CHAPTER THREE of industrial drives.

It has the following main

advantages and also some disadvantages.
INDUCTION MACHINES
Advantages:
ELECTROMECHANICAL CONVERSION
 It has very simple and extremely rugged, almost
Three electrical Machines (dc, induction &
unbreakable construction (especially squirrel
synchronous) are used extensively for
cage type)
electromechanical energy conversion. In these
machines, conversion of energy results from the  Its cost is low and it is very reliable
following two electromagnetic phenomena.
 It has sufficiently high efficiency. In normal
 When a conductor moves in a magnetic running condition, no brushes are needed, hence
field voltage is induced in the frictional losses are reduced.
conductor: (generator action)
 It has a reasonably good power factor
 When a current –carrying conductor is
 it requires minimum of maintenance
placed in a magnetic field, the
conductor experiences a mechanical  It starts up from rest and needs no extra starting
force (Motor action) motor and has not to be synchronized. Its starting
arrangement is simple especially – for squirrel-
Electrical Mechanical cage type motor.
system ELECTRICAL system
Disadvantage
MACHINES
E, I T, n
 Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing
some of its efficiency.
Motor
Generator  Just like a d.c. shunt motor, its speed decreases
with increase in load

Figure 3.1 Electromechanical energy conversion  Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of
a d.c shunt motor
Note that the two systems in Figure 3.1, electrical and
mechanical, are different in nature. In electrical 3.1 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
system the primary quantities involved are voltage & Three-phase AC induction motors are commonly
current while in mechanical system, the analogous used in industrial applications. This type of motor has
quantities are torque & speed. The coupling medium three main parts, rotor, stator, and enclosure. The
between these different systems is the magnetic field. stator and rotor do the work, and the enclosure
INTRODUCTION protects the stator and rotor.

The induction machine is the most rugged and the a) Stator

most widely used machine in industry. The induction The stator is composed of laminations of high-grade
machine has a stator and a rotor mounted on bearings sheet steel and is built up of sheet steel lamination of
and separated from the stator by an air gap. However, 0.4 to 0.5mm thickness. Laminations are insulated
in the induction machine both stator winding and from each other by means of varnish coating or oxide
rotor winding carry alternating current. The A three-phase winding is put in slots punched out on
alternating current (ac) is supplied to the stator the inner surface of the stator frame.. Greater the
winding machine. number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa. The
The induction machine can operate both as a motor stator windings, when supplied with 3-phase currents,
and as a generator. The induction machine is produce a magnetic flux which is of constant
extensively used as a motor in many applications. magnitude but which revolves (or rotates) at
120. f
Of all the a.c motors the poly-phase induction motor Ns 
P
is the one which is extensively used for various kinds synchronous speed (given by ).

1
b) Rotor Figure 3.3 Cut-away view of squirrel cage IM
The rotor also consists of laminated ferromagnetic 1.Shaft ; 2. Ball bearings; 3. Bearings shield; 4.
material, with slots punched out on the outer surface. Terminal box ; 5. Fan (ventilator) ; 6. Ball bearings;
Two types of rotor construction is normally used for 7. Bearings shield;8. Ventilator shield ; 9. Rotor
three phase induction motor. core; 10. Stator core; 11. Frame; 12. Basement
Bearings, mounted on the shaft, support the rotor and
Aluminum
allow it to turn. ring

I. Squirrel-cage rotor: Motors employing

this type of rotor are known as squirrel-
cage induction motors. Shaft
Shaft
II. Phase-wound or wound rotor: Motors Fan
employing this type of rotor are variously blades
Laminated
known as phase-wound motors or wound iron core
motors or slip-ring motors.
Fan
Aluminum
Squirrel –Cage Rotor blades
bars

Almost 90 per cent of induction motors are squirrel- a)

cage type, because this type ‘rotor' has the simplest
and most rugged construction imaginable and is
almost indestructible. The squirrel cage rotor is so Figure 3.4 a) Real squirrel cage rotor and
called because its construction is reminiscent of the b) Schematic diagram of cage rotor
rotating exercise wheels found in some pet cages. The rotor slots are usually not quit parallel to the
The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core shaft but are purposely give a slight skew. This is
with parallel slots for carrying the rotor conductors useful in two ways:
which, it should be noted clearly, are not wires but
consist of heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys. i) it helps to make the motor run quietly
One bar is placed in each slot; rather the bars are by reducing the magnetic hum and
inserted from the end when semi-closed slots are ii) it helps in reducing the locking
used. The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded tendency of the rotor i.e. the tendency
or bolted to two heavy and stout short circuiting end- of the rotor teeth to remain under the
rings. stator teeth due to direct magnetic
It should be noted that the rotor bars are permanently attraction between the two.
short-circuited on themselves, hence it is not possible In small motors, another method of construction is
to add any external resistance in series with the rotor used. It consists of placing the entire rotor core in a
circuit for starting purposes. mould and casting all the bars and end-rings in one
piece. The metal commonly used is an aluminum
alloy.
Phase –Wound Rotor
This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double-
layer, distributed winding consisting of coils as used
in alternators. The rotor is wound for as many poles
as the number of stator poles and is always wound 3-
phase even when the stator is wound two-phase.

2
Figure 3.5 Cut-away view of wound-rotor induction
machine
1.Ball bearings 2. Bearings shield 3. Enclosure;
4.Stator core with windings 5.Rotor core 6.Bearings
shield 7.Ball bearings; 8.Shaft ; 9.Terminal box ; 10.
Basement; 11. slip-rings

Rotor-
a) wound
Slip-rings

b)

Figure 3.6 a) schematic diagram of wound-rotor b) real diagram of wound-rotor

The three phases are starred internally. The other three winding terminals are brought out and connected to three
insulated slip-rings mounted one the shaft with brushes resting on them. These three brushes are further externally
connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat. This makes possible the introduction of additional resistance in the
rotor circuit during the starting period for increasing the starting torque of the motor and for changing its speed-
torque/ current characteristic. When running under normal condition, the slip-rings are automatically short-circuited
by means of a metal collar which is pushed along the shaft and connect all the rings together (Figure 3.7). Next, the
brushes are automatically lifted from the slip-rings to reduce the frictional losses and the wear and tear. Hence, it is
seen that under normal running conditions, the wound rotor is short–circuited on itself just like the squirrel-cage
rotor.

3-phase
supply

stator

Slip-rings

rotor

Starting
Rheostat

Figure 3.7 Three-phase wound –rotor induction motor with external starting rheostat.

3
c) Enclosure
The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing housings). The stator is mounted inside
the frame. The rotor fits inside the stator with a slight air-gap separating it from the stator. There is no direct
physical connection between the rotor and the stator. The enclosure protects the internal parts of the motor from
water and other environmental elements. The degree of protection depends upon the type of enclosure (See
Appendix D).
Comparison of squirrel cage and wound rotors.
The squirrel cage motor has the following advantages as compared with the wound rotor machine.
i. No slip rings, brush gear, short circuiting devices, rotor terminals for starting rheostats are required.
The star delta starter is sufficient for staring.
ii. It has slightly higher efficiency.
iii. It is cheaper and rugged in construction
iv. It has better space factor for rotor slots, a shorter overhang and consequently a smaller copper loss.
v. It has bare end rings, a larger space for fans and thus the cooling conditions are better
vi. It has smaller rotor overhang leakage which gives a better power factor and greater pull out torque and
overload capacity.
The greatest disadvantage of squirrel cage rotor is that it is not possible to insert resistance in the rotor circuit for the
purpose of increasing the starting torque, reducing the starting current and varying the speed as compared with
wound rotor motor.

3.2 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD

It will now be shown that when three-phase windings displaced in space by 1200 are fed by three-phase current
displaced in time by 1200 they produce a resultant magnetic flux which rotated in space as if actual magnetic poles
were being rotated mechanically.
Let a 3-phase , two-pole stator having three identical winding placed 120 space degrees apart and the flux ( assumed
sinusoidal) due to three-phase windings as shown in Figure 3.8(a). The assumed positive directions of the fluxes are
shown Figure 3.8(b).

 Phase A Phase B Phase C

B
m
3 5 120
0
1 2 4 6
A 120
O
120

θ
C

(a) (b)
Figure 3.8 (a) flux waveforms due to three-phase windings and (b) positive directions of the fluxes
Let the maximum value of flux due to any one of the three phases to m. The resultant flux r, at any instant, is given
by the vector sum of the individual fluxes A, B and C due to three phases. We will consider values of r at four
instants 1/6 time-period apart corresponding to points marked 0,1,2 and 3 in Figure 3.7(a).

4
i) When  = 00 i.e. corresponding to point 0 in Figure 3.8 (a).
Here

3 3
 A  0, B   m , C  m ,
2 2
O B
The vector for in Figure 3.9(i) is drawn in a direction opposite to the direction assumed positive in Figure
3.8(b).

3 60 0 3 3
r  2  mCos  3  m  m
2 2 2 2
(ii) When  = 600 i.e. corresponding to point 1 in Figure 3.8(a).
Here
3
A  m
2
OA
………drawn in parallel to of Figure 3.8 (b) as shown in Figure 3.9 (ii)

3
B   m
2

………drawn in opposition to O B of Figure 3.8(b) as shown in Figure 3.9(ii)

C = 0

3 3 3
r  2  m Cos 30  3  m  m
2 2 2
3
m
2
It is found that the resultant flux is again but has rotated clockwise through an angle of 600.
(iii) When  = 1200 i.e. corresponding to point 2 in Figure 3.8(a).
Here

3 3
A  m ,  B  0, c   m
2 2
3
r  m
2
It can be again proved that .So, the resultant flux is again of the same value but has further rotated
clockwise through an angle of 600 [Figure 3.9 (iii)].
(iv) When  = 1800 i.e. corresponding to point 3 in Figure 3.7a.

3 3
 A  0, B  m , C   m
2 2

5
3
m
The resultant is
2 and has rotated clockwise through an additional angle of 60 0 or through an angle of 1800 from
the start.

A
 B C

 B

Φr  1.5Φm Φr  1.5Φm

i) θ  0 ii) θ  60

Φr  1.5Φm
 C

C B
A
Φr  1.5Φm

iii) θ  120 iv) θ  180

Figure 3.9 Resultant flux phasor of 3-phase IM at interval of 60
Hence, we can conclude the above discussion as follow:
3
m
2
1. The resultant flux is of constant value = i.e. 1.5 times the maximum value of the flux due to any
phase.
120. f
Ns 
P
2. The resultant flux rotates around the stator at synchronous speed given by
Figure 3.10 shows the graph of the rotating flux in simple way. As before the positive directions of the flux phasors
have been shown separately in Figure 3.10. Arrows on these flux phasors are reversed when each phase passes
through zero and becomes negative.

6
A B C


m

0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Figure 3.10 a graph of the rotating flux

As seen, positions of the resultant flux phasor have been shown at intervals of 60 0 only. The resultant flux produces
a field rotating in the clockwise direction.
N.B. The direction of rotation of a polyphase Induction motor depends on the motor connection to the power lines.
Rotation can be readily reversed by interchanging any two input leads.

3.3 PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

When the 3-phase stator winding are fed by a 3-phase supply then a magnetic flux of constant magnitude but
rotating at synchronous speed , is set up. The flux pass through the air gap sweeps past the rotor surface and so cuts
the rotor conductors which, as yet stationery. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary
conductors, an emf is induced in the latter according to Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction. The frequency
of the induced e.m.f is the same as the supply frequency. Its magnitude is proportional to the relative speed between
the flux and the conductors and its direction is given by Fleming’s Right-hand rule. Since the rotor bars or
conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current is produced direction, as given by Lenz’s law is such as to oppose
the very cause producing it in this case, the cause which produce the rotor current is relative speed between the
rotating flux of the stator and the stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts
running in the same direction as that of the flux and tries to cutch up with the rotating flux.
The setting up of the torque for rotating the rotor is explained below:
In Figure 3.11(a) is shown the stator field which is assumed to be rotting clockwise. The relative motion of the rotor
with respect to the stator is anticlockwise. By applying Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of the induced emf in
the rotor is found to be outwards. Hence the direction of the flux due to the rotor current alone is as shown in Figure
3.11 (b). Now by applying the left-hand rule or by the effect of combined field (Figure 3.11c) it is clear the rotor
conductors experience a force tending to rotate them in clockwise direction. Hence, the rotor set into rotation in the
same direction as the of the stator flux ( or field).

7
stator
stator

Stator rotor
rotating fields
rotor Relative
motion
(a) (b)

stator

rotor
(c)

Figure 3.11 pertaining to principle operation of induction motor

An induction motor running at no load will have a speed very close to synchronous speed and therefore emf in the
rotor winding will be very small. This small emf gives a small current producing a torque just sufficient to overcome
the losses such as due to friction and windage and maintain the rotor in rotation. As the mechanical load is applied
on the motor shaft, it must slow down because the torque developed at no load will not be sufficient to keep the rotor
revolving at the no load speed against the additional opposing torque of load. As the motor slows down, the relative
motion between the magnetic field and the rotor is increased. This results in greater rotor emf, rotor current and
greater developed torque. Thus, as the load is increased, the motor slows down until the relative motion between the
rotor and the rotating magnetic field is just sufficient to result in the development of the torque necessary for that
particular load.
Slip
In practice the rotor never succeeds in catching up with the stator field. If it really did so, then there would be no
relative speed between the two hence no rotor emf no rotor current and so no torque to maintain rotation. That is
why the rotor runs at a speed, which is always less than the speed of the stator field. The difference in speeds
depends upon the load on the motor .
The difference between the synchronous speed N s and the actual speed N of the rotor is known as slip. Though it
may be expressed in so many revolutions/ second , yet it is usual to express it as a percentage of the synchronous
speed . Actually, the term 'slip' is descriptive of the way in which the rotor 'slips back' from synchronism.
Ns  N
S%  X 100
Ns

N  N s (1  S)
Sometimes, Ns – N is called the slip speed. Obviously, rotor (or motor) speed is
It may be kept in mind that revolving flux is rotating synchronously relative to the stator ( i.e. stationary space but
at slip-speed relative to the rotor.
Frequency of rotor current
When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the supply frequency. But when the
rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends upon the relative speed or on slip-speed.
Let at any slip speed, the frequency of the rotor current be fr . Then,

8
120 f r
Ns  N  .
p
120 f
Also N s 
p

fr N s  N
  S;
f Ns
 f r  sf
Dividing one by the other, we get,
As seen, rotor currents have a frequency of f r = sf and when flowing through the individual phases of rotor winding
give rise to rotor magnetic fields. These individual rotor magnetic fields produce a combined rotating magnetic field
whose speed relative to rotor is

120 f r 120 sf
   sN s
P P
However, the rotor itself is running at speed N with respect to space.
Hence,
speed of rotor field in space  speed of field to rotor  speed of rotor relative to space
 SN s  N  N s (1  S)  N s

It means that no matter what the value of slip, rotor currents and stator currents each produce a sinusoidally
distributed magnetic field of constant magnitude and constant space speed of Ns. In other words, both the rotor and
stator field rotate synchronously which means that they are stationary with respect to each other. These two
synchronously rotating magnetic fields in fact, superimpose on each other and given rise to the actually existing
rotating field which corresponds to the magnetizing current of the stator winding.
Example 3.1 A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440 r.p. m. For this motor, calculate
the following:
(a) number of poles ; (b) full-load slip and rotor frequency ;(c) speed of stator field with respect to (i) stator
structure and (ii) rotor structure and (d) speed of rotor field with respect to (i) rotor structure (ii) stator structure and
(iii) stator field. For parts (c) and (d), answer should be given in rpm and rad /sec.
Solution. (a) The use of full-load speed of 1440 rpm as synchronous speed gives
120  f 1
NS 
P
120  50
1440 
Or
P
120  50 1
P  4 poles
or
1440 6
Since the number of poles must be even and a whole number, the induction motor must have 4 poles. Note that an
induction motor runs at a speed, a little less than synchronous speed.
(b) Synchronous speed,

9
120  f1 120  50
NS    1500 r.p.m.
P 4

N s  N 1500  1440
S   0.04
Ns 1500
 Slip,
f 2  Sf1  0.04  50  2 Hz
Rotor frequency,
(c) (i) Speed of stator field with respect to stator structure
 N S  1500rpm

2  N S 2  1500
S    150.08 rad / s

60 60
(ii) Speed of stator field w.r.t. revolving rotor structure
= 1500  1440 = 60 rpm
2  60
  6.283 rad / s
60
(d) (i) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. rotor structure
120 ( rotor frequency )

poles
120  2
  60 r.p.m.  6.283 rad / s
4
(ii) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. stator structure
=(Mechanical speed of rotor) + (Speed of rotor field w.r.t rotor structure)
= 1440 + 60 =1500 rpm = 150.08 rad/s.
(iii) Since both the stator and rotor fields are rotating at synchronous speed of 1500 rpm with respect to stator
structure, speed of rotor field with respect to stator field is zero. Thus the stator and rotor fields are stationary with
respect to each other.
Example 3.2 A properly shunted centre-zero galvanometer is connected in the rotor circuit of a 6-pole, 50 Hz
wound-rotor induction motor. If the galvanometer makes 90 complete oscillations in one minute, calculate the rotor
speed.
Solution. One complete oscillation of galvanometer corresponds to one cycle of rotor frequency.
90
f 2  Sf1   1.5 Hz
60
Rotor frequency,
f 2 1.5
S   0.03
f1 50
or Slip, s = fz fl =501.5 = 0.03
120  50
N  N S (1  S)  (1  0.03)  970 r.p.m.
6
Rotor speed,

10
3.4 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL
The preceding sections have provided an appreciation of the physical behavior of the induction machine. We now
proceed to develop an equivalent circuit model that can be used to study and predict the performance of the
induction machine with reasonable accuracy. In this section a steady-state per-phase equivalent circuit will be
derived.
For convenience, consider a three-phase wound-rotor induction machine a shown in Figure 3.12. In the case of a
squirrel-cage rotor, the rotor circuit can be represented by an equivalent three-phase rotor winding. If currents flow
in both stator and rotor windings, rotating magnetic fields will be produced in the air gap.

Stator Rotor
Air-gap

Figure 3.12 Three-phase induction machines equivalent circuit model

Because they rotate at the same speed in the air gap, they will produce a resultant air gap field rotating at the
synchronous speed. This resultant air gap field will induce voltages in both stator windings (at slip frequency f 1) and
rotor windings (at slip frequency f2). It appears that the equivalent circuit may assume a form identical to that of a
transformer.
3.4.1 Stator Equivalent Circuit
The stator winding can be represented as shown in Figure 3.13(a),

R1 X1

V1 Rc Xm E1

(a)
Where V1 = per-phase terminal voltage
R1 = per-phase stator winding resistance
X1 = per-phase stator leakage reactance
E1 = per-phase induced voltage in the stator winding
Xm = per-phase stator magnetizing reactance
Rc = per-phase stator core loss resistance
Note that there is no difference in form between this equivalent circuit and that of the transformer primary winding.
The difference lies only in the magnitude of the parameters. For example, the excitation current I o is considerably
large in the induction machine because of the air gap. In induction machines it is as high as 30 to 50 percent of the
rated current, depending on the motor size where as it is only 1 to 5 percent in transformers. Moreover, the leakage

11
reactance X1 is large because of the air gap and also because the stator and rotor windings are distributed along the
periphery of the air gap rather than concentrated on a core, as in the transformer.
3.4.2 Rotor Equivalent Circuit
The rotor equivalent circuit at slip s is shown in Figure 3.13 (b).
SX2 X2

R2
SE2 R2 E2 S

(b) (c)
Where, E2 = per-phase induced voltage in rotor at standstill (i.e. at stator frequency f1)
R2 = per –phase rotor circuit resistance
X2 = per –phase rotor leakage reactance
Note that this circuit is at frequency f2. The rotor current I2 is
sE 2
I2 
R2  jsX 2
3.1
The power involved in the circuit is
2
P2  I 2 R2
3.2
Which represents the rotor coppers loss per phase
Equation 1.1 can be rewritten as
E2
I2 
( R2 / s )  jX 2
3.3
Equation (3.3) suggests the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13 (c). Although the magnitude and phase angle of I 2
are the same in Eqs.(3.1)and (3.3), there is a significant difference between these two equations and the circuits
(Figure 3.13 (b) and (c)) they represent. The current I 2 in Eq.(3.1) is at slip frequency f2, where as I2 in Equation
(3.3) is at line frequency f 1. In Eq.(3.1) the rotor leakage reactance SX 2 varies with speed but resistance R 2 remains
fixed, whereas in Eq.(3.3) the resistance R 2/s varies with speed but the leakage reactance X 2 remains unaltered. The
per-phase power associated with the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c).

2 R2 P2
P  I2 
S S
3.4
Because induction machines are operated at low slips (typical values of slip s are 0.01 to 0.05) the power associated
with Figure 3.13(c) is considerably larger. Note that the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c) is at the stator
frequency, and therefore this is the rotor equivalent circuit as seen from the stator. The power in Eq.(3.4) therefore
represents the power that crosses the air gap and thus includes the rotor copper loss as well as the mechanical power
developed, Equation (3.4) can be rewritten as .

12
 R 
P  Pag  I 2 2  R2  2 ( 1  s 
 S 
R
 I 22 2
S 3.5
The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.13(d).
X2

R2

E2
R2
1  S 
S

(d)
The speed dependent resistance R2 (1-s)/s represents the mechanical power developed by the induction machine.
R2
P mech  I 2 2 ( 1  S)
S
 (1  S) Pag
1 S
 .P2
S
and
P2  I 2 2 R 2  SPag
Thus
Pag : P2 :Pmech  1 : S : 1  S

This equation indicates that, of the total power input to the rotor (i.e. power crossing the air gap, Pag), a fraction s is
dissipated in the resistance of the rotor circuit (known as rotor copper loss) and the fraction 1-s is converted into
mechanical power. Therefore, for efficient operation of the induction machine, it should operate at a low slip so that
more of the air gap power is converted into mechanical power. Part of the mechanical power will be lost to
overcome the windage and friction. The remainder of the mechanical power will be available as out put shaft power.
3.4.3 Complete Equivalent Circuit
The stator equivalent circuit, Figure 3.13(a) and the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c) or (d) are at the same
line frequency f1 and therefore can be joined together. However, E 1 and E2 may be different if the turns in the stator
 a  N1 
 N 2 

wining and the rotor winding are different. If the turns ratio is considered, the equivalent circuit of the
induction machine is that shown in Figure 3.13(e). Note that the form of the equivalent circuit is identical to that of a
two-winding transformer, as expected.

13
I2
R1 X1 I 2'  X 2'  a 2 X 2
a
I1 Io
Ic Im

Xm E2  aE2  E1
'
V1 E1 Rc R2' a 2 R2

S S

Pag

(e)
Figure 3.13 Development of the induction machine equivalent circuit
3.4.4 Various equivalent circuit
The equivalent circuit shown in Figure3.13 (e) is not convenient to use for predicting the performance of the
induction machine. As a result, several simplified versions have been proposed in various textbooks on electric
machines. There is no general agreement on how to treat the shunt branch (i.e., R c and Xm), particularly the
resistance RC representing the core loss in the machine. Some of the commonly used versions of the equivalent
circuit are discussed here.
3.4.5 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
If the voltage drop across R 1 and X1 is small and the terminal voltage V 1 does not appreciably differ from the
induced voltage E1, the magnetizing branch (i.e. Rc and Xm), can be moved to the machine terminals as shown in
Figure 3.14 (a).

R1 X1 X’2
I1
Io I’2

V1 Rc Xm R2'
S

Pag

(a)
This approximation of the equivalent circuit will considerably simplify computation, because the excitation current
(Io) and the load component (I' 2) of the machine current can be directly computed from the terminal voltage V 1 by
dividing it by the corresponding impedance.
Note that if the induction machine is connected to a supply of fixed voltage and frequency the stator core loss is
fixed. At no load, the machine will operate close to synchronous speed. Therefore, the rotor frequency f 2 is very
small and hence rotor core loss is very small. At a lower speed f 2 increases and so does the rotor core loss. The total
core losses thus increase as the speed falls. On the other hand, at no load, friction and windage losses are maximum
and as speed falls these losses decreases. Therefore, if a machine operates from a constant voltage and constant-
frequency source, the sum of core losses and friction and windage losses remains essentially constant at all operating
speeds. These losses can thus be lumped together and termed the constant rotational losses of the induction machine.
If the core loss is lumped with the windage and frication loss R c can be removed from the equivalent circuit, as
shown in Figure 3.14(b).

14
R1 X1 X’2
I1
Io I’2

V1 Xm R2'
S

Pag

(b)
Figure 3.14 Approximate equivalent circuit of Induction motor
3.4.6 IEEE Recommended Equivalent Circuit
In the induction machine, because of its air gap, the exciting current Io is high of the order of 30 to 50 percent of the
full-load current. The leakage Reactance X 1 is also high . The IEEE recommends that in such situation, the
magnetizing reactance Xm not be moved to the machine terminals (as is done in Figure 3.14b), but be retained at its
appropriate place, as shown in Figure 3.15. The resistance R C is however, omitted, and the core loss is lumped with
the windage and friction losses. This equivalent circuit (Figure 3.15) is to be preferred for situation in which the
induced voltage E1 differs appreciably from the terminal voltage V1.
R1 X1 I'2 X '2

I1 Io

R '2
V1 Xm
S

Pag

Figure 3.15 IEEE Recommended Equivalent Circuit

3.4.7 Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit

In order to simplify computations V1, R1, X1 and Xm can be replaced by Thevenin's equivalent circuit values V th, Rth
and Xth, as shown in Figure 3.16.
Rth Xth X2

R2
Vth
S

Pag
Figure 3.16 Thevenin Equivalent circuit

15
Xm
Vth   V1
R 1
2
 ( X1  X m ) 2

1
2

Where

R12  ( X 1  X m ) 2
If as is usually the case

Xm
Vth  V1
X1  X m
Vth  K th V1

Xm
K th 
X1  X m
Where,
The Thevenin impedance is
jX m ( R1  jX 1 )
Z th 
R1  j ( X 1  X m )
 Rth  jX th

R12  ( X 1  X m ) 2
If
2
 Xm 
R th    R 1
 X1  X m 
 K 2 th R 1

and since X1 << Xm

Xth  X1

Example 3.3 A 3-phase slip ring induction motor gives a reading of 55V across slip rings on open circuit when
at rest with normal stator voltage applied. The rotor is star-connected and has impedance of (0.7 + j 5) per phase.
Find the rotor current when the machine is (a) at stand still with the slip rings joined to a star-connected starter with
a phase impedance of (4 + j 3) ohms and (b) running normally with a 5 percent slip.

Solution
(a) At standstill, i.e. S=1
55
E2  31.8V
Induced emf per phase in rotor winding, 3
Resistance per phase in rotor circuit, r2  0.7  4  4.7  4.7 
Reactance per phase in rotor circuit, x 2  5  3  8 

16
z 2  r22  x 22  4.7 2  8 2  9.28 
Impendence per phase in rotor circuit,
E 2 31.8
I2    3.425 A
Rotor current per phase,
z 2 9.28
r2 4.7
cos  2    0.506 ( lagging )
Power factor
z 2 9.28
(b) Running normally at 5 Percent slip
Induced e.m.f in rotor winding per phase,
E 2 S  SE 2  0.05  31.8  1.59 V
Reactance per phase in rotor circuit,
x 2 S  Sx 2  0.05  5  0.25 
Rotor impedance per phase,
z 2 S  r22  x 22S  0.7 2  0.25 2  0.7433

E2S 1.59
I2    2.14 A
Rotor current per phase,
z 2 S 0.7433
Power factor,
r2 0 .7
cos  2    0.92 ( lagging )
z 2 S 0.7433
Example 3.4 A 3, 15 hp, 460V, 4-pole, 60Hz, 1728 rpm induction motor delivers full output power to a load
connected to its shaft. The windage and friction loss of the motor is 750 W. Determine the
a. Mechanical power developed.
b. Air gap power
c. Rotor copper loss.
Solution
a) Full-load shft power, Pshaft = 15  746 = 11,190 W
Mechanical power developed, Pmech = Pshaft + Pf&w
= 11,190 + 750 = 11,940 W
120  f 120  60
Ns    1800 rpm
P 4
b. Synchronous speed,
N s  N 1800  1728
S   0.04
Ns 1800
Slip,
Pmech 11 ,940
Pag    12 ,437.5 W
1  S 1  0.04
Air gap power,

P2  SPag  0.04  12 ,437.5  497.5 W

c. Rotor copper loss,
3.5 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

17
The equivalent circuits derived in the preceding section can be used to predict the performance characteristics of the
induction machine. The important performance, characteristics in the steady state are the efficiency, power factor,
current, starting torque maximum (or pull-out) torque, and so forth.
The mechanical torque developed Tmech per phase is given by

R2
Pmech  Tmech . 
2
mech  I2 . (1  S )
S
33331 3.6
Where,

2 N
mech 
60
3.6 a
The mechanical speed  mech is related to the synchronous speed by

mech  ( 1  S )syn
Ns
 2 ( 1  s )
60
11 3.7
and

120 f
 syn  x 2
P .60
3.8
From Eqs. (3.6) and (3.7)
2
I R
Tmech . syn  2 2  pag
S
3.9

1
Tmech  .Pag
 syn
3.10
1 2 R2
 .I2
 syn S
3.10a

1 2 R2
 I2
 syn S
3.11
From Thevenin equivalent circuit and Eq.1.11

18
2
1 Vth R2
Tmech  . .
 syn ( Rth 
R2 2
)  ( X th  X 2 )2 S
S
3.12
Note that if the approximate equivalent circuits (Figure 3.13(b) are used to determine I 2 in Eq.(3.12) Vth, Rth and Xth
should be replaced by V1, R1 and X1 respectively. The prediction of performance based on the approximate
equivalent circuit may differ by 5 percent from those based on the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.15 or Figure 3.16.
For a three-phase machine Eq.3.12 should be multiplied by three to obtain the total torque developed by the
machine.
2
3 Vth R2
T3 , mech  . .
 syn ( Rth 
R2 2
)  ( X th  X 2 ) 2 S
S
The torque-speed characteristic is shown in Figure 3.17. At low values of slip,

R2' R2'
( Rth  )  ( X th  X 2' ) and  Rth
S S

And thus

1 V 2 th
Tmech  . .S
 syn R' 2
3.13

Tmax

TSt NS
N
0 STmax 0 S
1

Figure 3.17 Torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor

The linear torque-speed relationship is evident in Figure 3.17 near the synchronous speed. Note that if the
approximate equivalent circuits (Figure 3.14) are used in, Eq. (3.13), V th should replaced by V1. At larger values of
slip,
R2'
Rth   X th  X 2'
S
and

19
1 Vth R' 2
Tmech  . .
 syn ( X th  X ' 2 ) 2 S
3.14
The torque varies almost inversely with slip near S=1, as seen from Figure 3.16. Equation (3.12) also indicates that
at a particular speed (i.e. a fixed value of s) the torque varies as the square of the supply voltage V th (hence V1).

0%
= 10
V 1
%
07
= 0.7
V1
%
0.5
V 1=

N
NS

Figure 3.18 Torque speed characteristics at different voltages

Figure 3.18 shows the T-N profile at various supply voltages. This aspect will be discussed further in a later section
on speed control of induction machines by changing the stator voltage.
Maximum Torque
dTmech
0
dS
An expression for maximum torque can be obtained by setting . Differentiating Eq. (3.12) with
respect to slip s and equating the result to zero gives the following condition for maximum torque.

R2'
ST max

 Rth2  ( X th  X 2' )2 
1
2

3.15
This expression can be also be derived from the fact that the condition for maximum torque corresponds to the
condition for maximum air gap power (Eq.3.10). This occurs, by the familiar impedance-matching principle in
circuit theory, when the impedance of R' 2/s equals in magnitude the impedance between it and the supply voltage V 1
(Figure 3.16) as shown in Eq.(3.15). The slip Smax at maximum torque Tmax is

R2'
ST max 
R 2
th  ( X th  X 2' )2 
1
2

3.16
The maximum torque per phase from Eqs. (1.12) and (1.16) is
2
1 Vth
Tmax  .
2 syn Rth  [ Rth2  ( X th  X 2' )2 ]
1
2

3.17
Equation (3.17) shows that the maximum torque developed by the induction machine is independent of the rotor
circuit resistance. However, from Eq. (3.16) it is evident that the value of the rotor resistance R 2 determines the
speed at which this maximum torque will occur. The torque-speed characteristics for various values of R 2 are shown
in Figure.3.19.

20
T

TSt
TSt R2
increasing
TSt

NS

Figure 3.19 Torque-speed characteristics for varying R2

In a wound–rotor induction motor, external resistance is added to the rotor circuit to make the maximum torque
occur at standstill so that high starting torque can be obtained. As the motor speeds up, the external resistance is
gradually decreased and finally taken out completely. Some induction motors are, in fact, designed so that maximum
torque is available at start, that is, at zero speed.
If the stator resistance R1 is small (hence Rth is negligibly small), from Eqs. (3.16) and (3.17),

R2'
ST max 
X th  X 2'
3.18
2
1 Vth
Tmax  
2 syn X th  X 2'
3.19
Equation (3.19) indicates that the maximum torque developed by induction machine is inversely proportional to the
sum of the leakage reactances. From Eq. (3.12), the ratio of the maximum torque developed to the torque developed
at any speed is
2
 R2' 
 X th  X 2' 
2

 R th  

Tmax S  S
  2

T   ST max
 Rth  R2   X th  X 2' 2
'

 STma x 
 
3.20

21
If R1 (hence Rth) is negligibly small,
2
 R2' 
  X th  X 2 
' 2

 S 
Tmax S
  
2

T  R2'  S T max
   X th  X 2' 2
 ST 
 ma x 
3.21
From Eqs. (3.18) and (3.21)
2 2
 R2'   R' 
    2 
Tmax  S   ST  S
  ma x  
2
T  R2'  ST max
2 
 ST 
 ma x 
3.22
2
 R2' 
 
S 
 Tmax 
Dividing both the numerator and denominator of Eq (3.22) by

1  S T   S
2
Tmax
    1 max

T 2  S   S T max

1  ST  S  S
2 2

  
max

2 S2  ST max

1 S  S 
2 2


Tmax
 
2  S  ST  max

Hence,

Tmax S2  S2
 T max

T 2 ST S max
3.23
Equation (3.23) shows the relationship between torque at any speed and the maximum torque in terms of their slip
values.
Example 3.5 A 6-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz, induction motor runs on full load with a slip of 4 percent. Given the
rotor standstill impedance per phase as (0.01 + j 0.05), calculate the available maximum torque in terms of full
load torque. Also determine the speed at which the maximum torque occurs. .
Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.01
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.05
Full load slip, S=4%=0.04
Ratio of maximum torque to full load torque

22
2
 R2   0.01 
2
   S 2fl   0.04 
2

 X2    0.05  
0.0416
 2.6
R2 0.01 0 . 016
2  S fl 2  0.04
X2 0.05

Tmax  2.6 T fl
Maximum torque,
R2 0.01
ST max    0.2
X 2 0.05
(ii) Slip corresponding to maximum torque,
Speed corresponding to maximum torque,

120  50
N  N s ( 1  ST max )  ( 1  0 .2 )
6
 800 r . p .m .

Example 3.6 A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.024 per phase and standstill
reactance of 0.6  per phase. Determine the speed at which the maximum torque is developed.
Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.024
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.6
Since the torque under running condition is maximum at that value of the slip which makes rotor reactance per phase
equal to the rotor resistance per phase,
R2 0.024
ST max    0.04
Slip corresponding to maximum torque,
X2 0.6
Speed corresponding to maximum torque,
N  N S 1  ST max 
120  50
 1  0.04 
4
 1440 rpm

Example 3.7 The maximum torque of a 3-phase induction motor is twice the full load torque and starting torque
is equal to full load torque. Calculate the full load speed and the slip at which maximum torque occurs.
Tmax  2T fl
Solution Maximum torque,
T T
Starting torque, st fl

Ratio of starting torque to maximum torque,

Tst
 0. 5
Tmax

23
Since from Eq.1.23
Tst 2S
 2 T max
Tmax ST max  1

2 ST max
0 .5 
ST2 max  1

ST2 max  4 ST max  1  0

or

Therefore, slip corresponding to maximum torque,

4  42  4
ST max   2  3  0.268
2
rejecting higher value
Let the full load slip of S fl. Since the ratio of full load torque to maximum torque (Eq.3.23) is given by the
expression

T fl 2 ST max  S fl

Tmax ST2 max  S 2fl

1 2  0.268  S fl

2 0.268 2  S 2fl
Or

0268 2  S 2fl  4  0.268  0

Or

S fl  0.072
Or rejecting higher value.
Full load speed,

N  N S 1  S fl   N s 1  0.072   0.928 N s
i.e. 0.928 times synchronous speed
STATOR CURRENT
From IEEE recommended equivalent circuit Figure 3.16, the input impedance is

 R' 
Z1  R1  jX 1  X m //  2  jX 2' 
 S 
 R1  jX 1  X m // Z 2
'

24
 R' 
jX m  2  jX 2' 
Z1  R1  jX 1   S 
R2'
 j ( X m  X 2' )
S
 Z1 1

The stator current is

V
I 1  1  I o  I 2'
Z1

At synchronous speed (i.e., S=0), R 2'/s is infinite and so I 2' = 0. The stator current I 1 is the exciting current I o. At
larger values of slip S2'(=R2'/s +jX2’) is low and therefore I2'(and hence I1) is large. In fact, the typical starting current
(i.e. at S=1) is five to eight times the rated current. The typical stator current variation with speed is shown in Figure
3.20.

I1
pu
6
5
4
3
2
1

-Ns 0 Ns N

Figure 3.20 Stator current as a function of speed

INPUT POWER FACTOR
The supply power factor is given by
PF  Cosθ1

where 1 is the phase angle of the stator current I 1. This phase angle 1 is the same as the impedance angle of the
equivalent circuit of Figure 3.15. The typical power factor variation with speed is shown in Figure 3.21.

PF

0.8

0.5

0 Ns N

Figure 3.21 Power factor as a function of speed

25
EFFICIENCY
In order to determine the efficiency of the induction machine as a power converter, the various losses in the machine
are first identified. These losses are illustrated in the power flow diagram of Figure 3.22 For a 3 machine the
power input to the stator is
Pin =3V1 I1 Cos 1
The power loss in the stator windings is

P1  3I12 R 1

Where R1 is the ac resistance (including skin effect) of each phase winding at the operating temperature and
frequency.
Power is also lost as hysteresis and eddy current loss in the magnetic material of the stator core. The remaining
power, Pag , crosses the air gap. Part of it is lost in the resistance of the rotor circuit.
P2  3I 22 R 2

Where, R2 is the ac resistance of the rotor winding. If it is a wound-rotor machine, R 2 also includes any external
resistance connected to the rotor circuit through slip rings.
Power is also lost in the rotor core. Because the core losses are dependent on the frequency f 2 of the rotor, these may
be negligible at normal operating speeds, where f2 very low.
Stator Rotor Friction &
core loss core loss Windage Loss

Pag
Pmech
Pin  3V1I1Cosθ1
Pout (shaft)

Stator Rotor
copper loss copper loss

Figure 3.22 Power flow diagram of induction motor

The remaining is converted into mechanical form. Part of this is lost as windage and friction losses, which are
dependent on speed. The rest is the mechanical output power P out which is the useful power output from the
machine.
The efficiency of the induction motor is
Pout
 
Pin
3.24
The efficiency is highly dependent on slip. If all losses are neglected except those in the resistance of the rotor
circuit,
Pag = Pin
P2 = sPag

26
Pout = Pmech = Pag (1S)
and the ideal efficiency is
Pout
 ideal  1  S
Pin
3.25
Sometimes (ideal) is also called the internal efficiency as it represents the ratio of the power output to the air gap
power. The ideal efficiency as a function of speed is shown in Figure 3.23. It indicates that an induction machine
must operate near its synchronous speed if high efficiency is desired. This is why the slip is very low for normal
operation of the induction machine. If other losses are included, the actual efficiency is lower than the ideal
efficiency of Eq.(3.25) as shown in Figure.3.23. The full-load efficiency of a large induction motor may be as high
as 95 percent.

η Ideal
efficiency,
1-S

Actual
efficiency
0.5

0 Ns N
.
Figure 3.23 Efficiency as a function of speed
Example 3.8 A 3, 460V, 1740rpm, 60Hz, 4-pole wound-rotor induction motor has the following parameters
per phase:
R1=0.25 R2’=0.2
X1=X2’=0.5 Xm=30
The rotation losses are 1700 w. with the rotor terminals short-circuited, find
a). i) Starting current when started direct on full-voltage
ii) Starting torque
b) i) Full-load slip
ii) Full-load current
iii) Ratio of starting current to full-load current
iv) Full-load power factor
v) Full-load torque
vi) Internal efficiency and the motor efficiency at full-load
c) i) Slip at which maximum torque is developed
ii) Maximum torque developed
d) How much external resistance per phase should be connected in the rotor circuit so that the
maximum torque occurs at start?

27
Solution
460
V1   265.6 V / phase
3
a)
At start S=1. The input impedance is

 r' 
jX m  2  jx '2 
s
Z1  r1  x1  '  
r2
s

 j x m  x '2 
j300.2  j0.5
 0.25  j0.5 
0.2  j30.5
 1.0866 

265.6
I st   245.9   66A
1.0866

2N s 2  1800
syn    188.5 rad / s
60 60

V1 jX m 266.5  j 30.0
Vth    261.3V
r1  j xm  x1  0.25  j 30.5

jX m ( R1  jX 1 ) j 30( 0.25  j0.5 )

Z th    0.5563.9
R1  j( X 1  X m ) 0.25  j 30.5
 0.24  j0.49 
 Rth  0.24  ; X th  0.49 

2
3 Vth R2'
Tst   .
 syn ( Rth  R2' ) 2  ( X th  X 2 ) 2 S
3 261.3 2 0.2
   
188.5 ( 0.24  0.2 )  ( 0.49  0.5 )
2 2
1
 185.2 N .m

b) At full-load
N s  N 1800  1740
S   0.0333
Ns 1800

28
R2' 0 .2
  6.01 
s 0.0333

j306.01  j0.5
Z1  0.25  j0.5 
6.01  j30.5
 0.25  j0.5  5.598  j1.596
 6.212319.7 

265.6
I FL   42.754   19.7A
6.212319.7 

I st 245.9
  5.75
I FL 42.754

PF= cos(19.7)=0.94 lagging

3 261.32
TFL   6.01
188.5 (0.24  6.01) 2  (0.49  0.5) 2
 163.11 N.m

Air gap power

Pag  Tsyn  163.11  188.5  30,746.2 W

Rotor copper loss:

P2  sPag  0.0333  30,746.2  1023.9 W

P2  1  s Pag  1  0.0333  30,746.2  29,722.3 W

Pout  Pmech  Prot  29 ,722.3  1700  28 ,022.3 W

Pin  3V1 I 1 cos  1  3  265.6  42.754  0.94  32 ,022.4 W

Pout 28,022.3
motor    100  87.5%
Pin 32,022.4

int ernal  ( 1  s )  1  0.0333  0.967  96.7%

c)
From Eq. 3.16

R '2
S T max 
R 2
th  ( X th  X '2 ) 2 
1
2

29
0.2 0.2
   0.1963
0.24 2
 0.49  0.5
2

1
2 1.0187

From Eq.1.17
2
3 Vth
Tmax  .
2 syn R  [ R  ( X  X ' ) 2 ] 12
2
th th th 2

3  261.32 
  
 
2  188.5  0.24  0.24 2  0.49  0.52 1
2 

 431.68N.m

Tmax 431.68
  2.65
TFL 163.11

d)
R '2  R 'ext
ST max  1 
R 2
th ( X th  X '2 ) 2 
1
2

R '2  R 'ext R '2  R 'ext

 
0.24
 0.49  0.5 2
2 2
 1
1.0187
R 'ext  1.0187  0.2  0.8187

Note that for parts (a) and (b) it is not necessary to use Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Calculation can be based on
the equivalent circuit of Figure. 3.15 as follows:
Z1  r1  x 1  R e  jX e
 0.25  j0.5  5.598  j1.596
3 2 3
T I1 R e   42.754 2  5.598
syn 188.5
 163 N.m

3.6 INDUCTION MOTOR PHASOR DIAGRAM

The rotor m.m.f. F2 lagging behind air-gap flux by a space angle of 90 + 2. The rotor m.m.f. reacts on the stator and
calls for a compensating load component of stator current I 2' such that load component of stator m.m.f. F l' = rotor
m.m.f. F2

I '2 N1'  I 2 N '2

or

N '2 N 2 k w2
I '2  I 2  I2 
N1' N1k w1

30
Here N 1' and N2 are the effective number of stator and rotor turns respectively. In Figure 3.24 load component of
F1'  I '2 N 1'
m.m.f. of the total stator m.m.f. F l, is shown opposing rotor m.m.f. F2. Similarly, load-component
current I2', of the total stator current I1, is shown opposite to rotor current I2. In Figure 3.24, per-phase rotor induced
emf E2 lags  by a time-phase angle of 90°.
I’2
I1
I’2N’1=F’1 F1


Fr Im

2
F2 = I2 N’2
E2
I2
E1

Figure 3.24 pertaining to the induction motor phasor diagram

If hysteresis is neglected then air-gap flux  is in phase with the resultant air-gap m.m.f. F r. As in a transformer, the
no-load magnetizing m.m.f. of the motor does not differ from resultant air-gap m.m.f. F r. It is because of this reason
that motor magnetizing current I m, is shown in phase with F r, in Figure 3.24. The phasor sum of F l' and Fr gives the
total stator m.m.f. Fl. Similarly the phasor sum of stator-load component of current I2’and motor magnetizing current
Im gives the total stator current I 1 as illustrated in Figure 3.24. The stator (or the primary) induced emf E l and rotor
(or secondary) induced emf E2 are shown lagging  by 90 as in transformer.
Complete induction motor phasor diagram at standstill is drawn in Figure 3.25(a), where mmfs are not shown for the
sake of clarity. At standstill, E 2 is shown equal to I2 (r2 + jx2). The core-loss component of stator current, i.e. I c is in
I0  Im  Ic
phase with Vl' or - E1. At standstill, friction and windage loss is zero. The stator no-load current is and
I1  I  I o
'
2
the stator load current is . The stator applied voltage Vl must balance the stator counter emf V l' (= - E1)
and the stator leakage impedance drop I 1 (rl +jxl) as shown in Figure 3.25 (a). The power factor angle 1 (between V1
and Il) at the stator terminals is very high, i.e. stator power factor is very poor at the time of starting a 3-phase
induction motor.
At normal operating speed, slip s is small. The rotor voltage equation now becomes, sE 2 = I2 (r2 + jsx2) and this is
I 0  I m  I fc
illustrated in the phasor diagram of Figure 3.25(b). In this Figure, , where Ifc, is the friction, windage
and core-loss component of stator current. The rest of the phasor diagram is drawn in the same manner as illustrated
in Figure 3.24(a). Figure 3.25(b) reveals that full load power factor at the stator terminals has considerably improved
(0.8 to 0.9 lagging) from its power factor at starting. In the phasor diagrams of Figures 3.24 and 3.25, all quantities
have per-phase values.

31
Figure 3.25 Induction motor Phasor diagram at (a) standstill and (b) a full-load slip s.
MODES jI x
OF
V1 1
V1 1

jI 1x 1 I1r1
I1r1
V’1=-E1 I1
V’1=-E1 I ’2

1
1 I’ 2 I1
I0 I0
Ic


I 2r 2 Im

2
I2 r
2 2
I2
jI 2x 2

sE2=I2Z2
E2=I2 Z2 I2
jSI2x2

E1
E1

(a) (b)

OPERATION OF A 3-PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES

The three phase induction machine has the following three modes or operating regions of operations depending upon
the values of slips:
a) Motoring Mode : 1<S>0
Under normal operation, rotor revolves in the direction of rotating field produced by the stator currents. As such, the
slip varies from 1 at standstill to zero at synchronous speed, i.e. 1 < S > 0. The corresponding speed values are zero
(S=1) and synchronous speed (S=0).
b) Generating Mode: S < 0.
For this operating modes, slip is negative, i.e. S<0. An induction motor will operate in this region only when its
stator terminals are connected to constant-frequency voltage source and its rotor is driven above synchronous speed
by prime mover. The connection of stator terminals to voltage source is essential in order to establish the rotating air
gap field at synchronous speed. In case stator is disconnected from voltage source and rotor is driven above
synchronous speed by the prime mover, no generating action takes place.
c) Braking Mode: S > 1.
For this mode, slip is greater than 1. a slip more than one can be obtained by driving the rotor , with a prime mover,
opposite to the direction of rotating field. But such a use in practice is rare. A practical utility of slip more than 1 is
obtained by bringing the rotor to a quick stop by braking action, called plugging. For obtaining S>1, or for obtaining
plugging, any two stator terminal leads are interchanged. With this the phase sequence is reversed and, therefore, the
direction of rotating magnetic field becomes suddenly opposite to that of the rotor rotation. The electromagnetic
torque T, now acting opposite to rotor rotation, produces the braking action. Thus the motor can be quickly brought
to rest by plugging, but the stator must be disconnected from the supply before the rotor can start rotate in the other
direction.
All the three regions of operation (braking, S=2.0 to S=1.0; motor regions, S=1.0 to S=0 and generator region, S=0
to S=-1) are illustrated in Figure 3.26.

32
BRAKING MOTOR GENERATOR
REGION REGION REGION

Tmax

-NS 0 NS 2NS
Tmax

S=2 S=1 S=0 S=-1

Figure 3.26 torque-slip curve of an induction machine showing its braking, motor and generator regions
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTION MOTORS
Steady-state operating characteristics of an induction motor show graphically the variation of speed, power factor,
stator current and efficiency as the shaft power output is varied from no-load to full load. For a given induction
motor, the operating characteristics are governed by its rotor resistance, air-gap length and shape of both stator and
rotor slots. The objective of this article is to describe the nature of the steady-state operating characteristics of
induction motors and to examine the factors that govern them. Figure 3.27 illustrates typical operating
characteristics of an induction motor. The shape of these curves is now explained below.
speed
1.0
efficiency
Stator current, efficiency, Torque, Speed

P.f.
0.8

Stator current
in p.u and p.f.

0.6

Torque
0.4

0.2

0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25

Power output (p.u.)

Figure 3.27 operating characteristics of an induction motor

a.) Speed
At no load, the rotor speed is near to synchronous speed; therefore, the no-load slip is very small. Also, the no-load
torque, sufficient to overcome the loss-torque required by friction and windage, is very low. As a result of small no-
load torque, the rotor current or the rotor m.m.f. F 2 is also quite small and the load angle, is very near to 90°. As the
applied load torque is increased, electromagnetic torque T must increase accordingly-this can happen only if rotor
m.m.f. F2 and the load angle increase. In order that rotor m.m.f. F 2 or rotor current I2 increase, the rotor emf sE2 must
increase or the slip must increase; in other words the rotor speed must decrease as the load torque is increased. Here
E2 is the rotor emf per phase at standstill.

33
At no-load, rotor leakage reactance has little effect on the rotor leakage impedance, because rotor frequency and sx 2
 sX 2 
 90  tan 1 
 r2 
are very small and load angle is very near to 90°. When the slip increases with an increase in
 sX 
  tan 1 2 
 r2 
load, the rotor power factor angle 2 increases and as a result of it, load angle (90 + 2) is also
increased. This shows that as the applied load torque is increased, the rotor speed falls and both the rotor m.m.f. F 2
and load angle increase to supply the required load torque. The fall in speed from no load to full load is usually in
the range of 2 to 5 percent of rated speed. In view of this an induction motor can be said to possess shunt
characteristics.
b.) Power factor:
The stator current of a three-phase induction motor is made up of the following three components:
(i) Magnetizing current Im: This component lags stator voltage Vl by 90° as in a transformer. Its function is to set up
rotating magnetic field.
(ii) Stator-loss component Ic: This component supplies the stator iron loss and stator copper loss as in a transformer.
(iii) Load component I’2: This component balances the rotor m.m.f. as in a transformer.
At no load, stator current Io is shown in Figure 3.28. The function of the third, i.e. load, component of Io at no load is
to supply friction and windage (F.W.) loss. (For a transformer at no load, this third component is zero). The rotor
power developed at no load, is, therefore, equal to F.W. loss. As this loss is quite small, rotor current and therefore
load component is very small.
V1
' B
1' I 2
1
A
I '2
I0
O

I2

I2 E2

E1

Figure 3.28 Improvement of power factor with increase in load

So the current due to the combination of second and third components is quite small. But the magnetizing current I m
forms a major component of Io due to the presence of air gap in an induction motor. As a result, no-load current I o
lags the stator voltage by an angle 0 in the range of 75° to 85°. Consequently, the stator power factor at no load may
be as low as 0.1 to 0.3, the lower values being applicable for large induction motors.
As the motor is loaded, the third, i.e. load, component of stator current rises above its no-load value. The increment
of load component of stator current above its no load value is responsible for supplying the load torque. The stator-
load component I2' given by when added to Io, gives the stator current OA at a power factor of cos1. With further
increase of load on the motor, the rotor current increases and the stator-load component I 2' when added to Io gives
the stator current OB at a power factor of cos 1'. It is thus seen from Figure 3.28 that the p.f. angle decreases and,
therefore, the stator power factor improves as the load on the motor is increased. The stator power factors of about

34
0.85 to 0.88 are obtained at 80 to 90% of full-load outputs. If the motor is loaded beyond this load, power factor
decreases slightly because of the predominant effect of stator and rotor leakage reactance drops.
c.) Efficiency:
As in other electrical machines, the induction machine losses are made up of fixed losses (= core loss + friction and
windage loss) and variable load losses. At no load, the shaft power output is zero, therefore, efficiency is zero. At
lower values of loads, the fixed losses are more as compared with the output; efficiency is, therefore, low. As the
load is increased, the efficiency also rises and becomes maximum when fixed losses and variable losses are equal.
Maximum efficiency occurs at about 80 to 95% of rated output, the higher values being applicable for larger motors.
If the load is increased beyond the load resulting in maximum efficiency, the load losses increase more rapidly than
the output, consequently the efficiency decreases.
d.) Stator current:
The no-load stator current is about 30 to 50% of rated current, the larger values being applicable to smaller sizes.
With the increase in load, the current rises correspondingly. In the phasor diagram, the locus of the tips of stator
current with increasing loads follows a semi-circle and this leads to the induction motor circle diagram.
e.) Air gap:
In induction motors, for constant supply voltage, the air-gap flux remains substantially constant. If the air-gap length
is increased, then constant flux requires more magnetizing current. This reduces the no-load power factor as well as
the full-load power factor of the induction motor. Therefore, in order that an induction motor operates at a better
power factor, the air-gap length is kept as small as is mechanically possible. Small air-gap clearance in induction
motors necessitates a heavier shaft and high-grade bearings than are required for other types of rotating machines of
the same rating and speed.
Open slots in an induction motor has the effect of increasing the air-gap length (1.10 to 1.20 times the actual air-gap
length) as a result of which more magnetizing current is required and the operating power factor of the motor is
worsened. But an induction motor with open slots has less leakage reactance and, therefore, more T st, more Tmax etc.
Likewise induction motors with semi-closed slots or closed slots requires less magnetizing current and, therefore,
better operating power factor, but its T st, Tmax etc are reduced. In view of this, at the design stage, a compromise has
to be made between Tst, Tmax and the operating power factor of the induction motors.

3.7 DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

The equivalent circuit parameters of poly phase induction motors can be determined from no load test, blocked-rotor
test and stator winding dc resistance. The object of this article is to describe the methods of determining the
parameters from these tests.
3.7.1 No-load test (or running light test)
The induction motor is made to run at no load at rated voltage and frequency. Per phase values of applied stator
voltage Vnl, input current Inl and input power Pnl are recorded.

U A1 W1

V
3-Phase
V A2 IM

W A3 W2

35
Figure 3.29 Circuit diagram for no-load and blocked-rotor Test

r2
s
The no-load slip S is very small, therefore in Figure 3.15 of IEEE recommended equivalent circuit, is very large
 r2 
  jx 2 
s 
as compared to Xm. In view of this, the resultant of parallel branches jX m and is almost equal to jXm as
illustrated in Figure 3.30 (a). Thus the no-load reactance Xnl seen from the stator terminals is equal to x1 + Xm, i.e.
Xnl = x1 + Xm = X1 3.26
Where, X1 is the stator self-reactance.
From the instrument readings at no load, stator no-load impedance:

Vn1
Z n1 
I n1

And stator no-load resistance:

Pn1
Rn1  2
I n1
2 2
X n1  Z nl  Rn1

 The rotational losses Prot (friction, windage loss and core loss) are usually assumed constant and can be obtained
from the relation.

PRot  m( Pnl  I nl2 R1 )

Where m is the number of stator phases and r1 is the per phase stator resistance
Thus the no-load test gives Xn1 and the rotational losses PR.

R1 X1

INL

Xm
VNL

(a)
3.7.2 Blocked-rotor test
Blocked-rotor test, similar to the short-circuit test on a transformer, is performed on the induction motor to calculate
its leakage impedance.

36
For performing this test, the rotor shaft is blocked by external means, i.e. the rotor shaft is held stationary by belt-
pulley arrangement or by hand. Now balanced poly phase voltages at rated frequency are applied to the stator
terminals through a poly phase variac. This applied voltage is adjusted till rated current flows in the stator winding.
Per phase values of applied voltage V br, input current (=rated current) I br and the input power P br are recorded.
Current Ibr may be affected by rotor position; in view of this the rotor should be held in a position that gives I br equal
to the mean of maximum and minimum current value.
Measure the dc resistance per phase of the stator winding soon after this test and multiply it by 1.1 to 1.3 in order to
obtain the per phase effective stator resistance r1.
The equivalent circuit under blocked-rotor test is as shown in Figure.3.30 (b).

R1 X1 X2

Xm R2
Vbr
S

(b)
Figure 3.30 Induction motor equivalent circuits for (a) no-load test and (b) blocked-rotor test
From the instrument readings during blocked-rotor test, the parameters can be obtained as under:
The blocked-rotor impedance

Vbr
Z br 
I br

and the blocked-rotor resistance,

P
Rbr  br
2
I br

Blocked-rotor reactance

X br  Z br 2  Rbr 2

An examination of Figure 3.30 (b) reveals that the blocked-rotor impedance seen from the stator terminals is given
by

37
jX m ( r2  jx 2 )
Z br  Rbr  jX br  r1  jx1 
r2  j( x2  X m )
jX m ( r2  jx 2 ) r2  j ( x 2  xm )
 r1 jx1  .
r2  j ( x 2  xm ) r2  j ( x 2  xm )
2
jX m [ r2  jr2 x 2  jr2 ( x 2  X m )  x2 ( x2  X m ]
 r1  jx1  2
r2  ( x 2  X m )2

2
jX m [ r2  x 2 X 2  jr2 X m ]
or Rbr  jX br  r1  jx 1  2
r2  X 22
3.27
Where X2 = x2 +Xm, is the rotor self-reactance.
Comparison of the imaginary components of both sides of Eq. (3.27) gives

X m [ r22  x 2 X 2 ]
X br  x1 
r 22  X 22
 r2 
Xm  2  x2 
 X 2 
 x1 
r22
 X2
X2

r22
X 2  r2 X2
Since , therefore may be neglected. With this

X m x2 X m x2
X br  x1   x1 
X2 X m  x2
x2
 x1 
x
1 2
Xm

x2
Xm
Usually the magnetizing reactance Xm >> rotor leakage reactance x2, therefore is negligible small and this
gives
Xbr = x1 +x2 3.28
There is no practical method of separating x 1 and x2. For wound rotor machines x1 is assumed equal to x2 i.e. x1 =
x2= ½Xbr

38
For squirrel cage induction machines, total leakage reactance X br (=x1 +x2) can be distributed between stator and
rotor as per the following table:
Table 3.1: Empirical distribution of leakage reactance Xbr
Fraction of Xbr
Class of motor X1 X2
1. Class A (normal Tst , high Ist and low slip) 0.5 0.5
2. Class B (normal Tst, low Ist and low slip) 0.4 0.6
3. Class C (high Tst , low Ist and high slip) 0.3 0.7
4. Class D (high Tst , low Ist and high slip) 0.5 0.5
Once x1 is known, then from Eq. (3.26), the stator magnetizing reactance is given by
Xm= Xnl –x1
Now taking the real components of both sides of Eq. (3.27) blocked-rotor resistance R br as seen from the stator
terminals is

X 2m
R br  r1  r2
r22  X 22

For machines of normal design, X2>> r2 therefore, r2 in the denominator can be neglected as compared to X2
2
X 
R br  r2  r2  m 
 X2 

 Per phase rotor resistance

2
X 
r2  ( R br  r1 ) 2 
 Xm 
3.29
Thus Xm from Eq. (3.26) r2 from Eq. (3.29), r1 form dc resistance per phase of stator winding and x 1, x2 from Eq.
(3.28) and Table 3.1 can be determined from three tests. The equivalent circuit can now be used for computing the
motor performance.
Note: For large motors (above 20KW or so), if induction motor characteristics are required near s =1 (e.g. for
starting torque etc.); then since rotor frequency f 2 is equal to the line frequency, the blocked- rotor test should be
carried out at line frequency and with currents equal to those encountered at the time of starting.
In case induction motor characteristics are required near synchronous speed (e.g. during normal operation), then
rotor frequency is equal to sf 1, therefore, the blocked-rotor test should be carried out at reduced frequency and with
normal currents.
3.7.3 Separation of friction and windage loss from the no-load test
The power input to the induction motor at no-load has to supply the stator copper loss, core loss and friction and
windage loss.
The dc resistance of the stator winding is measured and its per phase effective value r 1 is calculated from the
relation.
r1 = (1.1 to 1.3) (dc resistance of one phase)
For computing the friction and windage loss, the applied voltage to the unloaded induction motor is varied from 1.25
times the rated voltage to about 20% of the rated voltage. The input power, current and voltage are recorded so that a

39
graph can be plotted. The speed, with reduction in voltage, will fall only slightly so that the friction and windage
loss remains substantially constant
From each of the input-power readings, the corresponding stator ohmic loss is subtracted to obtain the core loss and
friction and windage loss, i.e.
Prot  m( Pnl  I nl2 r1 )
Where, Pnl is the per phase power input,
Inl is the per phase stator current and
r1 is the effective per phase stator resistance.
The plot of the rotational loss P rot with variable stator voltage is shown in Figure 3.31. The intercept of the
extraplotted Prot curve with the ordinate gives the friction and windage loss, because the core loss is zero for zero
applied voltage.

Prot

PC

Pf&W

Vrated V

Figure 3.31 Variation of rotational loss with voltage

In order to get a motor accurate value of mechanical loss (friction and windage loss), rotational loss P rot should be
plotted against (Voltage) 2. This plot of Prot with (voltage)2 is almost linear and, therefore, the extrapolation is easier.
Example 3.9 A 10-Kw , 400-V, 4-pole delta connected squirrel cage induction motor gave the following test results:
No-load Test: 400-V , 8-A, 250-W
Blocked rotor Test: 90-V, 35-A, 1350-W
The dc resistance of the stator winding per phase measured after the blocked –rotor test is 0.6Ω. Calculate the
rotational losses and the equivalent circuit parameters.
Solution
No-load rotational losses are
2
 8 
Prot  Pnl  3I 2n l R 1  250  3   (0.6  1.20)  203.92W
 3

Note that the effective stator resistance per phase is taken equal to 1.2 times its d.c. value.
From no-load Test:

40
Vnl 400
Z nl    86.6
I nl  8 
 
 3
Pnl 250
R nl    3.91
3I nl 
2 2
3 8 

 3
 X nl  Z 2nl  R 2nl  86.62  3.912  86.51

From blocked-rotor test:

Vbr 90
Z br    4.45 
I br  35 
 
 3
Pbr 1350
R br    1 .1 
3I br 
2 2

3 35 

 3
 X br  Z 2br  R 2br  4.452  1.12  4.32 

1
x1  x 2  X br  2.158 
2

X m  X nl  x1  86.51  2.158  84.352 
X 2  X m  x 2  84.352  2.158  86.51
And
From eq.(3.29), per phase rotor resistance is given by
2
X 
r2  ( R br  r1 ) 2 
 Xm 
2
 86.51 
 1.102  0.6  1.2    0.402 
 84.352 

Thus the parameters of the induction motor equivalent circuit are:

r1= 0.72; r2= 0.402; x1=x2=2.158; and Xm=84.352

3.8 SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

The synchronous speed Ns of an ac motor is related to supply frequency f and poles P by the equation.
120 f
Ns 
p

As regards induction motor, the rotor is given by

41
N  (1  s ) N s

Where S is the slip

It is found from the above two equations that the basic methods of speed control of an induction motor are:
a) by changing the number of poles and
b) by varying the line (input) frequency.
By the above two methods, the synchronous speed of an induction motor can only be changed. These methods are
applicable only to cage induction motors
The slip can be changed by the following methods.
c) by varying the input voltage
d) by varying the rotor resistance
The methods(c-d) are applicable to slip-ring (wound rotor) induction motors, whereas only the method (c) can be
applied to machines with cage rotor.
a) by changing the number of poles (Pole changing methods)
Four-pole to eight –pole connections
In pole changing induction motors, the stator winding of each phase is divided into two equal groups of coils. These
coil groups are connected in series and parallel with the current direction being reversed only in one group, to create
two different numbers of poles (even) in the ratio 2.1 respectively. When the connection is changed from series to
parallel or vice versa, the current in one group of coils is also reversed at the same time. This technique, termed the
consequent pole method, is applied to all three windings (phases). This type of induction motor has always the
squirrel cage rotor, which can adapt to any number of stator poles.
Figure 3.32(a) shows schematically only four coils of one phase of the windings connected in series, along with the
direction of current in them, producing eight poles in the stator. If the current in coils 2 and 4 is reversed and the
connection is changed to parallel with two coils (1 and 3, and 2 and 4) connected in series for each path, four poles
are formed in the stator (Figure 3.32(b)). It may be noted that the direction of current in coils 1 and 3 remains the
same. Only one type of connection is shown.

S N S N S N S N S

1 1' 2 2' 3 3' 4 4'

1 1' 3 3' 2 2' 4 4'
+ _

(a) Eight pole (Series)

42
N S N S
1 1' 3 3'
1 1' 2 2' 3 3' 4 4'

+ _
4' 4 2' 2

(b) Four pole (parallel) consequent pole

Figure 3.32 Stator winding connection for pole changing induction motor
Normally, poles are changed in the ratio 2:1.This method provides two synchronous speeds. If two independent sets
of polyphase windings are used, each arranged for pole changing, four synchronous speeds can be obtained for the
induction motor. In many industrial application induction motor with 4/6/8/12 poles are used to provide
1500/1000/750/500 synchronous speeds respectively. Squirrel-cage motors are invariably used in this method
because the rotor can operate with any number of stator poles. It is obvious, however, that speed can be changed
only in discrete steps and that the elaborate stator winding makes the motor expensive.
Constant torque and constant horsepower operations
This type of pole changing in the stator results in constant torque or constant horsepower operations. For constant
torque operation, the change of stator winding is made from series-star to parallel- star, while for constant
horsepower operation the change is made from series-delta to parallel-star. Regenerative braking takes place during
changeover from higher to lower speeds.

Constant torque opération: (Y/YY)

In any pole changing (P-pole/2P-pole) induction motor, there are two equal parts as stated above. The changeover
for constant torque operation takes place as shown in Figure 3.33.
1U 2U

2U

2W 2V
1W 1U

1V

1W 1V
2W
2P 2V
P
(a) Series-star (Y) connection (b)
( 2P-pole connection) Parallel-star (YY) connection
( P-pole connection)

43
T

Low
speed High
(2P) speed
(P)

Ns
Ns N
2

(c) Torque-speed characteristics

Figure 3.33 stator connections and torque-speed characteristics of induction motors for constant torque operation
Let V – Line voltage
I – Maximum current that the winding can carry
Then the power drawn from the supply is given by:-
1. For series-star (Y) connection ( Figure 3.33(a))

PY  3 (VI cos  Y )
2. For parallel-star connection (Figure 3.33(b))

PY Y  2 3 (VI cos  Y Y )

It is assumed that the power factor remains unchanged and the motor losses are negligible. With the changeover of
stator winding from series star to parallel star, the power drawn from the supply is doubled. Simultaneously, the
speed is also doubled. So the motor torque remains constant. Constant torque operation is more common.
Constant horsepower operation: (/YY)
The power drawn from the supply is given by:
1. For series-delta ( ) connection (Figure 3.34(a))

P  3 VICos  
2. For parallel-star connection (Figure (3.34(b))

PY Y  2 3 (VI Cos YY )  3.46 (VI Cos YY )

After changeover from series-delta to parallel-star, the power increases slightly (about 15%), if power factor is
assumed to remain constant. The constant horsepower connection is the most expensive, because in this case the
motor size becomes the largest.

44
1U 2U

2U 2V

1W 1U

1V

1W 1V
2W
2V
P
2W

(b) Parallel-star (YY) connection

(a) Series-delta () connection
( P-pole connection)
( 2P-pole connection)

Low
speed High
(2P) speed
(P)

Ns Ns N
2
NS

-T

(c) Torque-speed characteristics

Figure 3.34 stator connections and torque-speed characteristics of induction motors for constant power operation
b) by varying the line (input) frequency)
A variable frequency supply is connected as the key factor in speed control of induction motors.
Constant Volt/Hz operation
The emf per phase of an induction motor is given by

E  4.44  m f Tph K w

The induced emf E is nearly equal to the applied voltage V (neglecting drop in stator impedance). Then, we can
write

V
f
 4.44  m T ph K V Hz
When the frequency is reduced, the applied voltage also must be reduced proportionally so as to maintain constant
flux, otherwise the core will get saturated resulting in excessive iron losses and magnetizing current. The maximum
torque also remains constant under this condition. However, the voltage is not varied proportionally in the lower

45
frequency range to account for the voltage drop in the winding resistance. This type of control (constant V/ f) is used
for speed control below base frequency (line frequency of 50Hz).
As the voltage increase above rated value, when the input frequency goes above base frequency, only constant
(rated) voltage with variable frequency (frequency control) is used for speed control. Under this condition, both flux
and maximum torque decrease as the frequency is increased.
Advantages of constant volt/Hz operations are the following:
a) Smooth speed control,
b) Small input current and improved power factor at low frequency start, and
c) Higher starting torque for low cage resistance
Maximum Torque
Neglecting the stator winding resistance, the maximum torque is

3V 2
Tmax 
2syn X 1  X '2 

So, the maximum torque remains constant as stated earlier for constant volt/Hz ratio for frequencies below base
frequency, except for very low values of frequency (Figure 3.35). This is taken as constant torque control with
constant flux or volt/Hz ratio.
For input frequency above base frequency, only constant (input) voltage with variable frequency is applied as stated
earlier. In this case the maximum torque changes to
2
3 V
Tmax   
2syn X 1  X 2    
'

supply frequency

base frequency
Where,
With α >1 as frequency is higher than base frequency, both maximum torque and flux, as given by volt/Hz ratio,
decrease as frequency increases (as shown in Figure 3.34). This is taken as constant power control with variable
flux.

T Constant T

fbase
Constant Hp

Load
torque

N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7
N

46
Figure 3.35 Torque-speed characteristics of an IM with variable-voltage, variable –frequency control
The torque-speed characteristic of the load is superimposed on the motor torque-speed characteristic. Note that the
operating speeds N1…N7 are close to corresponding synchronous speeds. In this method of speed control, therefore,
the operating slip is low and the efficiency is high.
The operating slip can be changed by
c) Varying the line voltage
Recall that the torque developed in an induction motor is proportional to the square of the terminal voltage. A set of
torque-speed characteristics with various terminal voltages is shown in Figure 3.36.
Note that for this method of speed control the slip increase at lower speeds, making the operation inefficient.
However, for fans, or, similar centrifugal loads in which torque varies approximately as the square of the speed, the
power decreases significantly with decrease in speed. Therefore, although the power lost in the rotor circuit (= sP ag)
may be a significant portion of the air gap power, the air gap power itself is small and therefore the rotor will not
overheat. The voltage controller circuits are simple and, although inefficient, are suitable for fan, pump, and similar
centrifugal drives.

pu
=1 Fan Load
V 1
pu
07 TL  N 2
= 0.7
V 1
pu
0.5
V 1=

N 1 N2 N3
N

Figure 3.36 Torque-speed characteristics with various terminal voltages

d) Varying the rotor resistance
The speed of a wound-rotor induction machine can be controlled by connecting external resistance in the rotor
circuit through slip-rings. The torque- speed characteristics for four external resistances are shown in Figure 3.37.
The load torque-speed characteristic is also shown by dashed line. By varying the external resistance 0 < R ex < Rex4,
the speed of the load can be controlled in the range of N 1 < N < N5. Note that by proper adjustment of the external
resistance (Rex=Rex2), maximum starting can be obtained for the load.

3
T
Rex2 Rex1 Rex=0

Induction
motor Load

Rex

N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 NS N

47
Figure 3.37 the torque- speed characteristics for four external resistances
The major disadvantage of the rotor resistance control method is that the efficiency is low at reduced speed because
of higher slips. However, this control method is often employed because of its simplicity. In applica tion where low-
speed operation is only a small proportion of the work, low efficiency is acceptable. A typical application of the
rotor, resistance control method is the hoist drive of a shop crane. This method also can be used in fan or pump
drives, where speed variation over a small range near the top speed is required.

3.9 STARTING OF IM
Most induction motors-Large and Small-are rugged enough that they could be started across the line without
incurring any damage to the motor windings, although about five to eight times the rated current flows through the
stator at rated voltage at standstill. However, in large induction motors, large starting current are objectionable in
two respects:
 First, the mains supplying the induction motor may not be of a sufficiently large capacity.
 Second, because of large starting current, the voltage drops in the lines may be excessive, resulting in reduced
voltage across the motor.
Because the torque varies approximately as the square of the voltage, the starting torque may become small at the
reduced line voltage that the motor might not even start on load. Thus we formulate the basic requirement for
starting:
The line current should be limited by the capacity of the mains, but only to the extent that the motor can develop
sufficient torque to start (on load, if necessary)
A number of methods is available of for starting both cage-rotor and wound-rotor motors:
Starting of Squirrel-cage Motors
For cage motors, the choice of any particular method of starting depends on (i) size and design of the motor (ii)
capacity of the power lines and (iii) type of the driven load. There are primarily two methods of starting squirrel-
cage induction motors: (a) full-voltage starting and (b) reduced-voltage starting. The full-voltage starting consists of
DOL starting only. The reduced-voltage starting has the advantage of reducing the starting current, but it produces
an objectionable reduction in the starting torque, on account of the fact that motor torque is proportional to the
square of the applied voltage. Despite this, reduced-voltage starting is the most popular method of starting three-
phase squirrel-cage induction motors and consists of stator resistor (or reactor) starting, auto-transformer starting
and star-delta starting. The various methods are now described in what follows.
a. Direct-on-line (across-the-line) starting.
As the name suggests, this method involves the direct switching of polyphase stator on to the supply mains. The
motor takes low-power factor starting current of 5 to 8 times its full-load current, depending upon its size and
design. Such large currents of short duration don't harm the rugged squirrel cage motor, but the high currents may
cause objectionable voltage drop in the power supply lines feeding the induction motor. These large voltage drops
cause undesirable dip in the supply line voltage; consequently the operation of other equipments connected to the
same supply line is effected considerably. A common example is the momentary dimming of lamp and tube-lights in
the home at the instant a refrigerator motor starts. If the supply system is of sufficient power capacity and the low-
power factor starting-current surges don't cause objectionable voltage dips in the supply line voltage, then the direct-
on-line starting should be preferred.
The relation between starting torque T st and full-load torque Tfl is now obtained. Let I st and Ifl be the per-phase stator
currents drawn from the supply mains corresponding to starting and full-load conditions respectively. From Torque
equation

48
1 2 R2
Tmech  . I2
 syn S

R
I 22st  2  2
Tst 1 I 2st 
    Sfl
Tfl I 2  R 2  I 2 fl 
2 fl
Sfl
 3.30
Eq. (3.30) is valid in case rotor resistance remains constant. Actually, rotor resistance varies with the frequency of
rotor current; at starting rotor frequency is 50 Hz and at full load it is only a few hertz.
Here I2st and I2fl are the per-phase rotor currents at starting and full-load conditions respectively.
If no-load current is neglected, then

Ist  effective stator turns  I 2st  effective rotor turns

I st  I 2st  effective rotor to stator turns ratio 

or
Ist Effective rotor to stator turns ratio I 2st

I fl Effective rotor to stator turns ratio I 2fl
or

I st I 2st

I fl I 2 fl
or
2
Tst  I st 
    S fl
Tfl  I fl 
From equation (1.30),
If V1 is the per phase stator voltage and ZSC is the standstill per phase leakage impedance referred to stator, then per
phase short-circuit current at standstill (or at starting) is,

V1
I sc 
Z sc

Z sc  R 1  R 2   jX1  X 2 
Where,
Note that here shunt branch of the induction motor equivalent circuit is neglected.
Therefore, for direct switching,

V1
I st  I sc 
Z sc

Equation (3.30) can, therefore, be written as

49
2
Tst  I sc 
   Sfl
Tfl  I fl 
3.31
b. Stator resistor (or reactor) starting
In this method, a resistor or a reactor is inserted in between motor terminals and the supply mains, as illustrated in
Figure 3.38.

3V1 3xV1

1
xV
Rotor

V1
xV1

Figure 3.38 Reactor (or resistor) starting of squirrel cage induction motor
At the time of starting, some voltage drop occurs across the starting resistor or reactor and, therefore, only a fraction
x (less than 1) of the supply voltage appears across the stator terminals. This reduces the per-phase starting current I st
drawn by the motor from the supply mains. As the motor speeds up, the reactor is cut out in steps and finally short-
circuited when the motor speed is near to its operating speed. Since per phase voltage is reduced to xV 1, see Figure
3.38 , the per-phase starting current Ist is given by

xV1
I st   xI SC
Z SC
3.32
2
Tst  I st 
  S fl
T fl  I fl 
As before
2
Tst I 
 x 2  sc   Sfl
Tfl  I fl 
Or 3.33
In an induction motor, torque  (voltage) 2
2
Starting torque with reactor or resistor starting  xV1 
    x 2
Starting torque with direct starting V
 1 
 3.34
Series reactor is more costly than the series resistor, but the former has lower energy loss and is more effective in
reducing the voltage, because the induction-motor power factor at starting is quite low.
c. Autotransformer starting

50
A fraction of xV1 of the supply voltage V 1 is applied to the stator terminals at the time of starting, by means of an
autotransformer as shown in Figure 3.39.
3-phase
Auto Transformer

ISt xISC

V1 xV1
xV1

Rotor

Figure 3.39 pertaining to auto-transformer starting of squirrel cage induction motor

This reduces the motor current and also the current drawn from the supply. After the motor has accelerated near to
its operating speed, auto-transformer is disconnected and full line voltage is applied to the induction motor by
connecting it directly across the supply mains. Note that here x is less than 1. With autotransformer, per phase
starting current in motor winding is

xV1
  x I sc
Z1
3.35
If no-load current of autotransformer is neglected, then per phase output VA of an autotransformer must be equal to
its per phase input VA. That is

I stV1  xV1 (per phase starting current in motor winding)

I st V1  xV1 (x I sc )
Or
 Per phase starting current from the supply mains,

I st  x 2.I sc
3.36
Eq. (3.35) shows that the motor starting current per phase is reduced only to x times the direct switching current I sc ;
but the per phase starting current from the supply mains is reduced to x2 times the direct switching Isc .
Now

Tst (per phase starting current in motor winding) 2

 .Sfl
Tfl (per phase motor full  load current) 2

From Eq.(1.35)

51
Tst xI sc 2
 .Sfl
Tfl I fl2

 x2
I sc 2 .S
fl
I fl2
3.37
Per phase staring current, I st, from the supply mains can be calculated in Eq. (3.37) with the help of Eq. (3.36).
Substitution of the value of Isc in terms of Ist gives
2
Tst  1 I 
 x 2  2  st  .S fl
T fl x I 
 fl 
2
I 
 x 2  st  .S fl
I 
 fl 
3.38
The ratio of the starting to full-load torque in terms of both Ist and Isc can be obtained from Eq. (3.37) as follows.

Tst x 2 I sc I sc
 .S fl
T fl I 2fl

I st I sc
  S fl
I 2fl
3.39
Per phase motor starting current in terms of Ist, from Eq. 3.35, is given by

1
x I sc  x  I st
x2
1
 I st
x
3.40
For an induction motor, torque  (voltage) 2
2
Tst with an autotransf ormer  xV1 
    x 2
Tst with direct switching V
 1 
3.41
It is from above that with an autotransformer, the starting current I st from the mains and the starting torque T st are
reduced to x2 times their corresponding values with DOL starting, see Eqs (3.36) and (3.41).
d. Star-Delta Method
A Star-Delta method starting may also be employed to provide reduced voltage of start. In this method, the normal
connection of the stator windings is delta while running (Figure 3.40).

52
Stator Winding
U

Run Start

Star-Delta Switch

Figure 3.40 pertaining to the star-delta starting of a 3-phase cage induction motor
If these windings are connected in star at start, the phase voltage is reduced, resulting in less current of starting. As
the motor approaches its full-speed, the windings will be connected in delta.
Thus, the line current under each of these connection are:

Vph VL
IY   with the windings connected in Star ;
Z ph 3 Z ph
VL
I  3 with the windings connected in Deta
Z ph

So that the ratio of the current is

I V Z
Y  L  ph 1

I 3Z 3V 3
 ph L

1
3
Showing that the current drawn from the line under a star connection is only one-third ( ) of that under delta
connection. On the other hand, the ratio of the current in the stator windings is

Vph
I ph Y Z ph 1
 
I ph  3 Vph 3
Z ph 2
 VL 
 
Also Tst with Star  Delta Starter  3 1
 2

Tst with direct switching in Delta VL 3
This shows the star-delta starter also reduce the starting torque to one-third of that produced by direct switching in
delta.
Example 3.10 A squirrel induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.05. The motor starting current at rated voltage
is 6 times its full-load current. Find the tapping on the auto-transformer starter which should give full-load at start.
Also find the line current at starting in terms of full-load current.

53
Solution
Here , motor starting or short-circuit current Isc is 6Ifl.
2
Tst I 
 x 2  sc  .S fl
T fl I 
 fl 

1  x 2  6 2  0.05

1
x  0.745
1.8
or 74.5% tappings
Or
The starting line current is

I st  x 2 I sc  0.745 2  6 I fl
 3.33 I fl

Example 3.11 A small 3-phase induction motor has a short-circuit current 5 times of full load current and full
load slip 5%. Determine the starting torque and starting current if starting resistance starter is used to reduce the
impressed voltage to 60% of normal voltage.
Solution
Starting current,
I st  0.6I SC  0.6  5I fl  3I fl

Starting torque,
2
I 
Tst  Tfl  st   Sfl  Tfl 3  0.05  0.45Tfl i.e. 45% of full load torque.
2

Ifl
 

Starting of Wound-Rotor Motors

The methods used for starting squirrel cage motors can also be employed for starting wound-rotor motors, but it is
usually not done so because then the advantages of wound-rotor induction motors can't be fully realized. The
simplest and cheapest method of starting wound-rotor induction motors is by means of added rotor resistance, with
full-line voltage across the stator terminals. It has already been discussed that at the time of start, the addition of
external resistance in the rotor circuit of a wound-rotor induction motor.
i. decreases its starting current
ii. increases its starting torque (for a suitable external resistance) and
iii. Improves its starting power factor.
At the time of start, the entire external resistance is added in the rotor circuit. As the rotor speeds up, the external
resistance is decreased in steps so that motor torque tends to remain maximum during the accelerating period.
Finally, under normal operation, the external resistance is fully cut off and the slip rings are short-circuited so that
motor now develops full-load torque at low value of slip for which it is designed.

54
Calculation of Resistance of elements (or sections)
Consider one phase of the rotor of a wound-rotor induction motor, with resistance r 2 and standstill leakage reactance
x2. Let R1, R2 ,R3 …….Rn be resistance of the n resistance elements (or sections) and R 1’ , R2’, R3’,….Rn’, Rn+1’ be
the total resistance in each phase of the rotor circuit on 1 st ,2nd ,3rd ,…,nth and (n+1)th stud respectively as shown in
Figure 3.40(a) , such that
R1= R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
R2 = R2 + R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
R3’ = R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
:
Rn+1= r2.

Studs
R1 R2 R3 Rn-1 Rn
1 2 3 n-1 n n+1

r2
R1' R 2' R3' Rn-1' R n' Rn+1'

Slip rings

(a)
Input
current
S1
I1max S2 S3 S4 S5 Sn+1=Sm

I1min
Rn cutout
R1 cutout

R2 cutout

R3 cutout

R4 cutout

Time, t

(b)
Figure 3.41 (a) pertaining to the design of starter for wound-rotor IM; (b) Variation of input current with time
Note that Figure 3.41(a) illustrates n-elements starter, n-section starter, (n+1) stud starter or n-step starter. For
calculation of the section resistances, the following assumptions are made:
I. During starting time , a constant load torque is assumed

55
II. The stator leakage impedance and its no-load current are neglected
III. Stator current is taken to fluctuate between fixed limits I 1max (maximum value) and I 1min (minimum value) as
shown in Figure 3.41(b).
At the time of start, the movable handle is at stud 1 and the rotor circuit resistance is R 1’. When the supply is
switched on to the stator, the input current shoots to I1max and its value is given by

V1
I 1 max 
2
 R1' 
   x 2
 S1 
3.42
Note that at the time of start, slip S1 = 1
On first stud, R1’ remains in the circuit until the motor has started and the current has fallen from I 1max to I1min . At the
same time the slip falls from S1 to S2

V1
 I 1 min 
2
 R1' 
   x 2
 S2 
3.43
As soon as I1min is reached at stud 1, resistance R1 is cut out by moving the handle from stud 1 to stud 2. During the
notching process (the process of moving the handle from one stud to the next), the speed is assumed to remain
constant, i.e. the slip remains as S2 but current at stud 2 becomes I1max as illustrated in Figure 3.41(b).
V1
 I 1 max 
2
 R2' 
   x 2
 S2 
3.44
At stud 2, the speed rises so that the slip becomes S3 and current decreases to I1min,
V1
 I 1 min 
2
 R2' 
   x 2
 S3 
3.45
During the next notching process, i.e., at the third stud when R2 is cut out,

V1
 I 1 max 
2
 R3' 
   x 2
 S3 
3.46
and

56
V1
 I1 min  . 3.47
2
 R '3 
   x2
 S4 
 


and so on

From Eqs. (3.42), (3.44), (3.46) etc, we get

V1
I1 max 
2
 R 1' 
   x2
 S1 
 
V1

2
 R '2 
   x2
 S2 
 
V1
  ................
2
 R '3 
   x2
 S3 
 

From the above it follows that

R1' R '2 R '3

 
S1 S2 S3
R 'n R 'n 1 r2
 .........   
Sn Sn 1 Sfl
3.48
Where Sfl = Sn+1 is the slip under normal operating conditions when all external resistance in rotor circuit is reduced
to zero and the input current is I1max .
From Eqs. (3.43), (3.45), (3.47), etc., we get

R1' R2' R3'

 
S 2 S3 S4
Rn' 1 Rn' R'
 .........    n
S n S n 1 S fl
3.49
From Eq. (3.48), we get

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S 2 S3 S 4
 
S1 S 2 S3
S S S
 ......  n  n 1  fl
S n 1 Sn Sn
R '2 R '3 R '4
  
R 1' R '2 R '3
R 'n 1 R 'n
 .......  
R 'n  2 R 'n 1
R 'n 1 r
  2   (say ) 3.50
R 'n R 'n

Since the slip S1=1, the total resistance in rotor circuit on the first step (or first stud) from Eq. (3.48), is

S1 r
R1'  r2  2
S fl S fl
3.51
From Eq. 3.50,

R '2  R 1'  , R '3  R '2   R '2  2

R '4  R '3  R '2  2  R1'  3

R 'n 1  R1'  n
or r2  R 1'  n
3.52
’
Substituting the values of R1 from Eq. (3.51) in Eq. (3.52), we get
r 
r2   2  n
 Sfl 
or  n  Sfl
1
or   (Sfl )n 3.53
Therefore, resistances of the sections are:

R 1  R 1'  R '2  R 1' 1    3.54

R '2  R '2  R '3
 R '2 1    R 1' 1    R 1
R 3  R '3  R '4  R '3 1   
 R '2 1     2 R 1

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Similarly

R 4  3R1

R n   n 1R1 3.55

The slip Sfl provided I1max=Ifl. In case I1max is different from Ifl, slip Sfl should be calculated accordingly and then from
Eq. (3.53), α can be obtained. Once R 1’is determined by using Eq.(3.51), first the resistance element R 1 is obtained
by using Eq.(3.54) and then R2, R3, R4……. Can be calculated from Eq. (3.55).
Example 3.13 Calculate the values of resistance elements of a 4-step starter for a 3-phase, 400-V, wound-rotor
induction motor. The full-load slip is 3% and the maximum starting current is limited to its full-load value. Rotor
resistance per phase is 0.015-Ω.
Solution
For a 4-step starter, there are 4-sections i.e. n=4.
Here, Sfl=3%=0.03
1 1
  ( S fl )  0.03  0.416
n 4

The total resistance of rotor circuit at the moment of starting

r2 0.015
R1'    0.5 
S fl 0.03

The resistances of various elements are:

R1=R1’(1-)= 0.5(1-0.416)=0.292 
R2=R1=0.416 x 0.292 = 0.121 
R3=2R1=R2=0.416 x 0.121 = 0.051
R4=3R1=2R2=R3=0.416 x 0.051 = 0.021
Checking :
R’1=R1+R2+R3+R4+r2 =0.292+0.121+0.051+0.021+0.015= 0.5 

APPLICATIONS OF POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

For loads requiring low starting torques and substantially constant speeds, squirrel-cage induction motor is the best
choice, because of its ruggedness, simplicity, low cost and reduced maintenance charges. Squirrel cage motor may
be designed with low rotor resistance or with high rotor resistance. As stated before, a high rotor resistance gives
better starting conditions but poor running performance. On the other hand, a cage motor with low rotor resistance

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gives poor starting conditions but better running performance. In view of this, the rotor-circuit resistance should be
chosen judiciously at the design stage so that there is a compromise between its starting conditions and running
performance.
Squirrel cage motors with relatively low rotor resistance (full-load slip 3 to 5%) are used for fans, centrifugal
pumps, most machinery tools, wood-working tools etc. Cage motors with relatively high rotor resistance (full-load
slip 3 to 7%) are used for compressors, crushers, reciprocating pumps. Squirrel cage motors with still higher values
of rotor-circuit resistance (full-load slip 7 to 16%) are used for intermittent loads like punching presses, shears,
hoists, elevators etc.
A wound-rotor induction motor is used for loads requiring severe starting conditions or for loads requiring speed
control. A wound rotor induction motor is more expensive than a squirrel cage motor and also it requires more
maintenance because of the brushes and slip rings. A wound-rotor motor, also called slip-ring motor, may be used
for hoists, cranes, elevators, compressors etc.
The relative advantages of cage motor over a wound-rotor motor of the same power rating are given below.
I. A cage rotor requires considerably less conductor material than a wound rotor, consequently I2 R loss in
cage rotor is less. Therefore, cage motor is a little more efficient than a wound-rotor motor.
II. Wound-motor construction requires slip rings, brushes, short-circuiting devices etc. As a result of it, a
wound-rotor motor is costlier than a cage induction motor.
III. A squirrel-cage rotor has very small length of overhang; therefore, it has low rotor overhang leakage flux.
This has the effect of resulting in low leakage reactance x 2 for a cage rotor than for a wound rotor.
Consequently, the diameter of circle diagram for a cage motor is greater than for a wound-rotor motor. This
shows that a cage motor has more pull-out torque, greater maximum power output and better operating
power factor as compared to a wound-rotor induction motor.
IV. Cage motor is more rugged and requires no slip rings, brushes etc. therefore, its maintenance charges are
low.
V. Cage rotor can be cooled better because of its bare end-rings.
VI. The disadvantages of cage motor as compared to a wound rotor motor are its small starting torque for very
large starting current and its poor starting power factor. In addition to it, the total energy lost during starting
of cage motor is much more than with the wound-rotor motor and this fact is very important where frequent
starting of large number of motors is required.

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PROBLEMS ON INDUCTION MACHINES
3.1. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 50Hz, 7.5 kw induction motor runs at 1,440 rpm. Determine: i) the slip, ii) the slip-speed.
Ans.i) 0.04 ; ii) 60 r.p.m
3.2. A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440 rpm. For this motor , calculate the following:
a) Number of poles
b) Full-load slip and rotor frequency
c) Speed of stator field with respect to
i. Stator structure and
ii. Rotor structure and
d) Speed of rotor field with respect to
i. Rotor structure
ii. Stator structure
iii. Stator field
Ans. a) 4; b) 4% & 2Hz; c)1500rpm; 60rpm; d) 60rpm; 1500rpm; 0
3.3. A 3-phase, 4-pole alternator driven at 1500 rpm is supplying an induction motor which has full load speed of 960
r.p.m: Determine (i) the number of poles and (ii) the percentage slip.
Ans.i) 6 ; ii) 4%
3.4. A 4-pole, 50Hz induction motor runs at 415 rpm Deduce the frequency of the curree rotor windings and the slip.
Ans. 1.584 Hz ; 3.167%
3.5. A 4-pole. 50Hz induction motor has an emf in the rotor, the frequency of which is 2 Hz. Determine (i) the
synchronous speed (ii) the slip iii) the speed of the motor.
Ans.i)1500rpm;ii) 4%; iii) 1440 r.p.m
3.6. A 200-Kw, 3300-V, 6-pole, 50-Hz star-connected slip-ring induction motor has a star connected rotor. Stator to
rotor turns ratio is 3.2.rotor resistance and leakage reactance are 0.1-Ω and 1-Ω respectively. Neglecting stator
impedance ,find
a) Current and torque at starting on rated voltage with slip-rings short circuited and
b) The external resistance required to reduce the starting current to 50-A with across-the line starting. Compare starting
torque under these conditions.
Ans. a)185.14A; 1005.5N.m b) 35.681 ; 3.484; 2628.8 N.m
3.7. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 1440 rpm, 50 Hz induction motor has star connected rotor winding , having a resistance of 0.2 
per phase and a standstill leakage resistance of 1 per phase. When the stator is energized at rated voltage and
frequency, the rotor induced emf at standstill is 120-V per phase.
a) Calculate the rotor current, rotor power factor and torque both at starting and at full-load and compare these results.
b) If an external resistance of 1 per phase is inserted in rotor circuit, calculate rotor current, rotor power factor and
torque at the time of starting.
Ans. a) at starting:117.67A; 0.196 lagging; 52.36N.m. and at full-load: 23.53 A ; 0.98 lagging; 52.87 N.m. b) at
starting: 76.82 A ; 0.768 lagging; 135.25 N.m.
3.8. In s 6-pole, 3-phase. 50Hz induction motor with a star-connected rotor, the rotor resistance per phase is 0.3 , the
reactance at standstill is 1.5 per phase, and the emf between slip rings on open circuit is 175 V. Calculate :
(i) slip (ii) rotor emf per phase (iii) rotor reactance per phase if full load speed is 960rpm.
Ans.(i) 4% (ii) 4.05 V (iii) 0.06
3.9. A 50 Hz, 8-pole induction motor has a full load slip of 4%. The rotor resistance and standstill reactance are 0-01
and 0.1 per phase respectively. Find the ratio of maximum to full load torque and the speed at which the maximum

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torque occurs. Ans.1.45; 675 rpm
3.10. An induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.02 and a standstill reactance of 0.1. How much external resistance
must be added in the rotor circuit so as to get the maximum torque at starting.
Ans. 0.08 
3.11. For an induction motor, the starting torque is 1.6 times the full load torque and the rnaximum torque is 2 times the
full load torque. Determine the percentage reduction in the rotor circuit resistance so that the full load slip is 0.04%.
Neglect the stator impedance. Ans.70%
3.12. A 3-phase induction motor is fed with a power of 48 kw. If the stator losses are 1.2 kw, find the mechanical power
developed and copper losses in the rotor, when the slip is 3%.
Ans. 45.396kW; 1.404kW
3.13. The power input to a 500 V, 50 Hz, 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor running at 975 rpm is 40kW . The stator
losses are 2 kw and the friction and windage losses total 2 kw. Calculate (i) the slip (ii) the copper loss (iii) the
output power and (iv) the efficiency. Ans. i) 2.5%; ii) 950W; iii) 35.05kW ; iv) 87.6%
3.14. A 20Kw, 6-pole, 400V, 50Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.02. If the torque lost in mechanical
(friction & windage) form constitutes about 20 N.m., find the rotor ohmic loss, motor input and efficiency. The total
stator losses are 900 Watts. Ans. 450W; 23.4kW; 85.47%

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3.15. A 3-phase , 400 V, 50Hz star-connected induction motor gave the following test results:
No load: 400 V, 7.5A, 0.135 power factor
Blocked rotor: 150 V, 35A, 0.44 power factor
The ratio of standstill leakage reactance of stator and rotor is estimated as 2. If the motor is running at a speed of
900rpm, determine
a) Net mechanical power output
b) The net torque and
c) Efficiency of the motor
Assume stator to rotor copper losses to be equal.
Ans. Psh=8648.98 W; Tsh=86.033 N.m;= 86.23%
3.16. Design the 5-sections of a 6-stud starter for a 3-phase slip-ring induction motor. The full-load slip is 2% and the
maximum starting current is limited to twice the full-load current. Rotor resistance per phase is 0.03-Ω.
Ans. 0.356 Ω; 0.187 Ω; 0.098 Ω; 0.052 Ω;0.027 Ω
3.17. A squirrel induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.05. The motor starting current at rated voltage is 6 times its full-
load current. Find the tapping on the auto-transformer starter which should give full-load at start. Also find the line
current at starting in terms of full-load current. Ans. 74.5%; 3.33 Ifl
3.18. A 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor has a short-circuit current of 5 times the full-load current. Its full-load slip
is 5%. Calculate the starting torque as percentage of full-load torque if the motor is started by
a) Direct-on-line starter
b) Start-delta and
c) Auto-transformer starter, limiting the motor starting current to twice the motor full-load current.
d) What is the percentage auto-transformer tapping under (c) case?
Ans. a) 1.25%; b) 0.417; c) 0.20; d) 40%
3.19. Calculate the values of resistance elements of a 4-step starter for a 3-phase, 400-V, wound-rotor induction motor.
The full-load slip is 3% and the maximum starting current is limited to its full-load value. Rotor resistance per phase
is 0.015-Ω.
Ans. 0.291 Ω; 0.121 Ω; 0.051 Ω; 0.021 Ω

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