NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: SED 225

COURSE TITLE: NIGERIAN INTEGRATED SCIENCE

CURRICULUM
COURSE
GUIDE

SED 225
NIGERIAN INTEGRATED SCIENCE CURRICULUM

Course Team Dr. Mrs. B. Ekpunobi (Developer/Writer) – NTI

Prof. I. M. Danjuma (Programme Leader) -
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi
Professor E. E. Achor (Co. Programme Leader) –
NTI, Abuja
Prof. T. K. Adeyanju (Course Coordinators)-NTI,
Kaduna
Prof. Joy Eyisi (Co. Course Coordinators)-
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka
Prof. T. K. Adeyanju (Programme Consultant) -
NTI, Kaduna

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

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National Open University of Nigeria
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e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by:
National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

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MAIN
MAIN
CONTENT
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGES

Module 1 Difficult Topics/Units in Nigerian

Integrated Science Curriculum ……………. 1
Unit 1 Design and Structure of the Nigerian
Integrated Science Curriculum ………………. 1
Unit 2 Review of the Nigerian Integrated Science
Curriculum…………………………………….
Unit 3 Scientific Attitudes …………………………… 10
Unit 4 Science Process Skills ………………………… 16
Unit 5 Scientific Investigations ……………………… 24
Unit 6 Innovations in Teaching Integrated Science …. 30
Unit 7 The Basic Teaching of Creativity in an
Integrated Science classroom ………………… 38
Unit 8 Consolidation ………………………………… 45

MODULE 2 Difficult Topics/Units in Nigerian

Integrated Science Curriculum II………….. 50

Unit 1 Preparation for Teaching Integrated Science

Lesson ………………………………………… 50
Unit 2 Effective Communication and Interaction in
Integrated Science Classroom ………………… 59
Unit 3 The Use of Team Teaching and Micro
Teaching in Integrated Science ……………… 64
Unit 4 Effective Management of Large Classes in
Integrated Science ……………………………. 70
Unit 5 Teaching Integrated Science in Multigrade
Class…………………………………………… 75
Unit 6 Teaching Integrated Science to Mixed
Ability Group…………………………………. 82
Unit 7 Laboratory Functions, Safety and Management
in Integrated Science …………………………. 87
Unit 8 Improvisation in the Teaching of Integrated
Science………………………………………… 94
Unit 9 Evaluation and Assessment in Integrated
Science………………………………………… 104
Unit 10 Consolidation …………………………………. 112

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MODULE 1 DIFFICULT TOPICS/UNITS IN NIGERIAN
INTEGRATED SCIENCE CURRICULUM

Unit 1 Design and Structure of the Nigerian Integrated Science

Curriculum
Unit 2 Review of the Nigerian Integrated Science Curriculum
Unit 3 Scientific Attitudes
Unit 4 Science Process Skills
Unit 5 Scientific Investigations
Unit 6 Innovations in Teaching Integrated Science
Unit 7 The Basic Teaching of Creativity in an Integrated Science
classroom
Unit 8 Consolidation

UNIT 1 THE DESIGN AND STRUCTURE OF THE

NIGERIAN INTEGRATED SCIENCE
CURRICULUM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Design, objectives and structures of integrated science
curriculum
3.2 Problems of curriculum implementation
3.3 Solutions to the problems
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Integrated Science curriculum is child centered and emphasis is laid

on learning science as a process than as a body of knowledge. To enable
integrated science to be taught logically, what you have to teach, why
you have to teach it and how you have to teach it, have all been put into
the integrated science curriculum. In this unit, you are going to learn
about the design objectives, structure and contents of the integrated
science curriculum.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe the design of integrated science curriculum;

 describe the structure of the integrated science curriculum;
 identify problems encountered in using the curriculum
 mention some solutions to the problems

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Design, Objectives and Structure of Integrated Science

Curriculum

The general objective of integrated science education is to enable pupils

observe and explore the environment using the senses of their hands.
The design of the curriculum is based on the spirality of themes which
are arranged from year 1 to year 6 and JSS I to 3.
The content was organized using the thematic approach.
Theme 1: you and environment
Theme 2: living and non – living things
Theme 3: you and technology
Theme 4: you and Energy

The spiral nature of the themes ensures that contents become gradually
difficult as learners progress from primary 1 to 6 and from JS 1 to JS 3.
Some emerging issues, such as value orientation, peace and dialogue,
human right education, family life, HIV and AIDs education and
entrepreneurial skills were infused into the relevant contents.

For each year, a main topic is given along with performance objectives,
the contents, teacher and pupils’ activities, materials and evaluation
guide.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the importance of the spiral nature of the curriculum?

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Theme F: You and Environment
Topic Performa- Contents Activities Teaching Evaluation
nce and guide
Teacher Students
objectives learning
materials
Air Students 1. definition 1. leads 1. 1. films Students to:
pollution should be of air discussion on participate 2. charts 1. define air
able to: pollution air pollution in 3. pictures pollution
1. define 2. sources and its discussion on pollution 2. name 3 air
air of air effects 2. visit a pollutants
pollution pollution 2. arrange a factory 3. list 3
2. list 3. conseque class visit to and take sources of air
some air nces of a nearby notes pollution
pollutants air factory or 3. watch 4. discuss the
3. identify pollution industry pictures effects of air
sources of 4. control 3. class on air pollutants
air measures charts, films pollution from a
pollution and pictures factory on the
4. discuss to guide class people and
the effects on the environments
of air consequences near it.
pollution and control 5. state two
5. discuss measures ways of
the controlling
different air pollution
methods of
pollution
control

Problems of Curriculum Implementation

Certain problems you may encounter in implementing the integrated

science curriculum include:

1. inadequate supply of curriculum modules

2. inability to meaningfully interprets the performance objectives
3. skipping unfamiliar content areas
4. inability to organize activity for the students
5. skipping activities where materials are not readily available
6. inability to identify sources of teaching aids
7. lack of assessment skills
8. rush to finish the scheme of work

Solutions to the problems

Some of the solutions to the problems include

1. seek assistance of more experienced teachers

2. obtain information about resources for integrated science as given
in module 2 unit 8

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3. you as the integrated science teacher must read on your own and
become familiar with the different content areas

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the problems one can encounter in implementing the curriculum and
proffer solutions

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about the design, objectives and structure of
the integrated science curriculum. You have also learnt about the
problems and challenges in implementing the curriculum and the
possible solutions.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. List the themes of the integrated science curriculum.

ii. Mention 2 problems one may encounter in implementing of the
curriculum.
iii. How would you solve the problems in questions?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Bloom, B. S. (1974). Implication of the LEA Studies for Curriculum and

Instruction. University of Chicago School Review. 2.2.1. 1 -13

Federal Ministry of Education (1981). Core Curriculum for Integrated

Science: Junior Secondary Schools

National Policy on Education (2007). Lagos: NERDC Press

Olarewaju A.O (1994). New Approaches to the Teaching of Integrated

Science. Ibadan: Alafas Nigeria Company

Oludipe, D.I (2011). Developing Nigerian Integrated Science

Curriculum. Journal of Soil Science and Environmental
Management, 2 (8), 134-145

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UNIT 2 REVIEW OF THE NIGERIAN INTEGRATED
SCIENCE CURRICULUM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Why curriculum review?
3.2 The reviewed curricula
3.3 Goals of the curricula reform
3.4 Importance of curriculum review
4.0 Summary
5.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
6.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Nigerian Integrated Science Curriculum has come a long way,

moving from Nature study through General Science to Integrated
Science through various transformations and Integrations of the science.
In the past four decades, there have been changes in the nature of
science taught in schools. Science has become more integrated and
emphasis has been on products and the processes of sciences.

In unit one, we discussed the design and structure of the curriculum. In

this unit we are going to look critically at the curriculum to see the
reviews relevant to national development in line with global and
national demand.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Give at least two reasons for curriculum review

 Mention the new nomenclature for integrated science and
primary science
 List the themes infused into the integrated science curriculum
 Mention the goals of the curriculum reform
 Mention some importance of the curriculum reform

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Why Curriculum Review?

Functional education is determined by the quality of the curriculum

content and its implementation. Functional curriculum content must be
valid, significant, learnable and consistent with social realities, useful
and reflect the interest of the learner (Offorma, 2005). Valid curriculum
content must be related to the philosophy and objectives of education.
The Nigerian Integrated Science Curriculum planners and developers
attempted to take care of the issues mentioned above, but there are
factors militating against the attainment of the goals of education.
Such factors include:

- Curriculum overload
- Overcrowded classrooms
- Poor method of instruction
- Lack of adequate laboratories and equipment

Curriculum review became important as a result of the Federal

Government of Nigeria’s decision to introduce the 9 years of Basic
Education and the need to attain the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) by the year 2015.

This is together with the need to meet the critical targets of the National
Economic Empowerment and Development Strategies (NEEDS). It then
became obvious that the existing curriculum for Junior Secondary
School should be reviewed, restructured and re-aligned to fit into a 9
year of Basic Education.

The national Council on Education in 2005 directed the Nigerian

Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) to carry out
the review, restricting and re-alignment.

The National Council on Education also approved the new curriculums

as Basic Education Curricula. Consequently a high level policy
committee on curriculum development met and produced the guidelines
for the curricula restructuring (Dauda & Udofia, 2010).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the factors militating against the attainment of the goals of
education in Nigeria.

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3.2 The Reviewed Curricula

The Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council

(NERDC) convened a meeting of experts from various fields in 2006,
who met and produced the reviewed curricula. In the re-structuring,
Basic Science and Technology replaced Integrated Science while Basic
Science replaced Primary Science.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Give the new names for Integrated Science and Primary Science.

3.3 Goals of the Curricula reform

The goals of the curricula reform were to reflect depth, appropriateness

and inter-relatedness of the curricula content in line with this goal; the
following themes were infused into the Integrated Science Curriculum to
form the Basic Science Curriculum

- Environmental Education
- Drug Abuse Education
- Population and Family Life Education
- Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) including HIV/AIDS
(FRN 2006)

Whereas Integrated science is science presented to the child such that

the child gains the concept of the fundamental unity of science, the
commonality of approach to problems of scientific nature and the
understanding of the role and function of science in everyday life and
the world in which we live (FRN 1984). Basic Science and Technology
is basic training in scientific skills required for human survival,
sustainable development and societal transformation.

3.4 Importance of Curriculum Review

The fundamental aim of Nigerian Integrated Science project is to

develop in students science process skills. Because of lack of adequate
laboratories and equipment and other factors such as poor method of
instruction, students are often not confronted with first hand concrete
experience. Ajagun (1990) has the view that the problem of Integrated
Science can be solved or minimized by changing the method of teaching
the subject. According to Yashin (1991), science processes are hardly
assessed in the Nigerian Secondary School. Most children are not
exposed to hands on process and skills acquisition in our schools as
specified by the curriculum. Hence curriculum review becomes very

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imperative to make the curriculum relevant to national development in
line with the global and national demand.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the importance of curriculum review?

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you learnt that curriculum review was necessary because
functional education is determined by the quality of the curriculum. The
curriculum review became imperative because of the Federal
Government of Nigeria’s decision to introduce the 9 years of Basic
Education. The restructuring brought about the change of Integrated
Science to Basic Science and Technology and Primary Science to Basic
Science. The new themes infused into the Integrated Science Curriculum
were Environmental Education, Drug Abuse Education, Population and
Family Life Education and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI)
including HIV/AIDS. The curriculum review will ensure that students
develop science process skills.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. What are the new themes infused into the integrated science
curriculum?
ii. Differentiate between Integrated Science and Basic Science and
Technology.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajagun, G.A (1990). Pre-Service Integrated Science Teacher Education

at ABU: A suggested Model Association Report. Kings College
London

Chukwuneke, B. & Chinwerize, A.B (2012). Reform in Integrated

Science Curriculum in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects.
Journal of Research and Development, l 4 (1).

Dauda, D.M & Udofia, N (2010). Comparing the Objectives, Themes

and Sub- Themes of the Integrated and Basic Science Curriculum
of the Junior Secondary School (JSS). Journal of the Science
Teachers Association of Nigeria, 45(1&2), 36-46.

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Federal Republic of Nigeria (1984). National Policy on Education.
Lagos: NERDC Press

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2006) National Policy on Education.

Lagos: NERDC Press

Offorma, G.C. (2005). Curricula for wealth creation. A Paper Presented

at the Seminar of the World Council for Curriculum and
Instruction. Kano, October 25th

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UNIT 3 SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Scientific attitude.
3.2 Attributes of scientific attitude
3.3 Importance of scientific attitude in the classroom
3.4 Development of scientific attitude in student using
activity based approach
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Cognitive or intellectual skills are not only skills that bring about
changes in education. Changes can also be achieved through affective
orientations. The awareness of the role of affective variables in shaping
our society has led in recent times to the practice of specifying the
desirable attitudes and interests to be achieved through planned
educational programmes. The nature of attitude implies that it is, apart
from intellectual preparedness, the basis of motivation in learning. In
planning curriculum for children preferred attitudes and evaluation of
attitudes must be included.

According to Ebel (1972), feeling is as real and as important a part of

our human nature as much as knowing. How a person feels is almost
always more important to him than what he knows; how he behaves is
almost always more important to others than what he knows. There is,
therefore, much to measure attitudes and interests as there is to assess
cognitive outcomes of education. In this unit, we are going to discuss the
attitudes that scientists have that enable them to carry out scientific
investigations and researches

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to

 define scientific attitude,

 mention the attributes of scientific attribute and
 describe the attributes

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Scientific Attitude.

There are several definitions of scientific attitude.

Moore & Sutman (1970) defined Scientific Attitude as an opinion or
position taken with respect to a psychological object in the field of
science. Billeh & Zakhariades (1975) defined Scientific Attitude by six
categories, rationality, curiosity, open-mindedness, aversion to
superstition, objectivity, intellectual honesty, and suspended judgment.
These categories contain both intellectual and emotional or affective
element proposed by Moore & Sutman but deal more directly with
dispositions that facilitate an understanding and interpretation of method
as well as knowledge of science as distinct from dispositions toward
issues concerning science.

Kozlow & Nay (1976) proposed 8 attitudes, critical mindedness,

suspended judgment, respect for evidence, honesty, objectivity
willingness to change opinion open mindedness and questioning
attitude. A scientific attitude is an approach to investigations that benefit
from certain traits which are learned attitudes or categories as we saw
above.
Gauld and Hukins (2002) in their own definition said that scientific
attitudes are a composite of a number of mental habits, or tendencies to
react consistently in certain ways to a novel or problematic situation.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

With many relevant examples, explain the concept of attitude.

3.2 Attributes of Scientific Attitude

Scientific attitude has divisions and subdivisions which can be referred

to as attributes. Some people also refer to them as categories. Both
attributes and categories mean the something. There are attitudes that
scientists always display when carrying out scientific investigations.
These attributes can be five, eight, ten or even twenty depending on who
is listing them. Billeh & Zakhariades (1976) identified five categories
which are: rationality, curiosity, open mindedness, objectivity and
aversion to superstition

Kozlow & Nay (1976) proposed eight attributes: critical mindedness,

suspended judgment, and respect for evidence, honesty, and objectivity,
willingness to change opinion, open mindedness and questioning

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attitude. Pudlao (2012) listed ten scientific attitudes as belief, curiosity,
objectivity, skepticism, open mindedness, creativity, risk taking,
honesty, humility and responsibility. You will discover that some of the
attributes are common to all the scientists and some are subsumed under
others. They are all attributes that make up scientific attitude.

We will now learn the explanations of the different attributes.

1. Belief: A scientist believes that everything that happens in this

world has a cause or reason. A scientist rejects superstitious
beliefs and prefers scientific explanations
2. Curiosity: A scientist shows interest and pays particular attention
to objects or events. He asks questions and seeks answers.
3. Objectivity: A scientist is objective if he does not allow his
feelings and biases to influence his recording of observations,
interpretation of data and formulation of conclusions.
4. Skepticism (Critical Mindedness): A scientist bases suggestions
and conclusions on evidence. When in doubt, he questions the
veracity of a statement in relation to the pieces of evidence
presented.
5. Open-Mindedness: A Scientist listens and respects the ideas of
others. He accepts criticism and changes his mind if reliable
evidence contradicts his belief.
6. Creativity (Inventiveness): A scientist can generate new and
original ideas
7. Risk taking: A Scientist expresses his opinions and tries new
ideas even at the risk of failure or criticism.
8. Intellectual Honesty: A scientist gives a truthful report of
observations. He does not withhold important information, just to
please himself or others.
9. Humility: A scientist is humble when he admits that he is not
free from committing errors. He recognizes that there may be
better ideas and realizes that there are individuals whom he may
have to consult to arrive at correct observations and conclusions.
10. Responsibility: A scientist actively participates in a task and also
dutifully performs tasks assigned to him.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List any 10 attributes that constitute scientific attitude and explain each
briefly.

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Over the years a number of other attributes have been discovered to
make up scientific attitude. You will discover that they are divisions or
subsets of the original attributes we have described above
Such attributes are:

1. Empiricism: A scientist prefers to look and see, you do not argue

whether it is raining outside, you just stick a hand out of the
window.
2. Determinism: “cause and effect’’ underlie everything. An action
causes a reaction and effects do not occur without causes, a belief
that problems have solutions and that major problems have been
tackled in the past.
3. Parsimony: Prefer the simple to the complex
4. Scientific manipulation: Any idea must usually be confirmed by
work
5. Skepticism: Nearly all statement, make assumptions of prior
conditions. A scientist must often go back and determine if all the
assumptions made are true to how the world operates
6. Precision: Scientists are very exact and picky
7. Respect for Paradigms: A paradigm is our overall
understanding about how the world works. Does a concept fit
with our overall understanding or does it fail to weave in with our
broad knowledge of the world.
8. A respect for power of theoretical structure: No sciencetific
facts are accumulated at random
9. Willingness to change Opinion: Always ready to acknowledge
when wrong
10. Loyalty to reality: Scientists are always concerned about reality
11. Aversion to superstition and automatic preference for
scientific explanation: a Scientist rejects superstition and prefers
paradigms.
12. A thirst for knowledge, and intellectual drive: Scientists are
addicted puzzle solvers.
13. Suspended judgment: A scientist tries hard not to form an
opinion on a given issue until he has investigated it.
14. Awareness of assumptions: a good scientist starts by defining
terms and making all assumptions very clear
15. Ability to separate fundamental concepts from the irrelevant or
unimportant
16. Respect for quantification and appreciation of mathematics as a
language of science
17. An appreciation of probability and statistics: People who have
little experience with statistics will have difficulty understanding
the concept of an event occurring by chance.

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18. And understanding that all knowledge has tolerance limits:
There is no absolute certainty
19. Empathy for the human condition: there is a value system in
science and it is based on human being the only organisms that
can imagine things that are not triggered by stimuli present at the
immediate time in their environment (Culled from The Kansas
School of Naturalist Vol. 35, No 4, April 1989
www.ksu.edu/biology/modern attitudes.html).

3.3 Importance of Scientific Attitude in the Classroom

Attitude has been viewed as the disposition to respond positively or

negatively toward an object or phenomena. One of the important goals
of science teaching is to promote positive attitudes towards science.
Students with positive feelings towards science achieve more and also
more likely to incorporate science into their daily lives when they
appreciate its importance (Simpson & Anderson (1981). Creat
achievement in both the cognitive and psychomotor domains to a large
extent depends on the affective domain; Canin & Sund (1975) posited
that the degree to which scientific attitudes are manifested by the
scientist as he carries out his investigation determines how well he will
be able to utilize the processes to make significant discoveries.

3.4 Development of Scientific Attitude in Students Using

Activity Based Approach

To develop scientific attitude in students, they should be provided with

hands on experiences. (Simpson & Anderson, 1981; Nzeiri 2008;
Nwosu, 2008). Activity based approaches provide students with hands
on experiences. Any teaching strategy in which students are involved in
activities be it in exercise, laboratory work or lets find out
exercises/activities is activity based approach.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are activity based approaches? Cite and explain two relevant
examples.

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that scientific attitudes are a composite of a

number of mental habits, or tendencies to react consistently in certain
ways to a novel or problematic situation. You learnt that scientific
attitudes include belief, curiosity, objectivity skepticism, open
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mindedness, creativity, risk taking, honesty, humility, and responsibility.
These attributes were also described. You learnt also about the
importance of scientific attitudes in the classroom and the method to be
used in developing scientific attitude in students.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Describe the ten attributes of scientific Attitude

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akporehwe, J N & Onwioduokit, J. (2014) Enhancing Scientific

Attitudes Through Activity Based Approaches www.academic.edu

Billeh, V.Y & Zakariades GA (1975) “The Development and

Application of a Scale for Measuring Scientific Attitudes”
Science Education No 52, Vol 2 p155

Carin, A A & Sund, R B (1975) Teaching Modern Science Ohio:

Charles Menu Publishing Co

Ebel R.L (1972) Essential of Educational Measurement Engel wood

Cliff: Prentice – Hall Inc.

Gauld CF & Aukins A A (2002) What is Scientific Attitude

http://en.wikipedia-org/wiki/science education.

Kozlow M.J and May M.A “An Approach to measuring Scientific

Attitude” Science Education 60 (2) pp 147 – 172

Nzewi U.M (2008) Practical Approach to Effective Teaching of

Ecological Concepts for Sustainable Development: A keynote
address presented at the opening of the Biology panel of the
Science Teachers Association of Nigeria workshop at Enugu

Nwosu A A (2008) Practical Approach to the teaching of ecological

concepts for sustainable development: Science Teachers
Association of Nigeria. Biology Panel Series, 20-29

Pudlao John (2012) 10 Scientific Attitudes. Prezi.com

Simpson and Anderson, ND (1981), Science students and schools: A

guide for the middle and secondary school teachers. New York:
John Willy and Sons.

15
UNIT 4 SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Science process skills
3.2 Types of process skills
3.2.1 Basic Science process skills
3.2.2 Integrated Science process skills
3.3 Learning the basic science process skills
3.4 Learning Integrated Science process skills
3.5 Teaching science process skills
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Many science educators have written about process skills or intellectual
skills. Among these, the views of Gagne (1968) as cited in (Ekpunobi,
(2007) have been most influential. In his theory of learning structure,
learning hierarchy and learning pre-requisite, he submitted that pre-
requisite knowledge for learning the concepts and principles in the
hierarchy can be obtained only if the students have acquired contain
underlying capabilities. These capabilities he called intellectual skills or
science processes which are needed by students to practice and
understand science.

Science A Process Approach (SAPA), the Gagne influenced American

Association for the Advancement of science (AAAS) curriculum
identified sixteen of such skills that the curriculum aimed to develop in
pupils exposed to it. In this unit we are going to study the process skills
and how it is used in the integrated science classroom.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain what science process skills are;

 mention the two levels of science process skills;
 list the basic process skills;
 list the integrated process skills;
 describe at least five of science process skills;

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Science Process Skills

Science process skills are defined as a set of broadly transferable

abilities and reflective of the behaviors of scientists. According to
Nwosu & Okeke (1995), science process skills are the skills and
strategies both mental and physical that scientists use to carry out the
processes of doing science. The processes are underlying capabilities
which are needed to practice and understand science. The scientific
method, scientific thinking and critical thinking have been the terms
used at various times to describe these science skills. Today the term
“Science Process Skills” is commonly used.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the science process skills?

3.2 Types of Process skills

SAPA grouped the process skills into two types:

1. Basic process skills
2. Integrated Process skills

3.2.1 Basic Science Process skills

The basic science process skills provide a foundation for learning the
more complex integrated skills.
These skills are listed and described below:

1. Observing: using the senses to gather information about an object or

event. Observing is the fundamental science process skill. We
observe objects and events, using the five senses, and this is how we
learn about the world around us. The ability to make good
observation is essential to the development of the other science
process skills. The simplest observations, made using only the
senses, are qualitative Observations. For example, the ball is blue,
the leaf is green in colour. Observations that involve a number or
quantity are called quantitative observations. Example includes the
leaves are clustered in one group, the mass of one leaf is five grains.
Quantitative observations give more precise information than our
senses alone.

17
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative observations

1) Communicating: using words or graphic symbols to describe an

action, object or event. Communication goes hand in hand with
observation. Students have to communicate in order to share their
observation with someone else. To communicate effectively one
must use referent ie. References to items that the other person is
already familiar with. Example, we can use sky blue, grass green
or lemon yellow to describe shades of blue, green and yellow.
Another example of communication is describing the change in
height of a child over time in writing or through a graph.
2) Measuring: using both standard and non standard measures or
estimate to describe the dimension of an object or event.
Measuring is just a special case of observing and communicating.
When we measure, we compare the property to a defined referent
called a unit. A measurement statement contains two parts, a
number to tell us how much or how many, and a name for the
unit to tell us how much of what. The use of the number makes
measurement a quantitative observation.
Example: using a meter stick to measure the length of a chair in
centimeters.
3) Classifying: Grouping or ordering objects or events into criteria.
Students are expected to be able to sort objects into groups based
on their observation. Grouping objects or events is a way of
imposing order based on similarities, differences and
interrelationships. Classifying is an important step towards a
better understanding of the different objects and events in the
world.

There are several methods of classification

- Several ordering: objects are placed into rank order based on

some property. Example, students can be serial order according to
height
- Binary classification: A set of objects is simply divided into two
subsets. For example animals can be divided into those with
backbones and those without backbones.
- Multistage Classification: This is constructed by performing
consecutive binary classification on a set of objects and then on
each of the ensuring subsets. This results in a classification
system consisting of layers or stages. Example: classification of
the animal and plant kingdoms.

18
2. Inferring: Making an “educated guess” about an object or event
based on previously gathered data or information. Inferences are
explanations or interpretations that follow from observations. For
example, it is an observation to say a frog released a white
poisonous liquid from its skin, and it is an inference to state, the
frog released a white poisonous liquid from its skin, because it is
upset and trying to defend itself. When we are able to make
inferences and interpret and explain events around us, we have a
better appreciation of the environment around us. Scientists
hypothesize about why events happen. What they do are based on
inferences regarding investigations.
3. Predicting: Stating the outcome of a future event based on a
pattern of evidence, in prediction, we are forecasting future
observations. The ability to make predications about future events
allows us to successfully interact with the environment around us.
Prediction is based on both good observation and inferences
made about observed events. Like inferences, predictions are
based on both what we observe and also our past experience, the
mental models we have built up from those experiences.
Predictions are not just guesses, they are based on our inferences
or hypotheses, if the prediction turns out to be correct then we
have greater confidence in our inference/hypothesis. This is the
basis of the scientific process used by scientists who are asking
and answering questions by integrating together the six basic
science process skills.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Give examples of process skills of inferring, measuring and classifyin

3.2.2 Integrated Science Process Skills

The integrated science process skills are more complex skills than the
basic skills. These skills are listed and described below:

1. Controlling Variables: being able to identify variables that can

affect an experimental outcome, keeping most constant, while
manipulating only the independent variable.
Example: realizing through past experiences that amount of light and
water need to be controlled when testing to see how the addition
of organic matter affects the growth of maize.
2. Defining Operationally: stating how to measure a variable in an
experiment.
Example: stating that maize growth will be measured in centimeter per
week.

19
3. Formulating hypotheses: stating the expected outcome of an
experiment.
Example: the greater the amount of organic matter added to the
soil, the greater the maize growth.
4. Interpreting data: Organizing data and drawing conclusions
from it. Example: recording data from the experiment on maize
growth in a data table and forming a conclusion which relates
trends in the data to variables.
5. Experimenting: being able to conduct an experiment, including
asking appropriate question, stating a hypothesis, identifying and
controlling variables, operationally defining those variables,
designing a fair experiment, conducting the experiment and
interpreting the results of the experiment. Example: the entire
process of conducting the experiment on the effect of organic
matter on the growth of maize plant.
6. Formulating models: creating a mental or physical model of a
process or event.
Example: The model of how the processes of evaporation and
condensation interrelate in the water cycle.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the science process skills of defining operationally and

formulating models

3.3 Learning the Basic Science Process Skills

Numerous research projects have acquisition of basic process skills. For

example, Padilla, Cronin & Twiest (1985) found that teaching increases
levels of skill performance. It can be concluded that basic skills can be
taught and that when learned, can be readily transferred to new
situations (Tomera 1974). Studies focusing on the Science Curriculum
Improvement Study (SCIS) and SAPA have indicated that elementary
school students if taught process skills abilities, not only learn to use
these processes but also retain them for future use. Hence students learn
the basic skills better if they are considered an important object of
instruction and if proven teaching methods are used.

3.4 Learning Integrated Science Process Skills

Several studies have investigated the learning of integrated science

process skills. Padilla, Okey & Garrard (1984) after series of
experiments had results which indicated that the more complex process
skills cannot be learned within a short period but over a long period of
time.

20
3.5 Teaching Science Process Skills

Teaching strategies which proved effective in the teaching of process

skills were:

1. Applying a set of specific clues for predicting.

2. Using activities and pencil and paper simulations to teach
graphing and
3. Using a combination of explaining, practice with objects,
discussions and feedback with observing.

In teaching process skills, teachers should select curricula which

emphasize science process skills. Teachers also need to be patient
especially with students that have difficulties in acquiring process skills.
This is because there is need to have developed formal thinking patterns
to successfully experiment.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Mention the teaching strategies which proved effective in the teaching

of process skills.

3.6 Importance of Science Process Skills

Science Process Skills form the foundation for scientific methods. Since
science is about asking questions and finding answers, science process
skills are the same skills that we all use in our daily lives as we try to
answer everyday questions.

When we teach our students to use process skills, we are also teaching
them skills in every area of their lives. Science process skills are
integrated together when scientists design and carry out experiments or
in everyday life when we all carry out experiments. All the process skills
are important individually as well as when they are integrated together.
Successfully integrating the science process skills with classroom
lessons and field investigations will make the learning experiences
richer and more meaningful for students. Students will also be learning
the skills of science as well as science content. The students will be
actively engaged with the science they are learning and thus reach a
deeper understanding of the content. Active engagement with science
will likely make students to become more interested and have more
positive attitude towards science.

21
4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you learnt that:

 Science Process Skills are the skills and strategies that scientists
use to carry out the processes of doing science.
 There are two type of process skills, basic process skills or low
order skills and integrated skills or higher order skills.
 Basic process skills are observing, inferring, measuring,
communicating, classifying and predicting
 Integrated process skills are controlling variables, defining
operationally, formulating hypotheses, interpreting data,
experimenting and formulating models.
 Students when taught basic process skills, not only learn them,
they also retain them for future use
 Integrated science process skills which are more complex cannot
be learned within a short period but over a long period of time.
 Teachers should always select curricula which emphasis process
skills, in teaching process skills.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Why are science process skills necessary for successful scientific work?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Baxter, L.M. & Kurtz M.J (2001) “When a Hypothesis Is not an

Educated Guess”. Science and Children, 38(7), 18 – 20

Chekovich, B.H & Sterling D.R (2001) “Oh Say can You See?” Science
and Children 38(4), 32-35

Ekpunobi, E.N (2007). “The Level of Acquisition of Selected Science

Process Skills among NTI NCE DIS Integrated Science Students
in North Central Nigeria”. An unpublished Ph.D Thesis.
University of Abuja.

Gagne R.M (1968) “Learning Hierarchies” Educational Psychology

1(6), 1–9

Nwosu A.A & Okeke, E.A.C (1995) “The Effect of Teachers

Sensitization of Students and Acquisition of Science Process

22
Skills”. Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria
30(1&2), 39-45

Padilla, M, Cronin L & Twiest, M. (1985) “The Development and

Validation of the Test of Basic Process Skills”. Paper Presented
at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research
in Science Teaching French Lick IN.

Padilla M (1990) “The Science Process Skills” Research Matters – to

the Science http://www.Unr.Edu/home.

Rezba, R.J (1999) “Teaching and Learning the Basic Science Skills”
Video Tape Series Richmond Office of Elementary and Middle
School Instructional Services, Virginia Department of Education.

Tomera, A (1974) “Transfer and Retention of Transfer of the Science

Processes of Observation and Comparison in Junior High School
Students” Science Education 58, 195 – 203.

23
UNIT 5 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Scientific investigation
3.2 Patterns of scientific investigation
3.2.1 Deductive science reasoning
3.2.2 Inductive science reasoning
3.3 Steps for scientific investigation
3.3.1 Examples of investigation
3.4 Communicating scientific investigation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Science as we all know is the act of doing or learning activities through

observations and experimentation that provide way for further
investigation of knowledge generated through the observations and
experimentations. It is an action undertaken by human beings to
consider and find explanation for materials and force of nature.
Individual scientists approache scientific problems in different ways, but
there are certain steps that may be common to them. These steps,
according to Abdullahi (1982), are regarded as scientific methods and
are identified below:

1. The recognition of a problem

2. The collection of relevant information
3. The formulation of a working hypothesis
4. The making of deductions from the hypothesis
5. The testing of actual experimentation of deductions
6. Depending on the outcome or results of the experiment, the
working hypothesis is accepted, modified or rejected. Scientific
investigation is carried out through the scientific method.

Therefore, it implies that everybody engaged in scientific investigation

of any sort will perform all these operations in varying order.

In this unit, we are going to discuss scientific investigation and learn

how scientists carry out investigation.

24
2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define scientific investigation;

 describe patterns of scientific investigation;
 mention steps for scientific investigation;
 communicate scientific investigation

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Scientific Investigation

Scientific investigation is the way in which scientists and researchers

use a systematic approach to answer questions about the world around
us. It is basically the study of a question using the scientific method. It
includes a question or a problem, some research to learn about your
questions or problem, a prediction or hypothesis, an experiment, testing
your hypothesis, organizing data and finally a conclusion.

Scientific investigation follows methodical procedures to produce

reliable experimental evidence. In scientific investigation, a hypothesis
is normally used. This hypothesis is a question with inductive reasoning
asked in a way to gather data about the nature of things in a controlled
manner. The hypothesis propose a test, experiment is carried out and
data are produced that will provide justification to verify or falsify the
original hypothesis.

In carrying out investigation, the scientist uses a combination of the

science process skills. In unit 4, we discussed the science process skills;
you may go back and study them again to refresh your memory. To be
termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on empirical and
measurable evidence, subject to specific principles of reasoning.

There is no single scientific techniques to finding solutions to problems,

there are thousands and one scientific problems, but whatever technique
is adopted, it should be guided or controlled by objectivity which is a
characteristic of scientific disciplines.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is scientific investigation?

25
3.2 Patterns of Scientific Investigation

Science philosophers have two views about the nature of science which
are used to describe scientific activities. The two views are
1. Deductive science reasoning.
2. Inductive science reasoning.

3.2.1 Deductive Science Reasoning,

This reasoning views science as speculative human activities which are

subject to observation, critical thinking, collative imagination and
intuition according to Hempel (1966), in deductive inference, conclusion
is drawn from the premises. For example: All living things feed
(general law) All animals are living things (statement of similar feed
condition). Therefore all animals feed (conclusion). Hence deductive
reasoning begins from general observation or general law to specific or
conclusion.

3.2.2 Inductive Science Reasoning

This reasoning conceives science as a critical and analytical activity

where concrete evidence precedes a scientific generalization. Inductive
reasoning is therefore generalization to observation. Thus in an
inductive inference the conclusion follows from premises with
probability or uncertainty.
For example:

The probability for children who drink untreated dirty water to

catch typhoid is high. Eze drank untreated dirty water (makes
high probable), Eze caught typhoid.

In inductive reasoning, unlike deductive reasoning, the premise

may be correct but the conclusion may be wrong. Therefore
inductive science works on past experiences. According to
Medewar (1969) in Ogunniyi (1986), the theory underlying
induction is based on the following reasons.

1. It assumes complete and unbiased set of observations

2. It fails to distinguish between the processes of discovery and
proving of general preposition as if one act of mind was sufficient
for both, when in fact (and particularly in science) they are totally
separate acts of mind.
3. It assumes that an orderly generalization crystallizes out of a set
of a disorderly set of “unprejudiced” observations. Therefore
some ideas, hypothesis or theories support what scientists claim
relevant or irrelevant.

26
3.3 Steps for Scientific Investigation
There are several phases to a good scientific investigation. These may
vary a little, but they generally include:

Step 1: Observe something of interest

Step 2: Formulate a question that can be answered in a measurable
way
Step 3: Formulate a hypothesis that answers the question based on
experience or research
Step 4: Set up an experiment from which data can be gathered to
test the hypothesis
Step 5: Analyze the data, draw conclusions and confirm or modify
the hypothesis

3.3.1 Example of Steps of Scientific Investigation

1. Observation: The grass is green

2. Question: Why is the grass green?
3. Hypothesis: Chlorophyll located in plant cells, causes grass to be
green.

Experiment: An experiment is carried out to remove the chlorophyll

from the leaves of a test plant. If all chlorophyll is removed from the
leaves of a test plant, and the plant remains green, then the hypothesis
will be proved false by the data. However if chlorophyll is removed
from the leaves of the test plant and the plant losses its green colour, the
hypothesis will be supported by the data.

The nature of today’s research is to prove a hypothesis false.

Experiments are designed to falsify the hypothesis by yielding evidence
(data) to disprove it if evidence (data) that is gathered does support the
hypothesis, the hypothesis is accepted on trial basis. It is never accepted
as absolute truth. This is because future investigations may falsify the
hypothesis.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the steps of scientific investigation

3.4 Communicating Scientific Investigations

Once scientists arrive at conclusions they need to communicate their

findings to others. In most cases, they do so in scientific journals in a
standard scientific paper format. Components of a scientific paper
27
include abstract, introduction, materials, results, discussion, and
references.

1. Abstract: The abstract summarize the questions being

investigated in the paper, the methods used in the experiment, the
results and the conclusion drawn.
2. Introduction: Here you introduce the problems and questions
you addressed in conducting your experiment.
3. Materials: Here you list all major items used to carry out your
experiment, how did you set up your experiment, how many
experiment groups did you have? How did you measure the effect
you studied
4. Results: This is where you show the data that you collected.
Results are usually shown in tables or graphs (figures). All
figures that are presented must have a caption or title placed
above it that describes its contents. Tables and figures are
numbered consecutively throughout a scientific paper.
5. Discussion: you should critically examine your results and
interpret the trends in the data. In your discussion you will try to
ask questions such as, do your results support your hypothesis?
Were your questions answered? What new questions come to
mind after examining the results
6. Reference: Here you include published works that you cited in
your paper. Use the standard format given in scientific writing e.g
APA

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that scientific investigation is the way scientists
answer questions about the world around us using the scientific method.
You equally learnt that the patterns of scientific investigation are
deductive science reasoning and inductive science reasoning.

In carrying out scientific investigations, the steps of observation,

questioning, hypothesis, experimentation, analysis and conclusion are
followed. Scientific investigations are communicated through scientific
paper.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. List the steps involved in scientific investigation

ii. Describe how you can communicate scientific investigation

28
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria Ilorin: Atoto Press

Hempel, C. G. (1966). Philosophy of Natural Science: Engle wood

cliffs: Prentice Hail Inc

Medewar, P.B. (1969). “The Art of the Solube” Readings in Science

Education (Ed) Jenkins and White Field, RUK: McGraw Hill
Book Company 12-16

Ogunniyi, M.B. (1986) Teaching Science in Africa: Ibadan: Salem

Media Nig Ltd

Tonningen, S.V (2003) “What is Scientific Investigation? Definition,

Steps and Examples” education-portal.com/course/healthcourse.
htm# lesson

29
UNIT 6 INNOVATIONS IN TEACHING INTEGRATED
SCIENCE
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Innovation in Integrated Science teaching
3.1.1 Innovations in curriculum structure
3.1.2 Innovations in Integrated Science methodology
3.1.2.1 The inquiry/problem solving approach
3.1.2.2 The process approach
3.1.2.3 The use of ICT in teaching
3.1.2.4 Field trip
3.1.2.5 Questioning technique
3.1.3 Innovations in the teaching and learning
environment
3.1.4 Innovations in Instructional Resources Usage
3.1.5 Innovations in Assessment of Learning outcomes
3.2 Implications of innovations to Teaching and Learning of
Integrated Science
3.3 The role of the Science Teacher in implementing
innovations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Innovations refer to changes or new ways of doing things. The concept

of innovation is relative, in that what is innovative to one person or
group of persons may be common place or old to another person. In the
context of teaching and learning integrated science, innovation refer to
creative ways which the learner is transformed from a passive receiver
of knowledge into an active creator of the process in which he learns
(Nacino – Brown, Oke & Brown, 1982).

Innovations in Integrated Science embrace such area as

- Innovations in curriculum structure
- Innovations in methodology
- Innovations in the teaching and learning environment
- Innovations in instructional material usage
- Innovations in the assessment of learning outcomes

30
There are considerable overlaps in the content of these areas because
they are integral parts of the whole teaching and learning processes in
science. In this unit, we are going to learn about the different
innovations in the area of teaching and learning as listed above and
discuss the innovations like the use of ICT in teaching science, the use
of field trips and finally questioning techniques in the teaching of
integrated science.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the concept of innovation;

 list the different aspects of innovation in Integrated Science;
 describe some of the aspects of innovation in Integrated Science;

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Innovations in Integrated

According to Naccino – Brown, Oke & Brown, (1982), innovations refer

to creative ways which the learner is transformed from a passive
receiver of knowledge into an active creator of the process in which he
learns. Aspects of innovations in Integrated Science include innovations
in curriculum studies, innovations in methodology, innovations in the
teaching and learning environment, innovations in instructional material
usage, and innovations in assessment of learning outcomes.

3.1.1 Innovations in Curriculum Studies

Many changes have taken place in the area of curriculum development

in science education. Oguniyi (1986), said that the process of curriculum
development is perhaps the most remarkable change that has taken place
in the educational system of many African countries.

The history of science teaching started with the teaching of nature study
in schools. This was followed by several projects especially the ones
carried out in Nigeria by the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria,
which greatly influenced the curriculum.

A significant innovation in the curriculum of integrated science was the

evolution of the National Policy on Education. Within the context of the
National policy on Education a unifying general objectives for the
teaching of science in Nigerian schools were derived. These include
providing opportunity to manipulate and experiment with suitable
31
equipment and resources in a situation encouraging social interaction.
The Integrated Science Curriculum has been structured to become more
relevant to the needs of the child and the society in which it is intended

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the general objective for the teaching of Integrated Science?

3.1.2 Innovations in Integrated Science Methodology

The contributions of psychologists such as Jean Piaget (Theory of

Cognitive Development), Robert Gagne (Learning Hierarchies), Jerome
Bruner (Learning by Discovery) David Ausubel (Meaning Verbal
Learning) have greatly increased our knowledge of children, their
cognitive development and learning styles. These and our knowledge of
philosophy of science have made it possible for us to develop new
methods and approaches. These methods and approaches include

- The inquiry/problem solving approach

- The process approach

3.1.2.1 The inquiry/problem solving approach

In this approach children, inquire into a problem with a view to finding

answers to problems or reasons why the problem exist.
- The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
teaching
- Field trips
- Questioning technique
The current interest in science teaching emphasizes that this approach be
used in teaching science.
The inquiry/problem solving approach may take the following forms
- Guided inquiry
- Free inquiry
- Modified free inquiry
- Inquiry role approach
In guided inquiry the teacher poses a problem and gives advice on how
students would get to solve the problems. The free inquiry requires the
students themselves to formulate the problems and devise strategies to
solve them. The modified free inquiry approach allows the teacher to
provide the problems, and the students are encouraged to tackle the
problems on their own while the teacher act as a guide. The inquiry –
Role Approach, according to Olarinoye (1989), involves the use of small
groups with assignment of roles to every individual in the group.

32
3.1.2.2 The Process Approach

This approach involves the use of the science process skills in solving
problems which students come across. As an innovation, this method
allows students to perform mental processes such as observing
communicating classifying, measuring, forming hypothesis analyzing
which leads to discovery and generalization. We have studied the
process skills more in unit 4 of this module.

3.1.2.3 The use of Information and Communication Technology

(ICT) in teaching.
Information and Communication Technology according to Sambo
(2002), are a part of the globalizing agent used in turning the world into
a “global village”. It refers to technologies used in collecting, storing,
editing, and passing information in various forms. This includes the use
of communication satellite, radio, television, telephones, video, tape
recorders, compact discs, floppy disks and computers.
The computer can be used as:

i. An interactive teaching tool; performing and directing activities.

ii. A laboratory tool for performing a range of teaching and training
activities including reasoning and analysis of data and
iii. ICT helps to generate, recall and compare information.
iv. The computer is used to carry out simulations and modeling in
science practicals.
ICT prepares students to learn in a world increasingly rich in
information.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the technologies used in collecting, storing, editing, and passing

information.

3.1.2.4 Field Trip

Field trip provides opportunity for outdoor visits where learning

experiences are acquired. As a science teacher, this could be used to
reinforce and supplement whatever is being taught in the classroom.
Students can be taken to museums, industries, automobile workshops,
craft workshops, electrical workshops, and farms. Field trip reinforces
classroom lessons, broadens the students’ experiences by bridging the
gap between science inside and outside the laboratory, advances
cognitive abilities of the students and improves students attitude to
learning science. Field trips also help students to develop process skills
and their application in solving problems and finally, it promotes

33
socialization skills among students and between students and the people
outside the school.

3.1.2.5 Questioning Techniques

It is very important the way you the science teacher control questions in
your classroom. Questions can come up at anytime during the lesson to
give directions, stimulate interest and be sure the students are being
carried along. Questions should be of various levels and the teacher
needs to acquire proper techniques to ask appropriate questions. There
are two types of questions that can be used by the science teacher.

i. The Low – cognitive order questions: these are those that allow
the students to recall
ii. Higher-order questions allow students to apply, analyse, synthesis
and even questions what is being asked.

Each science lessons must then focus more on the highest level
questions which behavioral objective is directed to draw, design,
distinguish, relate, discuss, compare and justify.

3.1.3 Innovations in the Teaching and Learning Environment

The school learning environment is critical because it provides

opportunities for cognitive and psychosocial development of the child.
Studies have shown that students’ outcomes such as subject matter
achievement might be improved by creating classroom environment that
are more conducive to learning (Pierce, 1994).

The learning environment is the laboratory. According to Ango (1990),

laboratories provide students with experiences that are consistent with
the goals of scientific literacy. What passed for a laboratory is the
science corner or nature corner which was unplanned, unsystematic and
deficient of work areas for individual pupils or groups.

The laboratory setting is an innovative strategy that creates opportunity

for the development of skills in inquiry/problem solving and discovery
in science learning.
Modern science teaching and learning emphasise active participation of
the learners in the learning process through series of activities within the
confines of the laboratory and outside of it using the immediate and
remote environment.

34
3.1.4 Innovations in Instructional Resources Usage

In the early days, nature study lessons were taught with little or no
instructional materials. Today, science teaching makes use of science
laboratories with standard science equipment. Improvisation and
substitute of instructional materials as you will learn in unit 8 of module
2, are encouraged where the original is absent or inadequate.
Video tape cameras, close circuit television, overhead projectors,
simulation and computers are all innovations used in the teaching of
integrated science.

Innovations in the area of text books include the publication of many

integrated science textbooks by Nigerian authors, apart from textbooks,
there are workbooks and teachers guide. Some of the textbooks are
written in the local language of the community. There are also Open
Educational Resources (OERs) that science teachers and students can
assess on-line and use.

3.1.5 Innovations in Assessment of Learning Outcomes

A remarkable innovation that has taken place in assessment in integrated

science is Continuous Assessment. Continuous Assessment has
substituted the old traditional method where students’ performance was
measured by a single end of course National Certificate.

As an innovation the practices of Continuous Assessment came out of

the provisions of the National Policy on Education (FRN 1981) which
directs that “Progress along the educational cycle will be based on
Continuous overall guidance – oriented assessment by teachers and head
teachers”. Continuous Assessment takes account of the entire learner’s
performance in a given period of time in the school. Continuous
Assessment allows the full participation of the learner and enables the
teacher to be flexible and innovative in selection of instructional content
and methods in science teaching.

3.2 Implications of Innovations to Teaching and Learning of

Integrated Science

According to Udo (1997) developing and implementing innovations are

a complex activity which requires knowledge skills and considerable
time and a variety of resources. A successful implementation of
innovations in the teaching of science requires that:

i. The goal for which the innovation is directed should be set

ii. The learners need and characteristics should be known
iii. A plan of the innovation be carefully drawn

35
iv. The new approach should be tried over a period of time
v. The new approach is then introduced to the learners
vi. Feed back is obtained and possible modifications made
vii. Based on the modifications, the approach is evaluated and
reviewed from time to time to see if it is operational

3.3 The Role of the Science Teacher in Implementing

Innovations

The science teacher on his own part must:

i. be aware of innovations in science and what he is required to do
ii. be involved in the curriculum planning
iii. develop positive attitude towards innovations in integrated
science teaching
iv. avail himself or herself with seminars and workshops for personal
development and professional growth
v. carry out adequate diagnosis of the students interest and ability
before introducing the innovation.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the implication of innovation to the science teacher?

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that innovations in Integrated Science have been
carried out in different areas. Such areas include curriculum structure,
integrated science methodology, teaching and learning environment,
instructional resources, and assessment and learning. You also learnt
the implications of the innovations and the role of the science teacher in
ensuring that the innovations are successful.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. What are the implications of innovation to teaching and learning

of Integrated Science
ii. What is the role of the science teacher in implementing
innovations

36
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education:

Lagos: NERDC Press

Naccino – Brown R, Oke F.E & Brown D.P (1982). Curriculum and
Installation: An Introduction to Methods of Teaching. London:
Macmillan Publishers

Ogunniyi, M B (1986) Teaching Science in Africa. Ibadan: Salem Media

Nigeria Ltd

Olarinoye R.D (1989) “The Inquiry-Role Approach and Its Application

to physics Teaching in Nigeria” Journal of STAN Vol 26 No 1 PP
105 – 116

Pierce, C. (1994) “Importance of Classroom Climate for At – Risk

Learners” Journal of Educational Research Vol 88, No 1.

Udo, E.U. (1997) “Innovations in Primary Science”. Proceedings of

Ajumogobia Memorial Conference and 40th Anniversary of
STAN

37
UNIT 7 THE BASIC TEACHING OF CREATIVITY IN
INTEGRATED SCIENCE CLASSROOM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Creativity
3.2 Creative style
3.3 Techniques that aid creativity in the integrated science
classroom
3.3.1 Brainstorming
3.3.2 Assumption busting
3.3.4 Role playing
3.3.5 Story boarding
3.3.5 DO IT
3.3.6 Concept mapping
3.3.7 Random input
3.3.8 Skip writing
3.3.9 Laddering
3.3.10 Brain sketching
3.3.11 Reversal
3.3.12 Questioning activity
3.3.13 Fish bone
3.4 Importance of creativity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Creativity refers to the production of a new entity of ideas. Creativity
can inspire students to learn new contents through a creative outlet.
Integrated science teachers have a constant struggle between teaching
content and incorporating creativity into daily instruction. In this unit,
you are going to learn about creativity and how the teacher can
incorporate creativity in his daily instruction to enhance teaching and
learning in the integrated science classroom.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define creativity;
 explain what creative style is;
38
 mention the two broad creative style preference
 list and describe the techniques that can be used to aid creativity
in integrated science classroom.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Creativity

Creativity has been defined in different ways by different people.

Torrence (1995), explained that creativity is recognizing the gap in the
problem or information, finding ideas or hypothesis, testing and
developing these hypothesis and transmitting obtained. Muniford (2003)
defined creativity as the tendency to generate ideas that may be useful in
solving problems. The problem solving and creating hypotheses,
designing experiments and creating novel innovation are all scientific
process skills which require scientific creativity. Creativity is an
important aspect of scientific skills. Therefore in order to be
scientifically balanced, there is the need for science students to be
creative.

3.2 Creative Style

Creative style is referred to as an approach to problem solving and other

tasks that is creative (Best & Thomas 2007). Psychologists have
recognized that there are different ways in which individuals interact
with their environment and use information to solve problems. Stemberg
(1998) and Starbuck (2006) explained that students need to participate in
learning activities in order to understand the diverse nature of
knowledge and to stimulate their general and critical thinking abilities.
To teach science creatively, the integrated science teacher needs to
recognize the fact that different students have different creative styles. In
order to make integrated science students creative, there is need to know
students creative styles and to develop interventions and strategies for
individuals that are consistent with the unique characteristics of the
individual.

Understanding students’ creative styles can help students to appreciate

why other students approach or solve problems differently from
themselves. Individuals with different styles possess different creative
strengths and weaknesses. Kirton (1994) identified two broad creative
style preferences

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the importance of understanding student’s creative style

39
The two broad creative style preference are (a) Adaptors (b) Innovators.
Adaptors are individuals who prefer to define and approach problems
within existing frameworks and structures. They are resourceful,
efficient, organized, dependable and seem to supply stability, order and
continuity (Selby, Treffinger, Isaksen &Power, 1993).

Innovators are individuals who prefer to solve problems by creating new

framework. They are original, energetic, individualistic, spontaneous
and insightful (Selby, Treffinger, Isaksen & Power, 1993).
Students develop their creative style through:

1. Measure of creative capacity

2. Belief in unconscious processes
3. Use of techniques
4. Use of other people
5. Final product orientation
6. Environmental control/behavioural self regulation
7. Superstition and use of the sense (Kumar, Kemler & Holman,
1997).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the two broad creative style preferences?

3.3 Techniques that aid creativity in the integrated science

classroom

3.3.1 Brainstorming

This is a lateral thinking process by which students are asked to develop

ideas or thoughts. Brainstorming can help define issues, diagnose
problems or possible solutions and resistance to proposed solution.
Students should be encouraged to pick up an idea to create new ones.

3.3.2 Assumption Busting

An assumption is an unquestioned, assumed truth. Deliberately seeking

out and addressing previously unquestioned assumptions stimulates
creative thinking.

3.3.3 Role playing

Here, each student takes the role of a problem affected by an issue or

event from the perspective of that person. This gives the students an
opportunity to practice what they have learned. Once the role play is
finished, spend some time on de-briefing.
40
3.3.4 Storyboarding

This can be compared to spreading students thoughts out on the wall as

they work on project or solve problems. This method allows students to
see the interconnections and how one idea leads to another.

3.3.5 DO IT

DO IT stands for Define problems be Open to many possible solutions,

Identify the best solution, and then Transform it into effective action.
This technique accelerates and strengthens students’ natural creative
problem solving ability in integrated science and stimulates good and
diverse ideas.

3.3.6 Concept Mapping

Concept maps represent knowledge in graphic form. Concept maps can

aid in generating ideas, designing complex structures or communicating
complex ideas.

A flowering Plant

has has has

Roots Stems Leave

Types Carries Types
s

Fibrous Branche Flower Simpl

Taproot Compoun
root s
s e d

Fig 9.1: Examples of concept map in integrated science

3.3.7 Random Input

This is a lateral thinking tool that is useful in generating fresh ideas or

new perspective on a problem, it fosters creative leaps and permits
escape from restrictive thinking patterns. In this process, the student can
select randomly from any integrated science topic. Example: Students
thinking about reducing car pollution having so far considered all the
conventional solutions e.g. catalytic conversion and clean fuels, can
select randomly a book on plants. Students can then brainstorm and

41
generate new ideas such as planting trees on the side of the roads or
passing exhaust gases through a soup of algae to reduce carbon-dioxide.

3.3.8 Skip writing

In this method, ideas can be gathered from large groups. Students are
given slips of paper and asked to write down ideas which are discussed
or evaluated in integrated science. This method collects a large number
of ideas swiftly and creates a sense of ownership or participation.

Each student is given some slips of paper, question or problem is read to

the group and students write down answers on their slips, one idea per
slip. This will be collected, analysed and evaluated. The most useful
ideas are identified and developed into practicable proposals.

3.3.9 Laddering

This is also called the “why method” it involves toggling between two
abstractions to create ideas. Laddering techniques involve the creations,
reviewing and modification of hierarchical knowledge. In a ladder
containing abstract idea or concepts, the items lower down are subsets of
the ones higher up. Students can ladder up or down to clarify concepts
and their relationship.

3.3.10 Brain Sketching

This involves students making sketches to solve a specific problem and

passing the sketches to fellow students. Here questions or problems are
explained to the students. Each participant then privately makes one or
more sketches and passes to the student next to him. Students develop or
annotate the sketches passed to them or use them to inspire new sketches
which are also passed in turn.

3.3.11 Reversal

This method takes a given situation and turns it around. Any situation
can be reversed” in several ways. Looking at a familiar problem this
way can suggest new solutions or approaches.

3.3.12 Questioning Activity

Here, students create a list of questions in no known order. There are no

criticisms or judgment of questions. This aids student to ask a myriad of
questions, increase their productivity and motivation.

42
3.3.13 Fishbone

The fishbone technique uses a visual organizer to identify the possible

causes of a problem. This technique discourages partial or premature
solutions and demonstrates the relative importance of and interactions
between different parts of problems in integrated science

PLANNING TEAM WORK

Techniques not Inadequate mix
understood of skills
Lack of common
Weak strategy purpose

PROBLEM: INABILITY TO MEET PROJECT DEADLINES

Inappropriate Nobody has

software overall IT
responsibility

PROJECT MANAGEMENT INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY

Adapted from Mycoted wiki

Here the long arrow drawn horizontally is labelled with the title of the
problem issue to be explained. This is the “backbone” of the fish. Spurs
are drawn from this backbone at about 450, one for every likely cause of
the problem that the group can think of, and label each. The group
considers each spur/subspur taking the simplest first.

3.4 Importance of Creativity

Creativity improves the self esteem, motivation and achievement of

learners. Students who are encouraged to think creatively become
interested in discovering things for themselves; are open to new ideas
and challenges; are also to solve problems and can work well with

43
others. Children are inherently creative, therefore the challenge of the
integrated science teacher is to nourish and develop children’s natural
creativity and not to stifle it.

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt the definition of creativity as it relates to

integrated science. You have also learnt about creative styles and the
techniques that can be used to aid creativity in an integrated science
classroom.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

List and describe 3 techniques that can be used to aid creativity in an

integrated science classroom.

7.0 REFERENCES/FUTURE READING

Agommuah, P.C & Ndirika M C (2014). “Identification of Science

Edcuation for Enhancing Creativity in Senior Secondary School
Science Students”. In Z. C. Njoku (Ed). STAN 55th Annual
Conference Proceedings.

Hadiza, Yero (2014). “Creativity in Science Technology, Engineering

and Mathematics (STEM) Education” in 2C Njoku (Ed) STAN
55th Annual Conference Proceedings

Kirton, M. (1987). “Adaptors and Innovators and Cognition Styles and

Personality”. In Isaksen (Ed) Frontiers of Creativity Research

Kirton, M. (1994). Adaptors and Innovative Styles of Creativity and

Problem solving (Rev ed) London: Routledge.

Kumar, K, Kemmler D, and Holman E.R (1997) “The Creativity Styles

Questionnaire – Revised” Creativity Research Journal 10(1) 320
– 323

Selby, E.C, Treffinger D.J, Isaksen S G & Powers S.V (1993) “Use of
Kirton Adaptive and Innovative Inventory with Middle
Students”. Journal of Creative Behaviour; 27, 223 – 235

44
UNIT 8 CONSOLIDATION

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Design and Structure of the Nigerian Integrated Science
Curriculum
3.2 Review of Nigerian Integrated Science Curriculum
3.3 Scientific Attitudes
3.4 Science Process Skills
3.5 Scientific Investigations
3.6 Innovations in Teaching Integrated Science
3.7 The Basic teaching of Creativity in an Integrated Science
Curriculum
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In units 1 to 7 we studied the design and structure of the Nigerian

Integrated Science Curriculum as well as the review of the curriculum.
We also looked at scientific attitude and its attributes which all scientists
must have in order to carry out investigations. The science process skills
were also discussed and methods of carrying out scientific
investigations. Innovations in teaching integrated science were
highlighted as well as the basic teaching of creativity in the integrated
science classroom. In this unit, we are going to refresh our minds and
consolidate on all we have gathered in the previous units.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Mention the importance of the spiral nature of the curriculum

 Mention why the curriculum review was imperative
 List the ten attributes of scientific attitude
 List the science process skills
 Mention at least three areas of science innovations
 Describe some innovations in Integrated Science
 Mention some techniques that aid creativity

45
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Design and Structure of Integrated Science Curriculum

The integrated science curriculum is child centred and emphasis is laid

on learning science as a process than as a body of knowledge. The
general objectives of Integrated Science Curriculum is to enable pupils
observe and explore the environment using their senses or their hands.
The design of the curriculum is based on the spirality of themes. The
spiral nature ensures that contents become gradually difficult as learners
progress. There are problems and challenges in implementing the
curriculum as discussed in unit 1. Solutions to these problems include
seeking assistance of more experienced teachers, and you the teacher
reading on your own and becoming familiar with the content areas.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the importance of the Spiral nature of the curriculum?

3.2 Review of the Nigerian Integrated Science Curriculum

Valid curriculum content must be related to the philosophy and

objective of education. Curriculum review became imperative as a result
of the Federal government’s decision to introduce the 9-years of Basic
Education and the need to attain the Millennium Development Goals by
2015. The existing curriculum for Junior Secondary School was
reviewed, re-aligned and restructured.

Integrated Science was replaced with Basic Science and Technology

while Primary Science was replaced with Basic Science. In order to
fulfill the goals of the curriculum reform, new themes were infused into
the curriculum. These were Environmental Education, Drug Abuse
Education, Population and Family Life Education, Sexually Transmitted
Infections (STI) including HIV/AIDs.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why was the curriculum review imperative?

3.3 Scientific Attitudes

Scientific Attitudes are a composite of a number of mental habits or

tendencies to react consistently in certain ways to a novel or problematic
situation. Scientific attributes include belief, curiosity, objectivity,
skepticism, open mindedness, creativity, risk taking, honesty, humility
and responsibility. Students with positive feelings towards science,

46
achieve more and are also more likely to incorporate science into their
daily lives when they appreciate its importance. To develop scientific
attitudes in student, they should be provided with hands on experiences

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the 10 attributes of scientific attitudes and explain each briefly

3.4 Science Process Skills

Science process skills are the skills and strategies both mental and
physical that scientists use to carry out the processes of doing science.
There are two types of process skills.

1. Basic process skills

2. Integrated process skills

The Basic process skills are observing, communicating, measuring,

classifying, inferring and predicting.

Integrated process skills are controlling variables, defining

operationally, formulating hypothesis, interpreting data, experimenting,
and formulating models. The basic science process skills can be learned
in a short period but the integrated science process skills takes a longer
period. Science process skills are important because it makes learning
experiences richer and more meaningful for students.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are Science Process Skills? Select an activity in science where you
can use at least ¾ of the skills

3.5 Scientific Investigation

Scientific investigation is the way in which scientists and researchers

use a systematic approach to answer questions about the world around
us. Patterns of scientific investigations are deductive science reasoning
and inductive science reasoning. The steps for scientific investigation
follow the scientific method they generally include observation,
formulating a question and hypothesis, setting up an experiment,
analysing the data collected and drawing conclusions. Scientific findings
can be communicated to other scientists through scientific journals using
standard scientific paper format.

47
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the steps involved in scientific investigation. How is that different

from science process skill?

3.6 Innovations in Teaching Integrated Science

Innovations refer to changes or new ways of doing things. In unit 6, you

learnt that innovations in Integrated Science embrace such areas as
innovations in curriculum structure, innovations in methodology,
innovation in the teaching and learning environment, innovations in
instructional material usage, and innovations in the assessment of
learning outcomes. There is considerable overlap in the content of these
areas because they are integral parts of the whole teaching and learning
processes in science. The implication is that you as the science teacher
must be aware of the innovations in science and what you are required to
do.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the innovations in teaching integrated science?

3.7 The Basic Teaching of Creativity in Integrated Science

Classroom

Creativity refers to the production of a new entity of ideas. Creativity

inspires students to learn new contents through a creative outlet.
Creative style is an approach to problem solving and other tasks.

The two broad style preferences are adapters and innovators. You should
refer to unit 7 to refresh your memory. Some techniques that aid
creativity include: Brainstorming, Assumption busting, role playing,
story boarding, DO IT, concept mapping, Random Input, skip writing,
laddering, Brain sketching, Reversal, questioning activity, and fishbone.

Creativity in science teaching is important because it improves the self

esteem, motivation and achievement of learners. The role of the science
teacher is to nourish and develop children’s natural creativity.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Mention the techniques that aid creativity and explain how

4.0 CONCLUSION

48
5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we summarized units 1 to 7. Go back to these units and

study them again. Reflect on the different aspects and internalize them.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Enumerate the science process skills

ii. List the steps involved in scientific investigation
iii. What is the implication of innovations to the science teachers

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Agommuah P.C & Ndirika M C (2014). “Identification of Science

Edcuation for enhancing creativity in Senior Secondary School
Science Students” in Z C Njoku (Ed). STAN 55th Annual
Conference Proceedings.

Hadiza Yero (2014) “Creativity in Science Technology, Engineering and

Mathematics (STEM) Education” in 2C Njoku (Ed) STAN 55th
Annual Conference Proceedings

Kirton M (1987) “Adaptors and Innovators and Cognition Styles and

Personality” in Isaksen (Ed) Frontiers of Creativity Research

Kirton M (1994) Adaptors and Innovative Styles of Creativity and

Problem solving (Rev ed) London: Routledge.
Kumar K, Kemmler D, and Holman E.R (1997) “The Creativity Styles
Questionnaire – Revised” Creativity Research Journal 10(1) 320
– 323

Selby E.C, Treffinger D.J, Isaksen S G and Powers S.V (1993) “Use of
Kirton Adaptive and Innovative Inventory with Middle
Students”. Journal of Creative Behaviour; 27, 223 – 235

49
MODULE 2 DIFFICULT TOPICS/UNITS IN
NIGERIAN INTEGRATED SCIENCE
CURRICULUM 11

Unit 1 Preparation for Teaching Integrated Science Lesson

Unit 2 Effective Communication and Interaction in Integrated
Science Classroom
Unit 3 The Use of Team Teaching and Micro Teaching in
Integrated Science
Unit 4 Effective Management of Large Classes in Integrated
Science
Unit 5 Teaching Integrated Science in Multigrade Class
Unit 6 Teaching Integrated Science to Mixed
Ability Group
Unit 7 Laboratory Functions, Safety and Management in
Integrated Science
Unit 8 Improvisation in the Teaching of Integrated ScienceUnit 9
Evaluation and Assessment in Integrated Science
Unit 10 Consolidation

UNIT 1 PREPARATION FOR TEACHING

INTEGRATED SCIENCE LESSONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Concept of instruction
3.1.1 Introduction activity
3.1.2 Developmental activity
3.1.3 Culminating activity
3.2 Structure of curriculum and introduction
3.2.1 Syllabus
3.2.2 Scheme of work
3.2.3 The lesson plan and lesson note
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In integrated science lessons, instruction is used to impart information

and knowledge to a learner. Planning instruction can be seen as setting
50
the stage for proper teaching activities. In this unit, you are going to
learn how a teacher can prepare and teach integrated science using the
syllabus and scheme of work You will also look at sample lesson plans
and notes.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define the concept instructions.

 relate instruction to curriculum;
 describe unit of instruction;
 describe syllabus and scheme of work
 list the components of a lesson plan
 write sample lesson plans

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Instruction

Instruction is defined as the processes of imparting information and

knowledge to a learner. Instruction is a teacher initiated activity,
designed to facilitate receptivity by the learners. Instruction can be
organized in three phases: introduction, development and culmination.

3.1.1 Introduction Activity

Introduction activities are used to introduce learners to a particular topic.

It is meant to arouse the learners’ interest. Introduction can be based on
previous knowledge of the students. In introducing a lesson the teacher
should direct the students’ attention to the objectives, enhance retention,
stimulate recall and promote transfer to knowledge.

3.1.2 Developmental Activity

This is the main frame of the unit. The unit to be taught is presented to
the learners through any appropriate teaching method.

3.1.3 Culminating Activity

This is the conclusion of the instructional phases. They are intended to

synthesise and end the lesson and demonstrate the accomplishment of
objectives. Activities here can take the form of questions and answers
between the teacher and the learners.

51
4.2 Structure of Curriculum and Instruction

Many curriculum specialists still disagree on whether curriculum and

instruction should be conceived as a unified whole or each is to be
treated as completely different entities. Tanner and Tanner (1975)
opined that curriculum and instruction should not be deliberately
separated. The word instruction when discussed under education is
known to be a special aspect of teaching. Curriculum is a written
document of experience (Cognitive, affective and psychomotor) which
are provided to learners, while instruction is the process whereby the
environment of an individual is deliberately manipulated to enable him
or her to learn to engage in specified behavior under specified conditions
or as responses to specified situations

3.2.1 Syllabus

The syllabus is derived from the curriculum. While the curriculum has
global aim of developing the individual, the syllabus is more or less an
examination conscious document assembled to give directives to
teachers especially on instructional aspects. The syllabus in addition
includes detailed notes on the depth of materials to be taught on each
topic.

Broadly speaking, the syllabus is that aspect of curriculum that lists

subject to be taught in a given course or programme. The outline of the
syllabus is meant to guide the teacher on the extent of work involved in
a particular class. Sometimes, the syllabus often gives detailed
instructions on what is to be taught in each term of each year of a
course, what books are to be used and even what method, are
appropriate (Farrant, 1980).

3.2.2 Scheme of Work

The scheme of work is directly derived from the syllabus. It is the

subdivision of the entire school syllabus into specific portions. It is an
indication of the amount of a particular learning activity that can be
covered within a specified time. The syllabus is broken down into
teachable topics e.g for a school term of 13 weeks. The objectives of
teaching each weekly topic are contained and in addition, the scheme of
work indicates teachers’ and pupils activities as well as reference books
which can be consulted for information on particular topic.

A scheme of work can be defined as a plan or outline of academic work

in a sequential concordance. The scheme of work must be tailored to suit
the ability, interest and rate of learning of pupils. To draw a good

52
scheme of work, the following elements should be taken into
consideration

1. The syllabus
2. The pupils (age, average ability, quality of group motivation)
3. The school calendar (how long the term is and the number of
periods for each subject per week)
4. Logicality of topics or sub-topics

The things to include in a scheme of work are:

1. Particulars of the learners
2. Previous knowledge and experience of the class in respect of the
subject matter
3. The number and duration of the lessons
4. The aim of the scheme of work and outline of the subject-matter
and the content with the objectives of each lesson.
5. The way the students learn, the method of teaching, and learning
to be employed
6. Source of information e.g. books,
7. Equipment to be used.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define
1) Syllabus
2) Scheme of work
3) Mention the elements to be considered when drawing a scheme
of work

3.2.3 The lesson plan and lesson note

Lesson plans and lesson notes mean different things to different people.
A school of thought, according to Duyilemi (1997), conceives the daily
guides to instruction as lesson plan. To that school, a lesson note is said
to be complete when all mental and physical preparations for a day’s
topic are already put on paper. The lesson plan and lesson note are
nowadays regarded as meaning one and the same thing. Current debates
seem to favour the need to remove the artificial boundary which for
many years existed between both terms. The lesson plan and note are the
final state in curriculum implementation. A lesson plan is a well thought
out, orderly and sequential arrangement of the lesson on paper. It is the
guideline by which the teacher teaches his lesson. When a lesson plan is
transcribed into a note book, it becomes a lesson note.

53
3.2.3.1 Components of a lesson plan

The basic components of a lesson plan include the following

1. The subject
2. Date
3. Time/Duration
4. Class
5. Period
6. Average age of the learners
7. Topic
8. Behavioural objectives
9. Entry behavior/previous knowledge
10. Instructional material/resources
11. Introduction/set induction
12. Instructional techniques or skills
13. Instructional procedure
14. Evaluation

3.2.3.2 Characteristics of poor lesson

A poor lesson is characterized by one of the following:

1. Lack of logical presentation of material
2. The omission of important facts, due to lack of adequate
knowledge of subject matter
3. Inaccurate facts taught or accepted as correct
4. Poor timing of the lesson.
5. Lack of ability to motivate the class, resulting in boredom and
restlessness in the class
6. Lack of interesting detail of illustrative aids
7. Excessive corrections when the assignments or written work of
learners are being marked.

3.2.3.3 Sample lesson plan

Subject: Integrated Science

Date: 23rd August, 2014
Time/Duration: 1 hour 10 minutes
Class: Primary 6
Period: Double Period (5th & 6th periods)
Average age: 11 – 12 years
Topic: Energy
Subtopic: Sources of Energy
Behavioural Objectives: by the end of the lesson, the pupils should be
able to:
1. explain the concept of energy
2. identify the sources of energy

54
3. list the forms of energy
4. explain how energy is converted from one form to another

Instructional Resources
Battery, wire, bulb, drum, matches, water, food, kerosene.

Entery behavior: Identification of prior idea about the topic or related

topics.
1. What did you eat this morning? If you run to school what will
happen? What happens when you lift heavy load? What helps
vehicles to move?

Instructional Techniques or skills

Questioning, demonstration, carrying out activities

Instructional Procedure
Step 1: Content Development
Concept and Sources of Energy

Teachers Activity: Group pupils into three

First group runs round the field
Second group jumps like a frog
Third group matches round the field. Let
them understand that any work they perform,
they make use of energy, so energy is the
ability to do work

Pupils Activities: they perform the activities assigned them

Step II: Sources of Energy

Teachers’ Activities: Group the pupils and assign each group
questions to answer.
Group 1: they mention different kinds of
food they eat
Group 2: They identify things that give light
Group 3: They discover what makes leaves
and branches on a tree to move
Group 4: They mention what we buy in
filling stations
Explain that all of their answers are sources of energy e.g. food,
sunlight, wind water, petroleum etc.
Step III: Discussion
Teachers Activities: Direct each group to discuss how they get energy
Pupil’s Activities: They respond to the activities and
discussions.
Step IV:

55
Teachers Activities: Ask them questions
(a) What do you require to do work?
(b) What do you take in your home that gives you energy?
(c) What helps your lamp to light
(d) Mention other sources of energy

Step V: Evaluation
Teachers activities: Evaluate with questions
(a) Explain the concept of Energy
(b) What are the sources of energy?
Public Activities: They respond to the questions

Step VI: Forms and Conversion of Energy

Teachers Activities: Group and give them what to produce before the
class
Group 1: Produce drum
Group 2: Produce Circuit
Group 3: Bring in firewood, metal and matches

Group 1: Direct them to beat the drum, what did you observe?
Sound
Group 2: Switch your circuit/torch on; what happens? Light
Group 3: Light your firewood and put metal inside it.

Explain various forms of energy which include sound, light, chemical,

heat, mechanical etc.

Step VII: Conversion of Energy

Teachers Activities: Explain with examples that these forms of energy
can be converted from one form to another.

Group 1: Beat your drum

Explain that when a drum beats, it produces sound, other objects like
flutes, generators; grinding machines etc also do so. Here, mechanical
energy is converted to sound.

Group 2: When you light your wood, it gives light. Here heat
energy gives/converts to light. When a lighter is left
under the metal, it will also heat and convert to light

Pupils Activities: They respond to the activities

Step VIII: Discussion

Teachers Activities: Ask the pupils to discuss the topic they have learnt
Pupils Activities: They respond to discussion

56
Step IX:
Teachers Activities: Hello Children
1. Mention objects that give light to your homes
2. How does electrical energy convert to light?
3. Enumerate objects that produce sound in your locality
4. Explain how mechanical energy in your home converts to some
energy
5. How does your mother convert heat energy to light?

Pupils Activities: They respond to the question above

Step X: Evaluation
Teachers Activities: Evaluate with questions
1. Enumerate the forms of energy
2. How can one form of energy be converted to another?
Pupils Activities: They respond to the questions

Source: An NTI–TESSA integrated Manual for the retraining of

primary school Teachers:
Basic Science and Technology, September 2011.

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that instruction is the process of importing

information and knowledge to a learner whereas curriculum is a written
document of experience which are provided to learners, instruction on
the other hand, is the process whereby the environment of an individual
is deliberately manipulated to enable him or her learn to engage in
specified behavior under specified conditions. You also learnt that the
syllabus is derived from the curriculum and the scheme of work equally
derived from the syllabus. The lesson plan when transcribed into a note
book is known as the lesson note. Sample lesson plan and notes were
also described.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Write a comprehensive lesson note on any topic in a subject of

your choice for JSS II and a 40 minute period
ii. What are the characteristics of a poor lesson

57
7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Aguokogbuo C.N (2000) Curriculum Development and Implementation

for Africa. Nsukka: Mike Social Press.

Duyilemi B.O (1997). Introducing and Understanding Curriculum

Studies. Ado-Ekiti: Selak Educational Publishers

Farrant J.S (1980) Principles and Practice of Education (New Ed)

England: Longman

Tanner, D and Tanner, L.L (1975) Curriculum Development: Theory

into practice. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc.

58
UNIT 2 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND
INTERACTION IN INTEGRATED SCIENCE
CLASSROOM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 What is communication?
3.2 Importance of language in science learning
3.3 Influence of language in science learning
3.4 Problems of language influence
3.4.1 Mother tongue factor
3.4.2 Teacher factor
3.4.3 Use of gestures
3.5 Ways in which language problems can be minimized in
learning science
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There are different methods used in teaching integrated science.

Whichever method you choose to use, communication is applied. There
are different ways you can communicate. Language however encloses
the several ways of communication. When the language in a text book
and that of teaching is different from the learner’s mother tongue or first
language, there are bound to be problems. In integrated science, there
are scientific names and terms which are often used. The purpose of this
unit is to examine the problems and influence of language in the
teaching of science and how to avoid these problems.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe the importance of language to integrated science

 explain the influence of language on scientific terms
 name three advantages of encouraging learners to talk
 explain two problems associated with the use of language in
science teaching
 identify some solutions to language problems in science teaching

59
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is Communication?

Communication is the imparting or exchanging of information by

speaking, writing or using some other medium. Communication can also
be seen as the act of transferring information through verbal messages,
the written word or non-verbal signals.

The main purpose of language is for communication. Communication in

class can be verbal that is through the use of English Language or
language of wider usage in the community in which the school is
located. It could also be non-verbal through the use of sign or body
language.

While teaching science, you should use words, gestures, symbols, or

graphics to describe an object, action or event. Confusion may set in
when the words used have different meaning from what students already
know. Some common English words have uncommon meanings in
science e.g power, heat, energy. If you have any problem of finding
appropriate words in English to explain certain concepts, to students,
you can use the local language where possible.

3.2 Importance of Language in Science Learning

Language is always a problem in the teaching and learning of science.

This is especially so when the language in the textbook is a second
language different from the mother tongue or first language of the
students. Again, there may be non-availability of words that are parallel
to or direct interpretations of the terms used in science, to identify
equipment or describe ideas and concepts.

Teachers, very often, resort to the use of a language which they feel is
common in the locality and which may be second or even a third
language for most of the children.
You as the teacher of science should study the environment in which the
school is located and the level of development of your pupils. You
should use the mother tongue or the local language to communicate with
your pupils especially at the lower basic level. They will understand
science better if you use their language.

The Nigerian Educational Research and Development Centre (NERDC)

has developed Dictionaries of many Nigerian languages which you can
consult for assistance on scientific and technical terms. Students should
be allowed to talk and express themselves in the science class. Give

60
them time to use the words which you have introduced especially when
they are carrying out experiments or observing things. Children
strengthen their understanding when they talk about what they do. To
understand science involves the ability of the child to freely express
himself, ask questions to clarify some issues and reorganize his
thoughts.

In writing in science, the passive voice is used especially when

recording experiments. For example the beaker was filled with water,
the test tube was heated etc. This passive way of writing is the best for
accurate scientific writing.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. In which language are you expected to teach in your primary

school?
2. Do your pupils speak the same language?
3. What language do the teachers speak?

3.3 Influence of language in science learning

Science as a discipline has its own set of words, phrases and terms
which have different meanings from the literal or ordinary usage.
Therefore any language used for teaching science must copy these
words and phrases and terms without alteration. The English language
used in science assimilates scientific words from other sources into its
vocabulary. Some of these words are imported from Latin language and
have become a part of the English language without any change. e.g.
meniscus, nucleus saliva, cerebellum.

3.4 Problems of Language Influence in the Learning of

Science

3.4.1 Mother Tongue Factor

Students can only write well in the language they speak well. Students
who use their mother tongue often in their everyday activities often
become handicapped when it comes to writing or speaking or
understanding a second language. They are incapable of recognizing the
linkage between the words in the sentences and so are unable to think
logically in subjects taught or written in the second language (English).

3.4.2 Teacher Factor

The teacher may have difficulties in expressing himself or herself for a

student to understand especially if the teacher cannot express himself in
61
English Language. Science which has a lot of abstract scientific words
poses more problems for the teacher.

3.4.3 Use of gestures

There are limitations when gestures (facial expressions and body

movements) are used by a teacher to make the student gain additional
information about a given topic.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How can teacher factor pose a problem in the teaching of science?

3.5 Ways in which language problems can be minimized in

learning science

1. You, the teacher can drill the students in science vocabulary

2. You should use more teaching aids in place of gestures to avoid
distracting the students.
3. You should list the specialist scientific words in a topic whenever
you are preparing the lesson

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that:

 Communication is the act of transferring information through
verbal messages, the written word or non-verbal signals. You
learnt the importance of language and the influence of language
on scientific terms.
 you also learnt the two problems associated in the use of
language in science teaching and solutions to problems in science
teaching

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

How does mother tongue or local language pose a problem for students
who learn science in a second or third language?

62
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Born, G. et al (1985). Communicating Physics Germany: University of

Duisberg.

Willoughby, J. (2005). Helping English Learners in the Science

Classroom. New York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill

63
UNIT 3 THE USE OF TEAM TEACHING AND MICRO-
TEACHING IN INTEGRATED SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Team Teaching
3.1.1 Forms of Team Teaching
3.1.2 Guides for running Team Teaching
3.1.3 Advantages of Team Teaching
3.2 Micro Teaching
3.2.1 Features of Micro Teaching
3.2.2 Guidelines for Micro Teaching
3.2.3 Advantages of Micro Teaching
3.2.4 Disadvantages of Micro Teaching
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Assignment
7.0 References and Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Integrated Science education is undergoing dynamic revolution not only

in curriculum but also in teaching methods and techniques. Evidence
from learning theories now calls for new methods of instruction and new
orientation for teachers. Hence, there is the need to adequately prepare
integrated science teachers along such changes. Two instructional
approaches that are receiving greater attention now in professional
teacher training, are team teaching and micro teaching. In this unit
therefore, we will examine these two concepts of teaching as they relate
to integrated science

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the concept of team teaching and Micro teaching;

 discuss the strength of team and micro teaching;
 identify problems you may encounter in using team teaching
 mention necessary guidelines in using micro teaching

64
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Team Teaching

Team teaching is a teaching strategy involving a group of teachers who

are jointly responsible for the planning and teaching of a course, with
each member of the team having a specific role to perform. The group
may be two or as many as five or six depending on the nature and
objective of the course, class size, available facilities, books and time.
The composition of a team should include subject specialists, and
supporting staff. The role of each member of the team is determined by
individual competence. For example, some teachers are better in lesson
presentation, some more effective in laboratory situation while others
may be good in improvisation and preparation of teaching aids, or in test
construction and administration

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Mention one reason why team teaching can be used in integrated science
teaching

3.1.1 Forms of Team Teaching

Team teaching can take the following forms

1. Large group instruction
2. Small group instruction

1. Large group instruction:

In this form, two classes may be combined. Two or more teachers

could participate, each taking various aspects of the lesson. In
this arrangement, one of the teachers may handle the whole class
while the other teacher serves as support staff. The support staff
may help in taking smaller group within the large group in
discussions, written work or practical work based on the lesson.

2. Small group instruction

In this form, the class is divided into smaller groups for
instructional purpose, each under a teacher. Each teacher guides
his/her group in their activities. The team members would have
jointly planned what to do previously. This type of set up enables
the learner to participate more in the activity of the class and
receive greater individual attention.

In each form, close cooperation between members of the team is very

important and essential.

65
3.1.2 Guides for Running Team Teaching

1. Proper planning is essential and is the key for successful

execution of team teaching
2. Team members should sit together and schedule the time, period,
content and materials to use.
3. They should also decide on the composition of the team and
responsibilities
4. There should also be a team leader who coordinates the activities
of the team.
5. The team must ensure that the method will give certain advantage
to the learners over the usual conventional set up, realize the
objectives of the lesson and that available facilities are adequate.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List 3 guidelines that will enable a group undertake effective team

teaching

3.1.3 Advantages of Team Teaching

1. The composition of team is made up of teachers with varied

experience and professional competence and their coming
together to share, helps to improve and enhance the professional
growth of each member
2. Team teaching helps to ensure that the content of a lesson which
may be much for one teacher to handle is taught effectively by
two or more teachers
3. The workload of team members are reduced and that gives each
teacher more time to plan other lessons adequately.
4. It can promote better individual attention given to students and
therefore tends to make students work better.
5. Team teaching makes teaching and learning more effective

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the advantages of team teaching over the conventional one
teacher one class instructional set up?

3.2 Micro Teaching

Micro – teaching is a training strategy used in teacher training colleges

to promote desirable teaching skills of prospective teachers like you.
Micro teaching is a scaled down short session teaching encounter which

66
is used for teacher training. It is a model of the normal teaching practice
but with slightly different objective.

Its objective is to enable the student teachers acquire appropriate

teaching skills before going on teaching practice or before assuming full
teaching responsibility.

3.2.1 Features of micro-teaching

These include:
1. The student/pupils (usually between five to ten in number)
2. A brief lesson (usually five to twenty minutes)

3.2.2 Guidelines for Micro-Teaching

1. Identify your students

2. Identify the lesson topic
3. Write down the lesson objectives
4. Identify the necessary teaching materials/equipment
5. Identify the learning activities
6. Read books and necessary materials to ensure mastery of the
lesson content
7. Identify teaching methods and teaching styles to be employed
8. Set lesson duration
9. Write the lesson plan

During the presentation, you should

- Arrange your class properly to allow proper visibility and
audibility
- Introduce the lesson by stimulating the learners’ interest, relating
the topic to the pupils experiences and stating the objectives of
the lesson clearly
- Show confidence in presenting the lesson and handling the
teaching aids
- Ensure that the presentation is interesting and appropriate to the
age of identified students
- Make your teaching activity oriented by engaging students in
meaningful activities
- Build in assessment procedures in your teaching
- Ensure time for summary and conclusion
- Wisely allocate your time

After the presentation you should ensure you make self assessment of
your teaching by asking questions like

67
- To what extent have I achieved the lesson objectives?
- To what extent has the teaching changed my students’ behavior?
- Have I used appropriate method?

You should also be prepared to

- Listen to assessment given by your supervisor
- Provide students with paper to give their assessment of the lesson
- Combine information from the assessment made to improve your
teaching
- If necessary, rework and represent the lesson

3.2.3 Advantages of Micro-Teaching

1. It provides opportunity for student teachers to match learned

theories and methods of teaching with practice
2. The student-teacher is assessed by the supervisor, the pupils and
himself for an immediate feedback of his performance
3. It enables the student-teacher to identify his strengths and
weaknesses and therefore make effort towards minimizing his
weaknesses and improving his identified skills or strengths.
4. Immediate guidance can be given in the area of demonstrated
deficiency and opportunity could be given to repeat the exercise.
5. It provides safe opportunity to practice different teaching skills
and styles unlike during teaching practice.
6. Micro-teaching when compared with teaching practice, is cost
effective in terms of money, time and other resources.

3.2.4 Disadvantages of Micro-Teaching

1. It cannot be a substitute for real teaching situation.

2. It does not deal with large class and its attendant problem of
discipline and control, thus the teaching situation is more
artificial than real.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

State 3 advantages of micro-teaching towards professional growth of a

student teacher.

4.0 CONCLUSION

68
5.0 SUMMARY

You have learnt that:

 Team teaching is any form of teaching in which two or more
teachers purposefully share responsibilities for the planning,
presentation and evaluation of lessons prepared for the same
group of students
 Team teaching can either take place in large class settings or in
small group set up
 Success of team teaching depends on careful planning and
cooperation on the part of every member of the group
 Team teaching has its advantages which culminate in the
improvement of teaching and learning
 Micro-teaching is a scale down, short session teaching encounter
which is used for teacher training
 Micro teaching provides student teachers the opportunity to
acquire professional skills needed for their teaching assignment
after graduation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Explain the meaning of the term team teaching and micro

teaching
ii. List 3 merits each of team teaching and micro teaching

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aliyu, A (1982) Teaching Science in Nigeria. Ilorin: Atoto Press Ltd

Derek, Bicker staff (1977). A general method of Course: (5th Edition)

Ibadan: Evans Brothers Nigeria

Walter, A.T & Alfred T C (1974) Teaching Science by inquiry in the

Secondary School. Columbus: Charles E Merit Publishing
Company

69
UNIT 4 EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF LARGE
CLASSES IN INTEGRATED SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Teaching methods
3.1.1 Use of class activity
3.1.2 Demonstration method
3.1.3 Project Method
3.1.4 Applications of information and communication
technology
3.1.5 Team Teaching s
3.2 Teacher Competences
3.3 Ways of Improving Instructional resources
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Large classes and overcrowding in integrated science classrooms are

some of the challenges being faced by integrated science teachers in the
school. Although the recommended number of students per class is
between 30-40, (FRN, 2004), in large classes they could be as many as
100 or even 200 per class. The classroom may also lack adequate seats
and instructional materials. Besides, the students may have varying
abilities and interests. In this unit, we are going to look at ways in which
an integrated science teacher can overcome this challenge and increase
the learning abilities of the students.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify appropriate teaching methods for managing large classes

effectively;
 state the teacher competences required in teaching large classes;
 determine activities that could be used in the science classroom
for better skills acquisition;
 identify ways of improvising instructional materials

70
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Teaching Methods

The teaching methods or strategies that are used in teaching integrated

science must encourage lots of child-centred activities that provide first
hand experiences that will allow the students to develop some process,
manipulative and social skills. The strategies include class activities
demonstration method, project method, ICT applications, Team
Teaching. How practicable are these strategies in large classes where the
teacher is expected to ensure that every child participates, whether in
group or as individual?

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List some strategies that can be effective in teaching integrated science

in large classes

3.1.1 Use of Class Activities

Class activities can be used to effectively manage large classes.

Students can be grouped into groups of four, eight or ten to carry out
specific activities.

Ensure that in each group, there is equal number of males and females
and that each group has a leader. Move around to assist where necessary
in the activities. Incorporate specific questions or exercise that requires
student participation in each group. The question or exercise can take
several forms.

a. Think -pair -share

The teacher poses a questions or problem, to the class, after
giving time to the students to consider that response (think), the
students are asked to partner with another student to discuss their
response (pair). Pair of students can then be asked to report their
conclusions and reasoning’s to the larger group (share) which can
be used as a starting point to promote discussion in the class as a
whole (Angelo & Cross, 1993).
b. Minute Paper
This is a type of classroom assessment that could be used to
promote student engagement. At the end of the class segment,
students are asked to spend one to three minutes writing the main
point. These papers can serve as a tool to promote meta cognition
and also could be used by the teacher for formative assessment.

71
3.1.2 Demonstration Method

This involves carrying out integrated science activities to illustrate

science and technology concepts or ideas.
This method is especially useful for handling large classes.
Demonstration can be carried out by
- the teacher alone or
- the teacher with a student
- in carrying out demonstration the teacher should as much as
possible:
i. explain clearly the purpose of the demonstration
ii. ensure that all students see every part of the demonstration
iii. involve the students as much as possible
iv. use simple and readily available apparatus and materials
for demonstration

3.1.3 Project Method

In project method, the central theme, problem, or idea is selected by the

teacher or the students or by both the teacher and students. The task is
further divided into sub themes, ideas or problems. The students are
encouraged to investigate, collect specimens or materials, analyze and
construct things on their own.

The teacher only acts as a facilitator in the students learning. The

students can work individually or in groups. At the end of the
investigation, the reports on the project are collected and discussed with
the whole class.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Give examples of projects in integrated science that can be given to

students

3.1.4 Applications of Information and Communication

Technology (ICT)

One can use different ICT applications to teach large classes. The
existence of ICTs does not transform teacher practices however ICT can
enable teachers to transform their teacher practices given a set of
enabling conditions. ICTs are seen as important tools to enable and
support the move from traditional “teacher Centric” teaching styles to
“learner centric” methods.

Computers and the internet can be used to produce educational games,

drills and practices, simulations, tutorials, use of encyclopedia,
72
interactive maps and atlases and electronic journals. These can be very
useful in the management of large classes in integrated science.

3.1.5 Team Teaching

Team teaching is a strategy used at many grade levels in many schools.

This strategy can be effectively used in managing large classes.
Teachers can come together to form teams. A good team includes
different styles, such as an authoritarian, a caregiver, and a cheerleader
Students will respond differently to these teachers and all their needs
will be met. Every child needs someone in his or corner. Sometimes
their teachers are all they have. Working together to create curriculum
and to teach effectively will go a long way in enhancing learning in a
large class. The working of the team ensures that each student gets the
needed attention at all times.

3.2 Teacher Competences

1. The teacher must be able to learn and use students’ names. This
helps to ensure a broad based participation
2. The teacher must establish rapport with the students
3. The teacher must be patient and affirmative with the students in
and outside the classroom
4. Develop strategies to encourage students to use office hours to
meet him/her
5. The teacher must try and promote an environment of trust and
mutual respect to prevent the fear of peer judgment.

3.3 Ways of Improving Instructional resources

The majority of instructional resources required for the teaching of

integrated science are available. In the school or home environment,
these include basic tools such as hammer, spinner, screwdrivers, nails,
planks, plywood copper wires, dry cell batteries, simple machines,
beakers, test tubes, funnel, measuring cylinders, tape rules, cardboard
paper, gum, scissors, blocks of various sizes, shapes and colours, plastic
basins rulers. Adequate use of these materials needs to be made by the
teacher.

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt that:

 Most classrooms especially in rural areas in Nigeria are large and
overcrowded with inadequate number of teachers.
73
 Appropriate teaching methods for large classes include
 Class activities, demonstration, projects, ICT applications and
team teaching.
 science teachers require competences to handle large classes in
integrated science and
 improvised instructional materials are necessary in large classes

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. a. Mention any two strategies for managing large classes in

integrated science
ii. Explain the term think-pair-share
iii. Mention any materials you can source for locally

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Angelo, T.A and Cross KP (1993) Classroom Assessment Techniques: A

handbook for College Teachers, 2nd Edition San Francisco:
Jossey – Bass

National Teachers Institute (2008) “handling Large Classes”, In Basic

Science and Technology” In An NTI Tessa Integrated Manual for
the Retraining of Primary School Teachers: Basic Science and
Technology Kaduna: NTI Press

74
UNIT 5 TEACHING INTEGRATED SCIENCE IN
MULTIGRADE CLASSES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Multigrade class
3.2 Planning in a multigrade classroom
3.3 Instructional Approaches for teaching of multigrade
classes
3.4 Creating on enabling classroom environment in a
multigrade setting
3.4.1 Maximizing Classroom space
3.4.2 Use of space outside the classroom
3.4.3 Displaying pupils work in the classroom
3.5 Teaching strategies for multigrade classes
3.6 Active learning strategies for Multigrade classes
3.7 Advantages of teaching in Multigrade classes
3.8 challenges of Multigrade teaching
3.9 Assessment and Evaluation in the Multigrade classroom
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Multigrade classes are classes where you may have children of different
ages and different grade levels. Some rural schools in Nigeria have
multigrade classes due to economic constraints or shortage of teachers.
In some schools also, even the single grade classes are overcrowded and
have characteristics of multigrade classes. Most of our teachers have
been trained to teach in single grade classrooms, therefore when placed
in a multigrade setting, they find it difficult to cope. In this unit you will
learn how to organize multigrades classes for effective instructional
activities.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the meaning and nature of multigrade class;

 plan your lessons in a typical multigrade class

75
 identify instructional approaches for successful teaching of
multigrade classes
 organize suitable physical environment for teaching and learning
in multigrade classes;
 state difficulties encountered by multigrade class teachers;
 state advantages of teaching in multigrade classes

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Multigrade Class

The multigrade class structure is known by different names.

The multigrade class can be defined as a class where pupils or students
of two or more adjacent grade levels are taught in one classroom by one
teacher for most, if not all, of the day.
These multigrade classes are embedded within the traditional grade
system. Students retain their grade level labels and are promoted through
the school with their grade level cohorts.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

what are the various names given to multigrade classes in different

countries?

3.2 Planning in a multigrade classroom

The teacher needs a strategy to help with planning of programmes to be

used in teaching in a multigrade classroom. One way is to create
programmes for the class, with different objectives and outcomes for the
different groups in the class.
Objectives which need to be covered in the syllabus are included and
common topics are identified across the grades.
A continuum or progression of challenges in our teaching will meet the
needs of students in the class.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe how you as the teacher in a multigrade classroom can plan and
organize learning experience in your class.

It is up to the teacher to plan and organize learning experience best

suited to the students in the class. For each unit of work or weekly plan,
you can give the whole class the same topic or theme but the activities
given to the different grade levels will differ depending on what you
want them to learn and the students’ level of development.

76
Table 6:1 Below shows a typical lesson plan in a multigrade integrated
science classroom

Table 6:1
Learning By the end of this lesson, you have collected Materials and
outcomes and displayed real items in a logical way in your notes
classroom to support your students learning
about grouping living things

Use model building as a way of recording what

your student know about different plants and
animals.
Tell your students that they will be developing a Give pupils
Activity 1: display to show non-living and living things several days to
collecting around them. Explain that it will not be right to bring in things
evidence of display real plants and animals. They should not for the display
life around damage or kill any living thing instead like
us (whole detectives they should hunt for clues and Seven
class) evidence of any living thing e.g feathers, characteristics of
dropping, leaves, and seeds. living things:
 Nutrition
Choose six things for the display three living  Reproductio
and three non-livings and display them on n
another table. Gather your student and the table  Growth
and ask them which of the six things are living  Respiration
and how they know this. By careful questioning  Sensitivity
and discussion you should be able to draw up a  Movement
list of the seven characteristics of living things.  Excretion
You might want to include this list of
characteristics as part of the display.
Finally, you could ask students to categorise
things into further sub-groups: animals, plants
and so an. Ask them to think about what defines
each group and where each item is located in the
display
Activity 2: Scientists group things by similarities and Before this
building differences in the basic patterns of their activity, ask your
models of structure and form. One way to find what your students to bring
plants pupils observe about patterns in plants is by in scrap materials
(Small asking them to make models. Organize the scrap and collect some.
groups materials so that each group has a selection to Your scrap
according use. Write the following instructions on the materials might
to grade or chalkboard. include tin,
ability  Talk about what a plant look like Cardboard,
level)  Then make models of plants from your string, straws,
materials. plastic bottles
If higher grades or moveable group finish first, fabric, paper,
work with them to develop a lexicon (a small netting wire.
dictionary) to show which words the students
knew, to describe the part of plants that they
were familiar with (you might find it useful to
put these words round your classroom and
encourage the students to use them when talking
about their models).

77
Adapted from TESSA Science Module 1: Looking at life, section 1:
Classifying living things
http://www.tessafrica.net/node/975(accessed 17 December 2012)

3.3 Instructional Approaches for teaching of Multigrade

Classes

In a multigrade classroom you are expected to spend more time in

organizing the lessons. You will also need extra material and strategies
to help the pupils/students to learn. You can divide the class into small
groups according to their grade levels. Each grade level will be given
tasks/assignments relevant to their level which can be done
simultaneously.

You can also use the higher grade levels to guide the lower ones. i.e the
young can receive help and guidance not only from you the teacher, but
from older pupils. You can also identify best pupils/students and share
instructional responsibilities with them, and encourage them to share
with others in their group, thereby encouraging them to learn from each
other.

3.4 Creating an enabling classroom environment in a

multigrade setting

The usual arrangement of pupils in rows does not encourage effective

interaction between pupils. To create an enabling classroom
environment one needs to follow the following steps

3.4.1 Maximizing Classroom Space

The seats can be arranged in a circular or semi-circular form. This

creates a physical space that makes pupils comfortable and wants to
participate in group discussions. You can also use mats instead of chairs
to make pupils more comfortable and everyone will see each other and
feel a part of the group.

3.4.2 Use of space outside the classroom

The school grounds are rich in resources and can be used for learning. In
the integrated science curriculum the themes “You and your
environment” “living and non-living things”, “You and Energy” keep
re-occuring with increasing depth in content coverage. The immediate
environment outside the classroom can be used successfully to teach
these themes.

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Each group in a multigrade class can be assigned specific task or
activities appropriate for it to carryout outside the classroom

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List some activities that can be carried out outside the classroom

Displaying Pupils work In the classroom

Students work can be displayed creatively on the walls inside the

classroom. This makes the classroom attractive despite the different
grade levels in the class and makes it more welcoming.
They can even elicit questions from the pupils.

3.5 Teaching Strategies for Multigrades Classes

The most frequently used approach is to teach the groups separately. If

one group is receiving instructions from the teacher, the other group will
be undertaking group work or individual work. Another approach is to
teach the groups at the same time but giving them different levels of
activities to suit their age and development. Grouping strategically, you
can divide your students into mixed ability groups. This will encourage
students of different background to include each other in their work.

You can also group students by age or grade for skill subjects. You can
prepare flexible and appropriate materials for teaching. These materials
must be varied and made challenging to accommodate the learning
needs of students with different levels of ability. You can develop a
variety of worksheet, to be used with diverse groups in multigrade
classroom situation. These will include teacher guided activity sheets,
group learning worksheets and peer directed instruction workshops.

3.6 Active Learning Strategies for Multigrade classes

The following teaching strategies culled from TESSA key resources can
be used in multigrade classes
- Round: each pupil has a two or three minutes opportunity to
express his or her point of view on a given topic while others
listen
- Brainstorm: ask pupils to think individually about an issue or
problem for example ‘why is water becoming scarce? Or how can
we improve our school? And to list its possible causes, stress that
people working together can create more than an individual
alone.
- Simulation and games: ask pupils to role-play a situation, ‘what
will you do if you were confronted by a bully? By creating

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situations that are momentarily real, your pupils can practice
coping with stressful, unfamiliar or complex situations.
- Peer teaching: randomly select pupils to find out about a specific
topic and then teach the basics of the material to a partner, group
or the entire class.

3.7 Advantages of Teaching in Multigrade Classes

1. It helps children especially in remote and isolated areas realize

their right to education and therefore learn what they need and
want to learn.
2. It is a cost effective approach to providing schooling to children
often excluded from the education system
3. It encourage children from different backgrounds to learn with
the help of their peers and therefore promotes cohesiveness,
cooperation, and healthy competition among students
4. It benefits the multigrade teacher by helping him to plan his work
better and be more efficient in the use of time
5. It contributes to student’s cognitive development.

3.8 Challenges of Multigrade Teaching

The function of the teacher in a multigrade classroom is much more

complicated and demanding than the role of the teacher in a monograde
classroom. Most teachers in multigrade classrooms are either untrained
or trained in monograde pedagogy.

They have few teaching and learning resources. Another challenge is

balancing time and multi-tasking. All these will affect the functions of
the teacher in the classroom.
To overcome these challenges efforts should be made by education
authorities to train these teachers. They should also try and reverse the
teachers negative view about multigrade teaching.

3.9 Assessment and Evaluation in the Multigrade Classroom

Assessment and evaluation are part of the instructional process. They are
ongoing and centered both in the classroom and in the daily activities of
the students. The assessment of students may be done daily or on a
periodic basis depending on the size of the class and the capacity of the
teacher to work with each student. It is important to note that assessment
is not a one-time event but is cyclical and continuous. It can be done
before a new topic, during a lesson, at the end of a topic, or at the end of
a term, or the school year.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has described the nature and definition of multigrade

classroom. It has introduced some useful method/strategies on teaching
in multigrade classrooms.

It has also emphasized that all teachings should be student centred and
the teacher should make every effort to accommodate the learning needs
of each student in the class.

6.0 ASSIGNMENT

Plan a lesson to teach your multigrade class the topic classifying Living
Things

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

National Teachers Institute (2008): “Teaching Science and Technology

in Multigrade Classes” in An NTI – TESSA integrated Manual for
Re-training of Primary School Teachers: Basic Science and
Technology. Kaduna: NTI Press.

UNESCO (2013) Practical Tips for Teaching Multigrade Classes

Bangkok: UNESCO.

TESSA (2003); Key Resource: Working with Multigrade Classes

http://www.tessafrica.net

81
UNIT 6 TEACHING INTEGRATED SCIENCE TO
MIXED ABILITY GROUPS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Mixed Ability Groups
3.2 Area or Skill of Mixed Ability
3.2.1 Manipulation skill
3.2.2 Communication skill
3.2.3 Intelligent quotient
3.2.4 Cultural and Religious beliefs
3.2.5 Social cultural background
33 Implications of Mixed Ability Group in Teaching Science
4.4 Caring of student with special needs in the teaching of
integrated Science: The role of a science teacher
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Students in Integrated Science classroom come from different

backgrounds, beliefs, cultures and mental levels. This has implication
for the science teacher in the classroom who is responsible for imparting
science to the student. In the same classroom, you may find students
who can read and write and communicate effectively in the classroom.
Again there are some who can neither read no write nor communicate
effectively. Hence we have students with mixed abilities in the class. In
this unit we are going to discuss how an integrated science teacher can
effectively teach science in this type of class.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. explain the term mixed ability.
2. mention and describe area or skill where mixed ability occurs.
3. suggest ways for effective learning of the subject by the whole
group of learners;
4. mention the implications of caring for learners with special
educational need.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Mixed Ability Groups

Learners in the science classroom are individuals that come from

different backgrounds, different cultures, beliefs, they also have
different mental level. Some can read and write and communicate very
well while others may not be able to read nor write nor communicate.
Some others may have physical challenges such as impaired vision,
hearing and motor control. All the students here have different abilities
hence the group which forms the class is referred to as mixed ability
group.

3.2 Area or Skill of Mixed Ability

In the teaching and learning of science, the mixed ability are in the
following areas or skills.
- Manipulative skills
- Communication skills
- Intelligent quotient
- Cultural and religious beliefs
- Sociocultural background
- Socioeconomic background

3.2.1 Manipulative skills

The teaching and learning of science involves handling and

manipulating equipment, apparatus and other relevant learning material.
Some student may not be able to carry out the experiments involving the
science process skills of measuring, handling and manipulating
equipment. Some students can safely handle and manipulate heavy
equipment, while others cannot. Some students can draw and label
specimens while others cannot.

3.2.2 Communication skills

Some students in the classroom can express themselves very well in the
language of the classroom while others cannot express themselves.
Some can read and write fluently in the same class, while others cannot.

3.2.3 Intelligent Quotient (IQ)

Student have different intelligence quotient (IQ). Some are fast learners
while others are slow learners. Also some students are fast writers while

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others are slow writers. The implication is that the students do not
reason or understand at the same level.

3.2.4 Cultural and Religious Beliefs

Students, come to the classroom with certain beliefs from home. Some
are based on religion and superstition, others are based on culture. This
makes them to understand science concepts at different levels.

3.2.5 Sociocultural Background

Some students because of their background may not be able to mix and
work with other students. For example, where students are taught from
home to segregate male from female, boys from girls, it becomes very
difficult for them to work in groups or interact in the class.

3.2.6 Socioeconomic Background

Some students because of their background can manipulate equipment

e.g. students who have televisions, gas cooker, electric cooker, pressure
cooker etc other students may not have this because of their background,
so may not be able to manipulate them. In the class where some of these
equipment are measured, used and demonstrated, the students
comprehension and responses will not be the same

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the effect of socio-cultural background on the effective

teaching of science in the classroom

3.3 Implication of Mixed Ability Group in the teaching of

science

Individual students in the science classrooms are different in so many

aspects. They have individual differences; they behave and respond in
different ways based on their belief, culture, interest, orientation and
experience.

Since integrated science class is made of mixed ability groups the

following suggestions according to Atadoga and Onaolapo (2008)

1. Learners’ interest and background should be considered in any

learning activities. The learners should be exposed to their
immediate environment. they should be able to explore their
environment as teachers on their own part make use of materials
within the learner’s environment, to teach.

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2. Mental models and knowledge making skills should be adopted
in the teaching of science. This can be enhanced by providing
both individual and group learning activities.
3. The learning activities should be graded in difficulty levels
according to the learners’ knowledge making skills and mental
models.
4. The teaching and learning of science should among others adapt
science process skills e.g. observation, data collection,
experimentation, making hypothesis, drawing, making inference
etc.
5. For those with writing, reading and communication problems,
they should be grouped and given remediation and tutorial
classes.
6. The learners should be group for group learning activities in such
a way that the mentally sound be paired or grouped with the less
mentally sound ones. Thus they can learn from each other and
they will all have a sense of belonging
7. Varieties of learning opportunities be provided so that learners of
different IQ can learn from and practice further
8. Every learner should be adequately rewarded as he/she makes
effect in any learning activity.
9. Learner’s initial activities should involve demonstrations and first
hand experiences within their immediate environment.
10. Learners should be given opportunity to discuss what they see
happening.
11. Exercise and tutorial should be based on the teachers experiences.
12. Learners should be encouraged to choose their learning
experiences that relate to knowledge in science. Formulate
hypotheses, design experiments (with control where necessary)
and tests. Basically, all levels of learners require descriptive and
manipulative works for effective learning of science.

3.4 Caring of students with special education needs in the

teaching of integrated science: The role of the science
teacher

The integrated science teacher’s task is to identify individuals with

special needs in his/her class. He/she must constantly check and pay
special attention to them in all situations.

The teacher should strive at providing conducive learning environment

that will take care of all students with special needs in the science
classroom. According to NISTEP (1983), the science teacher should

1. Regularly check their chalkboard writing or work to ensure that it

is visible from the backseat

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2. Ask the learners to read from the board individually and
collectively.
3. Move to the front seats learners who cannot read readily
4. Make their writing clear and large if necessary
5. Reduce too much copying work directly from the chalkboard
6. Ask questions around the classroom from all the learners
7. Be alert to learn their names when they are called upon
8. Move nearer to learners so that they can see the moving of your
lips
9. Encourage small group discussions among learners and also
small groups practical work
10. Try to get learners to do some manipulative skills
11. Pay attention to learners who have manipulative difficulties
12. Pay attention to learners with difficulty in reading and writing.

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we mentioned that the areas or skills where mixed ability
groups occur were: manipulative skills, communication skills, intelligent
quotient, cultural and religious beliefs, socio cultural background and
socio-economic background. We equally discussed the implications of
these in the teaching of science. Finally we discussed the role of the
science teacher in caring for students with special education needs in the
classroom.

6.0 ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the role of the science teacher in caring for students with special
education needs.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTEHR READING

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Ilorin: Atoto press

Ltd

Atadoga, M.M & Onaolapo, M. A. O (2008). A Hand Book on Science

Teaching Method Vol 1. Zaria: Shola Press

NISTEP (1993) Course ISC 222. Science Education W”. Tutors Guide
in Monograph Copy.

Ogunniyi, M.B (1986) Teaching Science in Africa. Ibadan: Salem Media

Nig Ltd

86
UNIT 7 LABORATORY FUNCTIONS, SAFETY AND
MANAGEMENT IN INTEGRATED SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 The Science laboratory
3.2 Functions of the science laboratory
3.3 Safety measures to be taken in a science laboratory
3.3.1 Guidelines and rules for storage and safety in a
laboratory
3.3.2 General preventive measures to ensure safety in a
laboratory
3.3.4 Protective devices for staff
3.3.5 Hazardous chemicals
3.4 Laboratory Management
3.4.1 Role of the Head of Integrated science department
3.4.2 Role of the science teacher
5.0 Summary
6.0 Assignment
7.0 References and Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Science teaching in school is becoming more oriented towards a

laboratory approach. Students have the responsibility of learning for
themselves by carrying out experiments in the laboratory. As in every
other sphere of life, there are risks which cannot be eliminated in the use
of the laboratory but it can be reduced to a minimum by observing safety
rules in the laboratory and adequate management of the laboratory. In
this unit we are going to study the functions and safety of the school
laboratory and management of the laboratory.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

 explain what science laboratory is;

 state at least 3 functions of the laboratory;
 list the general rules of teacher and students;
 identify the various types of precautions to be taken in the
laboratory;
 state at least 3 safety precautions to be taken in the laboratory;

87
 describe various aspects of laboratory management;
 list and explain the various records we should keep in a
laboratory;
 formulate general laboratory rules

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The science laboratory

The school laboratory can be any place in the school where students
learn about the world around them employing their different senses of
perception and their mind generating knowledge of their own. This
could be the school farm, the school field, the stream near the school,
the carpenters shop or a room specially equipped and set aside for the
purpose (Mani 1980).
The science laboratory is therefore a room specially equipped and set
aside for the purpose of carrying out science experiments.

3.2 Functions of the science Laboratory

The school science laboratory has many functions. They enable the
student to:
(a) Learn the acquisition of knowledge about the world around us
(b) Acquire the several skills of the practicing scientist such as to:
- Handle or construct apparatus
- Make measurement
- Make observations
- Handle data
- Record results and make inferences, discern patterns and
draw conclusions
- Formulate problems
- Carry out experiments and investigation
- Work effectively either independently or as a group
- Develop scientific attitude and interest.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the functions of a science laboratory?

3.3 Safety measure to be taken in a science laboratory

3.3.1 Guidelines and rules for storage and safety in the laboratory must
put into consideration the hazards that are associated with the materials
handling, such as shock from high voltage, suffocation from poisonous
gases, cut from sharp objects, burn from explosions and fire etc.

88
Everyone working in a laboratory needs to be made aware that he has
responsibility for the safety of others working alongside him as well as
his own safety.

3.3.2 General preventive measures to ensure safety in the

laboratory

The following are some of the general preventive measures taken to

prevent accident in the science laboratory
1. Students should not have access to the laboratory except you the
teacher or the laboratory technician is around
2. You the teacher should always be the last person to leave the
laboratory after each lesson. This is to ensure that the laboratory
assistant turns off the gas, water, electricity and cleans up
3. A suitable fire extinguisher, a fire cupboard for noxious or
unpleasant gases, a sand bucket, a fire blanket etc must be
provided in the laboratory to curb all sorts of accidents in the
laboratory
4. The design of the laboratory should allow free movement to
supervise the students
5. The students should not be too overcrowded in the laboratory so
that you can control them
6. The fitting on the laboratory walls and floor should not stick out
into the pathway in the laboratory.
7. The main control for the gas, electricity and water should be
accessible to you and the students to operate in case of
emergency
8. The laboratory should be kept clean and safe. A daily routine of
duties for the laboratory assistant should be designed.
9. First aid-kits should be made available to students, laboratory
assistants and other teachers.

3.3.3 Rules and regulations for laboratory staff

Below is a set of rules you must follow while working in the laboratory
1. Never eat, drink or smoke in a laboratory
2. Always wear your overall coat at every practical lesson
3. Get familiar with the locations of fire alarm, first aid kit, fire
extinguisher, telephone and other safety equipment
4. Get familiar with the position of the main switches for water, gas,
and electricity supply to the laboratory
5. Long hair or head ties should be well packed and avoid lose
jewelry in the laboratory
6. Be familiar with the emergency route and procedure
7. Avoid looking into the mouth of the test tube while heating or
adding reagents

89
8. Ensure there are no obstruction with the door ways and
emergency exists
9. Never allow your students to work alone in the laboratory
without supervision
10. Always wash your hands before leaving the laboratory
11. While diluting strong acids, pour the acid a little at a time to
water. Never add water to acid
12. Never try to slow down or stop a centrifrige with your hand
13. Always label containers accurately with the name and
concentration of contents
14. Avoid testing chemicals or eating seeds or plants meant for
biological practicals
15. Do not sniff materials that may be toxic
16. Always use the fume chamber in carrying out experiment that
produces harmful gases.
17. Do not handle materials or operate equipment you are not
familiar with
18. All apparatus not in immediate use should be kept in cupboards
19. Make sure the laboratory is kept clean after each practical
exercise
20. Make sure all services e.g gas, water, electricity are put off at the
end of the days work
21. Inform other staff of any breakage, faulty equipment and other
defects
22. Check that all Bunsen burners are put off and there is no naked
flame before using flammable solvent

3.3.4 Protective devices for the staff

Some of the protective devices that can be used by staff include safety
spectacles, Gloves, safety shoes, lab coats and aprons

3.3.5 Hazardous Chemicals

Hazardous chemicals can be classified into explosives, gases, flammable

liquids, flammable solids, oxidizing substances, poisonous and
infectious substances, radioactive substance, miscellaneous dangerous
substances.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List 3 safety devices for staff and describe their uses

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Some hazard signs you and the students need to know are shown in fig
7.1 below

Toxic corrosive harmful or irritant

Biohazard
Electrical Flammable

oxidizing explosive radiation

Fig 7.1: Common hazard signs

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Draw the hazard signs to show biohazard, explosives and radiation

3.4 Laboratory Management

Good management of facilities and resources is important for the

effective use of the laboratory. An integrated science teacher should see
proper management of the laboratory as an important part of his daily
duties.

3.4.1 Role of the Head of Department

In the school setting the Head of Integrated Science department is in

charge of the Integrated Science Laboratory.
He is the one that organizes and coordinates the duties of all the teacher
in the department. The head of department is responsible for the
following
1. development of the integrated science laboratory time table
2. integrated science teachers time table
3. science club activities announcements and general information

91
He often delegates duties by identifying staff members with their talents
and capabilities

3.4.2 Role of the Science Teacher

The science teacher is responsible for the following

1. Preparation of materials, solutions and specimens: It is the
duty of the integrated science teacher to operate all necessary
materials or items for practical lessons
2. Training of laboratory assistants: The laboratory assistants
should be well trained because students directly or indirectly
learn a lot from them. They should attend workshops regularly.
3. Stock control, requisition and receipt of supplies: As a science
teacher, you should make sure, you record the incoming and
outgoing stock in your stock book. Have a requisition book for
your request and always issue a receipt or sign for supplies made
to the store room.
4. Recording Damages and Breakages: Damages and breakages
should be recorded in this book for replacement where possible,
glass wares such as test tubes, beakers etc break all the time.
5. Accident and First Aid Books: This book should contain the
name of the student involved in the accident, cause of the
accident, first aid administered, date of accident and signature of
the first aider
6. Proper Storage and Distribution of Materials: Materials
should be stored according to their nature. The storage procedure
should be simple for safety and ease of retrieval.
7. Implementation of Safety Regulations: It is the duty of the
science teacher to ensure that students and other support staff
keep the safety rules and regulations.
8. Supervision and Control of the Laboratory Assistant: The
science teacher should draw up the duties of the laboratory
assistant and supervise and control him at all times to ensure
safety in the laboratory.

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you learnt about the functions of the science laboratory,
safety measures to be taken in the laboratory, general preventive
measures and rules and regulations for laboratory staff to ensure safety
in the laboratory.

You also learnt about the different hazard signs and how to effectively
manage a science laboratory.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. State the 8 classes of hazardous chemicals

ii. List two ways in which your body can contact chemicals in the
laboratory

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aliyu, A. (1982) .Teaching Science in Nigeria. Ilorin: Atoto Press Ltd

Mani, T.C. (1980). The School Laboratory Zaria: A.B.U

Ogunsola, Bandele M.F (2004) Laboratory Design and Management,

National Open University Material (in Print)

Otuka, Joe (1987) “Why and How of Safety Precautions in the

laboratory in Nigeria Secondary Schools”. Zaria Journal of
Educational Studies Vol. 1 No.1

93
UNIT 8 IMPROVISATION IN THE TEACHING OF
INTEGRATED SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Improvisation
3.2 The need for Improvisation
3.3 Resources for Improvisation
3.4 Method of Improvisation
3.4.1 Improvising teaching materials through material
substitution
3.4.2 Improvising teaching materials through
construction
3.5 Integration and Application of Improvised materials
in teaching
3.5.1 Preparation of the teacher
3.5.2 Preparation of student
3.5.3 Actual Presentation
3.5.4 Preparation of following activities
3.6 Advantages of Improvisation
3.7 Limitations of Improvisation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Scientific equipment are necessary materials in a science laboratory for

the use of students to aid learning. The bane of integrated science
laboratories are the lack of enough and adequate equipment for the
teaching and learning of science. It is expected of a good integrated
science teacher to be able to improvise scientific equipment/apparatus
where necessary to enable the students to learn. In doing this, the teacher
must be resourceful and willing to improvise. In this unit you will learn
how to collect and make some simple apparatus for science teaching.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the meaning of improvisation;

 explain the need for improvisation;

94
 mention at least 10 resources for improvisation;
 describe the application of improvised materials in integrated
science teaching;
 list the advantages of improvisation;
 mention the limitations of improvisation

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Improvisation

Improvisation is the act of using alternative materials and resources, due

to lack or insufficiency of some specific first hand teaching aids to
facilitate instruction. In most schools, teaching aids or science apparatus
are not readily available therefore the resourceful and innovative science
teacher will have to design a replica of such materials to make them
function or play the role of the real objects using the available material.
This act is called improvisation.

Improvisation requires developmental thought, imaginative planning and

good knowledge. According to Adamu (2003) improvisation helps the
following aspects of learning:

1) Perception
2) Understanding
3) Transfer of training
4) Provide reinforcement and
5) Retention

3.2 The Need for Improvisation

According to Alonge (1983), the need for improvisation among many

others include
1. A way of minimizing cost of equipment
2. Inexpensive method of widening the scope of enquiry
3. Challenge to curiosity and productive application of intellect
4. A means of local application of universality of science
5. Developing necessary science skills, process skills attitudinal and
practical skills needed to function effectively in the society as a
professional scientist
6. Enable the teachers to think and research for cheaper, better and
faster methods of making the teaching – learning process easier
for students hence promote creativity, and self reliance
7. Provide a cognitive bridge to lead students from abstraction and
its attendant or mental indigestion to a nodding acquaintance with
reality.

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In Nigeria, the explosion in school enrolment, and the poor state of the
nation’s economy create a serious scarcity of science equipment.
Therefore there is the need to provide substitutes for conventional
science equipment.

Improvisation is also necessary because children are likely to show

greater interest and participation in science lessons if they cooperate in
the production of the local materials used for the lesson.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Explain why we improvise in our science teaching

2. Look through your class integrated science syllabus and make a
list of some of the equipment or materials that are lacking.

3.3 Resources for Improvisation

Raw materials that can be used for improvisation are found everywhere
in our environment. The home, the school, farm, mechanics workshop,
market, carpenters shed, blacksmiths shed, welders sheds are all ready
sources of raw materials for improvisation.

Listed below are some raw materials that can be used for improvisation.
Jugs, spoons, forks, pots, biros, cans, plates, cartons, magazines, motor
parts, bicycle parts, bottles, calendars, match boxes, paper, bottle tops.
It only requires the commitment and resourcefulness of the integrated
science teacher to explore all possible sources for the required materials.
Table 8.1 below shows some specific improvisations in integrated
science.
Table 8.1: Some specific improvisations in integrated science

Improvised Item used Functions of item

Beaker Jam jars, cream jars, Used as beakers
Tumblers, glass cups containers for liquids
chemicals and solutions
Burners Hurricane lamp using For heating
spirit, candles,
kerosene stove
Funnels Plastic bottles opened For transferring liquid
at the base
Dropping pipette Dropping teat of Adding indicators or
ear/eye drop liquids in drops
Chromosome Strip of cardboard, Illustrating genetics
wood and paint
Models of organisms Marshed paper, starch, Representing the

96
of organs paint or coloured ink organism or showing
the organ looks
Insect catching nets Mosquito net, wooden Catching insects
or aluminium ring
Circuit board Plywood, metal strip, For experiments on
wire, torch light, bulb, conversation of
batteries and paper clip chemical energy to
light
Concave/convex Base of empty Experiments on light
mirror insecticide cans
Prism A glass of water For colour spectrum
Polygons and other Cardboard or metal For teaching geometry
geometrical shapes sheet well cut into
fitting shapes, gum.
Molecular models Coloured beads, tennis To teach bonding in
egg, gum molecules

Source: A Handbook on science teaching methods

Vol. 1 by Atadoga M.M and Onaolapo M.A.O

3.4 Method of Improvisation

3.4.1 Improvising teaching material through material

substitution

The use of most of the local materials listed above is done through
substitution. This is because an already existing local material is used in
place of a piece of equipment that is not available. For example beakers
are replaced by jam jars, bottle tops used to replace funnels etc.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List a few examples of science apparatus that you can improvise through
substitution process.

3.4.2 Improvising Teaching Materials through Construction

It is not possible to find suitable substitute for every piece of science

equipment in the laboratory. The topics requiring the use of these
apparatus have to be taught. In this situation the teacher in forced to
construct a new instrument to serve the purpose.

We will now look at the construction of a few teaching materials to

illustrate how original pieces of equipment can be improvised in the
school

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3.4.2.1 Construction of an Insect net

Materials
This can be made from a broom or mopper handle, some heavy wire and
mosquito netting.

Procedure
Read the wire into a circle of about 35 to 45cm in diameter
1. Twist the ends together to form a straight section at least 15cm
length
2. Then fasten it to the end of the broom or mopper handle
3. Cut a piece of mosquito netting to form a net about 75cm deep
4. Sew a piece of cloth to the cut edge of the net
5. Then fasten it to the circular wire fram by stitching.

Fig 8.1: An insect net

3.4.2.2 Construction of a can-burner

Materials
Empty bournvita or ovaltine tin, with lid, a wick, kerosene or palm oil

Procedure
1. Make between 3 and 6 holes on the upper half of the body of the
tin
2. Make another hole at the centre of the tin lid
3. Put some kerosene or palm oil into the tin
4. Insert the wick into the hole of tin lid

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Flame

Wick
I . I . I . I . I . I . I .i . I. I.
Hole I I I I I I I I… I I I I …I I I I I
I I I I…. I I I I I I I I I…. I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I…. I I …….
Body of can I I I I I I I ….I I I I I I I I I I
I… I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

IIIIIIIIIIII
Fig 8.2: A can burner

3.4.2.3 Construction of a simple pulley

IIIIIIIIIIII
Materials
Clothes hanger and cotton reel

Procedure
1. At a distance of about
I I I20cm
I I I I I Ifrom
I I I the hook of the hanger, cut off
both wires of the hanger
2. Bend the ends of each of the two wires at right angles and pass
them through opposite ends of the cotton reel
3. Make the wires suchI Ithat
I I I I they
I I I I I would
I permit easy turning of the
reel.

Fig 8.3: A sample pulley

3.4.2.4 Construction of Improvised Aquarium

Materials – medium sized strong cardboard box, large transparent

plastic, razor blade or sharp knife, marker pen, paper clips, marking
tape.

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Procedure
1. Mark and cut two windows in each long side and one on each
short side
2. Fold the top flaps inside and cut off any bits that cross the
windows you have cut.
3. Tape down the top flaps firmly inside the box
4. Place the plastic bag into the box pressing it firmly right down
into the corners
5. Fold it over the top of the box and fasten it down with paperclips
6. Put a layer of sand in the bottom making sure that the plastic is in
contact with the cardboard at all points particulars the corners
7. Move box to its permanent home position
8. Fill carefully with water and adjust plastic as necessary
9. Trim off the excess plastic and fasten it down with tape

Fig 8.4: Improvised Aquarium

The improvised aquarium is now completed and can be used to preserve

some fishes

3.5 Integration and Application of Improvised Materials in

Teaching

This is the systematic step by step presentation or application of

improvised materials in teaching. The application of the materials must
be done carefully and tactfully.
According to Shabani & Okebukola (2001), there are four basic steps to
follow
1. Preparation of the teacher
2. Preparation of the students

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3. Actual presentation
4. Preparation of follow up activities

3.5.1 Preparation of the Teacher

- The teacher has to process the materials well ahead of time

- Consider how the material can help in achieving the objectives of
the lesson
- Plan the integration in the lesson and follow it

3.5.2 Preparation of Student

- Students must be prepared psychologically with some

explanation and reasons for the particular materials to be used.
- There should be clear guidance about the areas of importance to
study and step by step directions of what students need to do
during the lesson
- New words or terms associated with the material must be defined
clearly.

3.5.3 Actual Presentation

The improvised material must be appropriately applied at the different

stages viz introductory, content presentation and summary
The teacher must be careful not to allow the students to loose sight of its
objectives since the main reason for the improvisation is the
achievement of stated objectives.

3.5.4 Preparation of follow-up activities

The teacher must evaluate the success or otherwise of an improvised

instructional material. This he/she can do by obtaining feedback from
the students.
The teacher should ask questions that relates directly to the presentation
and allow the students to respond freely at every stage of the lesson

4.6 Advantages of Improvisation

According to Atodoga & Onaolapo (2008) the advantages of

improvisation includes:

1. If managed effectively and appropriately, it will increase the rate

of learning and will allow the teacher to use more time on other
useful activities

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2. It encourages the involvement of teachers in curriculum design
and development
3. It allows for effective lesson planning from objective
determinations and evaluation
4. It encourages students participation in the process of learning
5. It makes room for individualizing education as alternative paths
and variety of resources are available at the learners choice
6. Learning becomes real and immediate because improvised
instructional aids utilization emphasizes understanding and
practical activities. Improvisation provides bridge for the world
outside and inside the classroom.
7. Improvised instructional materials utilization makes access to
science education more equal and plentiful for all learners, since
improvised materials can be moved from place to place
8. Provision of various, improvised instructional materials helps the
child to discover himself and his true ability.
9. Visual support is very helpful in the teaching and consolidating
vocabulary which in turn affects the reading ability of students
and can help students to associate words and objects or
comprehend what is happening in a particular concept or area of
study (Adamu 2003)
10. Improvisations are very useful and dependable in capturing
students imagination if used correctly. If effective selection is
made, it will motivate students to learn and remember what is
learnt, whenever there is need to recall
11. An improvised material can present the students with a more
authentic picture of the real object, than the teacher can ever
describe or explain
12. The use of improvisation can also facilitate the repetition of an
idea without becoming monotonous (Balogun 1981).

3.7 Limitations of Improvisation

1. Improvisation depends on the ability and skills of the teacher

2. Degree of accuracy and precision may be doubtful
3. Durability, cleanliness or compatibility of the material may not
be guaranteed.
4. Availability of funds may be a limiting factor
5. Lack of professional commitment, competence, creativity,
mechanical skills, initiative and resourcefulness of the teacher
6. Negative attitude towards improvisation by the teacher

4.0 CONCLUSION

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you learnt that science equipments are improvised when they
are not available in the laboratory
Some resources which can be used to substitute real science equipment
include jam jars, tumblers, Hurricane lamps kerosene stove, dropping
teat etc
- Some improvised instructional materials can be constructed such
as aquarium, insect net, simple pulley and can burner
- Improvisation if managed effectively will increase the rate of
learning but its limitation depends on the ability and skills of the
teacher amongst others.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Describe the construction of at least two improvised teaching

materials
ii. List the advantages of improvisation

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adamu, A.I. (2003), “The Importance of teaching aids towards the

enhancement of teaching/learning progress”. Garkuwa Journal of
Education 1 (4) 98-104

Alonge, E.I. (1983) “Improvisation in Integrated Science: A Practical

Demonstration”, 24th Proceedings of STAN, Lagos: 171 -177

Atadoga, M.M. & Onaolapo M.A.O. (2008) A Handbook on Science

Teaching Method Vol 1 Zaria: Shola Press

Balogun, T.A (1981) Principles and Practice of Education. Lagos:

Macmillan Nigeria Ltd

Shabani, J & Okebukola, P (2001). Guide to the Development of

materials for Distance Education. Lagos: UNESCO/BREDA
Publications

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UNIT 9 EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT IN
INTEGRATED SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Evaluation
3.1.1 Purpose of Evaluation
3.1.2 Forms of Evaluation
3.2 Nature of Continuous Assessment
3.2.1 Characteristics of Continuous Assessment
3.2.2 Techniques for Continuous Assessment
3.2.3 Merits of Continuous Assessment
3.3 Test Items Construction
3.3.1 Types of tests
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Evaluation is the estimation of worth of a thing, process or programmes

in order to find out the extent of achievement of the thing, process or
programme. In this unit you will be introduced to the meaning, purpose
and importance of measurement and evaluation, Emphasis will also be
laid on continuous assessment, types of tests, test construction, marking
and grading.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

1. define evaluation
2. describe and distinguish between the two forms of evaluation
3. give reasons why it is important to evaluate
4. construct some test items in integrated science
5. describe some continuous assessment procedures

104
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Evaluation

Gronlund (1971) defines evaluation as the systematic process of

determining the extent to which educational objectives are achieved by
learners.

Cowie and Bell (1996) defined evaluation as “the process used by

teachers and students to recognize and respond to student learning in
order to enhance that learning during learning”.

Again Sadler (1989), Gipps (1994) and Black and William (1998) see
evaluation as the teacher giving feedback to the students, the teacher and
(or students) taking an action to improve learning during the learning
and self assessment.

Evaluation is a measurement of the extent to which objectives set for a

particular event have been achieved. Evaluation in education is to
inform and improve students ongoing learning (Busari 2004).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

(a) What do you understand by evaluation?

(b) Why is it important to evaluate

3.1.1 Purpose of Evaluation

The major purposes of evaluation are to:

i. Diagnose learners difficulties,

ii. Appraise teacher’s instruction
iii. Check learners progress and guide accordingly through the
feedback
iv. Assess instructional programmes.

Evaluation has been linked to improved learning and standard of

achievement. It is also an important aspect of teaching for conceptual
development. Evaluation helps to give feedback to students about their
existing concepts and also helps them to modify their thinking.

3.1.2 Forms of Evaluation

There are two forms of evaluation, formative evaluation and summative

evaluation.

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4.1.2 Formative Evaluation

This is a periodic, intended or development, meant to enhance teaching

and learning. An example of this is Continuous Assessment.

4.1.2.2 Summative Evaluation

This is the usual terminal assessment of student’s performance.

Examples are terminal examinations, end of semester examinations,
sessional examinations

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1) What are the two forms of evaluation?

2) Distinguish between the two.

3.2 Nature of Continuous Assessment

One of the distinguishing features of the National Policy on Education is

its emphasis on Continuous Assessment.

The Science Teachers Association of Nigeria in 1979 defined

Continuous Assessment as a mechanism whereby the final grading of a
pupil in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of behavior
takes account in a systematic way of all his performances during a given
period of time.

In general Continuous Assessment is a method of finding out what a

student has gained from learning activities on a continuous basis in a
given period of time.

3.2.1 Characteristics of Continuous Assessment

The characteristics of Continuous Assessment include being systematic,

comprehensive, cumulative and guidance oriented.

3.2.2 Techniques for Continuous Assessment

The techniques for Continuous Assessment include the following:

1. Testing Technique: This is the technique of giving the students

pencil and paper test at the end of a lesson or unit to obtain data
on his abilities.
2. Written assignment: The student here is given some exercise to
write at his own time and this is later assessed by the teacher.

106
3. Peer Evaluation Technique: Here each student is requested to
assess others.
4. Self Report Technique: Here each student is requested to assess
himself in terms of how much he benefited from the lesson
5. Observational Technique: In this technique the progress of a
student in a learning situation is determined by keeping a
systematic record of the various kinds of behaviour and attitude
exhibited by the student
6. Assessment of Project: This is a means of assessing the progress
of a student by evaluating the student’s physical product.
7. Oral Exchange of Questions: Here the teacher uses the student’s
answers to his questions and questions students ask in the class to
assess the student’s progress.
8. Assessment of practical skills: this is a technique in which the
progress of a student in acquiring manipulative skills is assessed.

3.2.3 Merits of Continuous Assessment

The merits of Continuous Assessment includes the following

1. It gives the science teacher a greater involvement in the overall
performance of students.
2. Provides a more valid assessment of students overall knowledge,
skills and attitudes
3. Enable the teacher to be more flexible and innovative in their
instruction
4. Provides a basis for more effective guidance of students
5. Provides a basis for the teacher to improve his or her assessment
tools.
6. It is diagnostic, providing correct feedback to both the teacher
and the learner
7. It diminishes error of measurement

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the characteristics of Continuous Assessment

3.3 TEST ITEMS CONSTRUCTION

There had been several tests that failed to achieve their initial objectives.
This might be because they are ambiguous and not clear enough. In
constructing tests, it is necessary for the teacher to first determine the
type of test or evaluation technique to use and the specific content areas
and corresponding topics.

107
The teacher then prepares a blue print or table of specification. This
table shows the number of items that will be asked under each topic or
content and the process objective.

The items in the test must be written in a clear language.

Adequate time for answering the questions should be given and a
marking scheme must be prepared by the teacher and should exhaust all
possible answers to the items

Table 1.1: Blue Print/Table of Specification

Process Objectives
Content Knowled Comprehe Analysis Synthesis Application Evaluation Number
ge nsion of items
30% 30% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10%
A soil 4 4 1 1 1 1 12%
25%

B water 3 3 1 1 1 1 10
20%

C 4 4 2 1 1 2 15
weather
30%

D Food 4 4 1 2 2 2 13
25%

Number 15 15 5 5 5 5 50
of Items

33.1 Types of Tests

The different types of tests include personality tests and ability tests.
Ability tests can be further divided into aptitude tests and achievement
tests.
There are two basic types of achievement tests:
1) Essay type of tests
2) Objective tests

Essay Type of Tests

The essay test is a free response test where the learner is given the
freedom to express his or her points
Example: Draw and describe the functions of the human ear.
Essay tests are useful for assessing a few areas in depth and for
assessing the learners ability to syntheses and evaluate.

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The disadvantage is that it can be time consuming, tedious to score and
often subjective and inconsistent or unreliable

There are two major types of scoring: the analytical method and the
holistic method

The analytical method is the most frequently used in integrated science.

In this method, points are assigned to each fact the learner supplies to
test items. Usually the points range from ½ to 1. The points which
correspond to what is in the marking scheme is credited to the
respondent.

Scoring of Essay tests

There are two major types of scoring: the analytical method and the
holistic method:

The analytical method: is the most frequently used in integrated

science. In this method, points are assigned to each fact the learner
supplies to test items. Usually the points range from ½ to 1. The points
which correspond to what is in the marking scheme is credited to the
respondent.

Holistic method: involves reading through an answer and giving a

single mark at the end of the general reading. This method may involve
the use of broad idea which are assigned large number of mark as
compared to small marks of analytical method. This method is
frequently used in subjects like History, Literature and English
Language

Marking/Grading Guidelines for Essay

Whichever method is used, the following guidelines will be useful
1. Prepare your marking scheme as soon as you construct the test
items
2. Mark according to your marking scheme, do not be influenced by
a candidates handwriting or any other feature not in the marking
scheme
3. Mark all responses to each questions at the same time i.e mark all
scripts with question 1 at the same time before moving to another
question
4. Adopt the strategy work-rest-work
5. Avoid working when you are tense or tired, angry, annoyed, or
unhappy.

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Objective Tests

Objective tests are fixed response test. Unlike the essay test, objective
tests provide answers from which a learner has to choose.

Varieties of objective tests include

1. Multiple choice tests
2. True or false
3. Matching questions
4. Completion

For the first three listed above, a question is usually asked and options
are provided but for completion test, the learner supplies the answers

Multiple Choice Tests

Example: identify the group that is not a vertebrate

A. Mammals
B. Fishes
C. Amphibians
D. Insects
E. Reptiles

True or false

HIV/AIDs is a hereditary disease: true or false.

Matching Questions
A B
1. Filtration a. Water borne disease
2. Gold b. Metabolic activity
3. Guinea Worm c. Mineral
d. Methods of separating Mixture
e. Air borne disease

Completion
Tsetse fly is a vector of ______________________

The advantages of objective tests is that

i. it can cover a wide area of topics taught
ii. scoring is easy, fast, reliable and objective
iii. they are good for testing skills to find out how much knowledge
have been acquired

110
4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you learnt about the definition, purpose and importance of
evaluation and assessment. The differences between formative and
summative evaluation were highlighted and the description of
Continuous Assessment a form of formative evaluation were given.
You also learnt about the various types of tests, and their construction,
scoring and preparation of marking schemes.

6.0 ASSIGNMENT

i. What is evaluation?
ii. Differentiate between formative and summative evaluation
iii. What are the advantages of Essay type tests?
iv. As an integrated science teacher select some topic for the J.S 2
2nd term examination and developed the examination questions

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Busari O.O (2004) “Teaching Secondary School Science” In NTI,

PGDE Course Book, PDE 204: Subject Methods (Integrated
Science)
Federal Ministry of Education (1985). A Handbook of Continuous
Assessment. Ibadan: Heineman Educational Books Nigeria.

Shipman M (1983), Assessment in Primary and Middle Schools,

London: Routledge

Aliyu A (1982) Teaching Science in Nigeria. Ilorin: Atoto Press Ltd

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UNIT 10 CONSOLIDATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Preparation for teaching integrated science lessons
3.2 Communication and Interactions in Integrated Science
Classroom
3.3 The use of Team and Micro-Teaching in Integrated
Science
3.4 Management of Large Classes in Integrated Science
3.5 Managing Multigrade classes
3.6 Managing mixed Ability Groups
3.7 Laboratory function, safety and Management
3.8 Improvisation in the teaching of Integrated Science
3.9 Evaluation and Assessment in science
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This module introduced you to difficult topics in Nigeria Integrated

Science curriculum. You will recall that in units 1 to 9 we discussed
preparation for teaching integrated science, effective communication
and interaction, the use of team and micro teaching, management of
large classes, multigrade classes, and mixed ability groups, laboratory
functions, safety and management, improvisation and the basics of
creativity in an integrated science classroom. In this unit we are going to
summarize and highlight the major ideas discussed in this module.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe units of instruction;

 explain the concept of Team and Micro Teaching;
 describe the importance of language to integrated science;
 manage large classes;
 teach in a multigrade classroom;
 manage a science laboratory;
 carry out improvisation in integrated science; and
 give reasons why it is important to evaluate
112
 describe techniques to aid creativity in an integrated science
classroom

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Preparation for Teaching Integrated Science Lessons

Curriculum and instruction are conceived as a unified whole.

Curriculum is a written document of experience which are provided to
the learners while instruction is the process whereby the environment of
an individual is manipulated to enable him or her to learn to is directly
derived from the syllabus. The lesson plan or note is drawn from engage
in specified behaviours under specified conditions. The school syllabus
is derived from the curriculum and is more or less an examination
conscious document. The scheme of work: It is the final state in
curriculum implementation.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the components of a lesson plan/note

4.2 The use of Team and Micro-teaching in Integrated

Science

There is the need to adequately prepare integrated science teachers in the

light of changes in the curriculum and teaching methods. Two
instructional approaches that are receiving greater attention are team
teaching and micro teaching.

Team teaching is a teaching strategy involving a group of teachers who

are jointly responsible for the planning and teaching of a course, with
each member of the team having a specific role to perform.

Micro teaching is a training strategy used in teacher training colleges to

promote desirable teaching skills of prospective teachers. It is a model
of the normal teaching practice but with slightly different objective.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Differentiate between Team Teaching and Micro Teaching

4.3 Communication and Interactions in Integrated Science

Classroom

There are different ways one can communicate in a classroom. This

includes the use of language, which is verbal, and the use of signs or
113
body language which is non-verbal. However language encloses the
several ways of communication. Language is a problem in teaching and
learning science especially when the language in the text book is a
second language, different from the mother tongue or first language of
the students.
Mother tongue or local language of the environment should be used for
teaching at the lower basic level while English language should be used
at the upper level.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How does mother tongue or local language pose a problem for students
who learn science in a second or third language?

4.5 Management of large Classes in Integrated Science

Some of the teaching strategies that could be used in large classes

include; class activities; demonstration method, project method, ICT
applications and team teaching.
In managing large classes the science teacher must have competences
such as

- ability to learn and use students names

- ability to establish rapport with the students
- being patient and affirmative with students
- promote an environment of trust and mutual respect to prevent
the fear of peer judgment.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Mention any two strategies for managing large classes

4.5 Managing Multigrade Classes

Multigrade classes as we learnt in unit 5 are classes where you have

children of different ages and different grade levels.

The multigrade phenomenon occurs due to economic constraints or

shortage of teachers. Other names given to multigrade classes include:
double classes, split classes, vertically grouped classes, mixed age
classes and composite or combination classes.

Multigrade classes help children to realize their right to education and,

therefore, learn what they need and encourages children from different
backgrounds to learn with the help of their peers.

114
Multigrade classes benefit the teacher by making him to plan his work
better and be more efficient in the use of time. It also contributes to
students’ cognitive development

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Give 2 challenges of multigrade teaching

4.6 Managing Mixed Ability Groups

Mixed Ability groups as we learnt in unit 6 are classes where you have
students that come from different backgrounds, cultures, beliefs and also
different mental levels. Some can read and write and communicate while
others cannot. The areas or skills where there are mixed abilities include
manipulative skills, communication skills, intelligent quotient, cultural
and religious beliefs, socio cultural and socio economic background.
The implication of this is that learner’s interest and learning activities.
The integrated science teacher’s task is to identify individuals with
special needs and abilities in his or her class and constantly check and
pay special attention to them. The teacher should strive at providing
conducive learning environment for all the students.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the areas or skills where there are mixed abilities

4.7 Laboratory function, safety and Management

Science teaching in school is becoming more oriented towards a

laboratory approach.

The science laboratory is a room specially equipped and set aside for the
purpose of carrying out science experiments.

The functions of the science laboratory are to enable the students

amongst others to learn about the acquisition of knowledge about the
world around us and acquire several skills of the practicing scientist.
As in every other sphere of life there are risks which cannot be
eliminated in the use of the laboratory but it can be reduced by
observing safety rules in the laboratory.

In managing the laboratory the science teacher or head of science

department must create a laboratory time table and keep proper records
of materials, stock control, accident and First Aid Books.

115
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the general preventive measures to be observed in the science

laboratory

4.8 Improvisation in the teaching of Integrated Science

Improvisation is the act of using alternative materials and resources, due

to lack or insufficiency of some specific first hand teaching aids to
facilitate instruction. Improvisation requires developmental thought,
imaginative planning and good knowledge.

Raw materials that can be used for improvisation are found everywhere
in our environment.

These raw materials may include: jugs, spoons, forks, pots, biros, cans,
plates, cartons, magazines, motor parts, bicycle parts, bottles, calendars,
match boxes, paper and bottle tops.

Two methods of improvising are substitution and construction.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List a few examples of science apparatus you can improvise through

substitution process.

3.9 Evaluation and Assessment in Science

In unit 1 you learnt that evaluation is the estimation of the worth of a

thing, process or programme. The two forms of evaluation are formative
and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation is carried out during
the teaching process while Summative evaluation is done at the end of
the lesson or end of the term.

Continuous Assessment is a form of formative evaluation that gives the

teacher a more valid assessment of students overall knowledge, skills
and attitudes. Achievement tests are the most frequently used tests in
assessment. The two types of achievement tests are essay type and
objective tests.

In constructing tests it is important to prepare a table of specification

which shows the number of items that will be asked under each topic or
content and the process objective.

116
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the two forms of evaluation?

Distinguish between the two.

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have reviewed units 1 – 9 to consolidate the concepts in

the different units.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Describe the techniques DO IT

ii. What causes large classes
iii. List the other names given to multigrade classes.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Busari, O.O (2004). “Teaching Secondary School Science” In NTI,

PGDE Course Book, PDE 204: Subject Methods (Integrated
Science).

Federal Ministry of Education (1985). A Handbook of Continuous

Assessment. Ibadan: Heineman Educational Books Nigeria.

Shipman, M. (1983). Assessment in Primary and Middle Schools,

London: Routledge.

Aliyu, A. (1982). Teaching Science in Nigeria. Ilorin: Atoto Press Ltd.

117