Application Information

Hall-Effect IC Applications Guide

Allegro™ MicroSystems uses the latest integrated circuit Sensitive Circuits for Rugged Service
technology in combination with the century-old Hall The Hall-effect sensor IC is virtually immune to environ-
effect to produce Hall-effect ICs. These are contactless, mental contaminants and is suitable for use under severe
magnetically activated switches and sensor ICs with the service conditions. The circuit is very sensitive and provides
potential to simplify and improve electrical and mechanical reliable, repetitive operation in close-tolerance applications.
systems. The Hall-effect sensor IC can see precisely through dirt and
darkness.
Low-Cost Simplified Switching
Simplified switching is a Hall sensor IC strong point. Hall- Applications
effect IC switches combine Hall voltage generators, signal Applications for Hall-effect ICs include use in ignition sys-
amplifiers, Schmitt trigger circuits, and transistor output tems, speed controls, security systems, alignment controls,
circuits on a single integrated circuit chip. Output is clean, micrometers, mechanical limit switches, computers, print-
fast, and switched without bounce (an inherent problem with ers, disk drives, keyboards, machine tools, key switches,
mechanical contact switches). A Hall-effect switch typically and pushbutton switches. They are also used as tachometer
operates at up to a 100 kHz repetition rate, and costs less pickups, current limit switches, position detectors, selec-
than many common electromechanical switches. tor switches, current sensor ICs, linear potentiometers, and
brushless DC motor commutators.
Efficient, Effective, Low-Cost Linear Sensor ICs
The linear Hall-effect sensor IC detects the motion, position, The Hall Effect: How Does It Work?
or change in field strength of an electromagnet, a perma- The basic Hall element is a small sheet of semiconductor
nent magnet, or a ferromagnetic material with an applied material, referred to as the Hall element, or active area,
magnetic bias. Energy consumption is very low. The output represented in figure 1.
is linear and temperature-stable. The sensor IC frequency
response is flat up to approximately 25 kHz.
A Hall-effect sensor IC is more efficient and effective than
inductive or optoelectronic sensors, and at a lower cost. +VCC

+VHALL
–VHALL

Abbreviated Contents
Low-Cost Simplified Switching 1
Getting Started 5
Ring Magnets Detailed Discussion 14
Ferrous Vane Rotary Activators 17
Enhancement Considerations 24
Advanced Applications 36 Figure 1. Schematic representation of the active area of a Hall-effect
device, with the Hall element represented by the component marked
Glossary 40
with an X.

27701-AN, Rev. 2
A constant voltage source, as shown in figure 2, forces a con- If the biased Hall element is placed in a magnetic field with flux
stant bias current, IBIAS , to flow in the semiconductor sheet. The lines at right angles to the bias current (see figure 3), the volt-
output takes the form of a voltage, VHALL , measured across the age output changes in direct proportion to the strength of the
width of the sheet. In the absence of a magnetic field, VHALL has magnetic field. This is the Hall effect, discovered by E. F. Hall in
a negligible value. 1879.

IBIAS IBIAS
0 0
– + VHALL ≈ 0 V – + VHALL → V+

Figure 2. VHALL in the absence of a significant magnetic field Figure 3. Hall effect, induced VHALL, resulting from significant magnetic
flux (green arrows) perpendicular to the bias current flow.

Contents A Ferrous Vane In Operation 18

Low-Cost Simplified Switching 1 Rotor Design 19
Efficient, Effective, Low-Cost Linear Sensor ICs 1 Material 19
Sensitive Circuits for Rugged Service 1 Vane / Window Widths, Rotor Size 19
Applications 1 Steep Magnetic Slopes for Consistent Switching 19
The Hall Effect: How Does It Work? 1 Small Air Gaps for Steep Slopes 20
Linear Output Hall-Effect Devices 3 Flux Concentrators Pay Dividends 22
Digital Output Hall-Effect Switches 3 Temperature Stability of Operate Points 23
Operation 3 Calculating Dwell Angle and Duty Cycle Variations 23
Characteristics and Tolerances 5 Effects of Bearing Wear 24
Getting Started 5 Mounting Also Affects Stability 24
The Analysis 5 Enhancement Considerations 24
Total Effective Air Gap (TEAG) 5 Individual Calibration Techniques 24
Modes Of Operation 6 Operating Modes: Head-On and Slide-By 24
Steep Slopes and High Flux Densities 6 Operating Mode Enhancements: Compound Magnets 26
Vane Interruptor Switching 8 Biased Operation 28
Electrical Interface for Digital Hall Devices 8 Increasing Flux Density by Improving the
Common Interface Circuits 8 Magnetic Circuit 30
Rotary Activators for Hall Switches 10 Flux Concentrators 31
Ring Magnets for Hall Switch Applications 11 Feed-Throughs 33
Bipolar Digital Switches 12 Magnet Selection 33
Digital Latches 14 Advanced Applications 36
Ring Magnets Detailed Discussion 14 Current Limiting and Measuring Current Sensor ICs 36
Temperature Effects 14 Multi-Turn Applications 36
An Inexpensive Alternative 15 Other Applications For Linear Sensor ICs 37
Ring Magnet Selection 16 Using Calibrated Devices 39
Ferrous Vane Rotary Activators 17 Glossary 40

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Linear Output Hall-Effect Devices
The output voltage of the basic Hall element is quite small. This
can present problems, especially in an electrically noisy environ-
ment. Addition of a stable, high-quality DC amplifier and voltage Amp.
regulator to the circuit (see figures 4 and 5) improves the trans-
ducer output and allows the device to operate over a wide range
of supply voltages. The modified device provides an easy-to-use
analog output that is linear and proportional to the applied mag-
netic flux density.
Figure 4. Hall circuit with amplification of VHALL
For the most current list of linear output devices from Allegro, go
to http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Products/Categories/Sensors/
linear.asp.

Digital Output Hall-Effect Switches Reg.

VCC
The addition of a Schmitt-trigger threshold detector with built-in
hysteresis, as shown in figure 6, gives the Hall-effect circuit digi-
tal output capabilities. When the applied magnetic flux density
exceeds a certain limit, the trigger provides a clean transition Output
from off to on without contact bounce. Built-in hysteresis elimi-
nates oscillation (spurious switching of the output) by introducing
a magnetic dead zone in which switch action is disabled after the Ground
threshold value is passed.
An open-collector NPN or N-channel FET (NFET) output tran- Figure 5. Hall device with voltage regulator and DC amplifier
sistor added to the circuit (see figure 7) gives the switch digital
logic compatibility. The transistor is a saturated switch that shorts
the output terminal to ground wherever the applied flux density
is higher than the turn-on trip point of the device. The switch is
compatible with all digital families. The output transistor can sink Reg.
VCC
enough current to directly drive many loads, including relays,
triacs, SCRs, LEDs, and lamps.
The circuit elements in figure 7, fabricated on a monolithic
silicon chip and encapsulated in a small epoxy or ceramic pack- Output
age, are common to all Hall-effect digital switches. Differences
between device types are generally found in specifications such
as magnetic parameters, operating temperature ranges, and tem- Ground
perature coefficients. Figure 6. Hall circuit with digital output capability

Operation
All Hall-effect devices are activated by a magnetic field. A mount
for the devices and electrical connections must be provided.
Parameters such as load current, environmental conditions, and Reg.
VCC
supply voltage must fall within the specific limits shown in the
datasheet. Output
Magnetic fields have two important characteristics: magnetic flux
density, B (essentially, field strength), and magnetic field polarity
(north or south). For Hall-devices, orientation of the field relative
to the device active area also is important. The active area (Hall
element) of Hall devices is embedded on a silicon chip located Ground
parallel to, and slightly inside of, one particular face of the pack- Figure 7. Common circuit elements for Hall switches

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age case. That face is referred to as the branded face because of a small permanent magnet (see figure 8) causes the output
it is normally the face that is marked with the part number (the transistor to turn on.
datasheet for each device indicates the active area depth from
Transfer characteristic graphs can be used to plot this informa-
the branded face). To optimally operate the switch, the magnetic
tion. Figures 9 and 10 show output as a function of the magnetic
flux lines must be oriented to cross perpendicularly through the
flux density, B , (measured in gauss, G; 1 G = 0.1 mT) presented
branded face (and therefore through the active area), and must
to the Hall element. The magnetic flux density is shown on the
have the correct polarity as it crosses through. Because the active
horizontal axis. The digital output of the Hall switch is shown
area is closer to the branded face that it is to the back side of the
along the vertical axis. Note that there is an algebraic convention
case, and is exposed on the branded face side of the chip, using
applied, in which a strengthening south polarity field is indicated
this orientation produces a cleaner signal.
by an increasing positive B value, and a strengthening north
In the absence of any significant applied magnetic field, most polarity field is indicated by an increasing negative B value. For
Hall-effect digital switches are designed to be off (open circuit example, a +200 B field and a –200 B field are equally strong,
at output). They will turn on only if subjected to a magnetic but have opposite polarity (south and north, respectively).
field that has sufficient flux density and the correct polarity in
As shown in figure 9, in the absence of an applied magnetic field
the proper orientation. In switches for example, if a south pole
(0 G), the switch is off, and the output voltage equals the power
approaching the branded face would cause switching action,
supply (12 V). A permanent magnet south pole is then moved
a north pole would have no effect. In usual practice, a close
perpendicularly toward the active area of the device. As the mag-
approach to the branded face of a Hall switch by the south pole
net south pole approaches the branded face of the switch, the Hall
element is exposed to increasing positive magnetic flux density.
e
lin At some point (240 G in this case), the output transistor turns on,
Branded face nter
of package Ce and the output voltage approaches 0 V. That value of flux density
is called the operate point, BOP . If we continue to increase the
field strength, say to 600 G, nothing more happens. The switch
Active area has already turned on, and stays on.
S To turn the switch off, the magnetic flux density must fall to
N
a value far lower than the 240 G operate point because of the
n
tio built-in hysteresis of the device (these types of charts are some-
Mo
times referred to as hysteresis charts). For this example we use a
90 G hysteresis, which means the device turns off when the flux
Figure 8. Operation of a Hall-effect device is activated by the motion of a density decreases to 150 G (figure 10). That value of flux density
magnet relative to the plane and centerline of the active area of the device is called the release point, BRP .

Hysteresis
12 Off 12 Off
Deivce Switch State

Deivce Switch State

9 9
Output Voltage (V)

Output Voltage (V)

Operate Operate
Point, BOP Point, BOP
6 6
Release
Point, BRP
3 3

On On
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G) Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)
Figure 9. Transfer characteristics of a Hall switch being activated Figure 10. Transfer characteristics of a Hall switch being deactivated
(switched on) by the increase in magnetic flux density from an (switched off) by the decrease in magnetic flux density from an receding
approaching south pole south pole

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To acquire data for this graph, add a power supply and a pull-up Getting Started
resistor to limit current through the output transistor and enable
the value of the output voltage to approach 0 V (see figure 11). Because the electrical interface is usually straightforward, the
design of a Hall-effect system should begin with the physical
Characteristics and Tolerances aspects. In position-sensing or motion-sensing applications, the
following questions should be answered:
The exact magnetic flux density values required to turn Hall
switches on and off differ for several reasons, including design • How much and what type of motion is there?
criteria and manufacturing tolerances. Extremes in temperature • What angular or positional accuracy is required?
will also somewhat affect the operate and release points, which
• How much space is available for mounting the sensing device
are the switching thresholds, or switchpoints.
and activating magnet?
For each device type, worst-case magnetic characteristics for the • How much play is there in the moving assembly?
operate value, the release value, and hysteresis are provided in
the datasheet. • How much mechanical wear can be expected over the lifetime
of the machine?
All switches are guaranteed to turn on at or below the maximum • Will the product be a mass-produced assembly, or a limited
operate point flux density. When the magnetic field is reduced, all number of machines that can be individually adjusted and cali-
devices will turn off before the flux density drops below the mini- brated?
mum release point value. Each device is guaranteed to have at
least the minimum amount of hysteresis to ensure clean switching • What temperature extremes are expected?
action. This hysteresis ensures that, even if mechanical vibration A careful analysis will pay big dividends in the long term.
or electrical noise is present, the switch output is fast, clean, and
occurs only once per threshold crossing. The Analysis
The field strength of the magnet should be investigated. The
strength of the field will be greatest at the pole face, and will
decrease with increasing distance from the magnet. The strength
of the magnetic field can be measured with a gaussmeter or a
VCC calibrated linear Hall sensor IC, and is a function of distance
along the intended line of travel of the magnet. Hall device speci-
fications (sensitivity in mV/G for a linear device, or operate and
RPU
Reg. release points in gauss for a digital device) can be used to deter-
mine the critical distances for a particular magnet and type of
motion. Note that these field strength plots are not linear, and that
Output
the shape of the flux density curve depends greatly upon magnet
shape, the magnetic circuit, and the path traveled by the magnet.
V
VOUT ≈ 0 V Total Effective Air Gap (TEAG)
Ground Total effective air gap (TEAG), is the sum of the active area
depth (AAD, the depth of the Hall element below the branded
face of the device) and the air gap (AG, the distance between the
package branded surface and the magnet or target surface). The
AG is a mechanical clearance which should be as small as pos-
sible, consistent with dimensional tolerances of the magnet, bear-
Figure 11. Test circuit for transfer characteristic charts ing tolerances, bearing wear, and temperature effects on the Hall

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switch mounting bracket. Figure 12A is a graph of flux density as A second configuration is moving the magnet from side to side
a function of TEAG, and illustrates the considerable increase in across the Hall device, parallel to the branded face. This is
flux density at the sensor IC provided by a thinner package (the referred to as the slide-by mode of operation, as illustrated in
Allegro UA package has an AAD of about 0.50 mm). The actual figure 13. Note that now the distance plotted on the horizon-
gain depends predominantly on the characteristic slope of the flux tal axis of the chart is not total effective air gap, but rather the
density for the particular magnet used in the application. Note perpendicular distance from the centerline of the magnet to the
that the chart also shows the effect on flux density of other physi- centerline of the active area. Air gap is specified because of its
cal factors, such as package contribution from the device itself, obvious mechanical importance, but bear in mind that to do any
and from any overmolding or protective covering of the sensor calculations involving flux density, the package contribution must
assembly in the application. be added and the TEAG used, as before. The slide-by mode is
commonly used to avoid contact if overextension of the mecha-
Modes Of Operation nism is likely. The use of strong magnets and/or ferrous flux con-
Even with a simple bar or rod magnet, there are several possible centrators in well-designed slide-by magnetic circuits provides
paths for motion. The magnetic pole could move perpendicularly better sensing precision, with shorter travel of the magnet, than
straight at the branded face of the Hall device. This is called the the head-on mode.
head-on mode of operation. The curve in figure 12B illustrates Magnet manufacturers generally can provide head-on flux density
typical flux density (in gauss) as a function of TEAG for a cylin- curves for their magnets, but they often do not characterize them
drical magnet. for slide-by operation, possibly because different air gap choices
The head-on mode is simple, works well, and is relatively lead to an infinite number of these curves. However, after an air
insensitive to lateral motion. The designer should be aware that gap is chosen, the readily available head-on magnetic curves can
overextension of the mechanism could cause physical damage to be used to find the peak flux density (a single point) in the slide-
the epoxy package of the Hall device if collision occurs. by application by noting the value at the total effective air gap.

Steep Slopes and High Flux Densities

Active Area Depth (AAD) For linear Hall devices, greater flux change for a given dis-
400 placement gives greater output; clearly an advantage. The same
TEAG
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

AG
property is desirable for digital Hall devices, but for more subtle
AAD reasons. To achieve consistent switching action in a given appli-
300 cation, the Hall device must switch on and off at the same posi-
tions relative to the magnet.
Total Package N S
Contribution To illustrate this concept, consider the flux density curves from
200 Active
Magnet two different magnet configurations, in figure 14. With an oper-
area
ate-point flux density of 200 G, a digital Hall-effect device would
Branded
100 face turn on at a distance of approximately 3.6 mm in either case. If
Device
manufacturing tolerances or temperature effects shifted the oper-
ate point to 300 G, notice that for curve A (steep slope) there is
0
very little change in the distance at which switching occurs. In
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 the case of curve B, the change is considerable. The release point
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) (not shown) would be affected in much the same way. The basic
principles illustrated in this example can be modified to include
Figure 12A. Definition of total effective air gap, active area depth, and
mechanism and device specification tolerances and can be used
demonstration of the effects of the package itself on magnetic signal for worse-case design analysis. Examples of this procedure are
strength (for specifications of the magnet used for this data, see figure 25) shown in later sections.

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G
TEA

1000 S
N

Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

n
tio
800 Mo
Ø5.4 mm
4.8 mm TEAG
600

400

N S
200

0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4 7.6 8.9 10.2 Alinco 8 Magnet
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm)

Figure 12B. Demonstration of head-on mode of operation

G
TEA

S
N
1000
Mo
D tio
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

n
800
Ø5.4 mm
4.8 mm TEAG
600

400

N S
200

0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4 7.6 8.9 10.2 Alinco 8 Magnet
Distance Between Centerlines of Magnet
and Hall Element, D (mm)

Figure 13. Demonstration of slide-by mode of operation, showing effect of changes

in displacement between the centerlines of the magnet and the active area

G
TEA

S
N
1000
Mo
tio
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

n
800
Ø5.4 mm
4.8 mm TEAG
600
(A)TEAG = 1.3 mm

400

N S
200
(B)TEAG = 2.5 mm

0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4 7.6 8.9 10.2 Alinco 8 Magnet
Distance Between Centerlines of Magnet
and Hall Element, D (mm)

Figure 14. Example of slide-by mode of operation, comparing the effects of two
different Total Effective Air Gaps

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Vane Interruptor Switching Electrical Interface for Digital Hall Devices
In this mode, the activating magnet and the Hall device are The output stage of a digital Hall switch is simply an open-collec-
mounted on a single rigid assembly with a small air gap between tor NPN transistor (see figure 17). The rules for use are the same
them. In this position, the Hall device is held in the On state by as those for any similar switching transistor.
the activating magnet. If a ferromagnetic plate, or vane, is placed
When the transistor is off, there is a small output leakage current
between the magnet and the Hall device, as shown in figure 15,
(typically a few nanoamperes) that usually can be ignored, and
the vane forms a magnetic shunt that distorts the flux field away
a maximum (breakdown) output voltage (usually 24 V), which
from the Hall device.
must not be exceeded.
Use of a movable vane is a practical way to switch a Hall device.
When the transistor is on, the output is shorted to the circuit
The Hall device and magnet can be molded together as a unit,
common. The current flowing through the switch must be exter-
thereby eliminating alignment problems, to produce an extremely
nally limited to less than a maximum value (usually 20 mA) to
rugged switching assembly. The ferrous vane or vanes that inter-
prevent damage. The voltage drop across the switch, VCE(sat)) ,
rupt the flux could have linear motion, or rotational motion, as
will increase for higher values of output current. You must make
in an automotive distributor. Ferrous vane assemblies, due to the
certain this voltage is compatible with the Off state, or logic low,
steep flux density/ distance curves that can be achieved, are often
voltage of the circuit you wish to control.
used where precision switching over a large temperature range is
required. Hall devices switch very rapidly, with typical rise and fall times
in the 400 ns range. This is rarely critical, because switching
The ferrous vane can be made in many configurations, as shown
times are almost universally controlled by much slower mechani-
in figure 16. With a linear vane similar to that of figure 16B, it
cal parts.
is possible to repeatedly sense position within 0.05 mm over a
125°C temperature range.
Common Interface Circuits
Figure 17 illustrates a simplified schematic symbol for Hall digi-
tal switches. It will make further explanation easier to follow.
Concentrator Vane Interfacing to digital logic integrated circuits usually requires
only an appropriate power supply and pull-up resistor.
With current-sinking logic families, such as DTL or the popular
Magnetic flux 7400 TTL series (figure 18A), the Hall switch has only to sink
one unit-load of current to the circuit common when it turns on
S N S N (1.6 mA maximum for TTL). In the case of CMOS gates (fig-

Magnet
Hall device

Figure 15. Demonstration of vane interruptor operation: (left) normal

magnetic flux path without vane interruption, (right) vane shunting
magnetic flux

VCC Output

Common

Figure 16. Typical configurations for vane interruptors: (A) disk, (B), linear, Figure 17. Hall-effect device with open-collector output stage (illustration
and (C) cup of Hall circuit simplified for clarity in later figures)

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ure 18B), with the exception of switching transients, the only Sinking more current than 20 mA requires a current amplifier. For
current that flows is through the pull-up resistor (about 0.2 mA in example, if a certain load to be switched requires 4 A and must
this case). turn on when the activating magnet approaches, the circuit shown
in figure 20 could be used.
Loads that require sinking currents up to 20 mA can be driven
directly by the Hall switch. When the Hall switch is off (insufficient magnetic flux to oper-
ate), about 12 mA of base current flows through the 1 kΩ resistor
A good example is a light-emitting diode (LED) indicator that to the Q1 transistor, thereby saturating it and shorting the base
requires only a resistor to limit current to an appropriate value. If of Q2 to ground, which keeps the load off. When a magnet is
the LED drops 1.4 V at a current of 20 mA, the resistor required brought near the Hall switch, it turns on, shorting the base of Q1
for use with a 12 V power supply can be calculated as: to ground and turning it off. This allows:
(12 V - 1.4 V) / 0.02 A = 530 Ω 12 V / 56 Ω = 210 mA
The nearest standard value is 560 Ω, resulting in the circuit of of base current to flow to Q2, which is enough to saturate it for
figure 19. any load current of 4 A or less.

VCC = +5 V VCC = +10 V

10 kΩ 47 kΩ

TTL CMOS
Output
Output

Common
Common

Figure 18A. TTL logic interface Figure 18B. CMOS logic interface

VCC = +12 V VCC = +12 V

Load

560 Ω 56 Ω
1 kΩ Q2

Q1
Output Output

Common Common

Figure 19. Example of small (≤20 mA) sinking current load being driven Figure 20. Example of driving a moderate (>20 mA) sinking current load
directly

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The Hall switch can source current to a load in its On or Off state, of abruptly turning off the PNP. Note that the +12 V supply com-
by configuring an external transistor. For example, figure 21 is an mon is isolated from the neutral line of the AC line. This presents
example of sourcing current in the On state, in an application to a relatively safe way to switch high voltage AC loads with low
turn on a 115 or 230 VAC load using a relay. voltage DC circuits. As always, be very careful when dealing
with AC line voltage and take the proper safety precautions.
A typical relay with a 12 V coil requires a current drive between
40 and 60 mA (this varies from relay to relay) to trigger it to the Rotary Activators for Hall Switches
On state, in which the high voltage contacts are closed. This A frequent application involves the use of Hall switches to
could be done with an adequately sized PNP transistor. generate a digital output proportional to velocity, displacement,
When the Hall switch is turned on, 9 mA of base current flows or position of a rotating shaft. The activating magnetic field for
rotary applications can be supplied in either of two ways:
out of the base of the PNP transistor, thereby saturating it and
allowing it to drive enough current to trigger the relay. When the (a) Magnetic rotor assembly
Hall switch is off, no base current flows from the PNP, which The activating magnets are fixed on the shaft and the station-
turns it off and prevents coil current from passing to the relay. ary Hall switch is activated with each pass of a magnetic south
The 4.7 kΩ resistor acts as a pull-up on the PNP base to keep pole (figure 22, panel A). If several activations per revolution are
it turned off when the Hall switch is disabled. A freewheeling required, rotors can sometimes be made inexpensively by mold-
diode is placed across the relay coils in order to protect the PNP ing or cutting plastic or rubber magnetic material (see the An
collector from switching transients that can happen as the result Inexpensive Alternative section).

VCC = +12 V

115 VAC
4.7 kΩ

1.2 kΩ
Load
Output

40 mA

Common
Figure 21. Example of a relay-driving application, sourcing current in the Hall device Off state

Motion

Motion

Magnets

Magnet

Figure 22. Typical configurations for rotors: (A) magnetic, and (B) ferrous vane

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Ring magnets also can be used. Ring magnets are commercially als and configurations. The poles may be oriented either radially
available disc-shaped magnets with poles spaced around the (figure 23, panel A) or axially (figure 23, panel B) with up to 20
circumference. They operate Hall switches dependably and at pole-pairs on a 25-mm diameter ring. For a given size and pole
reasonable costs. Ring magnets do have limitations: count, ring magnets with axial poles have somewhat higher flux
densities.
• The accuracy of pole placement (usually within 2 or 3 degrees).
• Uniformity of pole strength ( ±5%, or worse). Materials most commonly used are various Alnicos, Ceramic 1,
and barium ferrite in a rubber or plastic matrix material (see
These limitations must be considered in applications requiring table 4). Manufacturers usually have stock sizes with a choice of
precision switching. the number of pole pairs. Custom configurations are also avail-
(b) Ferrous vane rotor assembly able at a higher cost.
In this configuration, both the Hall switch and the magnet are Alnico is a name given to a number of aluminum nickel-cobalt
stationary (figure 22, panel B). The rotor interrupts and shunts the alloys that have a fairly wide range of magnetic properties. In
flux (see figure 15) with the passing of each ferrous vane. general, Alnico ring magnets have the highest flux densities, the
smallest changes in field strength with changes in temperature,
Vane switches tend to be a little more expensive than ring mag- and the highest cost. They are generally too hard to shape except
nets, but because the dimensions and configuration of the ferrous by grinding and are fairly brittle, which complicates the mounting
vanes can be carefully controlled, they are often used in applica- of bearings or arbor.
tions requiring precise switching or duty cycle control.
Ceramic 1 ring magnets (trade names Indox, Lodex) have some-
Properly designed vane switches can have very steep flux density what lower flux densities (field strength) than the Alnicos, and
curves, yielding precise and stable switching action over a wide their field strength changes more with temperature. However,
temperature range. they are considerably lower in cost and are highly resistant to
demagnetization by external magnetic fields. The ceramic mate-
Ring Magnets for Hall Switch Applications rial is resistant to most chemicals and has high electrical resistiv-
Ring magnets suitable for use with Hall switches are readily ity. Like Alnico, they can withstand temperatures well above that
available from magnet vendors in a variety of different materi- of Hall switches and other semiconductors, and must be ground if
reshaping or trimming is necessary. They may require a support
Physical arbor to reduce mechanical stress.
Models
The rubber and plastic barium ferrite ring magnets are roughly
comparable to Ceramic 1 in cost, flux density, and temperature
coefficient, but are soft enough to shape using conventional
methods. It is also possible to mold or press them onto a shaft for
some applications. They do have temperature range limitations,
from 70°C to 150°C, depending on the particular material, and
their field strength changes more with temperature than Alnico or
Ceramic 1.
A B
Regardless of material, ring magnets have limitations on the
N Schematic
N accuracy of pole placement and uniformity of pole strength
Views S
S
S
S

which, in turn, limit the precision of the output waveform. Evalu-

ations have shown that pole placement in rubber, plastic, and
N

ceramic magnets usually falls within ±2° or ±3° of target, but

±5° errors have been measured. Variations of flux density from
pole to pole will commonly be ±5%, although variations of up to
Figure 23. Common ring magnet types: (A) radial, and (B) axial; the
±30% have been observed.
schematic views are used in alignment diagrams later in this text

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Figure 24 is a graph of magnetic flux density as a function of This is clearly shown in figure 25, a graph of flux density at a
angular position for a typical 4 pole-pair ceramic ring magnet, pole as a function of TEAG for a typical 20–pole-pair plastic ring
25.4 mm in diameter, with a total effective air gap, TEAG, of magnet.
1.7 mm (1.3 mm clearance plus 0.4 mm package contribution). It
shows quite clearly both the errors in pole placement and varia- Bipolar Digital Switches
tions of strength from pole to pole.
A bipolar switch has consistent hysteresis, but individual units
A frequent concern with ring magnets is ensuring sufficient flux have switchpoints that occur in either relatively more positive
density for reliable switching. There is a trade-off between the
or more negative ranges. These devices find application where
quantity of pole-pairs and the flux density for rings of a given
size. Thus, rings with a greater quantity of poles have lower flux closely-spaced, alternating north and south poles are used (such
densities. It is important that the TEAG be kept to a minimum, as ring magnets), resulting in minimal magnetic signal amplitude,
because flux density at the Hall active area decreases by about ΔB, but the alternation of magnetic field polarity ensures switch-
200 to 240 G per millimeter for many common ring magnets. ing, and the consistent hysteresis ensures periodicity.

1000
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

800 N
S S
600
400 180° 0°

N
200 S S
0 N

-200
TEAG =
-400 1.7 mm
-600
-800 25.4 mm
-1000
0 90 180 270 360
Magnet Rotation (deg.) Ceramic, 4 Pole Pairs
Axial Poles
Figure 24. Magnetic flux characteristic of a ring magnet

400
N S NS N S N
NS
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

S
S N

N
SN S S
N S NS

300
S S

Package
SN
N

contribution
SN
N
N

200 N
S

SN
SN S N S

5.1 mm TEAG
100

3.2 mm
0 25.4 mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Plastic 1, 20 Pole Pairs
Radial Poles
Figure 25. Demonstration of the effect of narrow pole pitch on magnetic signal strength

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An example of a bipolar switch would be a device with a maxi- south poles are present in an alternating pattern. The release point
mum operate point, BOP(max), of 45 G, a minimum release point, flux density becomes less important because if the Hall switch
BRP(min), of –40 G, and a minimum hysteresis, BHYS(min), of 15 has not turned off when the flux density approaches zero (south
G. However, the minimum operate point, BOP(min), could be as pole has passed), it will certainly turn off when the follow-
low as –25 G, and the maximum release point, BRP(max), could ing north pole causes flux density to go negative. Bipolar Hall
be as high as 30 G. Figure 26A shows these characteristics for switches take advantage of this extra margin in release-point flux
units of a hypothetical device with those switchpoints. At the top values to achieve lower operate-point flux densities, a definite
of figure 26A, trace “Minimum ΔB” demonstrates how small advantage in ring magnet applications.
an amplitude can result in reliable switching. A “unipolar mode”
A current list of Allegro bipolar switches can be found at
unit would have switchpoints entirely in the positive (south)
http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Products/Categories/Sensors/
range, a “negative unipolar mode” unit would have switchpoints
bipolar.asp.
entirely in the negative (north) range, and a “Latch mode” unit
would have switchpoints that straddle the south and north ranges
Bipolar Digital Switch Design Example
(behaving like a digital latch, a Hall device type described in the
next section). As can be seen in the VOUT traces at the bottom of Given:
figure 26A, for each of these possibilities, the duty cycle of the • Bipolar Hall switch in Allegro UA package: Active Area Depth,
output is different from each other, but consistent switching at AAD, (and package contribution) of 0.50 mm,
each pole alternation is reliable.
• Air Gap, AG, (necessary mechanical clearance) of 0.76 mm,
In applications previously discussed for other types of devices, • Operating temperature range of –20°C to 85°C,
the Hall switch was operated (turned on) by the approach of a
magnetic south pole (positive flux). When the south pole was • Maximum operate point, BOP , of 200 G (from –20°C to 85°C),
removed (magnetic flux density approached zero), the Hall and
switch had to release (turn off). On ring magnets, both north and • Minimum release point, BRP , of –200 G (from –20°C to 85°C).

7.5 BOP
B BHYS(min) Minimum ∆B
–7.5 BRP
VOUT Minimum ∆B
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

45 BOP(max)
BHYS(min) Unipolar mode unit
30 BRP(max)

7.5 BOP
BHYS(min) Latch mode unit
–7.5 BRP

–25 BOP(min)
BHYS(min) Negative unipolar mode unit
–40 BRP(min)

VOUT Unipolar mode unit

VOUT Latch mode unit

VOUT Negative unipolar mode unit

Figure 26A. Demonstration of possible switchpoint ranges for a bipolar switch, for use with low magnetic flux amplitude, narrow pitch
alternating pole targets

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1. Find the total effective air gap, TEAG: Ring Magnets Detailed Discussion
▫ TEAG = AG + AAD
Temperature Effects
▫ TEAG = 0.76 mm + 0.50 mm = 1.26 mm
Unfortunately, magnet strength is affected by temperature to
2. Determine the necessary flux density, B, sufficient to operate
some extent. Temperature coefficients of some common magnetic
the Hall switch, plus 40%.
materials are given in table 1.
To operate the Hall switch, the magnet must supply a minimum
of ±200 G, at a distance of 1.26 mm, over the entire operating Table 1. Temperature Effects
temperature range. Good design practice requires the addition of Material Temperature Coefficient
extra flux to provide some margin for aging, mechanical wear, Rubber/plastic –0.2% to –0.3% per °C
and other imponderables. If we add a pad of 100 G—a reasonable Ceramic 1 –0.15% to –0.2% per °C
number—the magnet required must supply ±300 G at a distance
Alnico 2, 5 –0.02% to –0.03% per °C
of 1.26 mm, over the entire operating temperature range.
Alnico 8 ±0.01% per °C

Digital Latches If we are considering a ceramic ring magnet with a worst-case

Unlike bipolar switches, which may release with a south pole or temperature coefficient of –0.2%/°C, we must add some extra
north pole, the latch (which is inherently bipolar) offers a more flux density to the requirement at room temperature to ensure that
precise control of the operate and release parameters. This Hall we still have 300 G per south pole at +85°C. This amount is:
integrated circuit has been designed to operate (turn on) with a
south pole only. It will then remain on when the south pole has [(85°C – 25°C) × 0.2%/°C] 300 G = 36 G
been removed. In order to have the bipolar latch release (turn Thus, the flux density that will ensure that the Hall switch will
off), it must be presented with a north magnetic pole. This alter- operate over temperature is 300 G + 36 G = 336 G per south pole
nating south pole-north pole operation, when properly designed, at +25°C.
produces a duty cycle approaching 50%, as shown in figure 26B.
Follow the same procedure for the north pole requirements. If the
Allegro offers a wide selection of Hall effect latches designed magnet will supply 300 G per south pole and –300 G per north
specifically for applications requiring a tightly controlled duty pole at +85°C, it will supply even more flux density per north
cycle, such as in brushless DC motor commutation. Latches can pole at –20°C because of the negative temperature coefficient.
also be found in applications such as shaft encoders, speedometer
elements, and tachometer sensors. For a current list of Allegro In applications where temperature conditions are more severe,
latching sensor ICs visit http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Prod- Alnico magnets are considerably better than the ceramic magnets
ucts/Categories/Sensors/latches.asp. we considered. It is also possible to order custom Hall switches
with specifications tailored to your application. For example, you
can specify a range of operate and release points at a particular
temperature, with temperature coefficients for operate and release
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

points, if that is better suited to your application. On a custom

basis, Hall switches are available with operate and release point
150 BOP(max) temperature coefficients of less than 0.3 G/°C, and with operate
point flux densities of less than 100 G.
If you intend to use a low-cost, low flux density ring magnet,
then a device in the Allegro UA package (1.55 mm overall
thickness) would be a good choice. The AAD is 0.50 mm, which
–150 BRP(min) results in a significant improvement in peak flux density from a
magnet, as shown in figure 25.
If the rotor drive can withstand an increased torque require-
ment, consider a ferrous flux concentrator. Flux density can be
VOUT increased by 10% to 40% in this manner. A mild steel concen-
trator of 0.8 mm thickness, having the same dimensions as and
Figure 26B. Demonstration of the bipolar latch characteristic, for use in cemented to, the back face of the Hall device case, will increase
precise duty cycle control, alternating pole targets

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flux density by about 10%. A return path of mild steel from the Finally, a thin mild-steel backing plate was mounted to the back
back side of the device to the adjacent poles can add even more. of the assembly to give mechanical strength and to help conduct
Often the functions of mounting bracket and flux concentrator the flux back from the north poles on the opposite side. This
can be combined (see figure 57 for an example).
actually served to form apparent north poles between the teeth;
the measured flux between south pole teeth is negative. Figure 29
An Inexpensive Alternative
shows the completed magnetic rotor assembly, essentially a ring
Innovative design can produce surprisingly good results. Rubber
and plastic magnet stock comes in sheets. One side of the sheet is magnet with axial poles.
magnetic north; the other side is south. This material is relatively
inexpensive and can easily be stamped or die-cut into various
shapes. The Hall switch was mounted with its active surface close to the
top of the rotor assembly, facing the marked poles. There is some
These properties prompted one designer to fabricate an inexpen-
versatility in this approach, as asymmetrical poles can be used to
sive magnetic rotor assembly that worked very well. The rubber
magnet stock was die-cut into a star-shaped rotor form, as shown fabricate a rotor that will allow trimmable on time and thus work
in figure 27. A nylon bushing formed a bearing, as shown in as a timing cam. Figure 30 illustrates a cam timer adjusted to
figure 28. 180° on and 180° off.

Figure 27. Demonstration of rubber magnet stock layout for inexpensive Figure 28. Demonstration of nylon bushing for inexpensive ring magnet
ring magnet

Figure 29. Demonstration of assembled inexpensive ring magnet Figure 30. Demonstration of adjustment of ring magnet to 180° on and
180° off

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Ring Magnet Selection ▫ Flux density at a given TEAG (remember to add the Hall
When you discuss your application with a magnet vendor, the fol- switch package contribution to the clearance figure)
lowing items should be considered: ▫ Magnetic temperature coefficient
• Mechanical factors • Environmental Factors
▫ Dimensions and tolerances ▫ Tolerance of the material to the working environment (tem-
perature, chemical solvents, electric potentials)
▫ Mounting hole type and maximum eccentricity
Flux density curves from several typical ring magnets are
▫ Rotational speed
included in the following figures, to present an idea of what can
▫ Mechanical support required be expected from various sizes and materials. Figure 31 shows
▫ Coefficient of expansion the curve for a ring similar in size and material to that of figure
• Magnetic Factors 25, but with 10 pole-pairs instead of 20 (note increased flux den-
sity values). Figure 32 shows the curve from a single pole-pair,
▫ Poles: number, orientation, and placement accuracy Alnico 8 ring.

400
S N S N
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

S
S N

N
300

S
N
N

S
S

200 N N
S N S

5.1 mm TEAG
100

3.2 mm
0 25.4 mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Plastic 1, 10 Pole Pairs
Radial Poles
Figure 31. Example of magnetic flux density versus air gap for Plastic 1 ring magnet

400
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

300
N

200
TEAG

100
5.1 mm

3.2 mm
0 19.1 mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Alinco 8, 1 Pole Pair
Axial Poles
Figure 32. Example of magnetic flux density versus air gap for Alinco 8 ring magnet

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Figure 33 shows the curve from a three-pole-pair Ceramic 1 ring. a single magnet will hold a Hall switch on except when one of
Figure 34 shows the curves from a four-pole-pair Ceramic 1 ring, the rotor vanes interrupts the flux path and shunts the flux path
with and without a ferrous flux concentrator. Incoming inspection away from the Hall switch. The use of a single stationary magnet
of ring magnets is always advisable. You can ensure the magnets allows very precise switching by eliminating ring magnet varia-
are within the agreed upon magnetic specifications by making tions, placement, and strength. Unlike the evenly spaced poles
measurements with a commercial gaussmeter, or a calibrated lin- on ring magnets, the width of rotor vanes can easily be varied. It
ear Hall device mounted in a convenient test fixture. Calibrated is possible to vary the Hall switch off and on times, which gives
Hall devices and technical assistance are available from Allegro. the designer control over the duty cycle of the output waveform.
Ferrous-vane rotors are a good choice where precise switching
is desired over a wide range of temperatures. As the vane passes
Ferrous Vane Rotary Activators between magnet and Hall switch, progressively more flux will
A ferrous vane rotor assembly is the alternative to magnetic be blocked or shunted. Small variations in lateral position have a
rotors for rotary Hall switch applications. As shown previously, very small effect on the transition point.

S N
400
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

300
N

S
200

S N
100 6.4 mm TEAG

0 19.1 mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 44.5 mm
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Ceramic 1, 3 Pole Pairs
Radial Poles

Figure 33. Example of magnetic flux density versus air gap for Ceramic 1 ring magnet

400
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

S
N
N

300
With flux
S

concentrator
N

200 S

Without flux
concentrator 6.4 mm TEAG
100

Concentrator
6.4 mm Ø3.2 mm
0 19.1 mm L = 6.4 mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Ceramic 1, 4 Pole Pairs
Radial Poles
Figure 34. Example of magnetic flux density versus air gap for Ceramic 1 ring magnet, showing comparative results with a cylindrical ferrous flux
concentrator attached to back side of a Hall device case

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A Ferrous Vane In Operation nears the magnet, the shunting effect of the vane causes the flux
Figure 35 combines views of a ferrous-vane magnet/Hall switch density to decrease in a nearly linear fashion. When the vane
system with the graph of flux density as a function of vane travel passes the device centerline, the magnet is covered by the vane
produced by this system. Note that the drawings and the graph and flux density is at a minimum. As the vane travels on, it starts
are vertically aligned along the horizontal axis. Position is mea- to uncover the magnet. This allows the flux to increase to its
sured from the leading edge of the vane to the centerline of the original value. After that, additional vane travel has no further
magnet/Hall device. influence on flux density at the Hall element.

Initially, when the vane is located entirely to the left of the A Hall switch located in the position of the sensor IC would
magnet, the vane has no effect and the flux density at the ele- initially be on because of the presence of the magnetic field.
ment is at a maximum of 800 G. As the leading edge of the vane Somewhere in the linearly decreasing region, the flux would fall
below the release point, and the Hall switch would turn off. It

Cup target

Magnet N Device
S Vane
Vane Magnet
TEAG
(22.5°)
Hall
Device Element
Case
Top View

Side View

1000
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

800

600
Effective Vane
Width (24°)
400 Operate
Release Point, BOP
200 Point, BRP
Actual Vane
Width (22.5°)
0
60 40 20 0 20 40 60
Vane Travel (deg.)
Figure 35. Rotary single-vane assembly and characteristic magnetic profile, using a samarium cobalt
magnet and Ø65 mm ferrous cup target (150 G/deg.)

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would remain off until the increasing flux reaches the operate designed. Firing point stability may be held to ±0.005 distributor
point for that particular Hall switch. Recall that the operate point degrees per degree Celsius in a well-designed system.
flux density is greater than the release point flux density by the
amount of the hysteresis for that particular Hall switch. Material
The interval during which the Hall switch remains off (from the Vanes are made of a low-carbon steel to minimize residual mag-
time of the Hall switch release point until the next operate point) netism and to give good shunting action. The vane thickness is
is determined by the actual width of the vane and the steepness chosen to avoid magnetic saturation for the value of flux density
of the magnetic slope, as well as by the operate and release point it must shunt. Vane material is usually between 0.8 and 1.5 mm
flux density (switchpoint threshold) values for the Hall switch. thick.
This interval is called the effective vane width, and it is always
somewhat greater than the physical vane width. Vane / Window Widths, Rotor Size
Generally, the smallest vanes and windows on a rotor should be
Rotor Design at least one and one-half times the width of the magnet pole, to
Two commonly used rotor configurations are the disk and the provide adequate shunting action and to maintain sufficient dif-
cup, as shown in figure 36. ferential between the off and on values of flux density.

The disk is easily fabricated and, hence, is often used for low- In table 2, the maximum flux density (obtained with window cen-
volume applications such as machine control. Axial movement tered over the magnet, the minimum flux density (vane centered
of the rotor must be considered. Vane-activated switches tolerate over the magnet), and the difference between the two values are
this quite well, but the rotor must not hit the magnet or the Hall tabulated for three cases:
switch. • Vane and window width the same as magnet pole width
Cup rotors are somewhat more difficult to fabricate and so are • Vane and window width one and one-half times magnet pole
more expensive, but dealing with a single radial distance simpli- width
fies calculations and allows precise control of the output wave- • Vane and window width two times the magnet pole width
forms. For cup rotors, radial bearing wear or play is the signif-
icant factor in determining the clearances, while axial play is rela- In each sample, the magnet is 6.4 × 6.4 × 3.2 mm samarium
tively unimportant. Cup rotors have been used very successfully cobalt, the air gap is 0.3 mm, and the rotor vanes are made of
in automotive ignition systems. The dwell range is determined 1 mm mild-steel stock.
by the ratio of the vane-to-window widths when the rotor is If a small rotor with many windows and vanes is required, a
miniature rare-earth magnet must be used to ensure sufficient
flux density for reliable operation. For example, a 2.5 mm cubical
samarium cobalt magnet makes it practical to fabricate a 31.8 mm
diameter rotor with as many as 10 windows and vanes. With
fewer vanes, even further size reduction is possible.

Steep Magnetic Slopes for Consistent Switching

A graph of flux density versus vane travel, for most common
vane configurations, is very nearly linear in the transition regions
(see figure 35). The Hall switch operate and release points fall in
these linear transition regions, and it is easily seen that if these
Figure 36. Illustration of rotor styles: (left) disk and (right) cup with multiple values change, the position of the vane which causes the switch-
vanes

Table 2. Magnetic Flux Density, B, at Various Vane and Window Positions and Relative Dimensions
Vane and Window Width Factor Relative to Magnet Pole Face
Position Relative to Magent Centerline
1.0 × 1.5 × 2.0 ×
Window centered 630 G 713 G 726 G
Vane centered 180 G 100 G 80 G
Window centered - Vane centered 450 G 613 G 646 G

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ing must change also. Figure 37 shows the flux density as a Small Air Gaps for Steep Slopes
function of vane position for two different magnetic circuits. In The air gap should be as small as the mechanical system allows.
one case, the magnetic slope is 98 G/mm. In the second case, it is Factors to be considered are:
107 G/mm.
• Vane material thickness and vane radius
If the 98 G/mm system is used with a Hall switch known to
have an operate point flux density of 300 G at 25°C, the device • Maximum eccentricity (for cup vanes)
would switch on when the vane is 2.2 mm past the center of the • Bearing tolerance and wear
window, at this temperature. If the Hall switch operate point • Change in air gap with temperature due to mounting consider-
went up to 400 G at a temperature of 125°C (this represents Hall ations
switch temperature coefficient of 1 G/°C), the vane must move
to 3.1 mm past center, a change in switching position of about In figure 38, two different samarium cobalt magnets are used in
1 mm. If the same Hall switch is used in the second system hav- a vane system to illustrate the effects of changes in air gap and
ing the 107 G/ mm slope, the operate point would shift only about magnet size. Note that only the falling transition region is shown
0.5 mm, or half as much, because the slope is twice as steep. (the rising transition region would be symmetrical). The distances
on the horizontal axis have been measured from the leading edge
Slopes in typical vane systems range from 40 G/mm to of the vane.
590 G/ mm, and are affected by magnet type and size, the mag-
netic circuit, and the total effective air gap. It is interesting to note The term “air gap” as used in figure 38 is not the total effective
that, although slide-by operation can give very steep slopes, the air gap; but is simply the distance from the face of the magnet
transition point is much affected by lateral motion (change in air to the surface of the Hall switch. It does not include the package
gap); therefore, vanes are often preferred for applications involv- contribution. The Allegro U package is often used in ferrous vane
ing play or bearing wear. applications because it has a shallow active area depth.

1000
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

800 Magnetic slope =

107 G/mm

600
Magnetic slope =
98 G/mm
400

200 1.0 mm
0.5 mm
0
-7.6 -5.1 -2.5 0 2.5 5.1 7.6
Vane Position (mm)

Figure 37. Comparison of two applications, for flux density versus vane travel, showing linearity in the transition regions, despite varying rates

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1000
4 3 2 1

900 5

6
800 7

Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

700

600

500 Concentrator
Device
Vane
Magnet
400

CL

300 Concentrator
(if used)
Device
Branded
Face
200 Air Gap
D

Vane S
100 N Magnet

0
-5.1 -3.8 -2.5 -1.3 0 1.3

Distance from Vane Leading Edge to Device/Magnet Centerline, D (mm)

(Only leading edge curves shown; trailing edge curves symmetrical)

Figure 38. Relative strength of magnetic field using two sample samarium cobalt magnets, versus
variances in air gap and flux concentrator usage (see key table)

Table 3. Key for Figure 38

Air Gap Transition Region Slope
Chart Symbol Concentrator* Usage
(mm) (G / mm)
1 2.5 551 Yes
2 2.5 388 No
3 2.5 354 Yes
4 3.0 343 Yes

5 2.5 307 No

6 3.0 248 No
7 3.0 220 Yes
8 3.0 177 No
Note: Samples using two samarium cobalt cubic magnets, Allegro U package
*Concentrator cylindrical, composed of mild steel, Ø3.2 mm, length 6.4 mm, attached to non-branded
face of the Allegro U package case

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Flux Concentrators Pay Dividends Temperature Coefficients:
What if economic or size considerations dictated use of the • ΔBOP /Δ T, maximum = 0.7 G/°C
smaller magnet sampled for figure 38, and mechanical consid-
• ΔBRP /Δ T, maximum = 1.0 G/°C
erations dictated the larger (3.0 mm) air gap, but the resulting
flux density and slope (curve 8) were not good enough? Curve 7 Solid-state Hall-effect ignition systems can be designed to fire
in figure 38 shows the very substantial improvement that can be either on the operate or release switchpoints of the Hall switch.
achieved by adding simple flux concentrators. Those used in the We have arbitrarily chosen to have the system in this example fire
example were 3.2 mm in diameter by 6.4 mm long, and were at the operate switchpoints and, thus, the operate point specifica-
fastened behind the Hall switch. tions of the Hall switch (between 300 and 450 G at 125°C) will
determine the amount of uncertainty in the initial timing of the
Flux Concentrator Design Example spark. It is possible that the mechanical system would also make
a contribution, but that is not considered here.
The magnet/concentrator configuration we just considered
(curve 7, figure 38) seems to offer a high performance/cost ratio. Figure 39 shows the measured flux density at the position of the
Following is an evaluation of its use in an automotive ignition sensor IC as a function of the vane travel. The shape of the curve
system using a 63.5 mm diameter cup rotor. (which shows only the transition regions) requires explanation.
Because the regions of flat minimum and maximum flux are
The initial timing and wide operating temperature range require- irrelevant, it is convenient to measure from the vane leading edge
ments for this application have generally led designers to specify to the magnet centerline while plotting data for the falling transi-
custom Hall switches in terms of the minimum and maximum tion, and from the vane trailing edge to the magnet centerline
operate or release point at +25°C, plus a maximum temperature while plotting data for the rising transition. This results in a curve
coefficient on these parameters over the operating temperature that has the same appearance as if all data taken while a vane
range. passed the magnet centerline were plotted, and then the low flux
Representative specifications might be: areas were deleted, and the sections containing the linear transi-
tion regions were joined together. (The flat high flux regions are
• 25°C operate point, minimum, BOP(min) = 300 G simply omitted.)
• 25°C operate point, maximum, BOP(max) = 450 G From this graph, we can identify the magnetic slope of the
• 25°C release point, minimum, BRP(min) = 200 G transition regions for our system as being approximately 223 G

25°C Initial timing uncertainty

(1.2 distributor degrees)
700

600
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

500
25°C maximum
Magnetic slope = Operate Point
223 G/mm
400 125 G/distributor degree

25°C minimum
300 Operate Point
25°C minimum
200 Release Point

100

0
–5.1 –3.8 –2.5 –1.3 0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1
Distance Between Vane Leading (–) or Trailing (+) Edge
and Centerline of Magnet / Hall Element (mm)

Figure 39. Design example of magnetic characteristic of a single-vane cup target (showing only magnetic flux transition regions)

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per mm of vane travel. Calculations based on the rotor diameter A typical samarium cobalt magnet temperature coefficient is
(63.5 mm) show we have 0.55 mm of vane travel per distributor –0.04% per °C. At that rate, a magnetic field of 375 G at 25°C
degree. The 223 G/mmm slope obtained from figure 39 is equiva- would decrease to 360 G at 125°C. Applying that rate to the data
lent to 125 G per distributor degree. From the specifications, it from figure 39 (with a magnetic slope of 223 G/mm), in figure 40
is known that the Hall switch will operate when flux is between we can see our system having an additional vane travel require-
300 G and 450 G, leaving a 150 G window of uncertainty. At ment at 125°C. This can be calculated as:
25°C, this uncertainty will be: (375 G - 360 G) × (1 mm / 223 G) = 0.1 mm
150 G × (Distributor Degree / 125 G) = This translates to timing change of:
1.2 Distributor Degrees
0.1 mm × (1 Distributor Degree / 0.55 mm) =
Additional contributions to the initial timing uncertainty will 0.12 Distributor Degrees
result if the total effective air gap is changed, because that would
for a temperature change of 100°C.
affect the shape or slopes of the magnetic flux density/vane travel
curve of figure 39. Factors to be considered are the magnet peak
Calculating Dwell Angle and Duty Cycle Variations
energy product tolerances, as well as manufacturing tolerances in
the final Hall switch/ magnet assembly. The dwell angle in a conventional system is the quantity of
distributor degrees during which the distributor points are closed.
This corresponds to the amount of time current can flow in the
Temperature Stability of Operate Points
ignition coil primary winding. In our example, current flows in
An early Hall switch operate-point temperature coefficient was the coil primary from the time of the Hall release switchpoint
approximately 0.2 G/°C. To translate this into distributor degrees until the next operate switchpoint (the effective vane width). For
per degree Celsius, we take: nostalgic reasons, we will assume an eight-cylinder engine, which
(0.2 G / 1°C) × (Distributor Degree / 125 G) = requires a distributor rotor with eight windows and eight vanes of
0.0016 Distributor Degrees / °C equal size. Thus, a single window-vane segment occupies 45 dis-
tributor degrees and will fire one cylinder. Let us further assume
The distributor timing would, therefore, change 0.16 degrees for a typical Hall device operate switchpoint of 375 G at 25°C (A in
a temperature change of 100°C. figure 40), and a 25°C release point of 260 G (B in figure 40).

700

600
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

500 1.9 mm
(C) 125°C Operate
Magnetic slope = 1.5 mm 1.5 mm Point (445 G)
223 G/mm
400 125 G/distributor degree
1 mm (A) 25°C Operate
(D)125°C Release
300 Point (360 G) Point (375 G)

(B) 25°C Release

200 Point (260 G)

100

0
–5.1 –3.8 –2.5 –1.3 0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1
Distance Between Vane Leading (–) or Trailing (+) Edge
and Centerline of Magnet / Hall Element (mm)

Figure 40. Design example of magnetic characteristic of a single-vane cup target (showing only magnetic flux transition regions), showing effects of
temperature change on switchpoints

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From figure 40 we find that the ignition points will close 1 mm Enhancement Considerations
before the vane leading edge passes the magnet centerline, and
they will open 1.5 mm after the vane trailing edge passes the Individual Calibration Techniques
magnet centerline. We can calculate how much greater the effec- In some applications, it may be required to have the vane-Hall
tive vane width is than the mechanical vane width, as follows: device assemblies operate within a narrower range of vane edge
positions than is possible with a practical operate point specifi-
(1 mm + 1.5 mm) × (1 Distributor Degree / 0.55 mm) = cation for the Hall device, for example, if it were necessary to
4.54 Distributor Degrees reduce the initial timing window in the example of the ignition
distributor. One solution would be individual calibration. Possible
techniques include some or all of the following:
This gives a dwell angle of (45° + 4.54°) = 49.54 Distributor
Degrees at 25°C. The duty cycle is then: • Adjusting the air gap by changing the magnet position
• Adjusting the position of a flux concentrator on the back side of
(49.54° / 90°) = 55%, at 25°C the Hall device
• Adjusting the position of a small bias magnet mounted on the
Using the specified worst-case temperature coefficients, we back side of the Hall device
calculate the new operate and release switchpoints at 125°C to
• Demagnetizing the magnet in small increments that would
be 445 G (C in figure 40) and 360 G (D in figure 40). The dwell
decrease the magnetic slope and, thus, increase the temperature
angle at +125°C would then be:
effects
45° + [(1.85 mm +1.47 mm) × (1 Distributor Degree / 0.55 mm) = • Adjusting the position of the Hall device-magnet assembly rela-
50.9 Distributor Degrees tive to the rotor in a manner similar to rotating an automotive
distributor to change the timing
The duty cycle is then:
51° / 90° = 57% Operating Modes: Head-On and Slide-By
The most common operating modes are head-on (see figure 12B)
Effects of Bearing Wear and slide-by (see figure 13). The head-on mode is simple and
A ±0.3 mm radial movement of the vane, with its position relatively insensitive to lateral motion, but cannot be used
adjusted to the approximate operate point of the Hall switch, gave where overextension of the mechanism might damage the Hall
a measured change of ±6 G. This translates into a change of: device. The flux-density plot for a typical head-on operation
(see figure 41) shows that the magnetic slope is quite shallow
6 G × (1 Distributor Degree /125 G) = for low values of flux density, a disadvantage that generally
0.048 Distributor Degrees requires extreme mechanism travel and extreme sensitivity to
which is equivalent to 0.097 crankshaft degrees. flux changes in the operate and release switchpoints of the Hall
device. This problem can be overcome by selecting Hall devices
Mounting Also Affects Stability with higher operate and release properties.
In the example above, it was assumed that the physical relation- The slide-by mode is also simple, can have reasonably steep
ship between the Hall switch and the magnet was absolutely slopes (to about 394 G/mm), and has no problem with mecha-
stable. In practice, it is necessary to design the mountings with nism over-travel. It is, however, very sensitive to lateral play, as
some care if this is to be true. It has been found that supporting the flux density varies dramatically with changes in the air gap.
the magnet or Hall switch with formed brackets of aluminum or This can be seen clearly in the curves of figure 42, in which the
brass will often contribute a significant temperature-related error flux density curves are plotted for actual slide-by operation with
to the system. Use of molded plastic housings has proven to be various air gaps. It is apparent that the operating mechanism can
one of the better mounting techniques. have little side play if precise switching is required.

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Relative Magnetic Flux Density, B + VCC

AAD and Package Contribution

Relative Output Voltage

TEAG

AAD

N S

0 VOQ
0 2.5 5.1 7.6 10.2 12.7
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm)

Figure 41. Example of the magnetic flux characteristic in head-on configuration

+ VCC
Relative Magnetic Flux Density, B

TEAG
5.3 mm
TEAG = 1.3 mm
Relative Output Voltage

TEAG = 1.9 mm N S

D
TEAG = 2.4 mm

0 VOQ
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4
Distance Between Centerlines of Magnet
and Hall Element, D (mm)

Figure 42. Example of effect of lateral displacement on the magnetic flux characteristic in slide-by configuration

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Operating Mode Enhancements: Compound Magnets the package. While a north pole alone is seldom used, the push-
pull configuration (simultaneous application of a south pole to
Push-Pull the branded side and a north pole to the back side) can give much
Because the active area of a Hall switch is close to the branded greater field strengths than are possible with any single magnet
face of the package, it is usually operated by approaching this (see figure 43). Perhaps more important, push-pull arrangements
face with a magnetic south pole. It is also possible to operate a are quite insensitive to lateral motion and are worth considering if
Hall switch by applying a magnetic north pole to the back side of a loosely fitting mechanism is involved.

n
tio
Mo

Mo
tio
n

Figure 43. Examples of compound magnet configurations (either the Hall device or the magnet assembly can be stationary), with a south pole toward the
branded face and a north pole toward the back side: (left) push-pull head-on and (right) push-pull slide-by

2000
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

3.6 mm
1600

1200
Magnetic Slope = NS NS
–315 G / mm
800 D

400

Back face
0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4 Branded face
Distance Between Centerlines of Magnet
and Hall Element, D (mm)

Figure 44. Example of magnetic flux characteristic in push-pull slide-by magnet configuration

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Figure 44 shows the flux-density curve for an actual push-pull figuration in the head-on mode (see figure 45).
slide-by configuration that achieves a magnetic slope of about
In the push-push, head-on mode configuration shown in figure
315 G/mm. 45, the magnetic fields cancel each other when the mechanism
is centered, giving zero flux density at that position. Figure 46
Push-Push shows the flux-density plot of such a configuration. The curve is
Another possibility, a bipolar field with a fairly steep slope linear and moderately steep at better than 315 G/mm. The mecha-
(which also is linear), can be created by using a push-push con- nism is fairly insensitive to lateral motion.

n
tio
Mo

Figure 45. Example of a push-push head-on compound magnet configuration (either the Hall device or the magnet assembly can be stationary), with
south poles toward both the branded face and the back side

500 Ø5.4 mm
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

4.8 mm 5.3 mm 4.8 mm

300

100
0 N S S N

-100 Magnetic Slope =

315 G / mm

-300

Alinco 8 Magnets
-500
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Magnet Assembly Travel (mm)

Figure 46. Example of push-push head-on mode magnet configuration, in which the fields cancel in the middle of the travel range

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Biased Operation
It is also possible to bias the Hall device by placing a station- Figures 48-50 demonstrate additional slide-by techniques.
ary north or south pole behind it to alter the operate and release Compound magnets are used in push-pull slide-by configurations
points. For example, a north pole attached to the reverse face to achieve a magnetic slope of 685 G/mm. Rare-earth magnets
would configure the device as normally turned on, until a may be used to obtain substantially steeper slopes. A flux density
north pole providing a stronger field in the opposite direction curve of up to 3937 G/mm is obtainable.
approached the opposite face (figure 47).

Branded
Branded face
face S
N
Back-biasing
S Mo magnet
N N tio N
n
S S
n
tio Back-biasing
Mo magnet

Figure 47. Examples of back-biasing magnet configuration, (left) slide-by and (right) head-on

5.3 mm
+ VCC
4.8 mm
Relative Magnetic Flux Density, B

0 VOQ SN SN

Single
Relative Output Voltage

N S
magnets
– GND
S N
+ VCC NS NS
D

Compound VOQ
0
magnets

– GND
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Distance Between Centerline of Magnet
and Hall Element, D (mm) Compound Single
magnets magnets

Figure 48. Examples of slide-by motion, magnets on both sides; compound and single magnets

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VCC

Relative Magnetic Flux Density, B

+
4.8 mm

Relative Output Voltage

S

N
0 VOQ
D

– GND
-10.0 -7.5 -5.0 -2.5 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0
Distance Between Centerline of Magnet
and Hall Element, D (mm)

Figure 49. Example of slide-by motion, magnet on one side, single magnet

Compound Magnet
1000
Alinco 6
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

Ø6 mm
4.8 mm
500
S N

0 N S
Magnetic Slope =
D
–394 G / mm S N
–500

TEAG = 1 mm

–1000
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Distance Between Centerline of Magnet
and Hall Element, D (mm)

Figure 50. Example of slide-by motion, magnets on one side, compound magnets

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Increasing Flux Density by Improving the Magnetic Circuit In a Hall device application, the goal is to minimize the reluc-
Magnetic flux can travel through air, plastic, and most other tance of the flux path from the magnetic south pole, through the
Hall device, and back to the north pole. The best possible mag-
materials only with great difficulty. Because there is no incentive
netic circuit for a Hall device would provide a ferrous path for the
for flux from the activating magnet to flow through the (plastic
flux, as shown in figure 52, with the only “air gap” being the Hall
and silicon) Hall device, only a portion of it actually does. The device itself.
balance flows around the device and back to the other pole by
whatever path offers the least resistance (figure 51). While a complete ferrous flux path is usually impractical, unnec-
essary, and even impossible in applications requiring an undis-
However, magnetic flux easily flows through a ferromagnetic torted or undisturbed flux field, it is a useful concept that points
material such as mild steel. The reluctance of air is greater by a the way to a number of very practical compromises for improving
factor of several thousand than that of mild steel. flux density.

Flux paths

Flux paths

Mild steel

NS
NS
Hall device
Magnet Magnet Hall device

Figure 51. Typical magnetic field generated as magnetic flux passes Figure 52. Demonstration of use of mild steel to provide a low-reluctance
through free air, with only a small portion passing through the Hall device path for magnetic flux, with a preponderance passing through the Hall device

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Flux Concentrators 6.4 mm). In panel A, there is a flux density of 187 G at the Hall
Flux concentrators are low-carbon (cold rolled) steel magnetic device active area. In panel B, with a concentrator 3.2 mm in
conductors. They are used to provide a low reluctance path from diameter and 12.7 mm long, the flux density increases to 291 G.
a magnet south pole, through the Hall element, and back to the
Size of the Concentrator
north pole. Flux concentrators can take many forms and will
often allow use of smaller or less expensive magnets (or less The active area of the Hall device is typically 0.3 mm square.
expensive, less sensitive Hall devices) in applications where Best results are obtained by tapering the end of the concentra-
small size or economy are important. They are of value whenever tor to approximately the same dimensions. With the Allegro
it is necessary or preferred to increase flux density at the Hall UA package, however, there is 1.1 mm from the active area to the
back face of the package. Due to this distance, a slightly larger
device. Increases of up to 100% are possible.
end to the concentrator results in higher values of flux density at
An example of the effectiveness of a concentrator is illustrated in the active area. If the end is too large, the flux is insufficiently
figure 53. Both panels show the same magnet (a samarium cobalt concentrated. Figures 54A, 54B, and 54C illustrate these effects
magnet 6.4 mm square and 3.2 mm long) and mounting (AG = using cylindrical flux concentrators and a 6.4 mm air gap.

Magnet Magnet
samarium cobalt samarium cobalt
□6.4 mm □6.4 mm
Concentrator
Ø3.2 mm

SN SN

6.4 mm 3.2 mm 12.7 mm 6.4 mm 3.2 mm

B = 187 G B = 291 G

Figure 53. Effect of back-side flux concentrator on magnetic flux intensity: (A) without concentrator and (B) with concentrator

Magnet Magnet Magnet

samarium cobalt samarium cobalt samarium cobalt
□6.4 mm □6.4 mm □6.4 mm
Concentrator Concentrator Concentrator
Ø3.2 mm Ø0.6 mm
Ø6.4 mm Ø3.2 mm

SN SN SN

12.7 mm 6.4 mm 3.2 mm 12.7 mm 6.4 mm 3.2 mm 12.7 mm 6.4 mm 3.2 mm

B = 261 G B = 269 G B = 291 G

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 54. (A) Effect of back-side flux concentrator, diameter reduced too much, diminishing field strength, B; (B) Effect of back-side flux concentrator,
diameter increased too much, diminishing field strength, B; (C) Effect of back-side flux concentrator, diameter optimally matched to device

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The length of the concentrator also has an effect on the flux den-
sity. This is illustrated in figure 55.
Magnet
Cylindrical concentrators were used here for convenience, but the samarium cobalt
body of the concentrator has little effect. The important factors □6.4 mm
Concentrator
are the shape, position, and surface area of the magnet end near- Ø3.2 mm
est the Hall element.
Concentrator
SN
The effectiveness of other concentrator configurations can be mild steel

measured easily by using a calibrated linear Hall device or a com-

□12.7 mm
12.7 mm 6.4 mm
mercial gaussmeter. 0.8 mm

3.2 mm
Mounting the Magnet to a Ferrous Plate
B = 357 G
Mounting the magnet to a ferrous plate gives an additional
increase in flux density at the Hall element. Using the same
configuration as in figure 54C, which produced 291 G, note the
available flux attained in figures 56A and 56B with the addition Figure 56A. Effect of 12.7 mm2 additional flux concentrator, attached to
of the ferrous plate. magnet

Figure 57 shows a possible concentrator for a ring-magnet

application. Using a flux concentrator that extends to both of the
adjacent north poles, flux density increases from 265 G to 400 G
(0.4 mm air gap). Note that the concentrator has a dimple, or Magnet
mesa, centered on the Hall device. In most applications, the mesa samarium cobalt
□6.4 mm
will give a significant increase in flux density over a flat mount-
Concentrator
ing surface. Ø3.2 mm
Concentrator
SN mild steel
Attractive Force and Distorted Flux Field □25.4 mm
Whenever a flux concentrator is used, an attractive force exists
12.7 mm 6.4 mm
between magnet and concentrator. This may be detrimental to the
application.
0.8 mm
3.2 mm
B = 389 G
400 Figure 56B. Effect of 25.4 mm2 additional flux concentrator, attached to
magnet
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

200
S
N
N
S

S
N

0
S
0 12.7 25.4
Concentrator Length (mm)
Dimple

Figure 55. Effect of back-side flux concentrator length, using a samarium Figure 57. Demonstration of mesa-type bracket and flux concentrator
cobalt magnet of Ø3.2 mm and AG = 6.4 mm

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Feed-Throughs bution by the flux concentrator behind the Hall switch. Values for
An example of the use of a magnetic conductor to feed flux curve A were obtained with the flux concentrator in place, those
through a nonferrous housing is shown in figure 58. A small elec- for curve B without it. In both cases, the highest flux densities
tric motor has a 3.2 mm cube samarium cobalt magnet mounted were achieved with the shortest feed-through dimension L, which
in the end of its rotor, as shown. A 3.2 mm cube ferrous conduc- was 3.2 mm. Peak flux density was 350 G with flux concentrator
tor extends through the alloy case with a 0.8 mm air gap between in place, 240 G without it.
it and the magnet south pole. The Hall switch is mounted at the
other end with a flux concentrator behind it. Magnet Selection
In general, the feed-through should be of approximately the same A magnet must operate reliably with the total effective air gap in
cross-sectional area and shape as is the magnet pole end. This the working environment. It must fit the available space. It must
concept can be used to feed flux through any non-ferrous mate- be mountable, affordable, and available.
rial, such as a pump case, pipe, or panel.
The two curves of figure 59 illustrate the effects on flux density Figures Of Merit
of increasing the length of the feed-through, as well as the contri- The figures of merit commonly applied to magnetic materials are:
• Residual induction (Br) in gauss (G). How strong is the mag-
Feed-through netic field?
Magnet on rotor
• Coercive force (Hc) in oersteds (Oe). How well will the magnet
resist external demagnetizing forces?
SN • Maximum energy product (BHmax) in gauss-oersteds × 106. A
strong magnet that is also very resistant to demagnetizing forces
Rotor
has a high maximum energy product. Generally, the larger the
energy product, the better, stronger, and more expensive the
magnet.
• Temperature coefficient. The rate of change of the operate or
release switchpoints over the full operating temperature range,
measured in gauss per degree Celsius. How much will the
Figure 58. Typical application for feed-through of magnetic signal from strength of the magnet change as temperature changes?
target to Hall device

Magnet
Samarium Cobalt
□3.2 mm
400
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

300 L
(A) With flux
concentrator
N S
200

0.8 mm
100
(B) Without flux
concentrator Flux
concentrator
Feed-through
0 conductor
0 3.2 6.4 9.5 12.7 15.9 Ø3.2 mm
Feed-Through Conductor Length, L (mm)

Figure 59. Example of feed-through conductor length effect on magnetic flux, with and without a flux concentrator on the device

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Magnetic Materials energy product is approximately 1.4 × 106.
Neodymium (Ne-Fe B). The new neodymium-iron-boron alloys Iron-chromium magnets have magnetic properties similar to
fill the need for a high maximum-energy product, moderately Alnico 5, but are soft enough to undergo machining operations
priced magnet material. The magnets are produced by either a before the final aging treatment hardens them. Maximum energy
powdered-metal technique called orient-press-sinter or a new product is approximately 5.25 × 106.
process incorporating jet casting and conventional forming tech-
niques. Current work is being directed toward reducing produc- Plastic and rubber magnets consist of barium or strontium fer-
tion costs, increasing operating temperature ranges, and decreas- rite in a plastic matrix material. They are very inexpensive and
ing temperature coefficients. Problems relating to oxidation of can be formed in numerous ways including stamping, molding,
the material can be overcome through the use of modern coatings and machining, depending upon the particular matrix material.
technology. Maximum energy products range from 7 to 15 MGOe Because the rubber used is synthetic, and synthetic rubber is also
depending on the process used to produce the material. plastic, the distinction between the two materials is imprecise.
In common practice, if a plastic magnet is flexible, it is called a
Rare-earth cobalt is an alloy of a rare-earth metal, such as samar- rubber magnet. Maximum energy product ranges from 0.2 × 106
ium, with cobalt (abbreviated as RE cobalt). These magnets are to 1.2 × 106.
the best in all categories, but are also the most expensive by about
the same margins. Too hard for machining, they must be ground Choosing Magnet Strength
if shaping is necessary. Maximum energy product, perhaps the
A magnet must have sufficient flux density to reach the Hall
best single measure of magnet quality, is approximately 16 × 106.
switch maximum operate-point specification at the required air
Alnico is a class of alloys containing aluminum, nickel, cobalt, gap. Good design practice suggests the addition of another 50 G
iron, and additives that can be varied to give a wide range of to 100 G for insurance and a check for sufficient flux at the
properties. These magnets are strong and fairly expensive, but expected temperature extremes.
less so than RE cobalt. Alnico magnets can be cast, or sintered
For example, if the Hall device datasheet specifies a 350 G
by pressing metal powders in a die and heating them. Sintered
maximum operate point at 25°C, after adding a pad of 100 G, we
Alnico is well suited to mass production of small, intricately
have 450 G at 25°C. If operation to 70°C is required, the speci-
shaped magnets. It has more uniform flux density, and is mechan-
fication should be 450 G + 45 G = 495 G. (For calculations, we
ically superior. Cast Alnico magnets are generally somewhat
use 0.7 G/°C operate point coefficient and 1 G/°C release point
stronger. The non-oriented or isotropic Alnico alloys (1, 2, 3, 4)
coefficient.) Because the temperature coefficient of most magnets
are less expensive and magnetically weaker than the oriented
is negative, this factor would also require some extra flux at room
alloys (5, 6, 5-7, 8, 9). Alnico is too hard and brittle to be shaped
temperature to ensure high-temperature operation.
except by grinding. Maximum energy product ranges from
1.3 × 106 to 10 × 106.
Coercive Force
Ceramic magnets contain barium or strontium ferrite (or another Coercive force becomes important if the operating environment
element from that group) in a matrix of ceramic material that is will subject the magnet to a strong demagnetizing field, such as
compacted and sintered. They are poor conductors of heat and that encountered near the rotor of an AC motor. For such appli-
electricity, are chemically inert, and have-high values of coercive cations, a permanent magnet with high coercive force (ceramic,
force. As with Alnico, ceramic magnets can be fabricated with Alnico 8, or, best of all, RE cobalt) is clearly indicated.
partial or complete orientation for additional magnetic strength.
Less expensive than Alnico, they also are too hard and brittle to Price and Peak Energy Product
shape except by grinding. Maximum-energy product ranges from
The common permanent magnet materials and their magnetic
1 × 106 to 3.5 × 106.
properties are summarized in table 4. The Cost column shows
Cunife is a ductile copper base alloy with nickel and iron. It can the relationship between the price paid for a magnet and its peak
be stamped, swaged, drawn, or rolled into final shape. Maximum energy product.

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Table 4. Properties of Magnetic Materials
Maximum Residual Temperature
Coercive Force
Material Energy Product Induction Coefficient Cost Comments
(Oe)
(G-Oe) (G) (%/°C)
Strongest,
smallest, resists
RE cobalt 16×106 8.1×103 7.9×103 –0.05 Highest
demagnetizing
best
Alnico 1, 2, 3, 4 1.3 to 1.7×106 5.5 to 7.5×103 0.42 to 0.72×103 –0.02 to –0.03 Medium Nonoriented
Alnico 5, 6, 5-7 4.0 to 7.5×106 10.5 to 13.5×103 0.64 to 0.78×103 –0.02 to –0.03 Medium to high Oriented
Oriented, high
coercive force,
Alnico 8 5.0 to 6.0×106 7 to 9.2×103 1.5 to 1.9×103 –0.01 to 0.01 Medium to high
best temperature
coefficient
Oriented, highest
Alnico 9 10×106 10.5×103 1.6×103 –0.02 High
energy product
Nonoriented,
high coercive
Ceramic 1 1.0×106 2.2×103 1.8×103 –0.02 Low
force, hard, brittle,
nonconductor
Partially oriented,
very high coercive
Ceramic 2, 3, 4, 6 1.8 to 2.6×106 2.9 to 3.3×103 2.3 to 2.8×103 –0.02 Low-medium
force, hard, brittle,
nonconductor
Fully oriented,
very high coercive
Ceramic 5, 7, 8 2.8 to 3.5×106 3.5 to 3.8×103 2.5 to 3.3×103 –0.02 Medium
force, hard, brittle,
nonconductor
Ductile, can cold
Cunife 1.4×106 5.5×103 0.53×103 – Medium
form and machine
Can machine
Fe-Cr 5.25×106 13.5×103 0.60×103 – Medium prior to final aging
treatment
Can be molded,
Plastic 0.2 to 1.2×103 1.4 to 3×103 0.45 to 1.4×103 –0.02 Lowest stamped,
machined
Rubber 0.35 to 1.1×106 1.3 to 2.3×103 1 to 1.8×103 –0.02 Lowest Flexible
Neodymium 7 to 15×106 6.4 to 11.75×103 5.3 to 6.5×103 –0.157 to –0.192 Medium-high Nonoriented

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Advanced Applications r

Current Limiting and Measuring Current Sensor ICs

Hall-effect devices are excellent current-limiting or measuring
devices. Their response ranges from DC to the kHz region. The
conductor need not be interrupted in high-current applications. For
a current list of Allegro current sensor ICs visit http://www.alle- I (A)
B (G) ≈
gromicro.com/en/Products/Categories/Sensors/currentsensor.asp. 0.16 r (mm)
The magnetic field about a conductor is normally not intense
enough to operate a Hall effect device (see figure 60). The radius Figure 60. The magnetic flux density decreases with distance from a
conductor
(r) is measured from the center of the conductor to the active area
of the Hall device. With a radius of 12.7 mm and a current of
1000 A, there would be a magnetic flux density of 159 G at the
Hall device.
For low current applications, consider the use of a toroid, as
illustrated in figures 61A and 61B, to increase the flux density as
it passes through the Hall element. With a 1.5 mm air gap in the
toroid, for the Allegro UA package there will be a magnetic gain
of 6 G/A for just the circuit illustrated in figure 61B. To increase
the sensitivity of the circuit, consider winding multiple turns of
the conductor around the toroid, as shown in figure 61A. The
example in figure 61A has 14 turns, and would therefore have a
magnetic gain of 84 G/A. Figure 61A. Demonstration of use of coil and toroid for low-current sensing

The core material can be of either ferrite or mild steel (C-1010)

for low-frequency applications, and ferrite for high-frequency
measurements.
The main concerns are:
• The core should retain minimal field when the current is re-
duced to zero
• The flux density in the air gap should be a linear function of the
current
• The air gap should be stable over the operating temperature
range Figure 61B. Demonstration of use of toroid for current sensing for
moderate current (I >25 A)
The cross-sectional dimensions of the core are at least twice the
air gap dimension to ensure a reasonably homogeneous field in
the gap. For example, a toroid with a 1.5 mm gap should have at Toroid
least a 3 mm × 3 mm cross-section.
Another simple and inexpensive application is illustrated in fig- 4.8 mm
ure 62. A toroid of the appropriate diameter is formed from mild-
steel stock, 1.6 mm thick and 4.8 mm wide. The ends are formed
to fit on each side of the central portion of the Hall device. One
advantage of this technique is that the toroid can be placed
around a conductor without disconnecting the conductor.
Conductor 1.6 mm
Multi-Turn Applications
There are several considerations in selecting the number of turns Figure 62. Demonstration of Hall current sensing application that allows
for a toroid such as the one in figure 61A. mounting without disconnecting the conductor

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Hall Switches With this bobbin-bracket configuration, it is possible to measure
Keep the flux density in the 100 to 200 G range for a trip point. currents in the low milliampere range or to replace a relay using
Devices can be supplied with a narrow distribution of magnetic a Hall switch. To activate a Hall switch at 10 mA (±20%), using
parameters within this range. If, for example, you want the Hall a device with a 200 G (±40 G) operate point, bobbin windings
switch to turn on at 10 A: require:

N = 300 G / (6 G/A × 10 A) = 5 turns N = 200 G / (6 G/A × 0.01 A) = 3333 turns

It would be practical to tweak the air gap for final, more precise
Hall Linears calibration. In all cases, be careful not to stress the package.
It is preferrable to have flux density above 100 G to maximize the
output signal/quiescent output drift ratio. The quiescent output Other Applications For Linear Sensor ICs
drift for ratiometric sensor ICs is typically 0.2 mV/°C, while the Hall-effect linear sensor ICs are used primarily to sense relatively
sensitivity temperature coefficient is typically 0.02%/°C. Some small changes in magnetic field, changes too small to operate a
Allegro devices allow the sensitivity and/or quiescent output drift Hall-effect switching device. They are customarily capacitively
to be customized for a specific application. For a current list of coupled to an amplifier, which boosts the output to a higher level.
Allegro linear ICs visit http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Prod-
ucts/Categories/Sensors/linear.asp. As motion detectors, gear tooth sensor ICs, and proximity detec-
tors (figure 64), they are magnetically driven mirrors of mechani-
For low-current applications in which many turns are required, cal events. As sensitive monitors of electromagnets, they can
wind a bobbin, slip it over a core, and complete the magnetic effectively measure system performance with negligible system
circuit through the Hall device with a bracket-shaped pole piece, loading while providing isolation from contaminated and electri-
as shown in figure 63. cally noisy environments.
Each Hall-effect integrated circuit includes a Hall element, linear
Hall device
amplifier, and emitter-follower output stage. Problems associated
with handling tiny analog signals are minimized by having the
Hall element and amplifier on a single chip.
Pole piece
(concentrator) Coil The output null (quiescent) voltage is nominally one-half the
supply voltage. A south magnetic pole presented to the branded
face of the Hall-effect sensor IC will drive the output higher than
the null voltage level. A north magnetic pole will drive the output
below the null level.
Core
In operation, instantaneous and proportional output-voltage levels
Figure 63. Demonstration of Hall current sensing application using a coil are dependent on magnetic-flux density at the most sensitive area
for low-amperage circuits of the device. Greatest sensitivity is obtained with the highest

Branded face
Branded face

Figure 64. Examples of application of Hall devices for monitoring mechanical events: (left) north pole adjacent to sense the absence of ferrous material,
(right) south pole adjacent to sense the presence of ferrous material

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supply voltage allowed, but at the cost of increased supply cur- +V
N
rent and a slight loss of output symmetry. The sensor IC output is 470 kΩ
S 1 μF 1 kΩ Load
usually capacitively coupled to an amplifier that boosts the output +5 V
above the millivolt level. Output
470 Ω
Ground 10 kΩ
In the two applications shown in figures 65 and 66, permanent
bias magnets are attached with epoxy glue to the back of the
epoxy packages. The presence of ferrous material at the face of
the package then acts as a flux concentrator.
The south pole of a magnet is attached to the back face of the Figure 65. Typical external back-biasing application circuit to detect
presence of target
package if the Hall-effect IC is to sense the presence of ferrous
material. The north pole of a magnet is attached to the back face
if the integrated circuit is to sense the absence of ferrous material.
+V
Calibrated linear Hall devices, which can be used to determine S
470 kΩ
the actual flux density presented to the sensor IC in a particular N 22 μF 2.2 kΩ Load
+5 V
application, are available.
470 Ω
Output
Ground 10 kΩ

Ferrous Metal Detectors

Two similar detector designs are illustrated in figures 67 and 68.
The first senses the presence of a ferrous metal; the other senses
an absence of the metal. The two sensing modes are accom- Figure 66. Typical external back-biasing application circuit to detect
plished simply by reversing the magnet poles relative to the sen- absence of target
sor IC . The pole of the magnet is affixed to the unbranded side of
the package in both cases.
Frequency response characteristics of this circuit are easily con- N
+V
trolled by changing the value of the input decoupling capacitor S 22 μF
470 kΩ
2.2 kΩ Load
for the low-frequency break-point. If high-frequency attenuation +5 V
is required, a capacitor can be used to shunt the feedback resistor. Output
470 Ω
Ground 10 kΩ
Metal Sensor IC The north pole of the magnet is affixed to the
back side of a linear sensor IC . The device is in contact with the
bottom of a 2.4 mm epoxy board. An output change (decrease) is
produced as a 25 mm steel ball rolls over the device. This signal
is amplified and inverted by the operational amplifier and drives
the NPN transistor on. Figure 67. Typical external back-biasing application circuit to detect the
presence of a ferromagnetic target
Notch Sensor IC The south pole of the magnet is fixed to the
backside of a linear sensor IC . The sensor IC is 0.8 mm from
the edge of a steel rotor. A 1.6 mm wide by 3.2 mm deep slot S
+V
in the rotor edge passing the sensor IC causes an output change 470 kΩ
N 1 μF 1 kΩ Load
(decrease). This signal is amplified and inverted by the opera- +5 V
tional amplifier and drives the NPN transistor on. 470 Ω
Output
Ground 10 kΩ
Note that, in both examples, the branded side of the sensor IC
faces the material (or lack of material) to be sensed. In both
cases, the presence (or absence) of the ferrous metal changes
the flux density at the Hall-effect sensor IC so as to produce a
negative-going output pulse. The pulse is inverted by the ampli-
fier to drive the transistor on. Figure 68. Typical external back-biasing application circuit to detect the
absence of a ferromagnetic target

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Printer Application Sensitivity is so great in this configuration that the output signal
baseline quite closely tracks eccentricities in the drum. This
The assembly in figure 69 senses lobes on a character drum.
affects lobe resolution, but lobe position can still be measured.
Lobes are spaced 4.8 mm apart around the circumference of the
drum, they are 6.4 mm wide, and have a depth of 0.3 to 0.4 mm Using Calibrated Devices
relative to the surface of the drum. The calibrated linear sensor IC is an accurate, easy-to-use tool for
In this application, a Hall-effect linear sensor IC is back biased measuring magnetic flux densities. Each device is individually
calibrated and furnished with a calibration curve and sensitiv-
with a magnet. The north pole is affixed to the back side of the
ity coefficient. Although calibration is performed in a north and
package. A flux concentrator is affixed to the branded face. south 800 G field, the sensor IC is useful for measuring fields in
Although it does not provide a flux return path, the concentrator both polarities.
will focus the magnetic field through the switch.
A closely regulated (±10 mV) power supply is necessary to
The concentrator, shown in figure 70, is aligned with the drum preserve accuracy in calibrated flux measurements. An ambient
lobe at an air gap distance of 0.254 mm. The output change is temperature range of 21°C to 25°C must also be maintained.
amplified to develop a 3 V output from the operational amplifier, Connect the VCC pin to voltage VCC, GND pin to ground, and
driving the transistor on, as illustrated in figure 71. the VOUT pin to a high-impedance voltmeter. Before use, the

0.381 mm MAX

0.254 mm

Concentrator
Magnet

S N

Branded face

Figure 69. Demonstration of printer drum monitoring application

+15 V
Ø0.8 mm S
1 MΩ
N 270 Ω
3.3 kΩ
3.2 mm +5 V
VCC
1 kΩ
Output
Ø1.6 mm
Ground 10 kΩ

Figure 70. Printer drum sensing application flux concentrator Figure 71. Printer drum typical application circuit

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device should be powered-up and allowed to stabilize for one gilbert: the CGS unit of magnetomotive force.
minute. head-on: a method by which the Hall sensor IC is actuated. The
The sensitivity coefficient can be used to calculate flux densities magnetic field is increased and decreased by moving the magnetic
precisely. First, determine the null output voltage of the device pole toward and away from the package face.
under 0 G or null (quiescent) field condition. Then, read the out- maximum energy product (BHmax): the highest product of B and H
put of the device under an applied field condition by subjecting it from the demagnetization curve of a magnetic material. Given
to the flux in question. Magnetic flux density at the device can be in gauss-oersteds × 106 (MGOe).
calculated by: maxwell (Mx): the CGS unit of total magnetic flux. One maxwell
B = ( VOUT(B) – VOUT(Q) ) × 1000 / S equals 10–8 webers.
oersteds (Oe): the CGS unit of magnetizing force. Equivalent to
where:
gilberts per centimeter (gilberts/cm). One oersted equals 125.7
VOUT(B) is the output voltage under the applied magnetic field, ampere-turns per meter.
in V, remnant induction (Bd): the magnetic induction that remains in a
VOUT(Q) is the quiescent field output, in V, magnetic circuit after removal of an applied magnetomotive force.
When there is no air gap in the magnetic circuit, remnant and
S is the sensitivity coefficient, in mV/G, and residual induction are equal. With an air gap, remnant induction
B is the magnetic flux density at the device, in G. will be less than residual induction. Measured in gauss.
residual induction (Br): the flux density remaining in a closed mag-
netic circuit of magnetic material when the magnetizing force
Glossary adequate to saturate the material is reduced to zero. Measured
active area: the site of the Hall element on the encapsulated IC in gauss.
chip. slide-by: a method by which a Hall sensor IC is actuated. The mag-
air gap: the distance from the face of the magnetic pole or target to netic field is increased and decreased as a permanent magnet is
the face of the package. moved laterally past the package face.
ampere-turn (NI): the mks unit of magnetomotive force. tesla (T): the mks unit of magnetic flux density. Equivalent to one
ampere-turns/meter (NI/m): the mks unit of magnetizing force. One weber per square meter (Wb/m2). One tesla equals 104 gauss.
ampere-turn per meter equals 79.6 oersteds. toroid: a doughnut-shaped ring often composed of iron, steel, or
bipolar: a method of operating a Hall sensor IC using both north ferrite.
and south magnetic poles. total effective air gap (TEAG): the distance from the face of a magnetic
coercive force (Hc): the demagnetizing force that must be applied pole or target to the active area of a Hall-effect sensor IC.
to reduce the magnetic flux density in a magnetic material to unipolar: a method of operating a Hall sensor IC using a single
zero; measured in oersteds. magnetic pole, usually the south pole.
concentrator: any ferrous metal used to attract magnetic lines of vane: any ferrous metal used to shunt a magnetic field away from
force. the Hall sensor IC (at least 1.5 times the width of an associated
gauss (G): the CGS unit of magnetic flux density. Equivalent to magnet).
one maxwell per square centimeter (Mx/cm2). One gauss equals window: an opening in a vane at least 1.5 times the width of an
10–4 tesla. associated magnet.

Copyright ©1987-2013, Allegro MicroSystems, LLC

The information contained in this document does not constitute any representation, warranty, assurance, guaranty, or inducement by Allegro to the
customer with respect to the subject matter of this document. The information being provided does not guarantee that a process based on this infor-
mation will be reliable, or that Allegro has explored all of the possible failure modes. It is the customer’s responsibility to do sufficient qualification
testing of the final product to insure that it is reliable and meets all design requirements.

For the latest version of this document, visit our website:

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