displacement is

dl = dx ax + dy ay + dz az

so that
h1 = h2 = h3 = 1 (1.10)
and
ds = dydz ax
= dxdz ay
(1.11)
= dxdy az
dv = dxdydz

2. Cylindrical Coordinates: (ρ, φ, θ)

0 ≤ ρ ≤ ∞, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, −∞ ≤ z ≤ ∞
f1 (x, y, z) = ρ, f2 (x, y, z) = φ, f3 (x, y, z) = z,
so

u1 = ρ, u2 = φ, u3 = z (1.12)
û1 = aρ , û2 = aφ , û3 = az (1.13)

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Class Notes on
1.2. ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES Electromagnetic Fields ECEg-2110

The differential displacement is

dl = dρ aρ + ρdφ aφ + dz az

so that
h1 = 1 h2 = ρ h3 = 1 (1.14)
and
ds = ρdφdz aρ
= dρdz aφ
(1.15)
= ρdρdφ az
dv = ρdρdφdz

3. Spherical Coordinates: (r, θ, φ)

0 ≤ r ≤ ∞, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π
f1 (x, y, z) = r, f2 (x, y, z) = θ, f3 (x, y, z) = φ,
so

u1 = r, u2 = θ, u3 = φ (1.16)
û1 = ar , û2 = aθ , û3 = aφ (1.17)

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Class Notes on
1.2. ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES Electromagnetic Fields ECEg-2110

The differential displacement is

dl = dr ar + rdθ aθ + r sin(θ)dφ aφ
so that
h1 = 1 h2 = r h3 = r sin θ (1.18)
and
ds = r2 sin(θ)dθdφ ar
= r sin(θ)drdφ aθ
(1.19)
= rdrdθ aφ
dv = r2 sin(θ)drdθdφ
Other orthogonal curvilinear coordinates of less interest include Parabolic
Cylindrical, Paraboloid, Elliptic Cylindrical, Prolate Spheroidal, Oblate Spheroidal,
Ellipsoidal, Bipolar, etc.

The table shown below summarizes the above results:

Curvilinear Cartesian Cylindrical Spherical

u1 x ρ r
u2 y φ θ
u3 z z φ
h1 1 1 1
h2 1 ρ r
h3 1 1 r sin(θ)
û1 ax aρ ar
û2 ay aφ aθ
û3 az az aφ

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Class Notes on
1.2. ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES Electromagnetic Fields ECEg-2110

Given a scalar V and a vector A = A1 û1 + A2 û2 + A3 û3 , it can be shown

that:
1 ∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
∇V = û1 + û2 + û3
h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇·A= (h2 h3 A1 ) + (h1 h3 A2 ) + (h1 h2 A3 )
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
h1 û1 h2 û2 h3 û3 (1.20)
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇×A=
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
h1 A1 h2 A2 h3 A3

2 1 ∂ h2 h3 ∂V ∂ h1 h3 ∂V ∂ h1 h2 ∂V
∇V = ( )+ ( )+ ( )
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 h1 ∂u1 ∂u2 h2 ∂u2 ∂u3 h3 ∂u3

Exercise 1.1: Write ∇V, ∇ · A, ∇ × A, and ∇2 V in cartesian, cylindrical and

spherical coordinates.

Exercise 1.2: Determine the gradient of the following scalar fields

1. V = ρz sin φ + z 2 cos2 φ + ρ2

2. f = cos θ sin φ ln r + r2 φ

Exercise 1.3: Determine the divergence and curl of the following vector fields

1. P = x2 yz ax + xz ay

2. Q = ρ sin φ aρ + ρ2 z aφ + z cos φ az
1
3. T = r2
cos θ ar + r sin θ cos φ aθ + cos θ aφ

Example 1.3: Given G(r) = 10e−2z (ρ aρ + az ), determine the flux of G out of

the entire surface of the cylinder ρ = 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1. Confirm the result using the
divergence theorem.

Exercise 1.4: Determine the flux of D = ρ2 cos2 φ aρ + z sin φ aφ over the closed
surface of the cylinder 0 ≤ z ≤ 1, ρ = 4. Verify the divergence theorem for this
case. (Ans. 64π)
H
Example 1.4: A = ρ cos φ aρ + sin φ aφ , evaluate A · dl around the path shown
below. Confirm the result using Stokes’s theorem.

Exercise 1.5: Let A = ρ sin φ aρ + ρ2 aφ . Evaluate A · dl for the contours shown

H

below. Use Stokes’s theorem to verify. (Ans. (a) 4π − 2, (b) 7π)

1
Exercise 1.6: Given that E = r4
sin2 φ ar , evaluate

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Class Notes on
1.2. ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES Electromagnetic Fields ECEg-2110

H
1. E · ds
R
2. V (∇·E)dV over the regions between the spherical surfaces r = 2 and r = 4.

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Chapter 2

Electrostatic Fields

An electrostatic field is produced by a static charge distribution. Electro-

static fields are governed by:

1. Coulomb’s law, and

2. Gauss’s law.

2.1 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law states that if point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points
having position vector r1 and r2 , then the vector force F12 on Q2 due to Q1
is (Figure 2.1)
Q1 Q2
F12 = aR (2.1)
4πεo R2 12
where

R12 = r2 − r1 (2.2a)
R = |R12 | (2.2b)
R12
aR12 = (2.2c)
R
10−9
εo = 8.854 × 10−12 ≈ Farad/m (2.2d)
36π
By substituting (2.2) in (2.1)

Q1 Q2 R12
F12 = (2.3)
4πεo R3

1
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.1. COULOMB’S LAW Electromagnetic Fields

or
Q1 Q2 (r2 − r1 )
F12 = (2.4)
4πεo |r2 − r1 |3
By the principle of superposition, if there are N charges Q1 , Q2 , . . . , QN
located respectively at r1 , r2 , . . . , rN , the resultant force F on a charge Q
located at r is
QQ1 (r − r1 ) QQ2 (r − r2 ) QQN (r − rN )
F= + + ··· + (2.5)
4πεo |r − r1 |3 4πεo |r − r1 |3 4πεo |r − rN |3
or
N
Q X Qk (r − rk )
F= (2.6)
4πεo |r − rk |3
k=1

2.1.1 Electric field Intensity E

The electric field intensity or electric field strength is defined as the force
per unit charge q when placed in the vicinity of a charge Q
F
E = lim (2.7)
q→0 q

or
F
E= N/C or Volt/m (2.8)
q
The electric field intensity at point r due to a point charge Q located at r0
is (from Eq. 2.4)

Q Q (r − r0 )
E= aR = (2.9)
4πεo R2 4πεo |r − r0 |3

For N point charges, E at point r is

N
1 X Qk (r − rk )
E= (2.10)
4πεo |r − rk |3
k=1

Example 2.1: Point charges 1 mC and -2 mC are located at (3, 2, −1) and (−1, −1, 4)
respectively. Calculate the electric force on a 10 nC charge located at (0, 3, 1) and
the electric field intensity at that point.

Exercise 2.1: Point charges 5 nC and -2 nC are located at (2, 0, 4) and (−3, 0, 5)
respectively

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Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.2. CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS Electromagnetic Fields

a. Determine the force on a 1 nC charge located at (1, −3, 7)

b. Find the electric field E at (1, −3, 7)

Ans. (a) −1.004ax − 1.284ay + 1.4az nN, (b) −1.004ax − 1.284ay + 1.4az
V/m.
Exercise 2.2: Eight identical point charges 1 nC each are placed one on each cor-
ner of a cube with side 2 m. Find the magnitude of the total force on each of the
charges. (Ans. 7.4 nN)

Exercise 2.3: Two point charges of equal mass m, charge Q are suspended at
a common point by two threads of negligible mass and length l. Show that at
equilibrium the inclination angle α of each thread to the vertical is given by

Q2 = 16πεo mgl2 sin2 α tan α

If α is very small, show that

s
3 Q2
α=
16πεo mgl2

(Hint: for small α, sin α ≈ tan α ≈ α )

Example 2.2: Electrostatic separation of solids: Florida phosphate ore, consisting

of small particles of quartz (-ve) and phosphate (+ve) rock, can be separated into
its components by using a uniform electric field as in Figure 2.2. Assuming zero
initial velocity and displacement, determine the separation between the particles
after falling 80 cm. Take E = 500 kV/m, Q/m = 9µC/kg.

2.2 Continuous Charge Distributions

Let the line charge density, surface charge density and volume charge density
be represented by ρl (C/m), ρs (C/m2 ) and ρv (C/m3 ) respectively. The
electric field due to each distribution is obtained by replacing Q in (2.10)
with charge elements ρl dl, ρs dS or ρv dV
Z
ρl dl
E = aR line charge (2.11)
4πεo R2
ZL
ρs dS
E = aR surface charge (2.12)
4πεo R2
ZS
ρv dV
E = a
2 R
volume charge (2.13)
V 4πεo R

Murad Ridwan, 3 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.3. ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY D Electromagnetic Fields

Note that R2 and aR vary as the integrals in the above equations are eval-
uated.

Example 2.3: Standard charge distributions: Derive the electric field intensity for
the charge distributions:
a. A finite length line charge
ρl
E= [−(sin α2 − sin α1 )aρ + (cos α2 − cos α1 )az ] (2.14)
4πεo ρ

b. Infinite line charge

ρl
E= aρ (2.15)
2πεo ρ
c. Infinite surface charge
ρs
E= an (2.16)
2εo
where an is a unit vector normal to the sheet surface.
Exercise 2.4: A circular ring of radius a carries a uniform charge ρl C/m and is
placed on the xy-plane with axis the same as the z−axis.
a. Show that
ρl ah
E(0, 0, h) = az
2εo (h2 + a2 )3/2
b. What value of h gives the maximum value of E? (ans. ± √a2 )
c. If the total charge on the ring is Q, find E as a → 0.
Exercise 2.5: Planes x = 2 and y = −3 respectively carry charges 10 nC/m2 and
15 nC/m2 . If the line x = 0, z = 2 carries charge 10π nC/m, calculate E at (1, 1, −1)
due to the three charge distributions. (ans. E = −162πax + 270πay − 54πaz V/m.)

2.3 Electric Flux Density D

The electric flux density D for linear isotropic homogeneous media is defined
as
D = εE C/m2 (2.17)
and the electric flux Ψ through a surface S is defined as
Z
Ψ= D · dS C (2.18)
S

Murad Ridwan, 4 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.4. GAUSS’S LAW Electromagnetic Fields

In SI units, one line of electric flux emanates from +1 C and terminated on

-1 C charge.

Example 2.4: Determine D at (4, 0, 3) if there is a point charge −5π mC at (4, 0, 0)

and a line charge 3π mC/m along the y−axis.

Exercise 2.6: The line y = 1, z = −3 carries charge 30 nC/m while the plane x = 1
carries charge 20 nC/m2 . Find D at the origin. (Ans. −10.01ax −0.478ay +1.434az
nC/m2 )

2.4 Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law states that the total electric flux Ψ through any closed surface
is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.

Ψ = Qenc (2.19)

Since I Z
Ψ= D · dS, Q= ρv dV
S V
then I Z
D · dS = ρv dV (2.20)
S V

By applying the divergence theorem,

I Z
D · dS = ∇ · DdV
S V

we have
∇ · D = ρv (2.21)
Equations (2.20) and (2.21) are the first of the four Maxwell’s Equations in
integral and differential forms, respectively.

Gauss’s law provides an easy means of finding E or D for symmetrical charge

distributions. To exploit symmetry, first select a closed surface (known as
Gaussian surface) such that D is normal or tangent to the surface, hence
D · dS = D dS or D · dS = 0.

Murad Ridwan, 5 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.5. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL V Electromagnetic Fields

Example 2.5: Using Gauss’s law, derive D for point charge, infinite line charge
and infinite sheet of charge.

Example 2.6: Consider a sphere of radius a with uniform charge ρv C/m. Find
D for r ≤ a and r > a.

Example 2.7: Given that D = zρ cos2 φ az C/m2 , calculate the charge density
at (1, π/4, 3) and the total charge enclosed by the cylinder of radius 1 m with
−2 ≤ x ≤ 2 m.

Exercise 2.7: If D = (2y 2 + z)ax + 4xyay + xaz C/m2 , find

a. the volume charge density at (−1, 0, 3)
b. the flux through the cube defined by 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1
c. the total charge enclosed by the cube.
(Ans. (a) -4 C/m2 , (b) 2 C, (c) 2 C )
Exercise 2.8: Determine the electric flux density due to
a. ρv = −(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )−5/2 µC/m3
−r
b. ρv = 10−6 er2 µC/m3
20
c. ρv = r4 µC/m3 , r ≥ a 6= 0
Exercise 2.9: Given D = 2ρz cos2 φ aρ − ρz sin φ cos φ aφ + ρ2 cos2 φ az C/m2 ,
calculate the charge enclosed by the whole cylinder ρ = 3, 0 ≤ z ≤ 5. (ans. 706.9
C)

2.5 Electric Potential V

The work done in moving a point charge Q from point A to point B in an
electric field E is
dW = −F · dl = −QE · dl
or Z B
W = −Q E · dl (2.22)
A
The negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an external agent.

Murad Ridwan, 6 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.5. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL V Electromagnetic Fields

The potential difference between A and B, VAB , is the work done per unit
charge. Hence
Z B
W
VAB = =− E · dl (2.23)
Q A
For point charge Q located at origin
Z rB
Q
VAB = − a · dl
2 r
rA 4πε or
but dl = dr ar + rdθ aθ + r sin θ aφ
Z rB
Q dr
⇒ VAB = −
4πεo rA r2

Q 1 1
= −
4πεo rA rB
or VAB = VB − VA
It implies that the potential is independent of the path taken. VA , VB are
the absolute potentials at A and B.

If VA = 0 as rA → ∞, the potential at any point (rB → r) due to Q at

origin is
Q
V = (2.24)
4πεo r
In general, the potential at any point is defined as the potential difference
between that point and a chosen point at which the potential is zero.

If Q is at r0
Q
V (r) = (2.25)
4πεo |r − r0 |
For N charges Q1 , Q2 , . . . , QN located at r1 , r2 , . . . , rN , the potential at r is
N
1 X Qk
V (r) = (2.26)
4πεo |r − r0 |
k=1
For continuous charge distributions, we have
ρl (r0 )dl0
Z
1
V (r) = line charge (2.27)
4πεo L |r − r0 |
ρs (r0 )dS 0
Z
1
V (r) = surface charge (2.28)
4πεo S |r − r0 |
ρv (r0 )dV 0
Z
1
V (r) = volume charge (2.29)
4πεo V |r − r0 |

Murad Ridwan, 7 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E AND V Electromagnetic Fields

If the reference point in the above equations is chosen other than infinity,
then Z
V = − E · dl + C, C − constant (2.30)

Example 2.8: Point charges −4 µC and 5 µC are located at (2, −1, 3) and (0, 4, −2)
respectively. Find V at (1, 0, 1) assuming V (∞) = 0.

Example 2.9: A point charge 5 nC is located at the origin. If V = 2 V at (0, 6, −8),

find
a. the potential at A(−3, 2, 6)
b. the potential at B(1, 5, 7)
c. the potential difference VAB
Example 2.10: A line of length l carries charge λ C/m. Show that the potential
in the medium plane can be written as
λ 1 + sin α
V = ln
4πεo 1 − sin α
Exercise 2.10: A point charge 5 nC is located at (−3, 4, 0) while line y = 1, z = 1
carries uniform charge 2 nC/m.
a. If V = 0 V at O(0, 0, 0), find V at A(5, 0, 1)
b. If V = 100 V at B(1, 2, 2), find V at C(−2, 5, 3)
c. If V = −5 at O, find BBC
Exercise 2.11: A thin square loop carries a uniform charge ρl . show that the
potential at the center of the loop is
2ρl √
V = ln(1 + 2)
πεo

2.6 Relationship between E and V

VAB = −VBA
I
⇒ VAB + VBA = E · dl = 0

or I
E · dl = 0 (2.31)

Murad Ridwan, 8 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E AND V Electromagnetic Fields

i.e., the work done in moving a charge along a closed path in electrostatic
field is zero.
Applying Stokes’s theorem
I Z
E · dl = ∇ × E · dS,

we have
∇×E=0 (2.32)
Eq (2.32) is Maxwell’s second equation. E is conservative/ irrotational/
potential field.
Z
V = − E · dl
⇒ dV = −E · dl = −Ex dx − Ey dy − Ez dz
∂V ∂V ∂V
but dV = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V ∂V ∂V
⇒ Ex = − , Ey = , Ez =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Thus
E = −∇V (2.33)
If V is known, E can be computed.

10
Example 2.11: Given V = r2 sin θ cos φ
a. Find the electric flux density D at (2, π/2, 0)
b. Calculate the work done in moving a 10 µC charge from point A(1, 300 , 1200 )
to B(4, 900 , 600 ).
Exercise 2.12: Given E = (3x2 + y)ax + xay kV/m, find the work done in moving
a −2 µC charge from (0, 5, 0) to (2, −1, 0) by taking the path:
a. (0, 5, 0) → (2, 5, 0) → (2, −1, 0)
b. y = 5 − 3x
(Ans. a. 12 mJ b. 12 mJ)

Murad Ridwan, 9 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.7. ELECTRIC DIPOLE Electromagnetic Fields

2.7 Electric Dipole

An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign are separated by a small distance.
At P,
Q 1 1 Q r2 − r1
V = − =
4πεo r1 r2 4πεo r1 r2
If r d,
r2 − r1 ≈ d cos θ, r1 r2 ≈ r2 (2.34)
then
Q d cos θ
V = (2.35)
4πεo r2
If d = daz , then d cos θ = d · ar .

Define
p = Qd (p directed from − Q to + Q) (2.36)
as the dipole moment, then (2.35) becomes
p · ar
V = (2.37)
4πεo r2
If the dipole center is not at the origin but at r0 ,

p · (r − r0 )
V = (2.38)
4πεo |r − r0 |3

Example 2.12: Derive E due to a dipole moment with center at the origin.

Example 2.13: two dipoles −5az nCm and 9az nCm are located at (0, 0, −2) and
(0, 0, 3) respectively. Find the potential at the origin.

Example 2.14: An electric dipole of 100az pCm is located at the origin. Find V
and E at points (0, 0, 10) and (1, π/3, π/2).

Exercise 2.13: An axial quadrupole is formed by three point charges Q, −2Q, Q

located at (0, 0, d), (0, 0, 0), (0, 0, −d) respectively. Show that at point (r, θ, φ)
Qd2
V ≈ (3 cos2 θ − 1) where r d
4πεo r3
3Qd2
(3 cos2 θ − 1)ar + sin 2θ aθ

E = 4
4πεo r

Murad Ridwan, 10 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.8. ENERGY IN ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS Electromagnetic Fields

2.8 Energy in Electrostatic Fields

To determine the energy present in an assembly of charges, first determine
the amount of work necessary to assemble them.
Consider three charges brought one after the other to an initially empty
space
The total work done is

WE = W1 + W2 + W3
= 0 + Q1 V21 + Q3 (V31 + V32 )

where Vij is the potential at Pi due to Qj .

In reverse order,

WE = W 3 + W2 + W1
= 0 + Q2 V23 + Q1 (V12 + V13 )

Adding the two equations

2WE = Q1 (V12 + V13 ) + Q2 (V21 + V23 ) + Q3 (V31 + V32 )

= Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3
1
or WE = (Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3 )
2
For N point charges,
N
1X
WE = Qk Vk (2.39)
2
k=1

For continuous charge distribution,

Z
1
WE = ρl V dl (line) (2.40)
2
Z
1
WE = ρs V ds (surface) (2.41)
2
Z
1
WE = ρv V dV (volume) (2.42)
2

Eq. (2.42) can be written as (prove)

Z Z
1 1
WE = D · E dV = εo E 2 dV (2.43)
2 V 2 V

Murad Ridwan, 11 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.8. ENERGY IN ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS Electromagnetic Fields

The electrostatic energy density wE (J/m3 ) is

dWE 1 1
wE = = D · E = εo E 2 (2.44)
dV 2 2

Example 2.15: Three point charges -1 nC, 4 nC, and 3 nC are located at (0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1),
and (1, 0, 0) respectively. Find the energy in the system.

Exercise 2.14: If V = x − y + xy + 2z V, find E at (1, 2, 3) and the electrostatic

energy stored in a cube of side 2 m centered at the origin. (ans. −3ax − 2az V/m,
0.207 nJ)

Murad Ridwan, 12 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
Chapter 3

Electric Fields in Material

Body

Electric fields can exist in material body as they do in vacuum. This chapter
explores the effects of electric field in material body. You will be able to
understand the electric properties of materials such as conduction, electric
current, polarization, etc.

3.1 Convection Current

Convection current occurs when current flows through an insulating medium
such as liquids, rarefied gas, or vacuum. An example is a beam of electrons
in vacuum tubes. Convection current does not satisfy Ohm’s law; it is de-
scribed by the laws of mechanics with the inclusion of forces of electric origin.

Current is defined as the electric charge passing through an area per unit
time.
dQ
I= (3.1)
dt
Consider a volume element of convection current, the electron stream spec-
ified by a charge density ρv and a velocity at any point u
4Q ρv 4S4l 4l
I= = = ρv 4S = ρv 4Su (3.2)
4t 4t 4t
If J, the current density, is defined as the current through a unit normal
area, then
4I
J= = ρv u
4S

1
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
3.2. CONDUCTION CURRENT Electromagnetic Fields

Hence, in general
J = ρv u (3.3)
From (3.2), 4I = J · 4S, so the total current through a surface is
Z
I= J · dS (3.4)
S

where I and J are the convection current and convection current density,
respectively.

3.2 Conduction Current

Conduction current occurs due to drift motion of electrons when an elec-
tric field is applied to a conductor. The conductor atoms remain neutral
(ρv = 0). As the electrons move, they encounter some damping force called
resistance.
J∝E
or
J = σE (Ohm’s law) (3.5)
where σ is the conductivity of the material in mhos/m.

3.3 Polarization in Dielectrics

Dielectrics differ from conductors in that they posses no carriers of free
charges that can drift about under the control of an externally applied elec-
tric fields. All charges bound to their atoms or molecules, and they can be
forced to move by only minute distances, positive charges going one way and
negative charges the opposite direction. A dielectric in which this displace-
ment has taken place is said to be polarized.

Some types of molecules such as water, sulfur dioxide, and hydrochloric acid
have built in permanent dipoles which are randomly oriented and are said
to be polar. Other such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and the rare gases
are non-polar.

Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering 2 of 7

AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
April 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
3.3. POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS Electromagnetic Fields

Polarization Process
1. Electronic polarization: occurs when the center of charge of the elec-
tron cloud in an atom or molecule moves slightly with respect to the
center of charge of the nuclei (about 10−8 times the diameter of an
atom).

2. Orientational polarization: occurs when polar molecules align them-

selves and become further polarized due to an externally applied elec-
tric field.

3. Atomic polarization: occurs when ions of different signs in a solid such

as NaCl move in different direction when subject to an external field.

A polarized dielectric possesses its own field, which adds to that of the other
charges. The two fields can be comparable in magnitude.

In polarized state
p = Qd (3.6)
If there are N dipoles in a volume 4V , the total polarization is
N
X
Q1 d1 + Q2 d2 + . . . + QN dN = Qk dk (3.7)
k=1

Define polarization P as a measure of polarization intensity

PN
k=1 Qk dk
P = lim (3.8)
4V →0 4V

To find the field due to polarization (see figure below)

The potential dV at O due to the dipole moment PdV 0 is

P · aR dV 0
dV = (3.9)
4πεo R2

where R2 = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y 0 )2 + (z − z 0 )2 and remember from Chapter 2

that
p · ar
V =
4πεo R2
but
1 ar
∇0 = 2
R R

Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering 3 of 7

AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
April 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
3.3. POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS Electromagnetic Fields

where ∇0 is the gradient w.r.t. the primed coordinates. Thus

P · ar 0 1
= P·∇
R2 R
but ∇0 · (f A) = f ∇0 A + A · ∇0 f
P · ar P 1
⇒ 2
= ∇0 · − ∇0 · P
R Z R R
1 0 P 1 0
∴ V = ∇ · − ∇ · P dV 0
V 0 4πεo R R
Applying the divergence theorem to the first term
P · a0n 0 ∇0 · P 0
I Z
1 1
V = dS − dV (3.10)
4πεo S 0 R 4πεo V 0 R
where a0n is an outward unit normal to the surface S 0 .
Comparing (3.10) with Eqs.(2.28, 2.29) and dropping the primes,
ρps = P · an (3.11)
ρpv = −∇ · P (3.12)
where ρps and ρpv are, respectively, the bound (polarization) surface and
volume charge densities.
Thus polarization causes charges to acuminate, either within (ρpv ) the di-
electric or at its surface(ρps ). Such charges are called bound in contrast to
free charges as in conductors.

The total positive bound charge on surface S is

I I
Qb = ρps dS = P · dS (3.13)

the charge remaining inside S is then

Z Z
− Qb = ρpv dV = − ∇ · PdV (3.14)
V V
I Z
Total charge = ρps dS + ρpv dV = 0
S V
If ρv is the free charge density, the total volume charge density ρt is
ρt = ρv + ρpv = ∇ · εo E
ρv = ∇ · εo E − ρpv
= ∇ · (εo E + P)
= ∇·D

Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering 4 of 7

AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
April 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
3.3. POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS Electromagnetic Fields

or
D = εo E + P (3.15)
For linear materials, P ∝ E
P = χ e εo E (3.16)
where χe is the electric susceptibility.
D = εo (1 + χe )E = εo εr E
or,
D = εE (3.17)
ε
where ε = εo εr and εr = 1 + χe = εo . ε is permittivity of the dielectric and
εr is the relative permittivity.

When the electric field in a dielectric is sufficiently large, it begins to pull

the electrons completely out of the molecules, and the dielectric becomes
conducting. Dielectric breakdown is said to have occurred when the dielec-
tric becomes conducting.
The dielectric strength is the maximum electric field which a dielectric can
tolerate or withstand without breakdown (for example, glass ∼ 35 × ×106
V/m, mica ∼ 70 × ×106 V/m, air ∼ 3 × ×106 V/m).

Exercise 3.1: The electric field intensity in polystyrene (εr = 2.55) filling the space
between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor is 10 kV/m. The distance between
the plates is 1.5 mm. Calculate:
a. D
b. P
c. The surface charge density of free charge on the plates
d. The surface density of polarization charge
e. The potential difference between the plates
Exercise 3.2: A thin rod of cross section A extends along the x-axis from x = 0 to
x = L. The polarization of the rod is along its length and is given by Px = ax2 + b.
Calculate ρpv and ρps at each end. Show explicitly that the total bound charge
vanishes in this case.

Exercise 3.3: A parallel-plate capacitor with plate separation of 2 mm has a 1-kV

voltage applied to its plates. If the space between its plates is filled with polystyrene
(εr = 2.55), find E, P , and ρps .

Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering 5 of 7

AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
April 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
3.4. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS Electromagnetic Fields

3.4 Boundary Conditions

If a field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions
that the field must satisfy at the interface separating the medium are called
boundary conditions. It can be shown that the tangential and normal com-
ponents of the fields satisfy:

• Tangential component

E1t = E2t
or n̂ × (E1 − E2 ) = 0 (3.18)

• Normal component

D1s − D2s = ρs
or n̂ · (D1 − D2 ) = ρs (3.19)

Exercise 3.4: Derive the above results.

Exercise 3.5: Derive the law of refraction for electric fields at a boundary free of
charges.
εr1 tan θ1
Ans. =
εr2 tan θ2

Dielectric-Conductor Boundary
In perfect conductor σ → ∞ but J = σE. To maintain a finite J, E → 0.
Also inside a conductor ∇ · εE = ρv ⇒ ρv = 0 i.e., a perfect conductor
cannot contain an electrostatic field within it.

Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering 6 of 7

AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
April 2010.
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
3.4. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS Electromagnetic Fields

E1t = E2t , but E2t = 0 ⇒ E1t = 0

D1n − D2n = ρs , but D2n = 0 ⇒ D1n = ρs

so, letting D1 = D, E1 = E

Dt = εo Et = 0, Dn = εo En = ρs (3.20)

From the above results we can infer

1. No electric field may exist within a conductor; that is, ρv = 0, E = 0

2. Since E = −∇V = 0 ⇒ V = const, there can be no potential differ-

ence between any two points in the conductor; that is, a conductor is
an equipotential body.

3. The electric field E can be external to the conductor and normal to

its surface, viz., (3.20).

4. Conductors can be used for electrostatic screening or shielding.

Exercise 3.6: Two extensive homogeneous isotropic dielectrics meet on plane z =

0. For z ≥ 0, εr1 = 4 and for z < 0, εr2 = 3. A uniform electric field E =
5ax , −2ay + 3az kV/m exists for z > 0. Find
a. E2 for z ≤ 0
b. The angles E1 and E2 make with the interface
c. The energy densities in J/m3 in both dielectrics
d. The energy within a cube of side 2 m centered at (3, 4, −5)
Exercise 3.7: A homogeneous dielectric (εr = 2.5) fills region 1 (x ≤ 0) while
region 2 (x ≥ 0) is free space.
a. If D1 = 12ax − 10ay + 4az nC/m2, find D2 and θ2 .
b. If E2 = 12 V/m and θ2 = 60o , find E1 and θ1 .

Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering 7 of 7

AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
April 2010.
Chapter 4

Electrostatic
Boundary-Value Problems

Boundary-value problems are those in which the electrostatic conditions

(charge and potential) are known at some boundaries and it is desired to
compute E and V throughout the region. Such problems are tackled using
Poisson’s or Laplace’s equation or the method of images.

4.1 Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations

Consider the electrostatic equation

∇ · D = ∇ · εE = ρv , and, (4.1)
E = −∇V (4.2)

Substituting (4.1) into (4.2)

∇ · (−ε∇V ) = ρv (4.3)

for inhomogeneous medium. For homogeneous medium we have

ρv
∇2 V = − Poisson’s equation (4.4)
ε

For charge-free region (ρv = 0), the Poisson equation reduces to

∇2 V = 0 Laplace’s equation (4.5)

1
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
4.1. POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS Electromagnetic Fields

Depending on the coordinate system

∂2V ∂2V ∂2V

∇2 V = + +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
1 ∂2V ∂2V

1 ∂ ∂V
= ρ + 2 +
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ2 ∂z 2
∂2V

1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1
= r + sin θ +
r2 ∂r ∂r r2 sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r2 sin2 θ ∂φ2

Procedures for solving a given boundary-value problem:

1. Solve Laplace’s (if ρv = 0) or Poisson’s (if ρv 6= 0) equation using

either

• direct integration when V is a function of single variable

• separation of variables if V is a function of multivariable

2. Apply the boundary conditions to determine a unique solution for V

3. Find E using E = −∇V and D from D = εE

4. RIf desired, find the charge Q induced on the conductor using Q =

ρs ds, where ρs = Dn and Dn is the component of D normal to the
conductor.

Example 4.1: In a one-dimensional device, the charge density is given by ρv =

ρo x/a. If E = 0 at x = 0 and V = 0 at x = a, find V and E.

Example 4.2: Two conducting cones θ = π/10 and θ = π/6 of infinite extent are
separated by an infinitesimal gap at r = 0. If V (θ = π/10) = 0 while V (θ = π/6) =
50 V, find V and E between the cones.

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Class Notes on ECEG-2110
4.2. RESISTANCE AND CAPACITANCE Electromagnetic Fields

4.2 Resistance and Capacitance

The resistance R of a nonuniform cross-section conductor is

R
V E · dl
R= =H (4.6)
I σE · ds
Steps to calculate R
1. Choose a suitable coordinate system

2. Assume Vo as the potential difference between the conducting termi-

nals

3. Solve ∇2 V = 0. Then determine E = −∇V and I = σE · ds

R

4. Obtain R as Vo /I.
In order to have a capacitor, we must have two (or more) conductors carrying
equal but opposite charges.

The capacitance C of the capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude

of charges on one plate to the potential difference between them
H
Q ε E · ds
C= = R (4.7)
V E · dl
Steps to calculate C

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Class Notes on ECEG-2110
4.2. RESISTANCE AND CAPACITANCE Electromagnetic Fields

1. assume Q and determine V in terms of Q (Gauss’s law), or

2. assume V and determine Q in terms of V (Laplace’s equation)

Example 4.3: Derive the capacitance of

1. parallel-plate capacitor
2. coaxial capacitor
3. spherical capacitor
4. isolated spherical capacitor.

Note that
R
V E · dl
R = = H
I σ E · ds
H
Q ε E · ds
C = = R
V E · dl

multiplying the above equations, we have

ε
RC = (4.8)
σ

i.e., the resistance of various capacitors can be readily obtained. Also note
that the resistance R is not the resistance of the capacitor plate but the
leakage resistance between the plates; therefore σ in (4.8) is the conductivity
of the dielectric medium separating the plates.

Example 4.4: Derive the leakage resistance for

1. parallel plate capacitor
2. coaxial capacitor
3. spherical capacitor, and
4. isolated spherical capacitor.
Example 4.5: A metal bar of conductivity σ is bent to form a flat 90◦ sector of
inner radius a, outer radius b, and thickness t. Show that the resistance of the bar
between the vertical curved surfaces at ρ = a and ρ = b is

2 ln b/a
R=
σπt

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Class Notes on ECEG-2110
4.2. RESISTANCE AND CAPACITANCE Electromagnetic Fields

while the resistance between the two horizontal surfaces at z = 0 and z = t is

4t
R0 =
σπ(b2 − a2 )

Exercise 4.1: Show that the resistance of the bar in the above example between
the vertical ends located at φ = 0 and φ = π/2 is
π
R=
2σt ln b/a

Exercise 4.2: A disc of thickness t has radius b and a central hole of radius a.
Taking the conductivity of the disc as σ, find the resistance between:
1. the hole and the rim of the disc
2. the two flat sides of the disc.
ln b/a t
(ans. 2πtσ and σπ(b2 −a2 ) )

Exercise 4.3: A spherical capacitor with inner radius a and outer radius b is filled
with an inhomogeneous dielectric with ε = εo k/r2 . Show that the capacitance of
the capacitor is
4πεo k
C=
b−a

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Chapter 5

Magnetostatic Fields

Charges moving with constant velocity produce static magnetic (magnetostatic)

field. This movement of charges (or current flow) may be due to magnetization
currents as in permanent magnets, electron beam currents as in vacuum tubes
or conduction currents as in current carrying wires.

(Applications: motors, transformers, microphones, compasses, telephone bells,

television focusing controls, advertising displays, magnetically levitated high-
speed vehicles, memory stores, magnetic separators, etc. )

Two laws govern magnetostatic fields:

1. Biot-Savart law (cf. Coulomb’s law)
2. Ampere’s law (cf. Gausse’s law)

5.1 Biot-Savart Law

States that the magnetic field intensity dH at r due to current element Idl at
r0 is
Idl × aR Idl × R
dH = 2
= (5.1)
4πR 4πR3
where R = r − r0 , R = |R|

The direction of dH can be determined using the right-hand rule, viz. the thumb
pointing in the direction of I and the right hand fingers encircling the wire in
the direction of dH.

1
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
5.1. BIOT-SAVART LAW Electromagnetic Fields

For surface or volume current distributions, replace the current element Idl with
KdS or Jdv where K is the surface current density (A/m) and J is the volume
current density (A/m2 ).

Idl × aR
Z
H = line current (5.2)
4πR2
ZL
KdS × aR
H = surface current (5.3)
S 4πR2
Jdv × aR
Z
H = volume current (5.4)
v 4πR2

Example 5.1: Determine the field due to a straight current carrying filamentary con-
ductor of length AB. Derive the field for semi-infinite and infinite lengths.

Example 5.2: Find the magnetic field intensity at the center O of the conducting
square loop of side 4 m carrying a dc current of 5 A shown below.

Exercise 5.1: For the above loop, determine H at (2, 0, 0). (ans. 0.46ax A/m)

Exercise 5.2: For the circular loop shown below, show that

Iρ2
H(0, 0, h) = az
2(ρ2 + h2 )

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Class Notes on ECEG-2110
5.2. AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW Electromagnetic Fields

5.2 Ampere’s Circuital Law

States that the circulation of H around a closed path is equal to the current
enclosed by the path, i.e.,
I
H · dl = Ienc (5.5)
L

Applying Stokes’s theorem,

I Z
Ienc = H · dl = (∇ × H) · dS
L S

but Z
Ienc = J · dS
S
therefore,
∇×H=J 3rd Maxwell’s equation (5.6)
Ampere’s law can be easily applied on symmetrical current distributions.

Example 5.3: Determine H for

1. Infinite line current
2. Infinite sheet of current
3. Infinitely long coaxial transmission line with inner conductor of radius a carrying
current I and outer conductor of radius b, thickness t, carrying return current
−I.

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Class Notes on ECEG-2110
5.3. MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY B Electromagnetic Fields

5.3 Magnetic Flux Density B

B is related to H according to

B = µo H (5.7)

where µo = 4π × 10−7 H/m is the permeability of free space.

The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by

Z
Ψ= B · dS (5.8)
S

The unit of Ψ is Weber (wb); while that of B is wb/m2 .

Flux lines of B (or H) are always continuous and form a closed loop, which
implies that there are no magnetic monopoles, or isolated ‘magnetic charges’.
All magnets have both a north and a south pole, and the field B is continuous
through the magnet. Thus the total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic
field is zero, i.e.,
I
B · dS = 0 (5.9)
S

Applying the divergence theorem

I Z
B · dS = ∇ · Bdv = 0,
S v

we have,
∇·B=0 fourth Maxwell’s equation (5.10)

5.4 Magnetic Vector Potential A

For any vector field A, ∇ · (∇ × A) = 0. Since for magnetic fields ∇ · B = 0, B
can be expressed as,
B=∇×A (5.11)

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Class Notes on ECEG-2110
5.4. MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL A Electromagnetic Fields

for some vector field A. A (wb/m) is called the vector magnetic potential of B.
dQ
R
In parallel with the electric potential (V = 4πεo R ), we can define
Z
µo I dl
A = line-current (5.12)
4πR
ZL
µo K dS
= surface-current (5.13)
4πR
ZL
µo J dv
= volume-current (5.14)
L 4πR

The magnetic flux can be expressed through the vector potential A, viz.,
Z Z I
Ψ= B · dS = (∇ × A) · dS = A · dS
S S L

so that,
I
Ψ= A · dl (5.15)
L

Example 5.4: Given the magnetic vector potential A = − 14 ρ2 az wb/m, calculate the
total flux crossing the surface φ = π/2, 1 ≤ ρ ≤ 2 m, 0 ≤ z ≤ 5 m.

Exercise 5.3: A current distribution gives rise to the vector magnetic potential

A = x2 y ax + xy 2 ay − 4xyz az wb/m.

Calculate
1. B at (−1, 2, 5)
2. the flux through the surface defined by z = 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 4.

Summary of Maxwell’s Equation for Static EM Fields

Differential Form Integral Form Remarks

I Z
∇ · D = ρv D · dS = ρv dv Gauss’s law
S v
I
∇·B=0 B · dS = 0 Nonexistence of magnetic monopoles
S
I
∇×E=0 E · dl = 0 Conservative field
L
I Z
∇×H=J H · dl = J · dS Ampere’s law.
L S

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Chapter 6

Magnetic Forces and

Materials

6.1 Forces due to Magnetic Fields

There are at least three ways in which force due to magnetic fields can be
experienced:
1. due to moving charge in a B field

2. on current element in an external B field

3. between two current elements.

6.1.1 Force on a Charges Particle

A stationary or moving electric charge Q in an electric field E experiences an
electric force Fe (Coulomb’s Law):

Fe = QE (6.1)

A magnetic field can only exert force on a moving charge. Experimentally it

is found that the magnetic force Fm experienced by a charge Q moving with
velocity u in a magnetic field B is:

Fm = Qu × B (6.2)

Note that Fm ⊥ u, so it implies that no work is done by Fm . Work is done only

due to Fe .

The total force in the presence of E and B is

F = Fe + Fm , or

1
Class Notes on ECEG-2110
6.1. FORCES DUE TO MAGNETIC FIELDS Electromagnetic Fields

F = Q(E + u × B) Lorentz Force Equation (6.3)

If the mass of the charged particle is m, by Newton’s second law:
du
F=m = Q(E + u × B) (6.4)
dt

6.1.2 Force on a Current Element

Force on a current element Idl of a current carrying conductor due to an external
magnetic field B can be obtained as:
dQ dl
Idl = dl = dQ = dQ u
dt dt

⇒ Idl = dQ u (6.5)
From (6.2),
dF = Idl × B (6.6)
The total force on a closed path L or circuit is
I
F= Idl × B (6.7)
L

For current distributions Idl = KdS = Jdv, the infinitesimal forces are dF =
KdS × B, dF = Jdv × B so the total force will be:
Z Z
F= KdS × B, F= Jdv × B (6.8)
s v

6.1.3 Force between two Current Elements

Consider the force between two current elements I1 dl1 and I2 dl2

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Class Notes on ECEG-2110
6.2. TORQUE.. Electromagnetic Fields

The force d(dF1 ) on I1 dl1 due to the field dB2 produced by I2 dl2 is (eq. 6.6)

d(dF1 ) = I1 dl1 × dB2 (6.9)

From Biot-Savart law,

µo I2 dl2 × aR21
dB2 = 2
4πR21
Hence,
I2 dl2 × aR21
d(dF1 ) = µo I1 dl1 × 2 (6.10)
4πR21
(the law of force between two current elements. Compare it with Coulomb’s law
between two charges) Therefore,

dl1 × (dl2 × aR21 )

I I
µo I1 I2
F1 = 2 (6.11)
4π L1 L2 R21

Example 6.1: A charged particle of mass 2 kg and charge 3 C start at point

(1, −2, 0) with velocity 4ax + 3az m/s in an electric field 12ax + 10ay V/m. At
t = 1 s determine
1. the acceleration of the particle
2. its velocity

3. its kinetic energy

4. its position.

6.2 Magnetic Torque, Moment and Magnetic Dipole

The moment of force or torque about a point is defined as

T=r×F N-m (6.12)

Example 6.2: A conductor located at x = 0.4 m, y = 0 and 0 < z < 2.0 m

carries a current of 5.0 A in the az direction. Along the length of the conductor
B = 2.5az T. Find the torque about the z axis.

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