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Chapter 6
Skeletal System:
Bones and Joints
Lecture Outline
Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Eleventh Edition
Cinnamon VanPutte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

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Components of Skeletal System

• Bones

• Cartilages

• Tendons

• Ligaments

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Functions of the Skeletal System

1. Body support

2. Organ protect

3. Body movement

4. Mineral storage

5. Blood cell production

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Bone Histology

• Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the skeletal

system are all connective tissues.

• Their characteristics are largely determined by the

composition of their extracellular matrix.

• The matrix always contains collagen, ground substance,

and other organic molecules, as well as water and
minerals.

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Bone Histology

• Collagen is a fibrous protein that provides flexibility but

resists pulling or compression.

• Matrix ground substance contains proteoglycans which

are water trapping proteins that help cartilage to be
smooth and resilient.

• The extracellular matrix of tendons and ligaments

contains large amounts of collagen fibers, making these
structures very tough, like ropes or cables.

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Bone Matrix

• Bone matrix is about 35% organic and 65% inorganic

material by weight.

• The organic material is primarily collagen and

proteoglycans.

• The inorganic material is primarily a calcium phosphate

crystal called hydroxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2.

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Bone Cells

• Osteoblasts are responsible for the formation of bone and

the repair and remodeling of bone.

• Pproduce collagen and proteoglycans.

• Also secrete high concentrations of Ca2+ and phosphate

ions, forming crystals called hydroxyapatite.

The formation of new bone by osteoblasts is called

ossification.

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Bone Cells

• Osteocytes are cells that maintain bone matrix and form

from osteoblast after bone matrix has surrounded it.

• Account for 90–95% of bone cells and are very long-lived.

• Osteocyte cell bodies are housed within the bone matrix in

spaces called lacunae.

• Their cell extensions are housed in narrow, long spaces

called canaliculi.

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Bone Cells

• Osteoclasts are bone-destroying cells.

• They contribute to bone repair and remodeling by

removing existing bone, called bone reabsorption.

• Bone breakdown is important for mobilizing crucial Ca2+.

• As bone is broken down, the Ca2+ goes into the blood.

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Bone Cells

Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Figure 6.1 a and b
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Spongy and Compact Bone

• Mature bone is called lamellar bone. It is organized into

thin, concentric sheets or layers, called lamellae.

• Bone can be classified according to the amount of bone

matrix relative to the amount of space within the bone.

• Spongy bone has less bone matrix and more space than
compact bone, which has more bone matrix and less
space.

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Spongy Bone

• Spongy bone consists of interconnecting rods or plates of

bone called trabeculae.

• Between the trabeculae are spaces, which in life are filled

with bone marrow and blood vessels.

• The surfaces of trabeculae are covered with a single layer

of cells consisting of osteoblasts with a few osteoclasts.

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Spongy Bone

Figure 6.2
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Compact Bone

• Compact bone, or cortical bone, is the solid, outer layer

surrounding each bone.

• The functional unit of compact bone is an osteon. It is

composed of concentric rings of matrix surrounding a
central canal.

• Central canals are lined with endosteum and contain

blood vessels, nerves, and loose connective tissue.

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Compact Bone

• Lamellae are concentric rings of bone matrix which

surround the central canal.

• Osteocytes are located in spaces called lacunae between

the lamellar rings.

• Small tunnels called canaliculi radiate between lacunae

across the lamellae.

• Canaliculi connect osteocytes to one another, transport

nutrients and remove waste.

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Compact Bone

(a) ©Trent Stephens; (b) Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Figure 6.1 a and b

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Structure of a Long Bone

• The diaphysis is the center portion of the bone which is

composed of compact bone surrounding a hollow center
called the medullary cavity.

• Some spongy bone tissue lines the medullary cavity.

• The ends of a long bone are called epiphyses. They

contain mostly spongy bone, with an outer layer of
compact bone.

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Structure of a Long Bone

• Within joints, the end of a long bone is covered with

hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage.

• The epiphyseal plate is located between the epiphysis

and the diaphysis. Growth in bone length occurs at the
epiphyseal plate.

• When bone stops growing in length, the epiphyseal plate

becomes ossified and is called the epiphyseal line.

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Structure of Long Bone

(a) ©Trent Stephens

Figure 6.4 a and b

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Bone Marrow

• Cavities in spongy bone and the medullary cavity in the

diaphysis are filled with soft tissue called marrow.

• Red marrow is the location of blood forming cells.

• Yellow marrow is mostly fat.

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Periosteum and Endosteum

The outer surface of a bone is covered by a connective

tissue membrane called periosteum.
• The outer layer of periosteum contains blood vessels and
nerves.
• The inner layer is a single layer of bone cells, including
osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

The endosteum is a single cell layer of connective tissue

that lines the internal surfaces of all cavities within bones.

• The endosteum includes osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

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Bone Formation

1. Intramembranous Ossification

• Intramembranous ossification occurs when osteoblasts

begin to produce bone within connective tissue.

• This occurs primarily in the bones of the skull.

• Osteoblasts line up on the surface of connective tissue

fibers and begin depositing bone matrix to form
trabeculae.

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Intramembranous Ossification

• The process begins in areas called ossification centers

and the trabeculae radiate out from the centers.

• Usually, two or more ossification centers exist in each flat

skull bone and mature skull bones result from fusion of
these centers as they enlarge.

• The trabeculae are constantly remodeled and they may

enlarge or be replaced by compact bone.

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Intramembranous Ossification in the Fetus

(a) (top, bottom): ©Victor Eroschenko; (middle): Ed Reschke/Getty Images

Figure 6.5 a
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Intramembranous Ossification in the Fetus

(b) Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Figure 6.5 b
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Bone Formation

2. Endochondral Ossification

• Endochondral bone formation is bone formation within a

cartilage model.

• The cartilage model is replaced by bone.

• Initially formed is a primary ossification center, which

forms bone in the diaphysis of a long bone.

• A secondary ossification center forms bone in the

epiphysis.

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Endochondral Ossification of a Long Bone

Figure 6.6
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Bone Growth in Width

• Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new bone

lamellae onto existing bone or other connective tissue.

• As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the surface of

bones between the periosteum and the existing bone
matrix, the bone increases in width, or diameter.

• This process is called appositional growth.

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Bone Growth in Length

• Growth in the length of a bone, which is the major source

of increased height in an individual, occurs in the
epiphyseal plate.

• This type of bone growth occurs through endochondral

ossification.

• Chondrocytes increase in number on the epiphyseal side

of the epiphyseal plate.

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Bone Growth in Length

• Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die.

• The cartilage matrix becomes calcified.

• Much of the cartilage that forms around the enlarged cells

is removed by osteoclasts, and the dying chondrocytes
are replaced by osteoblasts.

• The osteoblasts start forming bone by depositing bone

lamellae on the surface of the calcified cartilage.

• This process produces bone on the diaphyseal side of the

epiphyseal plate.

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Endochondral Bone Growth

(a) Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images; (c) Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Figure 6.7
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Bone Remodeling

Bone remodeling involves:

• removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and

• deposition of new bone by osteoblasts

• occurs in all bones

• responsible for changes in bone shape, bone repair,

adjustment of bone to stress, and calcium ion regulation

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Bone Repair

1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a hematoma forms.

2. A callus forms which is a bone cartilage network between

and around the bone fragments.

3. Woven, spongy bone replaces the callus.

4. Compact bone replaces the spongy bone.

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Bone Repair

(a) ©Andrew F. Russo

Figure 6.8
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Skeletal Anatomy Overview

• The average adult has 206 bones.

• Bones are segregated into the axial skeleton and the

appendicular skeleton.

• The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the skull, the

auditory ossicles, the hyoid bone, the vertebral column,
and the thoracic cage.

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Skeletal Anatomy Overview

• The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the

upper limbs, the lower limbs, and the two girdles.

• The term girdle, refers to the two zones where the limbs
are attached to the body.

• These two zones are the pectoral girdle and the pelvic
girdle.

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Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton

Figure 6.11
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Bone Shapes

• Long bones are longer than they are wide; examples are
upper and lower limb bones.

• Short bones are approximately as wide as they are long;

examples are the bones of the wrist and ankle.

• Flat bones have a relatively thin, flattened shape;

examples are bones of the skull and sternum.

• Irregular bones include the vertebrae and facial bones,

which have shapes that do not fit readily into the other
three categories.

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Skeletal Terminology

Foramen:
• hole
• Example - foramen magnum
Fossa:
• depression
• Example - glenoid fossa
Process:
• projection
• Example - mastoid process

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Skeletal Terminology

Condyle:
• smooth, rounded end
• Example - occipital condyle
Meatus or canal:
• canal-like passageway
• Example - external auditory meatus
Tubercle or tuberosity:
• lump of bone
• Example - greater tubercle

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Axial Skeleton

• The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, the vertebral

column, and the thoracic cage.

• The skull has 22 bones divided into those of the braincase

and those of the face.

• The braincase, which encloses the cranial cavity, consists

of 8 cranial bones that immediately surround and protect
the brain.

• The bony structure of the face has 14 facial bones.

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Axial Skeleton

• Thirteen of the facial bones are rather solidly connected to

form the bulk of the face.

• The mandible, however, forms a freely movable joint with

the rest of the skull.

• There are also three auditory ossicles in each middle ear

(six total).

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The Skull

Figure 6.12
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The Skull

Figure 6.13
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The Skull

(b) ©Eric Wise

Figure 6.14
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The Skull

(b) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.16
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The Skull

(b) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.17
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Paranasal Sinuses

(c) Hemera Technologies/Getty Images; (d) Hemera Technologies/Getty Images

Figure 6.15
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Hyoid Bone

Figure 6.18
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Vertebral Column
• In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual bones,
grouped into five regions.
• The adult vertebral column has four major curvatures:
cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacrococcygeal.
• The cervical region curves anteriorly.
• The thoracic region curves posteriorly.
• The lumbar region curves anteriorly
• The sacral and coccygeal regions together curve
posteriorly

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Vertebral Column

7 cervical vertebra
12 thoracic vertebra
5 lumbar vertebra
1 sacrum
1 coccyx
Atlas:
• 1st vertebra
• holds head
Axis:
• 2nd vertebra
• rotates head
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Functions of Vertebral Column

• Supports body weight

• Protects the spinal cord

• Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord

• Provides a site for muscle attachment

• Provides movement of the head and trunk

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Vertebral Column 3

Figure 6.19
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Vertebra

Figure 6.20
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Regional Differences in Vertebrae

(a) (1) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.21
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Sacrum

(c) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.22
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Thoracic Cage

Protects vital organs

12 pair of ribs
Sternum:
• breastbone
True ribs:
• attach directly to sternum by cartilage
False ribs:
• attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage
Floating ribs:
• not attached to sternum
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Thoracic Cage

Figure 6.23
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Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

Scapula:

• shoulder blade

Clavicle:

• collar bone

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Pectoral Girdle

Figure 6.24
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Scapula and Clavicle

(d) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.25
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Upper Limb Bones

Figure 6.24
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The Humerus

(c) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.26
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Ulna and Radius

(b) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.27
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Bones of the Wrist and Hand

Figure 6.28
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Pelvis

Figure 6.30
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Hip Bones

(The names of the three bones forming the hip bone are in bold.) (c) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.31
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Comparison of the Male Pelvis to the Female Pelvis

Figure 6.32
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Lower Limb Bones

Figure 6.29
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Bones of the Thigh

(b) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.33
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Bones of the Leg

(b) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.34
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Bones of the Foot

Figure 6.35
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Articulations

• Articulations (joints) are where two bones come together.

• Joints can be classified structurally as fibrous,

cartilaginous, or synovial, according to the major
connective tissue type that binds the bones together and
whether a fluid-filled joint capsule is present.

• Joints are also be classified in functional categories

according to their degree of motion as synarthroses,
amphiarthroses, or diarthroses.

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Synovial Joint

• Synovial joints are surrounded by fluid filled joint cavity.

The cavity is created by the joint capsule and is full of
synovial fluid.

• The joint capsule helps hold the bones together while still
allowing for movement.

• The joint capsule consists of two layers: an outer fibrous

capsule and an inner synovial membrane.

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Synovial Joint

• The fibrous capsule is the outer layer of the joint capsule.

It consists of dense irregular connective tissue and is
continuous with the fibrous layer of the periosteum that
covers the bones united at the joint.

• The synovial membrane is the inner layer of the joint

capsule. It lines the joint cavity, produces synovial fluid, a
viscous lubricating liquid.

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Structural Classification of Joints

Fibrous joint:
• united by fibrous connective tissue
• subclasses are sutures, syndesmosis, and gomphoses
Cartilaginous:
• united by means of cartilage
• subclasses are synchondroses and symphysis
Synovial:
• joined by a fluid cavity
• Most joints of the appendicular skeleton

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Functional Classification of Joints

Synarthrosis:
• non-movable joint
• Example – skull bone articulations
Amphiarthrosis:
• slightly movable joint
• Example - between vertebrae
Diarthrosis:
• freely movable joint
• Example - knee, elbow, and wrist articulations

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Structure of a Synovial Joint

Figure 6.37
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Fontanels and Sutures

Figure 6.36
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Types of Movement

• Flexion: bending

• Extension: straightening

• Abduction: movement away from midline

• Adduction: movement toward the midline

• Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms down

• Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms up

• Rotation: movement of a structure about the long axis

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Types of Movement

(a, d–f) ©Eric Wise (b, c) Tamara Klein/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 6.39
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Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and Joints

1. Decreased Collagen Production

2. Loss of Bone Density

3. Degenerative Changes

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End of Lecture

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