By: Mr.

Sanjay

The differences between the internet and the World Wide Web (WWW)
The internet is a collection of interconnected networks all over the world
The world wide web is a massive collection of web pages which you access through browsers using the internet
World Wide Web (WWW) Internet
Definition A system of interconnected hypertext A global network of interconnected computer
documents and multimedia content networks that facilitates data exchange and
accessible via the Internet. communication.
Access Accessed through web browsers like Accessed through various means, including web
Method Chrome, Firefox, and Safari using URLs browsing, email, file sharing, online gaming, and
(Uniform Resource Locators). more.
Content and Primarily deals with the presentation and Serves as a vast infrastructure for data transmission,
Purpose retrieval of web pages, documents, and enabling various online services and applications, not
multimedia content. limited to web browsing.

Uniform resource locators

Uniform resource locators (URLs) are text addresses used to access websites. A URL is typed into a browser address bar
using the following format:

protocol://website address/path/file name

The protocol is usually either http or https. The website address is:

» domain host (www),

» domain name (website name),
» domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov, for example),
» and sometimes country code (.uk, .de, .cy, for example).

The path is the web page, but is often omitted and it then becomes the root directory of the website (see example
below). The file name is the item on the web page.

For example: https://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/ict

HTTP and HTTPS

Hypertext transfer protocol (http) is a set of rules that must be obeyed when transferring files across the internet. When
some form of security (for example, SSL or TLS) is used, then this changes to https (you will often see the green padlock
in the status bar as well). The ‘s’ stands for secure, and indicates a more secure way of sending and receiving data across
a networks.

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SSL (Secure Sockets Layer): SSL is an older protocol designed to ensure data security during transmission.

TLS (Transport Layer Security): TLS is the successor to SSL and is widely used to secure data transmission over the
Internet.

Over time, various vulnerabilities and security flaws were discovered in SSL, making it less secure. SSL is considered
deprecated and insecure for most purposes today. TLS was developed to address the security shortcomings of SSL.

Domain Name Server

The Domain Name Server (DNS) (also known as domain name system) is a system for finding IP addresses for a domain
name given in a URL. URLs and domain name servers eliminate the need for a user to memorise IP addresses.

The DNS process involves converting a URL (such as www.hotsedu.id) into an IP address the computer can understand
(such as 192.162.140.19).

Cookies
Cookies are small files or code stored on a user’s computer. They are sent by a web server to a browser on a user’s
computer. Cookies allow user tracking and maintain user preferences. Collected data can also be used to customise the
web page for each individual user.

Session cookies
Session cookies, also known as session-specific or temporary cookies, are a type of web cookie that are stored on a
user's device only for the duration of their web session.

Persistent cookies
These cookies remain in operation on the user’s computer even after the browser is closed or the website session is
terminated. Unlike session cookies, persistent cookies have expiration dates and can remain on the user's device for
extended periods or until manually deleted.

Advantages of session cookies

a. Store temporary data.
b. Are more secure.
c. Help improve user experience.
d. Raise fewer privacy concerns.
e. Boost website performance.

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Advantages of persistent cookies

a. They remember your settings and preferences.
b. You don't need to keep logging in all the time.
c. Websites can understand how you use their services.
d. They can show you things you're interested in.
e. They keep your shopping cart items even when you come back later.

Disadvantages of persistent cookies:

1. Privacy Concerns: They can potentially track and store personal information without user consent, raising privacy
issues.
2. Data Security: If not properly managed, they may pose security risks if sensitive data is stored without adequate
encryption.
3. Data Breach Vulnerability: Persistent cookies can be vulnerable to data breaches if they are not adequately
protected, potentially exposing user information.

Disadvantages of session cookies:

1. Data Loss: Information is lost when the session ends.
2. Limited Personalization: Short-term personalization only.
3. Limited Tracking: Not suitable for long-term analytics.
4. Inconvenient: Users may need to log in frequently.
5. Security Risks: Vulnerable if not properly protected.
6. Session Timeouts: Sessions can end due to inactivity.

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1. a) Domain Name: www.urlexample.co.ie

b) Domain Type: Ireland (country name)
c) File Name: sample_page
d) Protocol: HTTP
2. a. Session cookies are temporary and expire when the web browser is closed, while persistent cookies have a
specific expiration date and can be stored on a user's device for a longer period.
Session cookies are typically stored in temporary memory (RAM), while persistent cookies are saved on the user's
device's hard drive, remaining available even after the browser is closed and reopened.
b.
1. Cookies are commonly used to manage and maintain user authentication sessions, allowing users to stay logged
in on websites.
2. Cookies help websites remember user preferences and provide personalized content or recommendations
based on user behavior.
3. Cookies enable website owners to collect data on user interactions and behaviors, facilitating website analytics
and performance improvement.

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3.
1. Internet
2. WWW
3. WWW
4. WWW
5. Internet
4. Persistent cookies are referred to as tracking cookies because they:
a. Collect data over an extended period, enabling long-term tracking of user behavior.
b. Enable targeted advertising by tracking user activity and delivering ads based on their interests and behavior.

What is digital currency?

Digital currency exists purely in a digital format. It has no physical form unlike conventional currency (for example,
$, £, €, and ¥).
It has made it possible to bank online (for example, using PayPal) or via a smartphone app (for example, google
pay). This is all possible because money only exists as data on a computer system, but it can be transferred into
physical cash if we need it.

Cryptocurrency
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to track transactions; it was created to address the problems associated with
the centralisation of digital currency.

Traditional digital currencies are regulated by central banks and governments. This means all transactions and
exchange rates are determined by these two bodies. Cryptocurrency has no state control and all the rules are set
by the cryptocurrency community itself.

Unlike existing digital currencies, cryptocurrency transactions are publicly available and therefore all transactions
can be tracked and the amount of money in the system is monitored.

The cryptocurrency system works by being within a blockchain network which means it is much more secure.

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Blockchaining
Blockchain consists of a number of interconnected computers but they are not connected to a central server. All
transaction data is stored on all computers in the blockchain network.

Whenever a new transaction takes place, all the networked computers get a copy of the transaction therefore, it
cannot be changed without the consent of all the network members. This effectively removes the risk of security
issues such as hacking.

Brute force attacks

If a hacker wants to ‘crack’ your password, they can systematically try all the different combinations of letters,
numbers and other symbols until eventually they find your password.

It works as follows

1. Checks if the password is one of the most common ones used (the five most common are: 123456,
password, qwerty, 111111 and abc123).
2. A strong word list is used to compare with the password.

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Data interception
Data interception is a form of stealing data by tapping into a wired or wireless communication link. The intent is to
compromise privacy or to obtain confidential information.

Packet sniffer
A packet sniffer is a tool that captures and analyzes data packets on a wired network. It's used for network monitoring,
troubleshooting, security, and protocol analysis.

When used ethically, it helps manage networks effectively. However, unauthorized or malicious use can lead to privacy
violations and legal issues.

Wardriving / Access Point Mapping

Wireless data interception can be carried out using wardriving (or sometimes called Access Point Mapping). Using this
method, data can be intercepted using a laptop or smartphone, antenna and a GPS device along with software outside a
building or somebody’s house. The intercepted Wi-Fi signal can then reveal personal data to the hacker, often without the
user being aware this is happening.

Denial of service (DoS) attack

This method of attack is to flood the network with useless spam traffic. the server can only handle a finite number of
requests. So, if it becomes overloaded by an attacker sending out thousands of requests, it won’t be able to service a user’s
legitimate request.

Distributed denial of service

In a distributed denial of service (DDoS) the spam traffic originates from many different computers, which makes it hard
to block the attack.

Hacking
Hacking is the act of gaining illegal access to a computer system without the user’s permission. This can lead to identity
theft or the gaining of personal information; data can be deleted, passed on, changed or corrupted.

Malicious hacking, takes place without the user’s permission, and is always an illegal act.

Ethical hacking occurs when companies authorise paid hackers to check out their security measures and test how robust
their computer systems are to hacking attacks.

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Malware
Malware is harmful software designed to damage, disrupt, or gain unauthorized access to computer systems and devices.

Viruses
Viruses are programs or program code that copies themselves with the intention of deleting or corrupting files, or causing
a computer to malfunction for example, by deleting .exe files, filling up the hard drive with ‘useless’ data, and so on.

Viruses need an active host program on the target computer or an operating system that has already been infected, before
they can actually run and cause harm.

Worms
Worms are a type of stand-alone malware that can self-replicate. Their intention is to spread to other computers and
corrupt whole networks. Worms may carry a payload, which can be a malicious function or code that is executed on
infected systems. This can include activities such as data theft, unauthorized access, or other types of damage.

Trojan horse
A Trojan horse is a program which is often disguised as legitimate software but with malicious instructions embedded
within it. They need to be executed by the end-user and therefore usually arrive as an email attachment or are downloaded
from an infected website. Once installed on the user’s computer, the Trojan horse will give cyber criminals access to
personal information on your computers, such as IP addresses, passwords and other personal data.

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Spyware
Spyware is software that gathers information by monitoring a user’s activities carried out on their computer. Spyware
collects a wide range of information, such as keystrokes, web browsing habits, login credentials, personal files.

Adware
Adware is a type of malware which:

1. Floods the user’s computer with unwanted advertising.

2. Redirect a user’s browser to a website that contains promotional advertising.
3. Appear in the browser’s toolbar and redirect search requests.
4. Appear in the form of pop-ups.
5. Highlight weaknesses in a user’s security defenses.
6. Hijack a browser and create its own default search requests.

Ransomware
Ransomware are programs that encrypt data on a user’s computer and ‘hold the data hostage’. The cybercriminal waits
until the ransom money is paid and, sometimes, the decryption key is then sent to the user. It has caused considerable
damage to some companies and individuals.

Phishing
Phishing occurs when a cybercriminal sends out legitimate-looking emails to users. The emails may contain links or
attachments that, when initiated, take the user to a fake website; or they may trick the user into responding with personal
data (for example, bank account details or credit/debit card details).

Prevention against Phishing

1. Approach unsolicited emails and messages with caution.
2. Double-check sender information for authenticity.
3. Avoid clicking on unknown or suspicious links.
4. Always look out for https or the green padlock symbol in the address bar
5. Use Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA).
6. Stay informed about common phishing tactics.
7. Create unique and strong passwords.
8. Regularly update your software for security patches.
9. Install reputable antivirus software.
10. Protect your Wi-Fi network with strong encryption and credentials.

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Spear phishing (targeted phishing)

Here the cybercriminal targets specific individuals or companies to gain access to sensitive financial information or
industrial espionage.

Smishing
Smishing is a type of cyberattack or scam that involves the use of text messages (SMS) or other messaging services to trick
individuals into revealing sensitive information, clicking on malicious links, or downloading malicious content. The term
"smishing" is a combination of "SMS" (Short Message Service) and "phishing," reflecting the nature of the attack.

Vishing
Vishing is a type of cyberattack or social engineering scam that occurs over the phone, specifically voice communication,
to trick individuals into revealing sensitive information, such as personal identification numbers (PINs), credit card
numbers, or login credentials. The term "vishing" is a combination of "voice" and "phishing," reflecting the nature of the
attack.

Pharming
Pharming is malicious code installed on a user’s computer or on an infected website. The code redirects the user’s browser
to a fake website without the user’s knowledge. Unlike phishing, the user doesn’t actually need to take any action for it to
be initiated. The creator of the malicious code can gain personal data, such as bank details, from the user.

DNS cache poisoning

Every time a user types in a URL, their browser contacts the DNS server; the IP address of the website will then be sent
back to their browser. However, DNS cache poisoning changes the real IP address values to those of the fake website;
consequently, the user’s computer will connect to the fake website.

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a. Data Security Issues:

1. Data Interception: Data sent over the internet can be intercepted, compromising sensitive information.
2. Data Breaches: Unauthorized access to systems can lead to data breaches, resulting in financial losses and
reputation damage.
3. Malware and Phishing: Phishing emails and malware can compromise data and system integrity.

b. Threat Explanation:

1. Data Interception Threat: Attackers can access and misuse sensitive data, leading to potential legal and
financial consequences.
2. Data Breaches Threat: Unauthorized access can result in data theft, manipulation, and ransom attacks,
causing financial and reputational harm.
3. Malware and Phishing Threat: These attacks can disrupt systems, steal data, and compromise data
integrity.

c. Mitigation Strategies:

1. Data Interception Mitigation: Use encryption, VPNs, and employee training to protect data in transit.
2. Data Breaches Mitigation: Implement access controls, regular audits, intrusion detection, and keep
software updated.
3. Malware and Phishing Mitigation: Train employees to recognize and report threats, use email filters, and
maintain up-to-date systems and security software. Have an incident response plan in place.

Refer to Page number 8 and 9

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The passwords you provided have the following issues:

1. "280290" is all numbers, lacking complexity.

2. "FiLix1234" contains a common name and common numbers.
3. "John04" uses the user's name and numbers, which is easily guessable.

1. John should create passwords that are complex, containing a mix of uppercase letters, lowercase letters,
numbers, and special characters (e.g., !, @, #, $).
2. Longer passwords are generally stronger. Aim for a minimum of 8 to 12 characters.
3. Avoid using easily guessable words, such as names, dictionary words, or common phrases.

John should say "No" to saving passwords on his device because:

1. It prevents unauthorized access if the device is lost or stolen.

2. It enhances security, especially on shared or public computers.
3. It reduces the risk of falling victim to phishing attacks.
4. It maintains data privacy and helps with account recovery.

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Social engineering
Social engineering occurs when a cybercriminal creates a social situation that can lead to a potential victim dropping
their guard. It involves the manipulation of people into breaking their normal security procedures and not following
best practice.

Levels of access
1. Public access (this refers to the data anyone from the general public can access)
2. Friends (only people identified as ‘friends’ by the owner of the data can see certain data)
3. Custom (this allows the user to further refine what data can be seen by ‘friends’ allowing them to exclude
certain content from selected people)
4. Data owner (this is the data that only the owner of the data can see).

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Anti-spyware
Anti-spyware software detects and removes spyware programs installed illegally on a user’s computer system.

The general features of anti-spyware are:

1. Detect and remove spyware already installed on a device

2. Prevent a user from downloading spyware » encrypt files to make the data more secure in case it is ‘spied’ on
3. Encryption of keyboard strokes to help remove the risk posed by the keylogging aspects of some spyware
4. Blocks access to a user’s webcam and microphone
5. Scans for signs that the user’s personal information has been stolen and warns the user if this has happened.

Difference between anti-virus and anti-spyware

Antivirus: Primarily detects and removes traditional viruses and malware.
Antispyware: Specifically detects and removes spyware, adware, and potentially unwanted programs that invade privacy
or show unwanted ads.
Authentication
Authentication is the process of verifying a user's identity. It typically involves providing an identifier (e.g., username) and
proving identity with a password or other factors like fingerprints or tokens. Strong authentication is crucial for security,
and it's used in various applications to protect data and resources.

There are three common types of authentications:

1. Password Authentication: Users provide a username or email and a secret password to prove their identity. It's
one of the most widely used forms of authentication.
2. Biometric Authentication: This method verifies identity using unique physical or behavioral characteristics like
fingerprints, facial recognition, or iris scans.
3. Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): 2FA combines two different authentication methods, such as a password and a
one-time code sent to a mobile device, for enhanced security.

Weak
Weak
Weak
Strong
weak

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a. Grant permissions as per the following

Senior Staff: Grant full access rights to the entire system, allowing them to view and manage security, flight
bookings, passenger lists, administration, and customer services.
Customers: Limit customer access to specific modules, like flight times (arrivals and departures) and duty-free
offers.
b. Use firewalls, anti-spyware and antivirus software.
Keep systems updated with security patches.
Implement email filtering and maintain backups.

Biometrics
Biometrics relies on certain unique characteristics of human beings; examples include:

• Fingerprint scans
• Retina scans
• Face recognition
• Voice recognition

Fingerprint scans
Fingerprint scans Images of fingerprints are compared against previously scanned fingerprint images stored in a database;
if they match, then a user has been correctly recognised. The system compares patterns of ‘ridges’ and ‘valleys’ that are
unique.

Advantages of Fingerprint scan

• fingerprints are unique, therefore this technique can improve security since it would be difficult to replicate a
person’s fingerprints
• other security devices (such as magnetic cards) can be lost or even stolen which makes them less effective
• it would be impossible to ‘sign in’ for somebody else since the fingerprints would match with only one person
• fingerprints can’t be misplaced; a person always has them

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Disadvantages of Fingerprint scan

1. Your fingerprint data needs strong protection to avoid it getting into the wrong hands.
2. Sometimes, fingerprint scans might not work well, especially if your fingertips are damaged
3. The machines used for fingerprint scans can be expensive to buy and set up.
4. some people may regard any biometric device as an infringement of civil liberties.
Retina scans
Retina scans use infrared light to scan the unique pattern of blood vessels in the retina (at the back of the eye); it
is a rather unpleasant technique requiring a person to sit totally still for 10 to 15 seconds while the scan takes
place.

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a.

1. Face recognition can be faster than retina scans, as individuals can be recognized as they approach the entry
point without the need for direct eye contact.

2. Since the system is triggered by a motion sensor, face recognition can be seamlessly integrated. As soon as a
person is detected by the sensor, their face can be captured and matched against the database for access
control.

b. Fingerprint scanner

c.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Hands-free operation 1. Accuracy and reliability issues
2. Enhanced accessibility 2. Limited functionality
3. Multilingual support 3. Privacy concerns

Two-step verification
Two-step verification requires two methods of authentication to verify who a user is. It is used predominantly
when a user makes an online purchase using a credit/debit card as payment method.

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Firewalls
Firewalls are the primary defence to any computer system to help protect it from hacking, malware (viruses and
spyware), phishing and pharming.

It sits between the user’s computer and an external network and filters information in and out of the computer.
This allows the user to decide whether or not to allow communication with an external source and it also warns
a user that an external source is trying to access their computer.

The main tasks carried out by a firewall include:

1. To examine the ‘traffic’ between user’s computer and a public network

2. Checks whether incoming or outgoing data meets a given set of criteria
3. if the data fails the criteria, the firewall will block the ‘traffic’ and give the user a warning issue
4. The firewall can be used to log all incoming and outgoing ‘traffic’ to allow later interrogation by the
admin
5. Criteria can be set so that the firewall prevents access to certain undesirable sites
6. It is possible for firewalls to help prevent viruses or hackers entering the user’s computer

There are certain circumstances where the firewall can’t prevent potential harmful ‘traffic’:

1. It cannot prevent individuals, on internal networks, using their own hardware devices (e.g. Modems,
smartphones) to bypass the firewall
2. Employee misconduct or carelessness cannot be controlled by firewalls (for example, control of
passwords or user accounts)
3. Users on stand-alone computers can choose to disable the firewall, leaving their computer open to
harmful ‘traffic’ from the internet.

Proxy servers
Proxy servers act as an intermediate between the user and a web server:

1. proxy servers also act as firewalls.

2. allows internet traffic to be filtered; it is possible to block access to a website if necessary
3. keeps users’ IP addresses secret which improves security
4. if the internet traffic is valid, access to the web server is allowed otherwise denied
5. it is possible to block requests from certain IP addresses
6. prevents direct access to a web server by sitting between the user and the web server
7. if an attack is launched, it hits the proxy server instead – this helps to prevent hacking, DoS, and so on
8. used to direct invalid traffic away from web servers which gives additional protection

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Secure sockets layer (SSL)

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a type of protocol – a set of rules used by computers to communicate with each
other across a network. This allows data to be sent and received securely over the internet. When a user logs
onto a website, SSL encrypts the data – only the user’s computer and the web server are able to make sense of
what is being transmitted. A user will know if SSL is being applied when they see https or the small padlock in
the status bar at the top of the screen.

SSL certificate
The term SSL certificate was mentioned in Figure 5.23. An SSL certificate is a form of digital certificate which is
used to authenticate a website. This means any communication or data exchange between browser and website
is secure provided this certificate can be authenticated.

1.

a. Two step verification f. Domain registrars

b. Proxy server g. Biometric system
c. Privacy settings h. Authentication
d. SSL i. Social engineering
e. Firewall j. Pharming

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2. Below are the steps how SSL/TLS works
a. Browsers send a request to the webserver. In this request, it specifies that it wants to use SSL/TLS for secure
communication.
b. The webserver, upon receiving the request, responds by sending its SSL/TLS certificate to the browser.
c. The browser then checks the certificate's validity, including verifying the certificate's digital signature and
ensuring it hasn't expired.
d. If the certificate is valid, the browser generates a random symmetric encryption key and encrypts it with the
server's public key (from the certificate). This ensures that only the server, possessing the corresponding
private key, can decrypt this session key.
e. The server decrypts the session key using its private key.
f. Now, both the browser and the server have the same symmetric session key, which they will use for the
remainder of the communication.
3. Here is what you should look out
a.
1. Check for suspicious or misspelled sender addresses.
2. Be cautious of emails creating panic with threats or urgent requests.
3. Phishing emails often contain language errors.
b.
1. The email id in “from” field has not a valid domain (unprofessional)
2. In the “To” field the name of the customer should display. How it is possible that a company is not aware
of the names of its customers?
3. The message has language mistakes (“we not” should be written as “we are not”.
4. The email requests an immediate resubmission of account details without offering a clear explanation
of the issue.

I. A cookie is a small piece of data stored on a user's computer by a website, often used for tracking and
remembering user preferences and activity.
II. A session cookie is temporary and expires when the user's browser is closed, while a persistent cookie
remains on the user's device for a specified duration, even after the browser is closed.
III.
• They store items in a shopping cart, allowing users to return to a website and complete a purchase
later.
• They enable ad networks to track user behavior and display personalized advertisements.
• Persistent cookies help websites collect long-term data on user interactions for analytics and
improvement.

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a. Spyware is malicious software that secretly infiltrates a computer, often through deceptive means, to
monitor and collect user data without their consent, such as browsing habits, login credentials, or personal
information, which is then typically sent to a third party for nefarious purposes.

b. One method that could be used by the online bank to reduce the impact of spyware when logging on is:

Two-Factor Authentication (2FA):

2FA adds an additional layer of security to the login process. After entering their username and password
on the web page, users are required to provide a second piece of information, such as a one-time code
generated by a mobile app, received via SMS, or obtained from a hardware token.

c. A firewall acts as a barrier between a company's internal network and external networks like the internet.
It monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic and applies predetermined security rules. This helps
protect against unauthorized access to data by blocking malicious or suspicious incoming connections and
preventing unauthorized data leaks, effectively controlling and filtering traffic to ensure only legitimate and
authorized data flows into and out of the network.
d. Proxy server and Anti-virus / anti-spyware

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4A. C E A B D

4B. When students arrive at school, they place their finger on a fingerprint scanner at the designated checkpoint,
such as the entrance. The scanner captures their fingerprint.

The captured fingerprint is compared to the stored templates in the system's database. If there's a match, the
system marks the student as present. If there's no match, it records the absence.

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5a. Refer to page number 11

5b.

Stage 1 – The victims are identified; information about victim gathered and method of attack decided

Stage 2 – At this stage the victim is being targeted (either through email, phone call, Trojan horse and so on; it all
depends on who the victim is)

Stage 3 – The attack on the victim is now executed allowing the cybercriminal to obtain the information or to cause
the disruption decided on at Stage 1

Stage 4 – When the cybercriminal has decided they have what they wanted they try to remove all traces of the
malware to cover their tracks.

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5c.

i. Digital currency is like money on the internet, and it's not controlled by any government, while traditional
currency is the physical money you use every day, like coins and paper bills, and it's managed by the government.

ii.

• By operating on a decentralized network of computers, blockchain reduces the vulnerability to hacking

attempts on centralized servers or databases.
• Data in the blockchain is encrypted and can only be accessed with private keys.
• Once data is recorded in a blockchain, it becomes part of an unchangeable historical ledger. This helps in
making it challenging for hackers to cover their tracks.
• Blockchain stores transaction data in a secure and unchangeable way, making it difficult for hackers to alter
or manipulate records.

6a.
• HTML structure refers to the organization and layout of content in a web page, including elements like
headings, paragraphs, lists, images, links, and their hierarchical arrangement.
• HTML uses html tags to define the content's structure and semantics.
6b.

HTTPS, IP address, Web server, HTML

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7a. Refer to page number 20

End of the chapter

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