Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tsus20

Exploring the nature of digital transformation

in the fashion industry: opportunities for supply
chains, business models, and sustainability-
oriented innovations

Daria Casciani, Olga Chkanikova & Rudrajeet Pal

To cite this article: Daria Casciani, Olga Chkanikova & Rudrajeet Pal (2022) Exploring the nature
of digital transformation in the fashion industry: opportunities for supply chains, business models,
and sustainability-oriented innovations, Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 18:1, 773-795,
DOI: 10.1080/15487733.2022.2125640

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2022.2125640

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa

UK Limited trading as Taylor & Francis
Group on behalf of the Politecnico di Milano
– Design Department.

Published online: 18 Oct 2022.

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SUSTAINABILITY: SCIENCE, PRACTICE AND POLICY
2022, VOL. 18, NO. 1, 773–795
https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2022.2125640

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Exploring the nature of digital transformation in the fashion industry:

opportunities for supply chains, business models, and sustainability-
oriented innovations
Daria Casciania , Olga Chkanikovab and Rudrajeet Palb,c
a
Design Department, Politecnico di Milano, Durando 10, Milan; bDepartment of Business Administration and Textile Management,
University of Borås, Borås, Sweden; cDepartment of Industrial Engineering and Management, University of G€avle, G€avle, Sweden

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This article provides a comprehensive overview of the digital transformation of the fashion Received 25 May 2021
industry and describes the opportunities and influences on supply chains, business models, Accepted 13 September 2022
and sustainability-oriented innovations that it offers. Desk research was performed to review
KEYWORDS
emerging cases of companies that engage actively in using 3-dimensional virtual and digital
Digital fashion; digital twin;
(3DVD) technologies, such as 3D modeling, virtual and augmented reality (VR and AR), 2- digital transformation;
and 3-dimensional (2D/3D) scanning, and digital twinning (DT). The analysis shows how the culture; fashion design;
adoption of digital technologies provides opportunities to dematerialize the traditional fash- business model;
ion supply-chain model of garment production and distribution and maps the innovative sustainability
shifts occurring in the fashion industry’s processes, products, and services. The adoption of
3DVD technologies by fashion companies unleashes new opportunities with respect to
innovation in products/services and optimization of operational processes to streamline
activities, shorten the lead time for designing, prototyping, manufacturing, marketing and
retailing, and reorganizing the working phases. These capabilities also drive multicentred
business-model innovations and thus affect value creation and delivery and capture changes.
In addition, the analysis shows that digital transformation affects the four dimensions of sus-
tainability that are interconnected intrinsically across supply-chain processes. Cultural sus-
tainability is paramount, as fashion is a complex cultural system that is able to create
products/services that influence the environment, economy, and society. In particular, 3DVD
technologies promote cultural transformation of design processes to achieve a remix of skills
and open knowledge, a behavioral shift from the consumer perspective in terms of diversity
and self-expression, and a change in the organizational culture of companies that drive the
digital transformation.

Introduction Montagna, and Neto 2020; Sassi et al. 2021). The

COVID-19 pandemic has propelled a digital shift of
Researchers contend that the application of Industry
the fashion industry toward the virtual dimension
4.0 technologies in the fashion sector is bringing
with a promise to enhance innovation and sustain-
about transformative and disruptive changes in the
ability in all phases of the system (Brydges, Retamal,
back and front ends of the value chain and these
and Hanlon 2020; Gonzalo et al. 2020). Digital tech-
alterations are resulting in more innovative (faster,
nologies are likely to have significant effects on the
more intelligent, and efficient) processes, products, industry’s future by providing opportunities to
services, and business models (BMs) (Bertola and dematerialize resource-intensive practices in trad-
Teunissen 2018; Kalbaska and Cantoni 2019). itional fashion-supply chains and to co-create value
However, the application of digital technologies in in different sustainability dimensions (Business of
the fashion industry has long remained in an Fashion and McKinsey & Company 2020).
exploratory stage due to a number of inhibitors and Existing research has focused primarily on
barriers that affect the pace of adoption (e.g., finan- technological advancements that are required for
cial constraints, insufficient expertise, resistance to widespread adoption (Papachristou and Bilalis 2015;
adoption) (Pal and Jayarathne 2022; Santos, Spahiu et al. 2021). However, the majority of these

CONTACT Daria Casciani [email protected] Design Department, Politecnico di Milano, Durando 10, Milan
Sustainable Redesign of the Global Fashion System: Exploring the Organizational, Technological, and Socio-cultural Dimensions of Transformation is
supported by the Department of Design and FiP Research Lab of the Politecnico di Milano.
ß 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited trading as Taylor & Francis Group on behalf of the Politecnico di Milano – Design Department.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
774 D. CASCIANI ET AL.

studies have tended to overlook a comprehensive Literature review

business perspective on the way digital technologies
Overview of digital transformation of the
diffuse through current industry practices (Ibarra,
fashion industry
Ganzarain, and Igartua 2018; Parida, Sj€ odin, and
Reim 2019). In particular, only a limited number of Industrial digitalization involves structuring, shap-
systematic overviews to date have covered trans- ing, and influencing transformation along different,
formation in products and processes and BM inno- albeit overlapping, dimensions – economic, societal,
vations attributable to the digitalization of fashion and cultural (Brennen and Kreiss 2016).1 Enabled
systems throughout the value chain. In the literature by digital technologies, digitalization and digitization
on digital transformation of the fashion industry of data and processes lead to digital transformation
(with a specific focus on 3-dimensional (3D) digital that is associated with altering value-creation paths
technology), we identified only two studies that pro- and offering new products and services while man-
vide a comprehensive value-chain perspective aging the structural changes in, and the barriers to,
(Arribas and Alfaro 2018; Noris et al. 2021). the transformation process (Vial 2019).2
Moreover, empirical evidence of the influence of 3D The digital transformation of the fashion industry
digital fashion remains scant (Arribas and Alfaro affects the entire value chain in which radical
2018). In summary, the effects of digitalization on changes occur in the relationships with customers
the sustainability of the fashion system represent an and in supply-chain operations as a result of adopt-
emerging topic of research and is one that currently ing 3DVD technology (Arribas and Alfaro 2018).
The application of 3DVD technological systems that
lacks a holistic perspective because inadequate atten-
use computer-generated representations of a gar-
tion has been devoted to its cultural dimensions
ment or accessory in the different stages of produc-
(Malin and Ryder 2018). This is a major limitation
tion and distribution influences customers’
in light of the fact that fashion is one of the most
experiences and behaviors and offers opportunities
culturally intensive industries (Bertola et al. 2016;
for dematerialization of the fashion sector. Analysts
Martin and Vacca 2018).
have long defined dematerialization as reducing the
This article provides a comprehensive overview of
amount of materials and energy used in the produc-
the nature of digital transformation in the fashion
tion and consumption phases of finished products
industry, describes the influence of digital technologies
and services (see, e.g., Wernick et al. 1996).
on the fashion-supply chain, considers innovation in
Adopting 3DVD technologies in the fashion indus-
the digital business model, and focuses on the digital
try allows a nonphysical economy to emerge in
effect from a multidimensional perspective of sustain-
which garments and services exist beyond the phys-
ability. By conducting a systematic review of the grey
ical realm and contribute to dematerialization
literature, we derive empirical evidence from compa-
because they will never be produced in reality.
nies that engage actively in using digital technologies
Further, 3DVD technologies are associated with the
(e.g., 3D modeling, virtual and augmented reality (VR
digital transformation of several phases of the life
and AR), 2- and 3-dimensional (2 D/3D) scanning,
cycle of fashion products and this allows some
and digital twinning (DT). Our data analysis focuses material activities to migrate to digital activities
on the effects of digitalization on the fashion-supply while enabling continuous information flow to
chain in product design and development, business-to- improve product life-cycle management
consumer (B2C) marketing processes, retailing, and (Riedelsheimer, Dorfhuber, and Stark 2020;
production phases. In addition, we map emerging Brynjolfsson and McAfee 2014).
shifts in BMs with respect to supply-chain processes, In the following sections, we present a detailed
products, services, and value-architecture dimensions overview of the effects of 3DVD technologies on the
(e.g., value creation, delivery, and capture) that are fashion-supply chain, provide a design-driven per-
occurring because of digitalization. Finally, we high- spective on the phenomenon, and describe digital
light the dematerialization and sustainability effects of BM innovations.
adopting 3D virtual and digital (3DVD) technologies
by taking a holistic approach that includes culture as a
fourth dimension of the phenomenon in different The effect of digital technologies on the fashion-
phases of the supply chain. The overarching scope of supply chain
the article is intended to support academics and prac- A review of the existing literature shows that adopt-
titioners as they navigate this novel, dynamic, and ing 3DVD technologies leads to structural changes
applied research field by discussing emerging limita- in the traditional supply-chain model of fashion
tions and sustainability challenges attributable to companies. The use of 3D modeling allows the
digital transformation in the fashion-supply chain. design and development workflow to be integrated,
SUSTAINABILITY: SCIENCE, PRACTICE AND POLICY 775

optimized, and enhanced through complete digital- the firm’s logic of doing business, these authors pro-
ization and integrated processes of design and itera- pose the BM canvas, a conceptual tool that consists
tive prototyping, including tests of fit, simulation of of nine interconnected building blocks. In particular,
functional performance (e.g., thermal), visualization value creation accounts for key activities, resources,
of esthetic features (e.g., color, pattern, and mater- and partnerships. Value delivery includes value
ial), and manufacturing specifications (Papachristou propositions that are encompassed in product and
and Bilalis 2015). This digital approach optimizes service offerings, customer segments, relationships,
material-resource consumption for physical sam- distribution, communication, and sales channels,
pling, shortens the time for production, fosters while value capture describes the financial implica-
design creativity, and reduces costs (Demarco et al. tions of value creation and delivery (i.e., cost struc-
2020). The 3DVD technologies allow for made-to- ture and revenue streams).
measure algorithmic and computational design Among the existing studies that have investigated the
(Volino et al. 2005) that improves the way garments effects of digital technologies on business logic, Ibarra,
can be personalized and adapted to the needs and Ganzarain, and Igartua’s (2018) literature review identi-
behaviors of users (Carulli et al. 2017). In the pro- fied the shift to a service-oriented, network-based, and
duction stage, machinery that is able to read digital user-driven approach. Consistent with this strategy,
models allows operations to be streamlined; enhan- innovative product-service offerings are co-created
ces precision, efficiency, and time; and optimizes through extended stakeholder networks as the result of
resources to produce more complex and customized horizontal and vertical value-chain partnerships that are
products (Paritala, Manchikatla, and Yarlagadda more aligned/responsive to users’ needs (e.g., personal-
2017). Digital production-on-demand permits lead ized and on-demand small batch production) (Arnold,
time and logistics to be reduced through eco-effi- Kiel, and Voigt 2016; Ehret and Wirtz 2017).
cient, localized, and on-demand small-scale, urban Usually, the extending and reshaping of the value
micro-factories that configure a shorter supply chain proposition behind traditional product/service offer-
by eliminating the stock of unsold products and ings is attributable to the digitalization of oper-
offering better working conditions (Clarke-Sather ational model/business functions and the use of
and Cobb 2019; Ashby 2016). Furthermore, 3DVD digital interactive technologies in communication
technologies have widespread applications in the and marketing that lead to more effective customer
final steps of the supply chain, particularly in satisfaction (Berman 2012; Colombi, Kim, and
the retailing stage that provides virtual fitting oppor- Wyatt 2018). Further, new digital products and serv-
tunities and reduces returns of items purchased ices that can be produced at relatively low startup
online (Robertson et al. 2020). In addition to costs are emerging, the value of which is determined
the mere physical ownership of goods through com- in the use phase (Remane et al. 2017).
mercial transactions, digital retailing allows Bharadwaj et al. (2013) and Remane et al. (2017)
enhanced customer experiences by providing new have referred further to the shift toward a service-
services (e.g., personalization) and transporting peo- oriented platform model that takes advantage of the
ple in imaginative, gamified, and immersive contexts business ecosystem to co-create and capture value.
(Silvestri 2020). In particular, multi-sided platforms are becoming a
popular digital business archetype that increases
product/service value through network effects and
Digital business-model innovation
generates platform revenues (Teece and Linden
Previous research has only to a limited degree inves- 2017). In addition to cost savings attributable to
tigated how digital technologies – specifically 3D, automation, resource efficiency, and improved deci-
VR, and AR – influence BM innovation in the fash- sion making in the operational model, the shift
ion industry (Arribas and Alfaro 2018; Bertola and from physical and digital product offerings
Teunissen 2018; Noris et al. 2021). Building on unleashes new revenue streams (Dijkman et al.
Osterwalder and Pigneur’s (2010) definition of BM, 2015). New pricing models emerge, such as dynamic
this article addresses this research gap by mapping pricing, subscriptions, and performance-based con-
changes in value creation, delivery, and capture that tracting (Ibarra, Ganzarain, and Igartua 2018).
these digital technologies in fashion firms can trig-
ger. The fundamental changes in these value dimen-
Multidimensional perspective on sustainability
sions attributable to digitalization are referred to as
digital BM innovations. According to Osterwalder This article applies a holistic definition of sustain-
and Pigneur (2010, 14), “A business model describes ability that accounts for the fourth – the cultural
the rationale of the way an organization creates, – pillar that was not envisioned in the Brundtland
delivers and captures value.” To further illustrate Report (WCED 1987). Given that fashion is
776 D. CASCIANI ET AL.

defined by two main components – the intangible Methodology

values encapsulated in its cultural significance and
Research design
imagination and the tangible values that consist of
the physicality of materials, fabrics, and produc- This study was conducted through desk research
tion processes – we assert that the four pillars that entailed collecting, analyzing, and evaluating
(environmental, economic, social, and cultural) cases derived from the grey literature and compar-
should be considered as intrinsically intercon- ing them through qualitative analysis. Our approach
nected. In particular, cultural sustainability refers was intended to achieve a more comprehensive and
to preserving and cultivating creativity, knowledge, profound understanding of how fashion companies
beauty, identity, diversity, heritage, and history. It use 3DVD technologies to transform business prac-
contributes to positive social and economic out- tices in their supply chain because this knowledge is
comes via education and the protection of intan- lacking in the peer-reviewed academic literature.
gible and tangible heritage (UNESCO 2010; UCLG The grey literature sources in the review included
2010; British Council 2020). In the realm of the corporate and third-party industry reports (e.g.,
digital transformation of the fashion industry, from nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and
exploring the adoption of digital technologies is consultancies); news articles; interviews; videos and
particularly relevant for understanding their effects presentations; and websites of fashion companies
on traditional processes and techniques, in which and projects that use 3DVD technologies to virtua-
innovation is fostered based upon the synergistic lize products, services, and processes along the
use of cultural heritage and new collaborative entire fashion-supply chain.
practices are pioneered, such that the engagement Previous researchers (Adams, Smart, and Huff
of communities allows cultural capital to be pre- 2017) have acknowledged the advantages of using
served (Bertola et al. 2016; Martin and Vacca the grey literature as knowledge artifacts in a novel
2018; Twigger Holroyd 2018). Cultural sustainabil- field of inquiry and applied subjects on which schol-
ity can also produce a change in the organiza- arship is lacking. Moreover, the overarching ration-
tional culture of the suppliers involved in the ale of this article is to inform practice, so a
fashion-supply chain. All internal and external systematic review of the grey literature is an appro-
supply-chain actors need to adopt holistic, system- priate strategy to conduct such a research inquiry
atic, and durable sustainability practices that (Adams, Smart, and Huff 2017).
include shared multidimensional sustainability val- We focused our systematic collection of resources
ues, norms, and beliefs (Linnenluecke and on mapping the existing practices of established and
Griffiths 2010) and lead them to change their atti- emerging companies engaged in the 3DVD fashion
tudes as well (Lopez-Torres et al. 2019). This hol- sector worldwide. The research was conducted
istic change in cultural mindset is also significant between January and June 2021 through a twofold
from a consumer point of view: more than any approach to data collection. On one hand, we ana-
other industry in the world, fashion consumerism lyzed the companies that use fashion-design soft-
is supported by cultural norms and motivated by ware for 3D modeling by browsing the websites of
perceived physical or psychological obsolescence the current leading software houses for digital fash-
(Assadourian 2010). The possession of garments ion (i.e., CLO3D, Browzwear, and Optitex).
nurtures fashion consumption and use intended to Concurrently, we broadened the research with the
fulfill cultural aspirations, perceived personal hap- most common search engines (i.e., Google and
piness, social status, and success (Ekins 1991). Google Scholar) using specific keywords in English
Nowadays, consumption models are becoming (i.e., “digitalization,” “phygital fashion,” “digital
more eco-oriented and consumers are making fashion,” “virtual fashion,” “3D modeling,”
choices based on companies’ ethical conduct and “rendering,” “companies,” “start-up,” “designer,”
social responsibility and supporting environmen- “agency,” “supply chain”) to obtain a comprehensive
tally friendly or green practices/products (Rinaldi and updated pool of data. The 245 companies that
2019). However, even consumers who show great we initially identified (31% in Asia, 30% in Europe,
concern for environmental and social issues 17% in the United States, 14% in Turkey,3 5% in
experience conflictual behavior between the desires the UK, 2% in Canada, and 1% in Russia) were fil-
to be fashionable and to reduce their consumption tered according to the following preliminary eligibil-
habits (Mandaric, Hunjet, and Vukovic 2022). ity criteria: public data available from different
Therefore, a cultural shift in consumption behav- sources, English as the primary language, and fash-
iors and a change of mind-set at the industry and ion as the main field of application. This selective
business level is required to achieve an effective evaluation excluded the vast majority of the Asian
sustainable change (Niinim€aki et al. 2020). cases because of language issues and data
SUSTAINABILITY: SCIENCE, PRACTICE AND POLICY 777

availability. We further screened the resulting 89 each building block of the BM canvas (Osterwalder
firms to filter the cases with respect to national/ and Pigneur 2010) for this article as that would
international positioning (e.g., balance of origin and have required more detailed data not accessible dir-
location on a global scale), national/international ectly in the grey literature. The purpose of BM ana-
coverage (e.g., balance of companies’ reach), explicit lysis here is to pinpoint emerging, yet not
focus on 3DVD technologies (e.g., level of invest- exhaustive, opportunities for digital BM innovation
ment/interest in digital transformation), and cover- in the fashion industry. Previous research along
age of 3DVD technologies along the supply chain. these lines in other industries has adopted a similar
We analyzed the shortlisted sample of 36 companies level of analysis and concentrated on changes in
based on the following criteria: year and place of value creation, delivery, and capture (Ibarra,
founding; type of business; level of maturity (estab- Ganzarain, and Igartua 2018). With respect to value
lished/startups); company size (see Figures 1 and 2); capture, the data that we collected from the grey lit-
specific type of technologies applied 3D model- erature allow only for a general evaluation of the
ing, VR, AR, 2 D/3D scanning, and DT; type way revenue streams are enhanced, with some
of digital transformation occurring throughout examples of novel revenue models.
the supply chain (design and development, presenta- Other limitations of the grey literature are its
tion business-to-business (B2B), marketing business- moderate credibility (Adams, Smart, and Huff 2017)
to-consumer (B2C), manufacturing, retailing) in and tendency to downplay any negative implications
processes and products innovation; and sustainabil- associated with digital transformation. The prevail-
ity aspects (cultural, social, economic, environmen- ing emergent and positive image attributable to
tal) associated with digital transformation (see marketing and commercial interests should be con-
Table 1). sidered when evaluating the results of the grey-lit-
This analysis also allowed us to identify opportu- erature methodology. To account for these
nities for BM innovation, specifically in terms of limitations, we refer to the literature review in the
changes in the value creation, delivery, and capture discussion section which critiques the potential
associated with the adoption of 3DVD technologies. drawbacks of adopting 3DVD technologies in the
We did not perform a detailed review of changes in fashion-supply chain.

Figure 1. Taxonomy of selected cases mapping companies’ dimensions (micro, small, medium, and large) vs. organizational
typology (established traditional and digital new-born fashion companies).
778 D. CASCIANI ET AL.

Figure 2. Taxonomy of cases that map companies’ approaches to digital transformation through 3DVD.

Results digitalization services (Swatchbook, Texel, Unmade,

Platforme). Second, digital fashion brands operate
Company cases: analysis and taxonomy
their collections and also collaborate as consultants
The current situation is that 3DVD technologies are with traditional and established fashion companies
applied in two contexts: (1) established fashion com- (e.g., Atacac, The Fabricant, Replicant Digital, Il3x).
panies and (2) innovative digitally-born startups/ Finally, digital fashion-collection marketplaces sell
small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), manu- their own collections (e.g., Carlings, Republique,
facturing, and e-commerce/retailing firms. Impossible Brands, Auroboros, Tribute Brand) or
The first group approaches the digital transform- host multiple brands as collective platforms (e.g.,
ation in three ways. First, they collaborate with Dress X, XR Couture, The Dematerialized,
external consultants to develop strategic partner- Drest, ARdrobe).
ships with computer-generated imagery (CGI) In both groups of companies, 3DVD technology
expert agencies and digital fashion-design offices to is applied in different phases of the supply chain to
digitize part of their business (e.g., Gucci, Louis explore and exploit the new design and business
Vuitton, Sunnei). Second, this group of firms incu- opportunities of digital technologies, thus transform-
bates digitally-born startups (e.g., Hatch and Stitch ing the traditional fashion-supply chain either
3D in PVH). Finally, they acquire internal compe- partially, (i.e., through limited digitalization of
tence (e.g., UTG, Emilio Pucci, Miroglio value-chain processes), or entirely, (i.e., through
Fashion, Pespow). end-to-end digitalization of design, production, and
The second group comprises micro and small selling of digital-only garments). With respect to
digitally-born fashion companies that in the first supply-chain transformation that the application of
instance exploit the maximum opportunities from 3DVD technologies allows, companies can be fur-
3DVD. Notable examples include digital fashion- ther divided into three clusters. Cluster 1 includes
consultant agencies that digitize collections (e.g., partial digitalization of the fashion-supply chain.
Atacac, The Fabricant, Ordre, FIA, Institute for Companies use 3DVD in production and distribu-
Digital Fashion, Replicant Digital Fashion, Thrill tion to generate virtual garments to support their
Digital, Il3x) and support/create digital retail experi- traditional physical production and to run presenta-
ences (e.g., ObsessAR, Invrsion, Anamxr, Wearfits) tions and marketing in parallel to satisfy the inter-
or provide specialized technology-expert ests of both distributors and retailers before they
Table 1. Thirty-six selected company cases classified by country, the companies’ year of foundation or technological shift, level of maturity (established and digitally-born), company dimension,
technology used, and fashion supply-chain transformation attributable to digitalization.
Fashion
Established supply
traditional Digital- Company Technology chain
companies born dimension used transformation

Internal External
Internal startups for collaborator/partnership Digital Digital Digital Technology Digital Design
Year of digital digital for digital fashion fashion collection expert 2D 3D on-demand and Presentation marketing
# Cases Country foundation transformation transformation transformation consultant brands platform companies Micro Small Medium Large 3D AR VR scanning Scanning production AI development B2B B2C Manufacturing Retailing
1 Atacac Sweden 2016 X X X X X X X X X X X
2 The The Netherlands 2018 X X X X X X X
Fabricant
3 Carlings Sweden 2018 X X X X X X X X
4 Tribute Brand Croatia 2020 X X X X X X
5 Dress X USA 2019 X X X X X
6 Sunnei Italy 2020 X X X X X X X
7 Republiqe Singapore 2019 X X X X X X X
8 XR Couture India 2020 X X X X X
9 The Dematerialized UK 2020 X X X X
10 Drest UK 2019 X X X X X
11 Ordre UK 2014 X X X X X
12 FIA UK 2013 X X X X X X
13 Institute for Digital Fashion UK 2020 X X X X X X X
14 Replicant Digital Fashion Russia 2020 X X X X X X X X
15 Thrill Digital – Thrill XR UK 2020 X X X X X X X X X
16 Wearfits Poland 2019 X X X X X X X X X
17 Il3x Italy 2020 X X X X X X X
18 Impossible Brands Italy 2020 X X X X X X X X X
19 ARdrobe Italy 2021 X X X X
20 Obsess AR USA 2017 X X X X X X
21 Invrsion Italy 2015 X X X X X X
22 Anamxr USA 2020 X X X X X X
23 PVH – Stitch 3D The Netherlands 2018 X X X X X
24 PVH – Hatch The Netherlands 2017 X X X X
25 Pespow Italy 2016 X X X X X X
26 United Textile Group (UTG) Denmark 1968 X X X X X
27 Auroboros UK 2018 X X X X X X X X
28 Gucci App-Ace Sneakers ITALY 2019 X X X X
29 Louis Vuitton Italy 2020 X X X X X
30 Swatchbook USA 2017 X X X X X X
31 Texel Russia 2014 X X X X X
32 Miroglio Fashion Italy 2018 X X X X X
33 Emilio Pucci Italy 1947 X X X X X
34 Unmade UK 2013 X X X X X X X
35 Platforme Portugal 2016 X X X X X X X
36 Dressarte Paris France 2018 X X X X X X X X
780 D. CASCIANI ET AL.

move into production (e.g., PVH, Pespow, UTG, Cross-department professional collaboration
Gucci, Miroglio Fashion, Emilio Pucci). Cluster 2 through enhanced communication. 3DVD is intro-
entails full digitalization of the supply chain with duced more easily in the pattern-making and styling
virtual and physical garments. Companies imple- department. However, more creative and stream-
ment virtual products and digital processes to sup- lined processes derive from a cross-use of digital
port on-demand physical production. Virtual tools among these departments, which allows for
garments are used for presentations as well as trade enhanced communication among stylists, designers,
and marketing activities to reach distributors/ and pattern makers. Thanks to a more accurate rep-
retailers and final users to customize and calibrate resentation of garments, closer cross-disciplinary
the production (e.g., Atacac, Impossible Brands, collaborations of hybrid teams are enhanced com-
Sunnei, Dressarte Paris). Cluster 3 involves full pared to traditionally siloed design strategies, and
digitalization of the supply chain with virtual-only allow rapid and simultaneous small iterations to
garments. Companies deliver these products through achieve faster and shared local/global decisions. The
digital processes and services that allow nonphysical virtual prototype gives designers a more detailed
economies. They reach customers directly which visualization of their initial ideas to control more
allows digital distribution, customization, and con- effectively such functional and esthetic features as
sumption (e.g., The Fabricant, Replicant Digital the three-dimensional shape of garments (volumes,
Fashion, Republiqe) (Figures 1 and 2). length, details), the material variations, and the
graphic positioning. It is also a faster way to express
and exchange ideas with pattern makers who find
real-time 3D model visualization an easy way to
Influence of digitalization on the fashion- manipulate, correct, and perfect patterns.
supply chain
Digitalization of product design and development Enhancing creativity and providing more informed
As considered in this study, the traditional fashion- design and research expertise. 3DVD provides
supply chain is a structured process of sequential designers with greater creative freedom and a
broader space of expressiveness. Virtual-only prod-
phases that embraces several steps: (1) research on
ucts (Cluster 3) may be made of unreal materials
market trends and fabric availability; (2) creative
with no physically-based features but virtual-only
and technical design of new collections from style
behaviors (e.g., fire flames, liquid silver). Digital to
sketches to 2D drawings; (3) product-development
physical products (Clusters 1 and 3) need the cor-
analysis; (4) prototyping/making samples of the new
rect digital twin of the physical materials to create
models; (5) presentation/trade B2B; (6) manufactur-
the best photorealistic simulations of the 3D digital
ing and assembly of garments known as cut-make-
garments. Digital agencies such as Swatchbook pro-
trim (CMT); (7) marketing garments by matching
vide services to create high-resolution scanned
retail outlets to the new collections to achieve the
images and metadata to create a digital replica of
broadest possible market access; (8) distribution textiles. 3DVD design is also used as an exploratory
through sophisticated logistics operations, and (9) tool for new design methodologies. For instance,
retailing/selling garments to consumers through Lindqvist (2015) from Atacac prototypes his kinetic
various retail channels. Even if represented linearly, garment construction in 3D as an innovative pat-
the final samples that emerge from Step 4 are real- tern-design approach based upon crucial biomech-
ized typically through iterative cycles of sampling/ anical points tested on digital bodies (avatars). His
alteration/design (Steps 2, 3, and 4). In this process, digital prototyping allows to check better garment
the 3DVD technologies change both the design fitting and to match natural human movements.
workflow and product output dramatically as Furthermore, McQuillan (2020) uses 3D software to
described below. demonstrate that it can facilitate hybrid design and
prototyping to achieve zero-waste fashion design.
Streamlined and faster workflow. Design and pro-
totyping become a unique digital process that inte- Sharing knowledge for its widest adoption in col-
grates pattern-making, fitting, and testing into the laborative open-source communities. Digital fash-
same virtual space for shortened cycles of iterations: ion agencies and mono/multi-brand digital
Virtual samples can be ready within hours rather platforms build collaborative communities of experts
than days or weeks. This workflow also reduces/ with different digital competencies (i.e., designers,
eliminates physical sampling, manual work, and fab- stylists, fashion bloggers, artists, and 3D, VR, and
ric use as a single refined physical sample can be AR technicians/creators) proactively. This approach
prototyped at the end of many virtual interactions. helps identify new talents in 3DVD design to speed
SUSTAINABILITY: SCIENCE, PRACTICE AND POLICY 781

and spread the knowledge of 3DVD technologies in production on their intentions, cut costs, and limit
fashion and to efficiently advance an open-source the wasteful sampling process.
fashion-design attitude.
Digitalization of B2C marketing processes
Digitalization of B2B presentation and trade. At their best, digital images are exploited to create
3DVD technologies are used primarily to visualize contents for static, dynamic, and interactive audio/
merchandizing for presentations and trade (both visual commercials for marketing campaigns.
wholesale buyers and retailers) from the simple Digitally-based marketing is designed to attract cus-
digitization of communication tools (i.e., digital tomers in both partial and complete digitalization of
lookbook, line sheet, and collection catalogues), to fashion systems, particularly in the new workflow of
the digital transformation of fashion shows, exhib- “virtual to consumer” in which the intermediaries
ition events, and interactive digital showrooms, to (buyers, distributors, retailers) are eliminated and
the creation of advanced virtual hyper-sensorial nar- brands communicate directly to the final user with
rative experiences. tools similar to those described for the B2B presen-
tations and trade.
Enhancing communication. Digital garments popu-
late online virtual and dynamic platforms, including Digitization of retailing
digital portfolios, enhanced digital assets, and whole- 3DVD technologies affect new digital retailing expe-
sale pricing specifications. In addition, platforms riences on e-commerce that allow users to be
allow interactive meetings and better visualization of clothed digitally with images for their virtual use on
all of the possibilities and collection variations of social media (Cluster 3) and also to support more
stock-keeping units (SKUs). automated buying experiences, such as digital try-on
and customization (Cluster 2).
Enhancing digital presentation: realism, inter-
action, and value experience. To recover the loss
Digital try-on and customization. Computer vision-
of tangibility of garments, the best visualization of a
ing and machine algorithms for automated 3D body
collection shows the construction by mimicking
scanning, measurement, and reconstruction help
every detail (e.g., fabrics, textures, patterns, fasten-
retailers (e-commerce or physical stores) provide
ings, prints) precisely with 360 view images and
digital try-on of virtual garments with a highly per-
videos with super-zoom capabilities to reveal the
sonalized fit, visualization of comfort, and size rec-
expertise and know-how of the brand. Further, dedi-
ommendations that reduce returns. VR technologies
cated immersive virtual environments allow spec-
allow consumers to walk around a 3D store and to
tacular fashion experiences (showcases, runways,
try on and purchase clothes through virtually-based
and presentations) to be created that transport peo-
experiences that require tangible tools such as a VR
ple in imaginative and immersive contexts, and thus
limit travel, but enhance the narrative and perceived headset and touch controller. Further, the use of
value of the collection. Further, visual experiences product configurators, including UnmadeOS and
may be enhanced through sonic and haptic technol- Platforme, allow products to be customized to pro-
ogies in VR/AR to stimulate sensory perceptions in vide consumers with self-expression and to allow
the digital realm. them to manipulate data variables supported by the
visualization system which delivers photographic
Enhancing the one-to-one relationship between renderings of the customer’s unique design before it
brands and buyers. Interestingly, digitally-driven is made (Cluster 2) or never made (Cluster 3).
wholesale activities can track and archive the inter-
actions between brands and buyers. The resulting Immersive retailing experiences. Digital physical
data analytics and metrics can provide insights for retailing allows consumers to engage in real-time,
developing customized and collaborative digital col- reliable, seamless phygital experiences of purchasing
lections and managing the global wholesale network digital garments and seeing themselves dressed in
for successive on-demand production (Cluster 2). them through a smartphone via camera access for
For example, the Sunnei Canvas digital platform AR (Clometrica/Replicant Digital Fashion,
permits selected buyers to intervene in the design ARdrobe). Although this technology is in its
aspects of each collection item (i.e., shape, fit, mate- infancy, it allows multiple and durable uses by creat-
rials, colors, dyeing, stitching) to differentiate their ing an AR digital personal wardrobe (MyARdrobe)
assortment and customize exclusive products for and uploading different digital contents for a phys-
each stakeholder. To enhance the one-to-one rela- ical garment that is purchased (The Last Statement
tionship with buyers, the company can base T-Shirt, Carlings).
782 D. CASCIANI ET AL.

Digitization of production demand that 3DVD technologies offer with a cor-

The application of 3DVD technologies allows for porate strategy to further enhance the supply-chain
optimization of traditional production processes, craftsmanship, quality, speed, and flexibility. As a
digital made-to-measure, and production-on- result, on-demand garments are developed with
demand approaches that are sometimes supple- short production cycles (less than a week) which
mented by locally-based micro-factory production. allow customer-driven services and environmentally-
A firm’s business strategy influences the way 3DVD friendly trusted materials in niche market sectors
technologies transform its production processes. (Atacac, Impossible Brands, Dressarte Paris). In
Using 3DVD technologies to optimize the physical addition to corporate strategy to enhance economic,
production process alone is more common on the environmental, social, and cultural value creation,
part of companies that started as traditional fashion the opportunity to implement consumer-driven local
brands and for which physical garments form the production depends upon the regional capacities
basis of the value proposition (Cluster 1). In con- available – for instance the ability to manage highly
trast, digital made-to-measure and production-on- complex experimental processes and to access digital
demand is an approach common among small, manufacturing laboratories (e.g., Atacac).
digitally-oriented fashion firms that focus on select-
ive, unique, and customized digital (Cluster 3) and
Digital business-model innovation
digital/physical garments in their product portfolio
(Cluster 2). The analysis in this section is based on mapping the
changes in value creation, delivery, and capture
Optimization of traditional/physical production based upon Osterwalder and Pigneur’s (2010) defin-
processes. 3DVD technologies allow for more ition of BM.
informed decision making and collaborative plan-
ning and thus lead to faster and more resource-effi- Changes in value creation
cient production cycles. Companies in Cluster 1 use Enhanced creativity, operational excellence, speed,
3DVD in the backend to generate virtual garments and cost efficiency in design and production.
to help optimize traditional physical production. 3DVD approaches improve the value creation pro-
cess of physical and digital product offerings in
Digital made-to-measure approach. Digital gar- established fashion firms and digitally-born startups.
ments used as virtual filters superimposed onto the These improvements include enhancing creativity
digital identities of users (static images or videos) and flexibility to meet the needs of clients, shorten-
on social media are manipulated on demand ing new product development (NPD) times, auto-
(Cluster 3) with a made-to-measure approach. mating, and achieving cost efficiency and
Digital tailors that manipulate digital clothes to fit operational excellence in design and manufactur-
the client’s body image precisely mediate the process ing processes.
of digital dressing. For example, Dressarte Paris
(Cluster 2) uses 3DVD in its made-to-measure cus- Opportunities for open-source innovation and
tom tailoring services through accurate digital vir- crowdsourcing. Open-source fashion (giving Atacac
tual measurements of a customer’s body shape and and The Fabricant 3D files to download and use for
offers a digital preview of personalized garments on free) and the organization of crowdsourcing events
a customized avatar. (The Fabricant’s STEM event) can be viewed as
value-creation approaches that facilitate digital fash-
Production-on-demand using virtual products first. ion innovation by developing digital capabilities,
The information collected during presentations and networking, and increasing the community/network
marketing campaigns, the data derived by tracking of 3D designers.
the use of virtual products in social media, and the
preorder mechanism serve to determine the strategy Value co-creation in the business network/ecosys-
of production-on-demand in Cluster 2. Products are tem. Virtualization allows fashion businesses to offer
not static entities, but dynamically configurable sys- cloud platform-based services, thus enabling oppor-
tems in which users can customize the variables tunities to transform their business model (Hatch,
based on their virtual representation. Technological Stitch 3 D, Sunnei, ARdrobe). These BMs facilitate
platforms such as Unmade and Platforme allow value co-creation by managing transactional rela-
technical digital files to be sent to factories automat- tionships/interfaces with other actors in the business
ically and tracked throughout the production stages. network and unlocking opportunities for on-
In some instances, locally-based manufacturing demand, customized, and personalized fashion offer-
activities supplement the digital production-on- ings (both digital and physical garments).
SUSTAINABILITY: SCIENCE, PRACTICE AND POLICY 783

Ability to create economic, environmental, soci- products) and nonfungible tokens (NFTs) based on
etal, and cultural benefits simultaneously. Many the use of blockchain to prove the authenticity of
firms refer to advancements in the sustainability of garments. Using auctions to sell these pieces in a
the value-creation process as a result of digital blockchain-enabled marketplace further enhances
transformation. These improvements are based the exclusivity of owning these digital garments.
upon operational/resource efficiency improvements, Other brands, such as Gucci, frame their value
on-demand production, and personalized/custom- proposition around affordability and accessibility to
ized clothing, which leads to the production of otherwise expensive luxury pieces. Many companies
fewer physical garments that are used longer (e.g., Republiqe, Atacac, The Fabricant) articulate
(Atacac). Further, digital fashion offers opportunities the sustainability benefits of digital clothes as part of
to completely dematerialize the traditional physical their value proposition, namely by using fewer
value-chain infrastructure. resources and addressing the wasteful consump-
Open-source innovation and crowdsourcing are tion mentality.
approaches that benefit individual digital artisans by
helping them to develop talent and providing access Virtualization of B2B BM content: digital platform-
to the rapidly-developing digital fashion business based services. Virtualization of collections that 3D
(Atacac, The Fabricant). As an example, IL3X inten- and VR/AR technologies offer is the basis for BM
tionally created the ARdrobe, a digital marketplace innovations associated with the provision of digital
for AR fashion designers to showcase their talent B2B platform-based services designed to digitalize
and creations (IL3X). In contrast, Atacac also takes parts of the fashion-value chain (Hatch and Stitch
advantage of the opportunities offered by the block- 3D startups spin-offs of PVH, and Sunnei’s Canvas).
chain marketplace that uses cryptocurrency to In particular, Stitch 3D allows fashion brands to
include creative artisans from various cultural and develop capabilities in 3D product creation that fos-
geographical contexts who do not have access to ter creativity, allow a faster process, and reduce
traditional economies. waste in the design and product-development
phases. The Hatch digital showroom solution helps
Changes in value delivery reinvent the essence of the wholesale experience
Virtualization of B2C BM content: digital garments beyond digital collection presentation. Various cus-
and services as new product offerings. tomization services are built in to adjust quickly to
Virtualization of product content – the shift from retailers’ demands and to make decisions about col-
analogue to digital fashion – makes it possible to lections easier without depending upon samples.
create new digital products and services that can be The collection’s marketing is improved as well
viewed as a disruptive innovation to traditional fash- through attractive presentation and storytelling.
ion BMs. Largely, startups exploit this BM innov- Waste reduction, enhanced operational efficiency,
ation based on digital B2C offerings, but traditional speed to market, and improved B2B relationship
firms have begun to follow this development as well management are among the delivered business bene-
by offering virtual collections that complement fits that form the value proposition. Stitch 3D and
physical garments, thus diversifying their prod- Hatch software provide fashion brands with better
uct portfolio. insights into their digital strategy with digital trans-
Digital pieces are created to wear on social media formation services based on cloud analytics. It is
(e.g., The Fabricant, Carlings, Tribute Brand, worth noting that Stitch 3D appeared after Hatch
Atacac, Republique, Gucci) or in games (AR/VR which allowed digital creation and rendering for the
skins or filters by Tribute Brands, Louis Vuitton, showroom, and thus made the digital service offer-
The Fabricant). The latter represents a shift to adja- ings complementary.
cent industries to reach new market segments that An idea similar to Hatch’s digital showroom is
fashion brands have not targeted traditionally. incorporated into a Sunnei Canvas, a five-step cus-
Offering purely digital pieces is complemented by tomization program based upon a VR-enhanced
providing cyber-tailoring services to help consumers platform that offers retailers services to co-create
fit the digital clothes that they purchase on personalized and co-branded collections (e.g.,
their avatars. change the type of fabrics, colors, length of sleeves
The value proposition of B2C digital offerings is on shirts, dyeing, and stitching details).
packaged differently. Some brands (Atacac, The
Fabricant) promote uniqueness by releasing limited Extension of value proposition in physical B2C
one-of-a kind digital pieces with embedded cryp- product offerings. While the use of 3D and VR/AR
toart (generative art generated from a single algo- in physical design and production of garments does
rithm/code that can create one-of-a kind digital not result in radically new B2C product offerings, it
784 D. CASCIANI ET AL.

still allows the value proposition to be extended of digitally-born B2B and B2C startups (e.g.,
compared to physical garments manufactured in Stitch, Hatch, The Dematerialized, ARdrobe).
traditional ways. For instance, kinetic garment con-
struction results in clothes that are more comfort- Specific examples of new revenue streams include
able/fit better, while 3D design and printing allow software-licensing models predicated on cloud-based
on-demand production and mass customization of subscription-software licensing (Stitch 3D and
individual physical garments (Atacac). Using AR/VR Hatch), digital sales of virtual clothes in blockchain-
filters to augment physical garments improves cus- powered marketplaces using cryptocurrency and
tomer engagement via user-experience gamification. NFCs to authenticate transactions (Stitch 3D and
Hatch), and royalties from the fee charged to
Changes in value capture orchestrate digital fashion-collection platforms (The
With respect to the way digitalization affects the Dematerialized). Other more common revenue
revenue streams and drives the profitability of the streams include online sales of digital clothes and
organizations that were reviewed as part of this ana- revenues from consulting services to support the
lysis, we derived the following key insights: digital transformaton of fashion. To enable the 3D-
manufactured garments to be priced competitively,
1. Cost savings in the value-creation process of Atacac applies dynamic pricing based upon the pre-
physical/digital garments derive from increased order model.
efficiency in operations/productivity and
dematerialization. In particular, virtualization of Sustainability effects
design and prototyping leads to faster workflow
Sustainability in the design and develop-
and less material usage due to sample reduc-
ment stage
tion/elimination and improved collaborative
A comparative life cycle assessment of environmen-
planning process across different departments
tal sustainability illustrates the positive effects of
or parts of the value chain (e.g., brands and
digital fashion sampling over physical sampling dur-
retailers/distributors as in case of Sunnei
ing the design and development phases. For
Canvas). 3DVD technologies used in retailing
example, Xiong (2020) found a considerable reduc-
and marketing (e.g., digital try-on with custom-
tion in carbon footprint of up to 30%. Another
ization features) allow for accuracy in produc-
study from Dressx (2020) compared the effects of
tion cycles leading to fewer returns.
creating a digital garment and e-mailing files to the
2. Product-differentiation strategies are enabled by
clients to producing a physical garment. Creating
improved customer-value propositions and bet-
garments digitally was found to reduce carbon-diox-
ter customer experience and engagement. For ide (CO2) emissions by 97% and save 3,300 liters of
instance, digitalization allows the value propos- water. However, neither study was complete, as they
ition of physical clothes to be extended by shift- compared only simple garments, such as a tee-shirt
ing the focus from the product to the service/ that does not represent the average digitally-
experience (e.g., gamification of user experience designed garment. Moreover, the studies did not
based on AR/VR, personalization, on-demand, describe the way digital garments are archived in
and mass-customization services). This shift to the cloud, sold, and bought. These are considered
service and experience orientations allows energy-intensive processes that need to be included
brands to pursue a differentiation strategy, thus in the calculation of the environmental effects.
enhancing the competitive advantage and profit- Eliminating physical sample production completely
ability of firms. (Cluster 3) and reducing sample production to only
3. Fashion companies launch new digital products a few garments in the product-development process
and services in new markets/adjacent industries. (Clusters 1 and 2) increase both environmental and
The cases that we reviewed indicated that digit- economic sustainability. Iterating the design and
alization allows companies to diversify their prototyping activities digitally facilitates the prod-
product and market portfolio (e.g., Louis uct’s development and achieves shorter cycles that
Vuitton provides physical and digital products hasten the time to market, cutting both costs and
such as AR/VR skins to wear in videogames material waste. In addition, 3D modeling has been
and thus enters the entertainment market. found to simplify the zero-waste design approach by
4. The launch of service-oriented platforms entails making sustainability-motivated decisions in the
smaller amounts of capital investment and ena- early stages of the creative process and limiting the
bles value co-creation with other actors in the amount of textile waste in the design phase
business network, as demonstrated by the cases (McQuillan 2020).
SUSTAINABILITY: SCIENCE, PRACTICE AND POLICY 785

The gender-neutral inclusive design approach Digital B2B trading allows different stakeholders
that many of the emerging digital design companies (buyers, retailers, and customers) to participate
(Cluster 3) are taking reflects the urgent need to actively in altering/personalizing a collection without
remove from garments the social norms that inhibit using physical materials and samples prior to the
the freedom of individuals. 3DVD technologies sup- manufacturing process. In addition, online selection
port cultural and social sustainability because of the and management of B2B orders allow companies to
opportunities they create for customization. The accumulate data, simplify logistics, and structure
design of digital garments allows a more inclusive their economic strategies based on interactions,
and democratic approach to the fashion industry’s decisions, and customizations of digital buyers.
beauty standards, because, theoretically, each prod- From the cultural perspective, 3DVD technologies
uct can be personalized and fit to any body shape drive a cultural transition to value experiences
without traditional sizing constraints. rather than solely presenting and selling products.
3DVD processes of design and development Depending upon the medium chosen, 3DVD tech-
influence the design culture and methodology and nologies enable designers to regulate the expressive-
facilitate a collaborative approach that helps to forge ness of virtual products/collections, increasing both
a community of people who work with 3D-fashion realism and sensorial content. Fashion shows and
design tools to disseminate application of the tech- marketing campaigns are designed through VR and
nology in the sector (e.g., Atacac, Institute of Digital AR to enhance and expand storytelling capacity of
Fashion, The Fabricant). Team diversity is encour- brands in terms of meanings and values to engage
aged and supported to develop hybrid workforces users and recover the loss of information and inter-
that can bring different perspectives and expertise to action that occurs when products/collections are
fashion to achieve technological, cultural, and social presented to buyers digitally (e.g., material touch
innovation and sustainability. 3DVD technologies and face-to-face exclusive trading sessions) in com-
foster a cultural transformation in the design pro- parison to physical trades.
cess and allow the exchange between established
workers trained in updated skills and new professio- Sustainability in the retailing stage
nals with enhanced expertise, thus altering trad- The digital transformation of the retailing stage
itional workflows based upon handcraftsmanship (Cluster 3) leads to new consumption behaviors
and material artifacts. The new design processes linked to social media through an ethical reconsid-
allowed by 3DVD technologies require a shared eration of the effects of fast fashion consumption
glossary and capacity to translate the material and this can give consumers greater awareness of
experience and the artisanal processes in a virtual sustainability issues. The new interaction with cloth-
modality to reach the same quality and attention to ing through digital purchases leads to environmental
detail as that of the physical design. sustainability while it simultaneously takes into
account the sociocultural aspects (Collins 2019): it
Sustainability in the B2B presentation and trade fulfills fashion’s social functions, such as self-expres-
and B2C marketing stages sion, identity statement, and communication via
The digitalization of wholesale and marketing tools social media, and reduces the size of the industry’s
contributes to reducing/eliminating physical sam- carbon footprint as well as eliminates the buy once-
pling and fabric and waste from prototyping proc- dress/waste cycles in real life (Cluster 3).
esses, thus limiting their adverse environmental Nonetheless, a drawback is the replication of fast
effects and increasing cost efficiency in the time to consumption behaviors in the digital realm.
market. Decreasing yearly worldwide travel and Some attempts to create more durable experien-
transportation of collections associated to B2B ces of digital consumption in Cluster 3 rely on the
wholesale during international fashion weeks over use of the same physical garment (tee-shirt) that can
the four major fashion seasons has been found to activate different filters automatically via AR and be
reduce carbon footprint (241,000 tons of CO2) and transformed digitally to update the style and the
financial costs (Carbon Trust and Ordre 2020). By digital contents (Carlings). Some examples allow a
contrast, HFW with Normative (2020) calculated the more durable digital experience by creating digital
environmental effects of the first completely digital wardrobes for archival, resale, and reuse of digital
fashion week held in Helsinki in the Fall-Winter garments (ARdrobe). Further, although materials,
2020 season. It was found that the overall carbon shipping, and returns are eliminated, digital garment
footprint – calculated following the Greenhouse Gas consumption retains its carbon footprint because of
Protocol (GHGP) – was higher than that of trad- the energy consumption associated with 3DVD sys-
itional fashion shows, but lower if calculated tems. The highest engagement achieved in retailing
per visitor. experiences through VR and AR technologies has
786 D. CASCIANI ET AL.

the drawback of higher electricity use because of the labor is eliminated. Finally, it affects social and cul-
power required for the constant connections tural sustainability positively through the more
between mobile telephones and the cloud, networks, equitable and ethical treatment of the workforce and
and cellphone towers. the cultural reappropriation of local manufacturing
In Clusters 1 and 2, digital garments function to activities. Traditional manufacturing processes and
provide custom services through digital fitting and techniques are interpreted from a new contempor-
sizing tools that can check human measurements ary/digital perspective with the possibility of
and try on garments digitally. These technological enhancing their innovative effect by integrating
applications influence the minimization of returns tradition synergistically.
positively and digital configuration, customization,
and styling services can increase the ability of users
Discussion
to express themselves. In addition, creative indus-
tries use these experiences to design immersive vir- Analysis of the data collected in this study was
tual environments, thus shaping a new cultural based on the logic of inductive reasoning using a
universe, the Metaverse, around the brands and con- grey-literature review that allowed us to obtain
sumers that provide new values and meanings insights into the effects of 3DVD technologies on
(Inversion, ObsessAR, Anamxr) and enhance cus- processes, products, and BM innovations. The
tomer experiences and potentially motivate new sus- insights presented in the foregoing section primarily
tainable behaviors as well. represent “the voice” of the companies which tend
to view digitalization as a method that creates
Sustainability in the production stage opportunities to generate digitally-transformed proc-
The digitalization of the production processes in esses and positive sustainability outcomes. The
Cluster 3 affects both environmental and cultural emerging affirmative perspective is attributable to
sustainability as using digital models of garments the novelty of the phenomena, as companies are in
cuts stockholding and overproduction. Further, the the early phase of commercializing digital technolo-
process of adaptation, manipulation, and customiza- gies, as well as the prevailing industry discourse that
tion to body size supports the cultivation of diver- digitalization is a “silver lining” to enable recovery
sity and identity. In Cluster 3, companies create new from the adverse consequences of the COVID-19
roles and job profiles (e.g., digital tailors, AR/VR/ pandemic and to achieve sustainable development in
MR experts) which increases social and economic the fashion industry (Business of Fashion and
sustainability. McKinsey & Company 2020). In contrast, there are
In Cluster 2, the production-on-demand assisted already some preliminary research results predicting
by artificial intelligence (AI) and associated with the limitations and criticism of 3DVD approaches in
presentation of digital garments to consumers the fashion industry in relation to sustainability.
produces sustainability holistically. From an The grey literature shows that the adoption of
environmental perspective, it reduces/eliminates 3DVD technology by the fashion industry unleashes
stockholding, overproduction, pre-consumer waste, new opportunities in products/services innovation
and overconsumption of raw materials. It also as well as makes it possible to optimize operational
affects garment prices, as it can eliminate the costs processes to streamline and compress (design phase
of unsold garments, define a more transparent price, in Clusters 1, 2, and 3), eliminate (presentation B2B
and pay adequately for the work of designers and phase in Cluster 3), shorten time (Clusters 2 and 3),
manufacturers and high-quality materials, thus con- and reorganize operational models (repositioned
tributing to healthy relations between productivity manufacturing and retailing phases in Clusters 2
and employment. Further, it introduces a more sus- and 3) (Figure 3).
tainable BM, as in the case of Atacac. The preorder The use of 3D software changes the design pro-
purchases and production-on-demand based upon cess and associated methodologies and permits bet-
the customization of digital previews of fashion ter and faster communication among different
items necessitate and drive a cultural and behavioral departments and professionals which increases the
shift from the consumer perspective by enhancing creative opportunities to achieve sustainable
the customization of garments to promote diversity approaches. 3DVD design processes facilitate the
and self-expression. Moreover, the reshoring of gar- ability to work across designated disciplinary
ment production on a local scale with controlled, domains and to enhance collaborative and transdis-
durable, environmentally-friendly materials and ciplinary knowledge and hybrid design practices to
managed quality of the workforce has positive out- increase creativity and innovation (Marshall and
comes with respect to environmental sustainability Pengelly 2006). Accordingly, both soft and subject--
because the supply of long-distance materials and specific skills are needed to shape resilient digital
SUSTAINABILITY: SCIENCE, PRACTICE AND POLICY 787

Figure 3. Map of traditional supply-chain model vs. supply-chain model informed by 3DVD technological transformation.

professionals. On one hand, companies today are contrast, digital fashion’s open-source philosophy
searching for new hybrid professionals with com- allows greater access to learning data shared across
bined digital, fashion, and business backgrounds the digital fashion community (S€arm€akari 2021).
(Kalbaska and Cantoni 2019). 3DVD technologies in The innovation potential in using 3D modeling in
fashion have motivated universities to plan to design processes remains underexplored but appears
include 3DVD fashion design-related courses in to expand and enrich the porfolios of more explora-
their educational models (Ftalliance 2020) to train tive digitally-born companies (Clusters 2 and 3).
future professionals in the fashion-tech domain. On 3DVD design guides decisions to achieve sustain-
the other hand, firms in the industry that embrace ability in styles, materials, shapes, and sizes in the
the digital transformation risk job obsolescence of initial design phase, and thus influences the remain-
their workforce because of more demanding, digit- der of the value chain in timing, efficiency, and
ally-based, and complex skills over manual skills, costs. 3DVD design also simplifies the application of
which causes vertical and horizontal skill mismatch, zero-waste design techniques, supports the use of
gaps, and shortages. Therefore, job-transition oppor- innovative pattern-making approaches, and expands
tunities will be required to help workers engage in the opportunities to apply made-to-measure design
digitalization through participation in continuous approaches. Although, on one hand, these develop-
education to update their skills. Digital fashion edu- ments can increase opportunities for designers to
cation introduces the dual topic of accessibility: participate in manufacturing processes, on the other
3DVD design processes require a laptop, Internet hand, digital fashion may decrease their haptic and
connection, and a 3D-software license that demands material knowledge (Atkinson 2017). Thus, further
financial resources and a suitable infrastructure. By studies should focus on testing the effects of 3DVD
788 D. CASCIANI ET AL.

technologies in the design processes to understand application eases the adoption of production-on-
their benefits and limitations with respect to feasibil- demand, as customers can include their measure-
ity, creative freedom, and design timing. ments to perfect the fit of the garments. Maldini
The design and development processes that occur et al. (2019) show that garments co-designed digit-
in virtual environments allow streamlined activities ally and produced-on-demand lead to longer prod-
and thus reduce costs. The creative process remains uct lifespans because of the attachment that users
virtual until the manufacturing stages which changes have to their enhanced emotional and functional
the digitalization of wholesale trade and marketing values. Some cases in the greyliterature review (e.g.,
communication. Further, processes and timing are Atacac, Dressarte Paris) show this pioneering
reduced, for example, in Cluster 3, where wholesale approach in delivering co-designed services and
activities have been eliminated because of the dis- experiences to manufacture garments with a person-
intermediation effect of digital communication and alized fit and style with which users feel an emo-
sales tools as companies refer directly to final cus- tional connection that thereby affects the longevity
tomers. Firms in Cluster 2 use the same digital of the garment.
tools, platforms, and experiences to approach differ- Digital garments ease data replication, conver-
ent stakeholders (e.g., buyers, retailers, and final sion, manipulation, and recombination, and thereby
consumers). The emergence of interactive, digitally- support the democratic cultural remix of informa-
based platforms changes the pace and modalities of tion and products (Brennen and Kreiss 2016). The
fashion communication and dissemination and digitalization of the retailing phase includes the
encourages fashion companies to change and digitalization of products into their digital twins, the
enhance their fashion-media role (Cantoni et al. coupling with digital services, and the provision of
2020). In contrast, Cluster 1 companies still display new experiences incorporated into the purchasing
a very conservative attitude and introduce 3DVD processes. Sensorial and valuable storytelling in the
technologies in specific processes without exploiting experience is essential to recover the loss of infor-
their full potential to achieve a complete digital mation attributable to the dematerialization of prod-
transformation. Several small and niche companies ucts that provide visual, functional, and behavioral
(Cluster 3) are pioneering 3DVD technologies in simulations of product attributes through zoom, 2D
end-to-end processes, including digital and virtual or 3D rotation, and virtual try-on with avatars via
communicating tools and processes in all the steps 3D or AR visualization that allow consumers to
of the workflow of the company. They show an evaluate the items online more effectively and to
interesting systemic approach that exploits the overcome the relative sensory impoverishment com-
potential of 3DVD technologies through the digital pared to bricks-and-mortar retail. New design
transformation of the entire manufacturing life cycle opportunities can emerge to overcome the limita-
and the creation of real-time virtual duplication tions inherent in the ability of digital technologies
(digital twin) of the entire system to promote a rad- to offer the physical and tangible experiences of
ical sustainable transformation (Bertola and materials to reveal their flow (weight, thickness,
Teunissen 2018; Bertola 2021). Digital processes and drape), movement (stretchiness, comfort), fabric-
garments are used to change the physical world, tactile feature (hand or feel of fabric such as soft-
both helping and disrupting physical products in ness, smoothness, and voluminosity), and details
the production and sales phases. (stitching and seams) in the digital domain (Ornati
The production-on-demand approach coupled 2021, 2022).
with 3DVD technologies affects the shift between 3DVD technologies appear to drive multi-cen-
the retailing and manufacturing phases (Figure 3). tered BM innovations that affect changes in all three
In Clusters 2 and 3, customers can configure their value-architecture dimensions. The cloud-based, ser-
products and purchase a personalized experience vice-oriented platforms that deliver digital fashion
based upon a preliminary digital visualization that products and services (B2B/B2C customization/per-
becomes an actual unique product through digital sonalization) represent a radical BM innovation.
data management and tracked logistics. Mass cus- This allows for breakthrough improvements in value
tomization and production-on-demand typically co-creation and delivery (via a network and user/
favored through digital platforms allow personaliza- community-oriented approach) and provides new
tion in style, color, size, and other preferences and revenue streams as well. Because of the digital BM
pass through co-design processes between customer, innovation associated with the virtualization of
retailer, and manufacturer (Maldini 2017), resulting product contents, the borderline between fashion,
in new business-to-business-to-consumer (B2B2C) entertainment, gaming, and arts is becoming
business models (Mingione and Leoni 2020). In blurred, representing a shift from “fashion as a serv-
addition to the style, body scanning and digital ice” to “fashion as a lifestyle.” Further, it offers the
SUSTAINABILITY: SCIENCE, PRACTICE AND POLICY 789

ability to simultaneoulsy create economic, environ- cultural system that creates products and services
mental, and societal/cultural benefits. Previous that affect the environment, economy, and society.
research on digital BM innovations has mentioned The results of the analysis indicated that the techno-
the shift toward platform model and service, net- logical effect on design processes, production, and
work, and user/community-oriented approaches retailing brings about significant transformational
(Noris et al. 2021; Ibarra, Ganzarain, and Igartua changes in a company’s organizational culture and
2018; Teece and Linden 2017; Bharadwaj et al. consumers’ cultural systems. In particular, new cre-
2013). Gregori and Holzmann (2020) also demon- ative approaches in the design phases can be applied
strated that digital BMs create opportunities for to disrupt traditional working modes and standar-
socio-environmental value creation via more dized production processes to achieve sustainability
resource-efficient and faster processes, involvement and innovation. Moreover, digitalization allows the
of customers/communities in value co-creation, and rigid limitations in sizing and pattern construction
network effects in platform-business models. to be overcome and opposes the secretive ways in
Whether digital technologies have positive implica- which the fashion sector works to produce new
tions for multidimensional sustainable value creation open knowledge through an increase in collabor-
and thus contribute to sustainable development ation, transparency, inclusivity, and democracy
depends upon the nature of the socio-technical tran- derived from customization opportunities. The
sition. The way technology is used depends upon digital transformation that occurs in the preliminary
the values, objectives, resources, practices, and poli- design stages shows that a real cultural effect can be
cies that accompany the firm and stakeholder adop- achieved only if the entire supply chain is affected
tion of technologies. to sustain, promote, and deliver its full innova-
The analysis revealed that 3DVD technologies tive potential.
affect all four dimensions of sustainability that are 3DVD technologies enable the digital conversion
interconnected intrinsically throughout supply-chain of “disposable fashion” in the virtual world and pro-
processes (Figure 4). Cultural sustainability is of vide opportunities to have a positive effect on the
paramount importance because fashion is a complex environment and enhance the self-expression of

Figure 4. Map of 3DVD effects on the four pillars of sustainability through the supply chain.
790 D. CASCIANI ET AL.

individuals on social media. However, there are con- consumption levels and patterns should be considered
cerns that this will have a detrimental effect on the when seeking to design sustainable 3DVD-based fash-
transformation to more sustainable consumer cul- ion experiences along the entire supply chain.
tures against overconsumption habits (Crewe 2017).
Instead, the outcome may be reiterated, similar to
fast-fashion consumer behaviors through the social Conclusions and future research agenda
media domain. “While digitalization is already a key This article provides a systematic overview of digital
driving force in societal transformation, it has so far transformation in the fashion industry by mapping
led to more consumption and inequality and the effects of 3DVD technologies on the traditional
remained coupled with the indirect use of energy fashion supply-chain model onto the four dimen-
and materials, therefore sustaining resource-inten- sions of sustainability and BM innovations. The
sive and greenhouse-gas growth patterns at the structural shifts identified in the fashion industry
macro-economic level” (Wiedmann et al. 2020, 7). that are attributable to digitalization create the fol-
Only a few company cases analyzed in this study
lowing opportunities.
examined whether there is a fundamental cultural
change among consumers of digital products/serv- Dematerialization of the supply chain with
ices that do not encourage the fast-paced produc-
respect to improving resource efficiency and
tion/waste of digital outfits used on social media but
compressing, eliminating, and shortening various
instead enhance ethical/responsible fashion-con-
business activities, as well as reorganizing the
sumption behaviors.
operating model toward a more collaborative
However, the digital shift in design, production,
approach in different stages of the process.
retailing, and consumption does not suffice to con-
New B2B and B2C products and services with
clude that 3DVD technological adoption is sustainable
more focus on the experience and engagement of
from an environmental perspective. The fact that gar-
users (e.g., digital garments and cyber-fitting
ments, shows, presentations, and shops become virtual
services, physical garments augmented with VR
and digital does not mean that the system becomes
filters that provide the opportunity for constant
intrinsically more sustainable as the information and
communications technology (ICT) sector is a source updating, virtual B2B presentation, wholesaling,
of 1.8–2.8% of global greenhouse-gas emissions, and and design services).
these values are underestimations because they fail to Network-, community-, and service-/experience-
account for the full extent of the associated supply oriented BMs that offer the opportunity for sim-
chain and life cycle impacts (Andrae and Edler 2015; ultaneous value creation along multiple dimen-
Freitag et al. 2021). The invisible infrastructure that sions of sustainability, in which platform-based
lies behind the programming, rendering, and digital services emerge as a new digital BM archetype.
consumption of 3DVD products accounts for the foot- Studies of the innovation potential of 3DVD
print of the digital fashion system (Andrae 2017). technologies in the design processes with respect
Calculations of actual environmental effects do not to new methodologies and approaches to achieve
include the energy consumption of data centers, net- creativity and sustainability.
works, and blockchain transactions, the specific archi- Investigations of the multiple dimensions of sus-
tecture of which (proof-of-work vs. non-proof-of- tainability with a primary focus on the cultural
work) determines greater/lighter environmental effects pillar to design 3DVD technological products/
(Sedlmeir et al. 2020). Because the trend of the energy services that can radically change the consump-
efficiency of ICTs indicates that the carbon footprint tion behaviors of consumers to reach a more eth-
will not decrease, designers, policy makers, entrepre- ical/responsible paradigm.
neurs and common users should undertake proactive
decisions and responsible behaviors to limit their The comprehensive overview in this article aims
environmental effects. In addition, because of the to facilitate multidisciplinary dialogue among fash-
Jevons’ Paradox (Jevons 1865), the increase in system ion practitioners. To reach the promise of sustain-
efficiency creates higher consumption levels if con- able digital transformation to dematerialize
sumer behavior and lifestyles are not addressed at resource-intensive, design-driven practices of the
their core. Therefore, sustainable digital and valuable traditional fashion industry the application of digital
fashion experiences for customers need to be sup- technologies should be considered simultaneously at
ported by a sustainable design approach that interfaces various design levels including:
with the experiences of users on the digital platforms.
The intangible cultural values of companies through Product design to foster sustainable/valuable user
storytelling and the effects of technological choices on experiences and lifestyles.
SUSTAINABILITY: SCIENCE, PRACTICE AND POLICY 791

Process design that considers the interconnec- (Teece and Linden 2017; Pal and Sandberg 2017).
tions along the entire supply chain to realize The companies included in this study have demon-
shared value co-creation and sustain innovation. strated the diversity of organizational configurations
BM design to ensure that investments in the necessary to acquire these resources, capabilities,
adoption of digital technologies capture value. and skills, from integrating digital competencies
Integrate sustainability design thinking into all of internally to acquiring them externally, and from
the above, including the cultural aspects. initiating digital startups as spin-off new organiza-
tions to launching cloud-based service-oriented plat-
Stemming from the results of this article, we pro- forms. Therefore, exploring the factors that affect
vide research directions toward sustainability and the digital organizational design aspects of BMs rep-
innovation paths in the digital transformation of the resents another future research direction.
fashion industry that could engage the interest of
both academics and practitioners. A critical research
study might focus on the environmental effects of Notes
3DVD technologies throughout the fashion-supply 1. Digitalization is defined as adoption or increase in
chain compared to the traditional chain. Such a the use of digital technologies that affect the
study should focus on the energy consumption of economy, society, and culture and enable a business
ICT-based services including computing devices, transformation in operations, functions, models,
processes, and activities (Brennen and Kreiss 2016).
data centers, and communication networks involved 2. Digitization is defined as the material process of
in the full digital process because the existing litera- conversion, interpretation, storage, and transfer of
ture has investigated this issue only in part or not analogue streams of information such as images,
focused specifically on the fashion sector. Future video, and text into a digital form (Negronponte
research can address the missing systemic approach 1995; Brennen and Kreiss 2016).
to sustainability. Comprehensive sustainable assess- 3. Bridging Asia and Europe, Turkey in 2020 was the
fourth largest textile and garment manufacturer and
ment models should be applied through a blended
exporter in the fashion industry (Statista 2022).
approach that includes the cultural dimension when Working today in a global context as supplier and
considering complex phenomena. Another line of subcontractor of the international luxury and fast
research could focus on the limitations of 3DVD fashion industries, many Turkish companies have
technologies to study the full potential of end-to- already embraced the shift of their design and
end applications as several examples have shown the prototyping activities to a digital and virtual
systematic application of digital technologies in all approach, being involved in the Industry 4.0
transformation to be more productive and
supply-chain processes. Understanding socio-
competitive and to increase and accelerate
technological drivers and barriers to the digital communications with their stakeholders (Tokatli
transformation of the supply chain from the back- 2003; G€okalp, G€okalp, and Eren 2019).
end to frontend will provide relevant insights into
systemic preconditions that need to be created at
the individual, corporate, interorganizational, and Acknowledgements
policy levels to anchor the digital transition to This article is the outcome of research the authors under-
innovation and sustainability. took while working as partners in the European project
Dematerialization of supply-chain processes and Erasmus þ KA Fashion-Tech Alliance (Project Number
products offers the ability to make more informed 612662-EPP-1-2019-1-IT-EPPKA2-KA – FTall). We
acknowledge the companies that participated in the
design decisions to disrupt traditional and standar- knowledge alliance, such as Pespow, and PVH, for shar-
dized logic. Further exploration could focus on the ing information about their digital and virtual technolo-
creative exploitation of technologies to modify the gies during the workshop and focus group of the
way garments are inspired (e.g., AI through data FTalliance project.
management and data science to inform sustainable
choices and innovation), conceived (e.g., pattern-
Disclosure statement
making explorations to achieve fit and sustainabil-
ity), perceived (e.g., tactile and haptic experiences), No potential conflict of interest was reported by
and the ways in which digital BMs are designed the authors.
(e.g., sustainable user experiences and value
propositions). ORCID
Finally, digital transformation that addresses the
Daria Casciani http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7502-7633
systemic application of digital technologies is related Olga Chkanikova http://orcid.org/0000-0002-
to closing the digital capabilities gap by allowing 9234-8623
access/developing relevant resources and skills Rudrajeet Pal http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2015-6275
792 D. CASCIANI ET AL.

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