UNIT 3

Knowledge Representation
Dr. Meghana Harsh Ghogare
Knowledge Representation
• Knowledge Representation - Representation and Mappings, Different
Approaches, Issues in knowledge representation. Predicate Logic -
Representation Simple Facts in Logic, Representing Instance and Isa
Relationships, Computable Functions and Predicates, Resolution.
Propositional Logic - Representation, Inference, Reasoning Patterns,
Resolution, First-order Logic: Representation, Inference, Reasoning
Patterns, Resolution
Representation and Mappings
• The knowledge Representation models/mechanisms are often based on:
• Logic
• Rules
• Frames
• Semantic Net
• There are two different kinds of entities, we are dealing with.
1.Facts: Truth (things we want to represent).
2.Representation of facts, Things we will actually be able to manipulate.
• Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial
intelligence which concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking
contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
• AI knowledge cycle:
• Perception(sensors retrieves information from its environment)
• Learning(interpreting & learning from data captured by Perception)
• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning( involved in showing the
intelligence in machine-like humans)
• Planning ( depend on analysis of Knowledge representation and reasoning.)
• Execution( depend on analysis of Knowledge representation and reasoning)
Different Approaches to Knowledge
Representation
• There are mainly four
approaches Player Weight Age
• 1. Simple relational knowledge:
• It is the simplest way of storing Player1 65 23
facts which uses the relational
method. Player2 58 18
• This approach is famous in Player3 75 24
database systems where the
relationship between different
entities is represented.
2) Inheritable knowledge:
• In this approach, all data must be
stored into a hierarchy.
• Elements inherit values from other
members of a class.
• This approach shows a relation
between instance and class, and it is
called instance relation.
• In this approach, objects and values
are represented in Boxed nodes.
• We use Arrows which point from
objects to their values.
3) Inferential knowledge:
• Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of
formal logics.
• This approach can be used to derive more facts.
• It guaranteed correctness.
• Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:
• Marcus is a man
• All men are mortal

man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s
Issues in knowledge representation
• Expressiveness: Representing complex and nuanced knowledge in a concise
manner
• Scalability: Representing vast amounts of knowledge
• Uncertainty and ambiguity:
• Contextual and dynamic knowledge: knowledge can change over time.
Representing and updating knowledge in a dynamic environment is a significant
challenge.
• Integration: Combining knowledge from various sources and representing it in a
unified manner is a challenge
• Common-sense reasoning: basic understanding of the world and human-like
reasoning abilities, is a challenging
• Ontology design: define the concepts, relationships, and constraints within a
domain, can be a complex task.
Representing Instance and Isa Relationships
• INSTANCE Relationship: The INSTANCE relationship represents a specific instance.
It indicates that one object is an individual instance of another concept. It is often
denoted as "INSTANCE OF" or "is an instance of.“
• " We can represent the INSTANCE relationship as follows:
• Dog INSTANCE OF Animal
• This statement implies that "Dog" is a specific instance of the broader concept
"Animal."
• Dog ISA Animal
• Dog ISA Mammal
• These statements indicate that "Dog" is a subtype of both "Animal" and
"Mammal."
• properties and characteristics associated with "Animal" and "Mammal" are
inherited by the concept of "Dog."
• 4. Procedural knowledge:
• Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes.
• In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
• In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP
language and Prolog language.
• But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this
approach.
Predicate Logic
Representing Instance and Isa Relationships
• The use of the isa predicate simplifies the representation of sentence 3
First-order Logic: Representation(refer unit 2
PPT)
• Inference in First-Order Logic
• Inference in First-Order Logic is used to deduce new facts or
sentences from existing sentences.
• Universal Generalization
• Universal Instantiation
• Existential Instantiation
• Existential introduction
• Universal Generalization:
• "For all x, P(x)" where P(x) is some property or predicate, and you can prove that P(a) is
true for some specific object a, then you can infer that "For all x, P(x)" is true.
• For example, if you have proven that "All cats are mammals," and you know that Felix is a
cat, then you can use the universal generalization rule to conclude that "For all x, if x is a
cat, then x is a mammal."
• Universal Instantiation:
• "For all x, P(x)" where P(x) is some property or predicate, then you can infer that P(a) is
true for any specific object a.
• For example, if you have the statement "For all x, if x is a mammal, then x is an animal,"
you can use the universal instantiation rule to conclude that "Felix is a mammal" because
Felix is a specific object.
• To summarize, universal generalization allows you to make a general claim based on a
specific instance, while universal instantiation allows you to derive a specific
conclusion from a general statement. These rules are essential for reasoning and
proving statements in first-order logic.
• Existential instantiation allows you to introduce a specific object that satisfies an
existing existential statement, while existential introduction allows you to derive an
existential statement from a specific instance
Inference
• Inference:
• deriving new knowledge or conclusions from existing knowledge or
data.
• Different Types of Inference Rules in AI
• Modus Ponens
• "If it's raining, then the ground is wet" (A implies B), "It's raining" (A is
true), therefore "The ground is wet" (B is true).
• Symbolic Notation: (P→Q),P⊢Q
• Modus Tollens
• If A implies B and B is false, then A must also be false. For example, "If it's raining,
then the ground is wet" (A implies B), "The ground is not wet" (B is false),
therefore "It's not raining" (A is false).
• Symbolic Notation: (P → Q), ¬Q ⊢ ¬P
• Hypothetical Syllogism
• If A implies B and B implies C, then A implies C. For example, "If it's raining, then
the ground is wet" (A implies B), "If the ground is wet, then the grass will be
green" (B implies C), therefore "If it's raining, then the grass will be
green" (A implies C).
• Symbolic Notation: (P → Q), (Q → R) ⊢ (P → R)
• Resolution
• If A implies B and C implies not B, then A implies not C. For example, "If it's
raining, then the ground is wet" (A implies B), "If the ground is not wet, then it's
not raining" (C implies not B), therefore "If it's raining, then the ground is not
dry" (A implies not C).
• Symbolic Notation: (P ∨ Q), (¬P ∨ R) ⊢ (Q ∨ R)
Reasoning Patterns
• The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion and making
predictions from available knowledge,
• Deductive reasoning:
• Premise-1: All the human eats veggies
• Premise-2: Suresh is human.
• Conclusion: Suresh eats veggies.
• Inductive reasoning
• Premise: All of the pigeons we have seen in the zoo are white.
• Conclusion: Therefore, we can expect all the pigeons to be white.
• Abductive reasoning
• Implication: Cricket ground is wet if it is raining
• Axiom: Cricket ground is wet.
• Conclusion It is raining.
• Common Sense Reasoning
1.One person can be at one place at a time.
2.If I put my hand in a fire, then it will burn.

• Monotonic Reasoning
• Earth revolves around the Sun.
• It is a true fact, and it cannot be changed even if we add another
sentence in knowledge base like, "The moon revolves around the
earth" Or "Earth is not round," etc.
• Non-monotonic Reasoning
• Birds can fly
• Penguins cannot fly
• Pitty is a bird
• So from the above sentences, we can conclude that Pitty can fly.
Computable Functions and Predicates
• It may be necessary to compute functions as part of a fact. In these cases a computable
• predicate is used. A computable predicate may include computable functions such as +, -, *,
• etc. For example, gt(x-y,10) →bigger(x) contains the computable predicate gt which performs
• the greater than function. Note that this computable predicate uses the computable function
• subtraction.
• Example: Consider the following statements:
• 1. Marcus was a man.
• man(Marcus)
• 2. Marcus was Pompeian.
• Pompeian(Marcus)
• 3. Marcus was born in 40 A.D.
• born(Marcus,40)
• 4. All men are mortal.
• ∀x: man(x) → mortal(x)
• 5. All Pompeians died when the volcano erupted in 79 A.D.
• erupted(volcano,79) /\ ∀x: Pompeian(x) → died(x,79)
• 6. No mortal lives longer than 150 years.
• ∀x ∀t1 ∀t2: mortal(x) /\ born(x,t1) /\ gt(t2-t1,150) → dead(x,t2)
• 7. It is now 1991.
• now=1991
• 8. Alive means not dead.
• ∀x ∀t: [alive(x,t) → ~dead(x,t)] /\ [~dead(x,t) →alive(x,t)]
• 9. If someone dies, he is dead at all later times.
• . ∀x ∀t1 ∀t2:died(x,t1) /\ gt(t2,t1) →dead(x,t2)