Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Sta. Mesa Manila

College of Education
Department of Business Teacher Education

A Self-Learning Outcome-Based Education (OBE) Instructional Materials

in BTLE30083 – Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1

Lesson 1
Topic: Automotive

Contributors:

Argem E. Reyes
Gian Angelo D. Ampeloquio
Luis Andrew R. Ferrer
Kenmark G. Ollano
Tristan R. Perfiñan

DR MARION A. CRESENCIO
Facilitator

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 1

LESSON 1: AUTOMOTIVE
• Automotive Parts and Services
• Occupation, Problems, and Benefits
• Car Driving and Maintenance
• Road Signs

Overview

Imagine a world where the form of transportation is through humans or animals. You
probably will hate it knowing that we're in a generation where comfortable sitting and fast
transportation is available. An automobile is a four-wheeled road vehicle powered by an engine,
used primarily for transport of a limited number of passengers. This lesson will improve our
knowledge with the Parts and Services in Automotive Industry Occupation, problems and
maintenance that you will need to know in your automobile and lastly Road Signs that can help
you more when Driving your automobile

Learning Outcomes

After completion of this lesson, you will be able to competently do these:

1. Identify car parts, functions, and services.
2. Determine common car problems and solutions.
3. Perform basic car maintenance and other service.
4. Discuss the basic skills of an efficient and safe driver.
5. Observe and follow road signs both as a pedestrian and as a driver.

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Course Materials

Automotive History
The history of the automobile begins with the technological breakthroughs that occurred
in Europe during the early 1800's and continues a century later with the pioneering efforts of
American manufactures to begin mass-producing cars. The world economic downturn leading
up to World War II led to consolidation in the fragmented automobile manufacturing market,
while in the postwar period, renewed economic growth, television advertising, and an expanding
road system accelerated sales for automobile producers in many industrialized countries.
Automobile
An automobile is a four-wheeled road vehicle powered by an engine, used primarily for
transport of a limited number of passengers. In studying how an automobile runs, it is important
to know first the different parts. To repair and to maintain a car, first of all, you must know the
important parts that are present inside a car. The acknowledgment of car parts can help you
sort out any minor or major faults in a car.

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Basic Overview inside a Car
1. Clutch pedal - connects the engine to the wheels. When you step on the clutch it
disconnects the engine. This lets your car roll free, and lets the engine turn at any speed.
You do this when you come to a stop because the wheels are not moving and you want your
engine to keep turning.
2. Brake pedal- is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a
moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to
prevent its motion, most often accomplished by means of friction.
3. Accelerator/ Gas pedal - controls fuel and air supply to the engine and is also known as
the "throttle", is normally the right-most floor pedal. It has a fail-safe design – a spring, which
returns it to the idle position when not depressed by the driver.
4. Horn- The vehicle operator/ driver uses the horn to warn others of the vehicle's approach or
presence, or to call attention to some hazard.
5. Keyhole/ ignition - an on and off switch for the vehicle. Though it is actually much more
complex, this is its primary purpose. When you insert the key into the ignition and turn it, this
turns the ignition switch and depending on the vehicle, will turn on a series of circuits or
send signals to the vehicle’s modules telling them to turn on.
6. Emergency brake/ Hand brake - keeps the car in place when the footbrake malfunctions or
fails. But, its primary function is to remain engaged in the parking mode until the driver
pushes the release button. It is quite helpful since it stops a car from rolling away when
parked on a slope or a surface that is uneven.
7. Gear shift- a metal lever attached to the shift assembly in a manual transmission-equipped
automobile and is used to change gears. In an automatic transmission-equipped vehicle, a
similar device is known as a gear selector. A gear stick will normally be used to change gear
whilst depressing the clutch pedal with the left foot to disengage the engine from the
drivetrain and wheels.
8. Power windows switches/controls - a main component to your power window system.
Today, almost all vehicles are equipped with windows powered by the magic of electricity
instead of windows that have to be operated manually with the use of crank handles. This
makes raising and lowering windows as easy as pushing this switch.

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9. Steering wheel - (also called a driving wheel or a hand wheel) is a type of steering control
in vehicles. Steering wheels are used in most modern land vehicles, including all mass-
production automobiles, as well as buses, light and heavy trucks, and tractors. The steering
wheel is the part of the steering system that is manipulated by the driver; the rest of the
steering system responds to such driver inputs.
10. Dashboard - (also called dash, instrument panel (IP), or fascia) is a control panel usually
located directly ahead of a vehicle's driver, displaying instrumentation and controls for the
vehicle's operation.
11. Air ventilation- this helps to avoid over heat of a car.
12. Door handle- A handle specifically designed to operate a car door.
13. Glove box/compartment- is a compartment built into the dashboard of an automobile,
located over the front-seat passenger's footwall, and often used for miscellaneous storage.
The name derives from the original purpose of the compartment, to store driving gloves.
14. Ventilation controls- Ventilation Controls allow the user to maintain a specified target
temperature by controlling the operation of ventilation and heating equipment.
15. Turn signal indicator- The turn indicator stalk or turn signal lever is the control lever which
operates the turn signal or indicator lights on the front, sides and rear of the vehicle. It is
usually operated by lifting or lowering the lever, the direction being commensurate with the
clockwise or anticlockwise direction in which the steering wheel is about to be turned
Overview of Dashboard Instrument Cluster (Gauges)

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1. Engine oil indicator - allows you to know if you have running out of oil.
2. Odometer- is an instrument used for measuring the distance travelled by a vehicle, such as
a bicycle or car. The device may be electronic, mechanical, or a combination of the two.
3. Speedometer - is a gauge that measures and displays the instantaneous speed of a
vehicle.
4. Tachometer- is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor
or other machine. The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a
calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common.
5. Engine coolant temperature gauge - (ECT) is a sensor that is used to monitor the
temperature of the engine’s coolant. The engine control unit (ECU) uses this data to adjust
the fuel injection and ignition timing.
6. Battery light indicator- This instrument helps you to know if the lights are still okay and if
it’s working.
7. Fuel gauge- In automobile and aircraft engineering a fuel gauge or gas gauge is an
instrument used to indicate the amount of fuel in a fuel tank.
8. Service reminder indicator lights- Some of them are simply there to remind you that
you’ve turned on a certain feature, while others are indicative of an issue that must be
addressed as soon as possible.
9. Odometer manual override button- A manual override (MO) or manual analog override
(MAO) is a mechanism wherein control is taken from an automated system and given to the
user.

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Engine Bay Overview
1. Distributor - the component in a spark ignition system that channels high voltage pulses
from the ignition coil to the spark plugs. Distributors are typically driven by the camshaft,
which causes them to rotate at exactly one half the speed of the crankshaft. This precise
timing is what allows a distributor to provide voltage to each spark plug at the correct time
and in the proper sequence.
2. Power Steering Fluid Reservoir - Power steering reservoir is usually on or near the
engine, and can have a white or yellow reservoir and a black cap.
3. Spark Plug - A spark plug is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system
to the combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air
mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within the engine. A
spark in a car make the car to start and then move. The electric spark ignites the fuel then
the engine starts after the ignition of the spark. The life span of a spark is for about of
hundred thousand miles.
4. Brake Booster- A brake booster increases the force the brake pedal exerts on the brake
master cylinder by using engine vacuum and pressure. Without a brake booster, even the
simple act of slowing your car would require substantially higher amounts of effort and incur
greater amounts of fatigue. It is designed to help improve braking performance and safety.
5. Brake Fluid Reservoir- Brake fluid reservoirs are canisters that connect to the brake
master cylinder. The brake fluid reservoir stores your vehicle’s brake fluid and protects it so
that your hydraulic braking system can work properly.
6. Clutch Fluid Reservoir- On most cars with hydraulic clutches, the clutch fluid reservoir is
located near the brake master cylinder at the back of the engine bay but is smaller than the
brake fluid reservoir. If in doubt as to where to look, consult with your car's owner's manual.
7. Battery- The battery in a car is a rechargeable. It supplies power (electric energy) to the car.
Normally this battery is used to help provide power to start the car and then it is used only
when extra power is needed. The car battery alone is can't supply power to all the electrical
systems. The alternator does this. The battery is connected to your lights and car
accessories, like the radio, when the engine is off. Leaving the lights or radio on too long will
drain the battery.

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8. Radiator- The radiator is used to help the engine cool down so it can operate without
overheating. It cools the radiator fluid the goes through the engine where it is heated up. As
it travels back to the radiator the heat is transfers to the metal fins and air, as the fan blows
over it.
9. Radiator Cap- The part of a vehicle known as the “radiator pressure cap” contains 2 valves
and its purpose is to store coolant and ensure that the radiator system remains pressurized.
10. Alternator- This performs as the supplement for the batteries when the car engine starts.
When the alternator is working the battery won't drain. The main systems and this part are
connected together.
11. Engine- The engine is the heart of the automobile that provides the power which turns the
wheels. It converts energy released by burning fuel into a turning force called torque.
12. Engine Coolant Reservoir- The coolant reservoir is the plastic reservoir mounted in the
engine bay that stores the coolant for the engine. The coolant reservoir is usually
pressurized in newer vehicle models. It is attached to the radiator and the engine with hoses
and is a central component in the system. The reservoir itself is the only place where you
can actually fill coolant, instead of directly into the radiator.
13. Engine Oil Dipstick- All engines have a dipstick, a metal rod that extends into the oil
reservoir. A dipstick for measuring the level of motor oil inside a car engine.
14. Engine Oil Filter- The oil filter helps remove contaminants from your car engine’s oil that
can accumulate over time as the oil keeps your engine clean.
15. Ignition Coil- An ignition coil (also called a spark coil) is an induction coil in an automobile's
ignition system that transforms the battery's low voltage to the thousands of volts needed to
create an electric spark in the spark plugs to ignite the fuel.
Automotive Servicing
The engine is one of the most important parts of the car should have. In fact, if fuel is
considered as the blood for the car, the engine would act as its heart while the driver
themselves serve as the brain for the car. That’s how important the engine is and if you wish to
give it the care it deserves them automotive servicing is something you should consider doing in
the regular basis.

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Different Types of Automotive Servicing
There are many forms of this service all of which are suited to your cars needs as well
as for your convenience as the driver.
Air Conditioning A key aspect to a smooth drive is none other than driving with strong
and comfortable air conditioning. After all, no one wants to spend a day driving under the hot
sun with an equally hot car. When it comes to this type of automotive servicing, simply have
your air conditioning checked and let the pros do their wonders. The end result will leave your
drive not only as smooth as you want it to be, but as cool and refreshing as you want as well.
Fuel Injection Cleaning Like most things having to do with cars, damage sustained
from the inside is probable if it hasn’t been thoroughly cleaned in a while. In this case, availing
of this type of service can help you rectify that folly, especially when it comes to the fuel you
inject into your car to get it running. Too much grease or fuel can definitely lead to some rusting
issues in your car – which can be patched up with this type of service.
Brakes and Transmissions If one were to talk about a car’s most important indicators
for their function, the brakes and the transmissions would be two of the most common indicators
of a car’s overall function. Not only does it speak of their efficiency in function, it also indicates
their overall drive. When it comes to this, this type of service can repair anything that needs
repairing in these two things. That way, not only can it rectify any mechanical issue made, but it
can also serve as a great measure of precaution for you to take.
Engine Control sand Electrical Repairs One thing that powers cars is none other than
electricity, which is provided by the trusty battery inside. When it comes to this, it’s important to
never disregard this particular aspect with this service as it can help keep your battery running
on a regular basis. Also, with a battery in great condition, using your car will be more

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comfortable and convenient than ever as certain parts such as the on-board computer, vanity
mirrors, and even the lights on your car are working accordingly.
General Cleaning and Repairs Of course, why not take advantage of this type of
service by having a general cleaning and repair take place for your car? It’s quick, it’s painless
for your wallet, and above all, it’s absolutely necessary. In any case, have your car checked by
any mechanic and let them work their magic on your baby of steel. That way, anything you’ll
have to worry about will seem so distant for you to think about.
Occupation, Problems and Benefits
Car Detailer clean the interior and exterior of vehicles by washing, vacuuming, waxing
and polishing the car. If needed or requested by the vehicle’s owner, they may also steam and
deodorize the carpets, buff the painted surfaces, apply protective finishes to the exterior and
shine the wheel rims. Car detailers interact with the customers to determine what services they
need and drive vehicles around their shop to complete the work.
Car Rental Agent recommends rental cars to guests who need to temporarily use a
vehicle. They take customer documentation and ensure vehicles in the rental fleet are well
maintained. Car rental agents should be familiar with the operation and technological features of
a variety of vehicle types and be comfortable driving them around their lot as needed.
Tire Technician repair and replace car tires to create a fuel-efficient and smooth ride for
the driver. They are knowledgeable about various tire types—including snow tires and
recommended treads for various road or off-road environments. Tire technicians can be
employed by a tire specialty repair shop or as part of a bigger automotive technician team at a
large auto body shop
Vehicle Inspector is responsible for ensuring vehicles meet safety standards reporting
violations and recommending repairs. They check cars for damages and drive them to
determine any malfunctions. The inspector also connects the vehicles to mechanical and
electrical testing devices to examine the components for damage or incorrect settings. They
review the cars’ emission levels and any customizations added to the vehicles and confirm the
cars meet all required regulations. If any repairs are necessary, the inspector will review the
cars after repairs are completed to ensure they meet quality standards.
Auto Instructor teaches high-school or college students about repairing cars, engines,
mechanical features and electrical systems. They may specialize in one or two maintenance

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areas or teach the basics of all vehicle components. They typically work in a shop-style
classroom where students are able to gain hands-on maintenance and repair experience. A
state teaching license is required for all teachers, including auto instructors
Auto Mechanic is responsible for carrying out routine maintenance, diagnostic testing
and mechanical repairs. They primarily work on motorized components including engines, drive
belts, power-steering, brakes and transmissions. Newer vehicles can be plugged into a
computerized diagnostic testing machine, which tells the mechanic what repairs are required.
The mechanic may need to recalibrate a motor, rewire parts or replace the entire component.
Auto mechanics are familiar with vehicle regulations and technological systems and ensure the
vehicle is safe to operate when returned to the owner.
Auto Electrician are responsible for inspecting, repairing and maintaining a vehicle’s
headlights, dashboard warning lights, alarm system, circuit boards and starter motor. They often
work in mechanical and auto body shops with other technicians, but focus on the electric issues
within the vehicle. The auto electrician plugs the computerized diagnostic system into the car to
determine the issue and develop a plan to fix it. The plan could include rewiring elements,
replacing light bulbs or the entire electrical system.
Tow Truck Driver work on call to attend to disabled or damaged vehicles on the road.
They are responsible for safely securing vehicles to their tow truck by using a chain, winch,
steering locks and affixing indicator lights on the disabled vehicles. They then transport the
vehicles to the designated repair shop or junkyard. They should have a basic knowledge of
vehicles and various car parts to effectively aid and determine if the vehicle can be fixed without
a tow. Tow truck drivers might handle roadside repairs that include jump-starting the car,
changing tires and reconnecting parts.
Car Salesperson helps customers find the right car to purchase explains the benefits
and drawbacks of different models and begins the payment process. They build relationships
with their customers to understand their vehicle needs and encourage repeat purchases with
their dealership. A car salesperson also partners with the marketing team to reach out to and
engage new potential clients. They promote the sale of their vehicles by encouraging test drives
and riding along with the customer while they drive to explain various features of the car.
Auto Sales Manager leads a car dealership by forecasting vehicle demand and
preferences for their area, maintaining inventory levels and managing the car sales team. They

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handle initiating and negotiating vehicle trades with other dealerships in the area. The sales
manager also oversees and approves promotional discounts, public relations events and
advertising campaigns. Their primary responsibilities are to ensure customer happiness and
generate revenue for the dealership.
Auto Engineer research, develop and design the technical systems in vehicles. They
work with the development and design team to utilize sophisticated technology in a safe and
user-friendly way in the vehicle’s navigation, warning, control and fuel systems. The auto
engineer can continue improving upon previous technologies used in their vehicle or develop
new systems based on the current market trends. Throughout the design process, they
troubleshoot any problems that arise and guarantee that they are fixed before production
begins. They also partner with the process engineer to plan and develop the manufacturing
process for their technological components.
Most Common Car Problems and Issues
Warning Lights - A warning or
check engine light is the most common
issue for US car, truck and SUV owners.
These lights illuminate when the vehicle,
ECU (engine control unit) detects an
error code triggered by a sensor. Since
there are more than 200 possible
warning code, having a professional
mechanic complete a warning light
inspection is the best way to determine the source and make the right repairs.
A Sputtering Engine - The engine runs best when air and fuel properly mix and burn
in the combustion chamber. To efficiently complete this process, a series of fuel and ignition
system components must work together. Though many moving parts help an engine run
properly, engine sputtering or misfiring is one of the leading problems. To reduce engine
misfiring or sputtering issues, make sure to replace fuel and ignition system components as
recommended by your manufacturer.
Poor Fuel Economy- When the engine is running efficiently, it burns fuel at a rate that
helps improve fuel economy. However, several fuel system parts like fuel filters, air filters, mass

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air flow sensors, and O2 sensors will eventually get dirty or wear out. If this happens before they
are replaced, it will cause the engine to consume more fuel than usual. Again, being proactive
about routine servicing provides the solution.
Dead Battery - Most car batteries should
last about three years or 50,000 miles. A dead battery
is usually caused by reduced amps – or electrical
currents – which naturally decrease as the battery
loses its ability to maintain a charge. A damaged
alternator, battery temperature sensor, or other
charging system components can expedite this issue.
It’s best to replace your car battery every 50,000 miles
or three years, even if it’s not showing signs of damage.
Brakes Squeaking or Grinding- Like any
other moving part on your car, the brake system is
intended to wear out over a designated period of time.
Brakes are vital for safe stopping, so when they display
any symptoms of issues, like squeaking, squeaking or
a soft brake pedal, it should be inspected by a
professional mechanic as soon as possible. While minor problems can cause squeaking or
squealing noises, once the brakes start grinding, it’s a definite sign they need to be replaced.
5 Benefits of Pursuing Automotive Tech Jobs
• Pay is competitive and income growth is quick - Entry-level automotive tech jobs
typically start around $30,000, and professionals can increase their salary fast as they
expand their knowledge of car repairs and electronic systems. The median salary for
auto techs is $39,600, and superstars who excel in their niche oftentimes earn six
figures!
• Auto techs get a sense of a job well done when customers are back on the road -
One of the biggest benefits of becoming an auto tech is the sense of satisfaction after
completing a project. Customers are often worried about their vehicle and are unable to
explain exactly what’s wrong with it. When auto techs understand the issue, customers
are relieved to know they’re in good hands. Customers rely on professionals to help get

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their lives back to normal, so putting their vehicle on the road again is a wonderful
feeling.
• Auto tech jobs offer variety in day-to-day work- Auto techs work on nearly every
electronic and mechanical system in vehicles, so each day offers new challenges. The
variety of work is a top benefit of pursuing automotive tech jobs. Plus, technicians are
equipped with lifelong skills they can bring with them anywhere in the world.
• Exploring advanced technology in cars is exciting- Modern vehicles are a collection
of high-tech computers on wheels. With electronics like back up cameras, infotainment
systems and pedestrian detection, auto tech jobs have never been more focused on
advanced technology. Auto techs who can repair these new systems will see their salary
increase quickly as they are essential to their team’s success.
CAR MAINTENANCE
To maximize the life and performance of your vehicle, here is a list of items you should
check depending on the time and season. Some of these parts of your vehicle should be
checked regularly, and others only in the long run. Be sure to follow your vehicle’s maintenance
schedule and service interval record.
OIL, OIL FILTER AND COOLANT LEVELS - Every month, or every few gas fill-ups and
especially before any longer road trips, it’s a good idea to get under the hood of your car and
inspect both the oil and coolant levels while the engine is cool. Low levels of either can lead to
engine problems if left unchecked. Depending on your car and what kind of oil you’re using, you
may need to change both the oil & oil filter as much as every 3 months or 3000 miles.
AIR FILTER - Your engine’s air filter is what regulates the air that flows into your engine
and helps keep out debris and particulate. By making certain that your air filter is flowing
properly, you can improve your fuel efficiency, decrease your emissions, and help ensure the
life of your engine.
TIRE PRESSURE AND TREAD DEPTH - Check the pressure in your tires every month,
and before long trips or carrying extra load. Don’t forget the spare. A tire pressure gauge will be
needed to check your tire pressure. Also, during the colder months, note that tire pressure drops
one pound with every 10 degree decrease in pressure. Your owner’s manual will tell you how
much air pressure your tire needs.

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HEADLIGHTS, TURN SIGNALS, BRAKE, AND PARKING LIGHTS - Once a month,
turn on your headlights when you’re parked in front of a flat surface and check that both
headlights are working properly and well-positioned. Walk around your car and visually inspect
both turn signals and your parking lights.
ROTATE TIRES - Depending on your vehicle alignment, usage, and many other factors,
the tread wear patterns on your tires may vary between the front and back tires, or even from
one side of the tread to the other. Rotating your tires will help to extend the service life of your
tires by more evenly balancing the tread wear, and helping prevent noise and vibration
problems.
WAX VEHICLE - Making certain to wax your vehicle every six months after washing it
won’t just keep it shiny, it’ll also help to keep both the paint in good shape and reduce the
chance of rust.
TRANSMISSION FLUID - Whether you’re driving an automatic or manual transmission
vehicle, it is essential that you have your transmission fluid checked and changed when needed
to avoid costly transmission damage or replacement. Follow the vehicle manufacturer’s
recommendations.
TRANSFER CASE FLUID - You’ll need to have the transfer case fluid checked
according to the vehicle manufacturer recommendations to make certain that it is properly filled
and leak-free. This will require you getting under the vehicle, so bringing it into a professional is
recommended.
INSPECT SHOCKS AND STRUTS - They should be inspected by a professional every
50,000 miles or bring your car in to the shop if you notice a decrease in smoothness or loss of
control when driving.
COOLANT FLUID EXCHANGE - Having your coolant system flushed regularly will help
get rid of contaminants that can build up inside as well as ensure that your radiator is filled to a
proper level.
SPARK PLUGS - If your spark plugs aren’t functioning properly, your engine will lose
power and won’t run at optimal capacity.
SERPENTINE BELT - Visually inspect the belt to ensure that it is free of cracks or other
wear and tear. Replace id damaged or according to your vehicle manufacture’s
recommendation.

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FRONT AND/OR REAR DIFFERENTIAL - Like many parts of your vehicle, the
differentials need to be kept lubricated to ensure proper functionality. Have a professional check
and change fluid whenever your vehicle manufacturer recommends it.
BATTERY PERFORMANCE CHECK - Your car battery is one of the most important
components for your vehicle to run. A car battery supplies large amounts of electrical current for
the starter, engine and other electronic accessories in the vehicle. Extreme temperatures affect
the performance of the battery so regular battery testing will ensure that battery will perform
when you need it to.
DRIVING A CAR
Well, driving a car could appear to be a pretty daunting task but trust us, things will start
feeling easier once you get familiar with the vehicle. That said, it may be noted here that driving
in real-life conditions could be a lot tougher than what you might have felt from driving in video
games. So, the first thing you should do if you’ve been thinking about how to learn car driving is
to head to a good driving school. Generally, people tend to hire the services of the friendly
driving instructor in the locality for getting tutorials on car driving.
How to Drive a Manual Car?
Basically, a manual car has three pedals, one each for the accelerator, brake and clutch.
The brake and accelerator pedal are operated through the left leg, while the right leg is for the
accelerator. The brake pedal is to slow down the vehicle. It should be noted that the firmer you
are on this pedal, the faster it will slow you down. The accelerator will increase the engine
speed, which, in turn, will speed up your car. The clutch pedal makes driving a manual car
difficult. Without going into too many details, the clutch pedal is used to help you shift gears.

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ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS
A. Regulatory signs - Signs that inform road user of traffic laws and regulations which, if
disregarded, will constitute to an offense.

Signs Meaning Symbols

Driver must stop at designated
STOP Line. No Parking within 6
Stop sign meters.

Yield to the vehicles on right

Give way sign side of intersection

These signs indicate the only

Direction Signs direction(s) in which the motorist
is obliged to follow

Prohibitive / Restrictions These signs indicate the only

Signs direction(s) in which the motorist
is obliged to follow

No Pedestrian Crossing Pedestrians are not allowed to

cross the road

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Use overpass or use Pedestrians must use an
PEDXING overpass or pedestrian crossing

No right turn or no left Vehicles are not allowed to turn

left or right.

No U turn Vehicles are not allowed to

make an U-Turn

No overtaking zone Vehicles are prohibited to

overtake on the lane

Speed signs Maximum speed restriction

Speed signs
End of speed restriction

Speed signs Minimum speed restriction

Parking signs Allowable parking and loading

zone at a given time and place

Parking sign No waiting

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No loading and unloading zone.

Bus – PUJ Stop Zone Parking is not allowed

Bus Stop Zone Parking is not allowed

PUJ Stop Zone Parking is not allowed

Parking sign No stopping or parking anytime

within the yellow box

Signs used to warn motorist of

Warning Signs potentially hazardous conditions Signs
on or adjacent to the road. It
advise motorist of road
conditions that require caution
and may call for a reduction in
speed in the interest of safety
and that of other road users

Horizintal Signs These signs are used to indicate

the type of road curve ahead of
the motorist.

Intersection signs Signs when one approaches

intersection or junction.

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Pedestrian Sign Pedestrian crossing ahead

Pedestrian Sign Be aware and stop for children

crossing ahead

Be aware and stop for persons

Pedestrian Sign with disabilities

Advice pedestrian to cross at

Pedestrian Sign designated areas

Be aware and slowdown on bike

Pedestrian Sign lane ahead

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Activities / Assessment Tasks

A. Written Test
Direction: Read the questions carefully. Write the corresponding letter before the number.
1. This refers to the gauge that measures and displays the instantaneous speed of a
vehicle.
a. Fuel gauge
b. Tachometer
c. Engine oil indicator
d. Speedometer
2. A mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a Moving system. It
is used for stopping a moving vehicle.
a. Clutch pedal
b. Brake pedal
c. Ignition switch
d. Steering wheel
3. What is the best thing to do avoid having a dead battery?
a. Buying a new battery every 3 years
b. Doing nothing
c. Try to fix it
d. Recharging batteries
4. All of the following are automotive servicing except one:
a. Brakes and Transmissions
b. Air Conditioning
c. Fuel Injection Cleaning
d. Drainage services
5. What does warning lights/check engine light do?
a. This instrument allows you to know if you have running out of oil
b. instrument used for measuring the distance travelled by a vehicle
c. It illuminates once it detects an error code
BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 21
d. Used to indicate the amount of fuel
6. Sign that inform road users of traffic laws and regulations.
a. Work signs
b. Regulatory signs
c. Expressway signs
d. Guide signs
7. This keeps the car in place when the footbrake malfunctions or fails.
a. Gas pedal
b. Horn
c. Hand brake
d. Gear shift
8. The one who is responsible for inspecting, repairing and maintaining a vehicle’s
headlights, dashboard warning lights, alarm system, circuit boards and starter motor.
a. Tow truck driver
b. Car salesperson
c. Auto mechanic
d. Auto electrician
9. The one who are responsible for safely and efficiently fixing car frames, suspensions,
dents, windows and the wheel alignment after a vehicle has been damaged.
a. Auto technician
b. Auto body repair technician
c. Auto engineer
d. Tire technician
10. This part of an automobile helps the engine cool down so it can operate without
overheating
a. Battery
b. Radiator
c. Alternator
d. Ignition coil
11. This refers to the instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a
motor or other machine.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 22

a. Engine oil indicator
b. Tachometer
c. Odometer
d. Speedometer
12. The one who repairs and replace car tires to create a fuel-efficient and smooth ride for
the driver.
a. Tire technician
b. Car salesman
c. Auto electrician
d. Tow truck driver
13. It refers to a part of steering system that is manipulated by the driver.
a. Clutch pedal
b. Hand brake
c. Dipstick
d. Steering wheel
14. Sign used to warn motorist of potentially hazardous condition on or adjacent to the road.
a. Warning signs
b. Regulatory signs
c. Work signs
d. Guide signs
15. Signs used provide directional and mileage information to specific destinations.
a. Expressway sign
b. Warning signs
c. Regulatory signs
d. Guide signs
e.
B. Performance Test
Directions: Draw Hazard Reduction Road Plan
1. Designing a hazard reduction road plan.
a. Choose 1 in your member and Draw road map of your barangay or town in a long
bond paper.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 23

b. Be sure to indicate the roads or streets on your map.
c. Place some landmarks.
d. Create 5 to 10 pieces small (about 1cm X 1cm) traffic and road sign a. Use 1 or more
regulatory sign. b. Use 2 or more warning signs. c. Use 1 or more information sign.
e. Based on your map, place your traffic and road signs on your map to keep it safe for
the motorists and the community.
2. Answer the following questions?
a. Where should you place your signs, left or right side of the road?
b. Why do you have to place your signs distance ahead of the actual location of its
information?
c. What would happen if signs are not properly placed?
d. If you are to work in a large shop without any signs and symbol, what are the
possibilities that might happen to you, shop and the job?

Rubrics in Assessing Performance Task

Criteria 33 points 32points 30points
ACCURACY All information was Two (2) information Three (3) or more
clear with no were information was
questionable ideas. unclear/questionable unclear/questionable
Evidence of Demonstrated a clear Demonstrated a good Inadequate and
understanding and complete understanding of the incomplete
understanding of information. information indicating
information poor understanding
Variety of information Have wide variety of Have a few varieties Have little or no
information with few of information with variety of information
repetitions some repetitions with lots of repetitions
+1 FOR THE
EFFORT
TOTAL=

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 24

References

The Automotive History (2014). Retrieved September 18, 2020 from:

https://www.loc.gov/rr/business/BERA/issue2/history.html
Do It Yourself Maintenance – Introduction. Retrieved September 18,2020 from:
https://www.brandwood.net/supra/handbook/7/1/engine.html?fbclid=IwAR3C7pmeHJ8eUi
Q7fLy3PBsrHccvL5CZt4yXZ7SAB-VJFuEG3aZNR7f86x4
How Important is Automotive Servicing? Retrieved September 18, 2020 from:
https://www.beepbeep.ph/automotive-servicing
What does an Automotive Technician do? Retrieved September 18, 2020 from:
https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/automotive-service-technician/
15 Careers in the Automotive Industry to Explore (January 3, 2020). Retrieved September 18,
2020 from:
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/finding-a-job/careers-in-automotive-industry
Top 12 Most Common Car Problems and Issues (October 17, 2018). Retrieved September 18,
2020 from:
https://www.yourmechanic.com/article/top-12-most-common-car-problems-and-issues
TPMS Light On? What it Means and What You Need To Do. Retrieved September 18, 2020
from:
https://www.bridgestonetire.com/tread-and-trend/drivers-ed/tpms-light-on
Cars. Retrieved September 18, 2020 from:
https://www.cars24.com/
Road Traffic Signs. Retrieved September 18, 2020 from:
https://www.lto.gov.ph/images/Services_LTO/DL/Road_Traffic_Signs_v4.pdf

Answers
1. d
2. b
3. a
4. d

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 25

Lesson 2: Drafting

5. c
6. b
7. c
8. d
9. b
10. b
11. b
12. a
13. d
14. a
15. d

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 26

Lesson 2: Drafting

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Sta. Mesa Manila

College of Education
Department of Business Teacher Education

A Self-Learning Outcome-Based Education (OBE) Instructional Materials

in BTLE30083 – Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1

Lesson2
Topic: Drafting

Contributors:

Elonzo James B. Berdin

Krizia Eunice P. Dela Cueva
Jennelle Anne I. Lara
JeielSuay N. Ulang

DR MARION A. CRESENCIO
Facilitator
BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 27
Lesson 2: Drafting

LESSON 2: DRAFTING
• Materials and Equipment in Drawing
• Mensuration
• Alphabet of Lines
• Pictorial Drawing
• Orthographic Drawing

Overview
If “a picture can paint a thousand words,” then drafting is the universal
language. Drafting is a specialized drawing style engineers and designers
use to convey and record ideas or information necessary for construction of
structures and machines. Drafting follows clearly defined usage to ensure that it conveys the
same meaning at all times. Those who learn the rules can interpret exactly what the drawing
presents. In drafting programs, students gain fundamental knowledge of drafting theory and
hands-on technical skills. It is essential for communicating ideas in industry and engineering. To
make the drawings easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of
measurement, notation systems, visual styles, and page layout. From this, the possibility of
misinterpret the symbols will be lessen. It can also apply on day-to-day basis, from basic
measuring and planning. Furthermore, if you are to pursue a career along this field, this will
prepare you in doing the tasks properly and hone your skills to produce quality blueprints..

Learning Outcomes
After completion of this lesson, you will be able to competently do these:
1. Identify the different tool and materials used in drawing.
2. Measure lines accurately.
3. Identify the symbols, the thinness and thickness of each alphabet of line and create a
drawing that can be clearly interpreted with the use of these lines.
4. Draw pictorial drawing of simple and complex objects with neatness and accuracy.
5. Discuss the principles of orthographic drawing with actual demonstration of how
orthographic views are accurately measured and drawn.

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Lesson 2: Drafting

Course Materials

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS IN DRAWING

Objectives of drawing cannot be obtained without the presence of drawing instruments.
Each tools and materials have their own functions and uses in completing a drawing.In this
lesson, students will comprehend the various drawing instruments and their correct methods of
usage.
i. Drawing Board
A drawing board serves as a working area for the
draftsman. It should have a smooth flat surface on which
paper is placed. Also, their working edge should be perfectly
straight and their surface, trim and smooth as this is the
edge along which the T-square is moved.
ii. Drawing Paper
There are various types of drawing papers are available
for use but hard and soft surface drawing papers are highly
recommended to be the best. It does not “groove” easily
when pressure is applied to the pencil. It can withstand
erasures. Oslo paper is commonly used but bond paper is
also recommended.
iii. Masking Tape
This is used for fastening the drawing paper on the drawing table or drawing board
because it does not damage the board and it will not damage the paper if it is removed by
pulling it off.
iv. Drawing Pencil
This is one of the most important tools in drawing. It comes in various grades relative to
the hardness of their graphite lead. A soft pencil is designated with the letter B, a hard pencil

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Lesson 2: Drafting

by the letter H. The grade of pencil to be used depends on the quality of paper to be used.
You have to take into consideration also the type of line work required.
a) Hard pencils – are used where extreme accuracy is required especially working on
graphs, diagrams and charts.
b) Medium pencils – are used for general purpose work in drawing.
c) Soft pencils – are too soft to be used in mechanical drafting. They are very useful for
art work of various kinds.

v. Mechanical Pencil
Mechanical pencils are pencils with thin
replaceable graphite – based core or lead, which is
available in all grades. The lead comes in different sizes,
the most common of which are 0.3, 0.5 and 1 millimeter.
As its sharp point is worn away, the lead can be
extended by twisting the plastic or metal outer casing of
the pencil or pressing on the erase cap.
vi. Pencil Sharpener
Pencils should be sharpened whenever they show sign of dullness. Various
types and designs are available in the store for use. Remember to always keep drawing
pencils sharp in order to produce clear and clean-cut lines.
vii. Eraser
Ink erasers and pencil erasers are the kinds of eraser typically used in drafting.
Ink erasers are used for removing ink from a writing surface and are made of an
abrasive soft rubber. On the other hand, soft erasers are used for removing pencil marks
and smudges. A medium rubber eraser is used for correcting errors in the drawing.

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Lesson 2: Drafting

viii. Eraser Shield

This tool is made of stainless steel with irregular holes. It is a
useful tool to protect the rest of the drawing when clearing up
smudges, unnecessary pencil lines and other erasures.
ix. T-square
A T-square is a T-shaped ruler consists of a blade joined at
a right angle to a stock or head. It is primarily used by
draftsman, engineers, architects, and designers to draw
horizontal lines. It is also used for guiding triangles when
drawing vertical lines. It is made of wood, plastic or the
combination of both. There are three (3) types of T-square,
namely:
a) Fixed Head - The head is fastened to the blade. It is used for ordinary work.
b) Movable Head or Adjustable Head - It has one fixed and one adjustable head and
used only for occasional drawing.
c) Detachable Head or Removable Head - It is designed for comfort when carrying the
T-square.
x. Triangles (45° and 30° x 60°)
Triangles are measuring tools that are used to draw
vertical and oblique lines. It is a three-sided ruler, which
typically has twoequal sides meeting at a 90-degree angle and
to a thirdside at 45, 30, including 60-degree angles. It is
usuallymade of plastic and comes in different sizes. If in
use,the base of the triangle must rest on the blade of the T-
square. Commonly used triangles are:
a) 30 degrees X 60 degrees
b) 45 degrees X 45 degrees
c) Adjustable triangles – is used to draw lines at any angles other than 30°, 45°, and
60°

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Lesson 2: Drafting

xi. Compass
This instrument is used when drawing arcs and circles. It
is used in a similar way to a divider. It consists of two mental
parts known as legs connected by an adjustable hinge. It is
composed of one with the pen or pencil leg and the needle
point leg being held together with a handle.
xii. Divider
This is a drawing instrument used when transferring
measurements, dividing lines and arcs into the desired
number of equal parts. It can easily transfer accurate
measurements by adjusting the divider points.
xiii. Protractor
It is a semi-circular instrument divided into 180 equal
parts, each of which is called a degree. It is used to
determine gradations of the degrees when measuring arcs,
angles and circles. High quality protractor is usually made
of plastic.
xiv. Ruler
A ruler is used for measuring and for making straight
lines. It comes in lengths 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, and 48 inches.
Most rulers are graduated in inches and centimeters. Rulers
can be made of wood, plastics, aluminum, or stainless steel.
xv. Triangular Ruler
This tool is also called an architect’s scale. This is a tool
generally used when reproducing a drawing in an enlarged
or reduced form to some regular proportion. The architect’s
scale is the most commonly used for general drawing. Its
main function is to reproduce the measurements of an
object in full size, reduced size, and enlarged size.

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Lesson 2: Drafting

xvi. Irregular curve or French curve

It is a template made of metal, wood, or plastic
that is used to draw curves other than circular arcs.
xvii. Circle Template
This instrument used to draw too small circles and
arcs in different sizes.

MENSURATION
It is the branch of mathematics which deals with the study of different geometrical
shapes, their areas and Volume. In the broadest sense, it is all about the process of
measurement. It is based on the use of algebraic equations and geometric calculations to
provide measurement data regarding the width, depth and volume of a given object or group of
objects. While the measurement results obtained by the use of mensuration are estimates
rather than actual physical measurements, the calculations are usually considered very
accurate.
Measuring is a fundamental operation that every draftsman should know.
1. Ruler is the most important type of measuring instrument. It is usually graduated in inches
and centimeters.
a. How to read the English scale (inches)
A foot rule is divided into a 12 inches
scale. An inch is divided by 16 small divisions
(calibrations). Therefore, one small division is
equal to 1/16, two small divisions are equal to
2/16 or 1/8, followed by 3/16, 4/16 or ¼, and so
on up to 1 inch. To read scale after 1 inch, read
the main division and add the fractions.
b. How to read the metric scale (centimeters)
A one-meter scale is divided into 100
centimeters and 1 centimeter is divided into
10 millimeters. To read the scale, count the
number of the small divisions (graduations)

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Lesson 2: Drafting

in millimeters. Ten small divisions can be read as 1 centimeter or 10 millimeters. After

1 centimeter it can be as 11 millimeters or 1.1 centimeters, and so on.
2. Triangular Scale
Triangular scales are used to give the dimension of the actual drawing. Its main
purpose is to reproduce the dimension in full size or to reduce or enlarge them on a
drawing. Scales help a drafter keep the proportions accurate.

3. Protractor
Protractor is used for measuring and setting
of angles other than those obtained using the
triangles.

4. T-square
A T-square is primary used in
drawing horizontal lines. It is included in
the group of measuring tools because
some T-square are made with scales in
metric and English.

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Lesson 2: Drafting

5. Triangles
Triangles are used for drawing
vertical and oblique lines. The most
commonly used triangles are the
45°and the 30°x 60°. Illustrations
below show the proper use of
drawing lines and measuring angles
using the T-square and triangle.
6. Compass
Compass is used to draw circles, arcs,
radii, and parts of many symbols.
In using a compass, remember the
following procedures.
a. Place the point of the drafting compass
at the center point of the circle you intend
to draw.
b. Adjust the leaded end of the compass so that it touches where you'd like the edge of
the arc--or circle--to be.
c. Grasp the middle of the compass between your thumb and fingers. Twist your fingers,
applying light downward pressure on the compass to mark out the desired length of
arc or circle with the leaded end of the compass.
7. Divider
Divider is similar to the compass in
construction. As the name implies, divider is
used for dividing distances into a number of
equal parts by the trial-and-error method.

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Lesson 2: Drafting

Metric System of Measurement

(Linear equivalent)
• 10 millimeters (mm.) = 1 centimeter • 10 centimeters (cm.) = 1 decimeter
(cm.) (dm.)
• English System of Measurement • 12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.)
• (Linear equivalent) • 10 centimeters (cm.) = 1 decimeter
(dm.)
• 10 decimeter (dm.) = 1 meter (m.)
English System of Measurement
(Linear equivalent)
• 12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.) • English Conversion Table
• 3 feet (ft.) = 1 yard (yd.) • 1 inch (in.) = .0254 mm. = 2.54 cm. =
• Metric Conversion Table .0254 (m.)
• 1 millimeter = 0.03937 inches (in.) • 1 foot (ft.) = 304.8 mm. = 30.48 cm =
• 1 centimeter = .3937 inches (in.) .3048 (m.)
• 1 meter = 39.37 inches (in.)
Drawing lines with T-square and Triangles
All the figures drawn in drafting are composed of different kinds of lines. The most
common instruments used in drawing lines are the T-square and triangles.
a. Horizontal Lines
- Use parallel edge (or T-square) to draw horizontal lines
• Lean pencil at about 60°

b. Vertical Lines
- Use triangles to draw vertical, draw the line upward

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Lesson 2: Drafting

c. Parallel Lines
- Move parallel edge (or T-square) and triangle to line up with given line AB
- With parallel edge (or T-square) held firmly in place, slide triangle into position and
draw required line.
B

d. Perpendicular Lines
- Move parallel edge (or T-square) and triangle until a side of the triangle lines up
with the given line AB
- With parallel edge (or T-square) held firmly in place, reposition triangle across line
and draw required line
B

ALPHABET OF LINES
Different lines represent different aspects ofa drawing.In order to make the drawing
easier to read and understand, each kind of line is drawn with different line weights. The
Alphabet of Lines is developed to make a drawing neater and clearer to understand.
Object or Thick dark line use to show outline of object, visible
visible lines edges and surfaces.
Construction Very light and thin line use to construct layout work.
line
Thin and dark lines use to show the size (span) of
Dimension line an object with a numeric value. Usually terminates
with arrowheads or tick markings.

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Lesson 2: Drafting

Short dash lines use to show non visible surfaces.

Hidden line
Usually shows as medium thickness.
Long and short dash lines. Usually indicates center
Center line
of holes, circles and arcs. Line is thin and dark.
Thin and dark line use to show the starting and
Extension line
ending of dimension.

Cutting plane Extra thick line use to show cutaway views or plane

line of projection where a section view is taken. Arrow

indicates direction of view.
Short and long
Short and long medium line use to show cutaway
break lines
view of a long section.

Medium line with arrowhead to show notes or label

Leader line
for size or special information about a feature.

Long line followed by two short dashes use to show

Phantom line
alternate position of a moving part.

Medium lines drawn at 45 degrees use to show

Section line
interior view of solid areas of cutting plane line.

PICTORIAL DRAWING
Pictorial drawing is the view of an object (actual or imagined) as it would be seen by an
observer who looks at the object either in a chosen direction or from a selected point of view.
A pictorial sketch represents a 3D object on a 2D sheet of paper by orienting the object so you
can see its width, height, and depth in a single view.
TYPES OF PICTORIAL DRAWING
i. ISOMETRIC
A pictorial representation of an object in
which all three dimensions are drawn at
full scale rather than foreshortening them to
the true projection. An isometric drawing looks
like an isometric projection but all

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Lesson 2: Drafting

its lines parallel to the three major axes are measurable.

Isometric drawings are commonly used in technical drawing
to show an item in 3D on a 2D page. Isometric drawings,
sometimes called isometric projections, are a good way of
showing measurements and how components fit together.
Unlike perspective drawings, they don’t get smaller as the lines go into the distance.
HOW TO CONSTRUCT AN ISOMETRIC DRAWING
1. Draw a thin horizontal line XY.
2. Draw a thin vertical axis AB perpendicular to the given line XY and forming equal 90-
degree angles.
3. Draw a thin 30-degree left cross axis AC.
4. Draw a thin 30-degree right cross axis AD.
5. Mark off distances to represent the width, length and thickness of the box.
6. Connect CE parallel to the vertical axis.
7. Connect DF parallel to the vertical axis.
8. Complete the drawing using 30-60-90-degree triangle lines BF, EG, BE and FG.
9. Draw a hidden line connecting line BG.
10. Draw a hidden line connecting line BC.
11. Draw a hidden line connecting line BD.
ii. OBLIQUE
An Oblique pictorial starts with a straight-on view of one of the object's faces,
which is often the front face. Angled, parallel lines are drawn to one side to represent the
object's depth. Common oblique angles include 30°, 45°, and 60°.
TWO TYPES OF OBLIQUE
Cavalier Oblique Drawing - mostly this type of drawing is
constructed in Oblique Projection. In this drawing, one axis is
horizontal, and the other is vertical while the third axis is at 45° to
the horizontal line. In a cavalier drawing the top and side views
appear to be long because the true lengths of the side and the top
are measured off along the given inclined lines.

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Lesson 2: Drafting

Cabinet Oblique Drawing - in this drawing, one axis

is horizontal, and the other is vertical while the third axis is from 30°
to 60° to the horizontal line. Such drawing resembles much with the
actual image. The process known as foreshortening is used in
cabinet drawing wherein the length of the lines of the top and side
views are made shorter so that when viewed at an angle, the true
lengths of edges or surfaces are not shown.

iii. AXONOMETRIC AND PLANOMETRIC

A method of projection in which a three-dimensional object is represented by a drawing
having all axes drawn to exact scale, resulting in the optical distortion of diagonals and
curves. Axonometric (45-degree angle) or planometric (60/30-degree angles) as it is
sometimes known is a method of drawing a plan view with a third dimension.
ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING
The word orthographic comes from the Greek words orthos and graphos meaning to write
and to draw. It is also known as Orthographic Projection.
"Orthographic drawing" refers to a 2-D representation of an object in a view that shows only
one side at a time. Most orthographic drawings occur in multi-drawing sets in order to depict
each side, top and bottom view.
Professions in design and construction use these types of drawings to inform the viewer of
layout, size and shape. House floor plans illustrate a common type of orthographic drawing.
ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS
1. One-view Drawing
• An object drawn in one view.
• A single view supplemented by notes and
dimensions is enough information to describe the
shape of a relatively simple object.

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Lesson 2: Drafting

2. Two-view Drawing
• An object drawn in two views, which are either the top
and front or the front and side.
3. Three-view Drawing
• An object drawn in three regular views, namely, top
view, front view, and the right-side view. This
presentation is important so that correct information
regarding the object can be conceived
4. Six-view Drawing
• In the event that precise description is needed on the
irregularity of shapes of a given object, it is important
to have at least six principal views.
PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING
1. The part of the object with the most distinct shape
should be chosen and marked as the front view.
2. The front view has to be pointed out to avoid, if not minimize, numerous hidden views.
3. Avoid unnecessary views.
4. Position the front view in the lower left corner of the drawing paper.
5. The top view should be placed in the line with and directly over the front view.
6. The right-side view, also known as the end view, is placed in line with and directly
positioned to the right of the front view.
7. The thickness and the length of the object are revealed in the front view.
8. The width and the thickness of the object are revealed in the right-side view.
9. The width or depth and length of the object are revealed in the top view.
10. The distance between views should be approximately 2cm to 3cm.
DIMENSIONING
The purpose of dimensions is to provide a complete and clear description. The center,
overall length, width and all features need dimensioning. This includes thread specifications for
bolt holes, slots and angles.
Dimensions should be drawn in the right place in order that they can be easily seen. Avoid
repetition of the same dimension on the same drawing. One common method of placing

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Lesson 2: Drafting

dimension is the "non-directional method".

Another method of placing dimensioning is the "aligned dimensioning". Dimension should be
placed outside the views and between views.
Dimension line should never cross extension lines. If the space for the dimension is too
narrow, the arrowheads are placed outside the extension lines, pointing inside.
METHODS OF DIMENSIONING
Circles, cylindrical figures and others are dimensioned through the following:

1. The dimension is written inside the figure of the

circle.

2. Dimension is written outside the circumference of

the figure.

3. Writing dimension utilizing the leader line.

4. Methods of dimension arcs

5. Writing dimension in a given angle.

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Lesson 2: Drafting

Activities / Assessment Tasks

A. Written Test
Directions: Select the best answer to the following multiple choice questions about
Drafting. Write the corresponding letter in the space before the number.
1. This kind of drawing is generally in equal measure to the size of the orthographic
views.
a. Isometric Drawing
b. Oblique Drawing
c. Orthographic Drawing
d. Working Drawing
2. This kind of drawing represents the exact shape and size of the given object in one or
several view.
a. Isometric Drawing
b. Oblique Drawing
c. Orthographic Drawing
d. Working Drawing
3. This drawing always has a right angle corner.
a. Isometric Drawing
b. Oblique Drawing
c. Orthographic Drawing
d. Working Drawing
4. A drafting tool used for drawing horizontal lines
a. Compass
b. Triangle
c. T- square
d. Triangular Scales

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Lesson 2: Drafting

5. Drafting material used for fastening the drawing paper on the drawing table
a. Compass
b. Divider
c. Masking Tape
d. Triangle
6. This instrument is used to draw circles, arcs, radii, and parts of many symbols.
a. Compass
b. Divider
c. Protractor
d. Tape ruler
7. This drafting tool is used to protect the rest of the drawing when removing
unnecessary lines.
a. Erasing Shield
b. Eraser
c. Masking Tape
d. Pencil Sharpener
8. A measuring tool used to layout an angle or an arc.
a. Compass
b. Divider
c. Protractor
d. Tape ruler
9. Most popular type of measuring tools, usually 6 or 12 inches in length.
a. Tape ruler
b. Triangle
c. Ruler
d. Scale
10. It provides an easy means for accurately measuring curved surfaces.
a. Compass
b. Divider
c. Protractor
d. Tape ruler

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Lesson 4: Masonry

B. Performance Test
Directions: Draw the Orthographic Views (Top View, Front View, Side View) of the
object.

Rubrics in Assessing Performance Task

Criteria 50 points 30 points 10 point
ACCURACY The output is The output is The output is done but
accurately done and satisfactory done but most of the lines are
the lines are aligned. some of the lines are not aligned.
not aligned.
LAYOUT The output is properly The output is properly The lay out and
PRESENTATION laid out, pleasing to laid out and presentation of the
the eye and satisfactory presented. output is fairly done.
satisfactory presented.

NEATNESS The output is neat and The output has some The output is full of
free from erasures. erasures. erasures.

TOTAL

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Lesson 4: Masonry

References

Alphabet of Lines: Introduction to Drafting and Lines (n.d). Retrieved September19, 2020 from
https://wheelerdrafting.weebly.com/uploads/5/7/3/8/57388109/alphabet_of_lines.pdf
Anderson, W. (Schoolworkhelper Editorial Team) https://schoolworkhelper.net/ Tutor and
Freelance Writer. Science Teacher and Lover of Essays. Article last reviewed: 2019 | St.
Rosemary Institution © 2010-2020 | Creative Commons 4.0, W. (n.d.). TECHNICAL DRAWING
& ALPHABET OF LINE. Retrieved from
https://schoolworkhelper.net/technical-drawing-alphabet-of-line/
Goodman, M.,Johnson, C. and Lockhart, S.E. (2018). Visualization and Sketching. Retrieved
September 20, 2020 from:
https://www.peachpit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=2873372&seqNum=7
Lockhart, S.E. (2018). Modern Graphics Communication, 5th Edition. Retrieved September 19,
2020 from:
https://www.peachpit.com/store/modern-graphics-communication-
9780134848716?w_ptgrevartcl=Visualization+and+Sketching_2873372
Pictorial Drawing: Technological and Applied Studies (n.d). Retrieved September 13, 2020 from:
https://www.tasstudent.com/pictorial-
drawing/?fbclid=IwAR1dWJts8CfFqw2DDEmlIllpoZLMC58jRAbgqCwEkcnnsPiVYJMf
TH4tqps
Pictorial Drawing (n.d). Retrieved from September 20, 2020 from:
https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Pictorial+drawing
Suratos,C.P. and Peralta,J.C.(2012).Technology and livelihood education 1.
Quezon City.St.Bernadette Publishing House Corporation
Suratos,C.P. and Peralta,J.C.(2013).Technology and livelihood education grade7.
Quezon City.St.Bernadette Publishing House Corporation
The Alphabet of Lines in Technical Drawing. (n.d). Retrieved September 20, 2020 from:
https://careertrend.com/list-5810766-types-lines-technical-drawing.html

Answer Key:

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 46

Lesson 4: Masonry

A. Written Test
1. A
2. C
3. B
4. C
5. C
6. A
7. A
8. C
9. C
10. D
B. Performance Test

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Sta. Mesa Manila

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 47

Lesson 4: Masonry

College of Education
Department of Business Teacher Education

A Self-Learning Outcome-Based Education (OBE) Instructional

Materials
in BTLE30083 – Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1

Lesson 3
Topic: Carpentry

Contributors:

Mark Kevin L. Gatlabayan

Ann May C. Nuay
Ritchel N. Santarromana
Danielle Q.Soliven
Antonette S. Tolentino

DR MARION A. CRESENCIO
Facilitator
LESSON 3: CARPENTRY
● Classification of Tools and Materials
● Principles of Carpentry
● Safety Standards

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 48

Lesson 4: Masonry

● Planning a Woodwork Project

● Finishing Material

Overview
The present-day carpenter is carrying on a noble tradition in a craft that not
only is important today but will always be needed, even if some of its aspects
change and new developments are contributed by other fields. The novice
woodworker, without skill and a minimum of tools, can produce simple yet
satisfactory work in a very short time. From this he can go on to greater things, for not only is
woodworking an absorbing hobby, it can become a part- or full-time profession.
Power tools have their place in taking some of the dull work out of woodworking, but
anyone who wants to become skilled in the craft should master hand methods before trying to
use power tools extensively. Only in this way can the worker appreciate the characteristics of
wood and learn to make the most of the material. An important part of woodworking
craftsmanship is a feel for wood, not as easily acquired when an electric motor is substituted for
muscle power. Woodwork construction has evolved over centuries, producing joints, methods,
techniques and processes that have stood the test of time.

Learning Outcomes

After completion of this lesson, you will be able to competently do these:

1. Differentiate the tools and materials and its function in carpentry.
2. Define Carpentry and give its importance to the field.
3. Apply proper use and handling of carpentry tools and equipment.
4. Identify the risks and hazards while performing carpentry.

Course Materials

What is Carpentry and Woodworking?

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Carpentry is
defined as being the trade
of cutting and joining timber
in order to construct
buildings or other
structures.

Woodworking is
defined as the crafts of
carpentry, cabinet-making, and related skills of making things from wood.

Forms of Woodworking
Carvers – Carvers typically work in free-standing forms in addition to working on flat surfaces.
They are artists, and woodworking is their medium.
Framers – Framers aren’t typically considered artists, as their function lies in building the roof,
floors, and/or walls of a structure. There isn’t too much room for creative license when it comes
to the structural integrity of a home.
Luthiers – Luthiers make musical instruments from wood. That’s neat.
Furniture makers – This could be you! That is, if you feel like taking our Introduction to Furniture
Making Class. More to the point, furniture makers are sometimes included in the cabinet-making
category. This can include rocking chairs, desks, tables, cabinets, etc.
Turners – Turners are a specialized group of woodworkers who are adept in working on the
lathe. They make bowls, dishes, and all sorts of turned items.
Whittlers – These are folks, usually amateurs or hobbyists, who chip carve small objects out of
wood. The very best can make impressive objects, among which are chains, book rests,
containers, and all kinds of little trinkets.

CLASSIFICATION OF TOOLS AND MATERIALS

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Tools and materials may be classed according to their functions and modes of
action, as follows:

TOOLS

CLASSIFICATION NAME DESCRIPTION

It has two large blades that form the

Framing
right angle and can be used to establish
MEASURING Square
other angles by using different
TOOLS
measurements.

Try square has stock and blade set at a

Try
right angle to each other that is used to
Square
measure and ensure the alignment of
corners of the wood surface.

It consists of a sliding handle and is

Combinat
used to lay out or check right and 45°
ion Try
angles.
Square

A measuring tool used to make lines

Speed
perpendicular (square) to a board’s
Square
edge.

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Sliding T
Bevel A metal bodied T-bevels that is used to
Square transfer and mark angles.

Caliper
It is a kind of tool that measures the
diameter of a wood inside and out.

A convenient type of ruler that runs

Retractab
easily since it is retractable and has
TAPE MEASURES le Steel
locking mechanism so it can keep it
Tape
extended to the desired length.

Foot
Ruler A straight stick with measurements
labeled to make marking lines easier.

Folding
Ruler Folding ruler is like a foot ruler but with
longer distances and more convenient
since it can be folded.

Marking
MARK LINING Gauge A marking gauge incorporates a single
TOOLS pin and an adjustable fence for scribing
a line parallel to an edge.

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Lesson 4: Masonry

It is a tool used to mark projects with

Chalk
desired lines according to your
Line
measurements on flat surfaces for
layout.

It has a two end point that is for

making larger circles and arcs that
Trammel
could not be reached by using a
compass or divider.

EDGE CUTTING Chisels A sharp steel blade beveled on at

TOOLS least one side. They are essential
to rough chopping, cutting and
fitting of joinery.

Plane Used to flatten or smoothen wood

surfaces.

Spokeshave A type of plane used with flat sole

to round edges, make spindles,
and fair concave curves. It can be
used either as a pulling or a
pushing motion.

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Cabinet Cabinet scraper holds a scraper

Scraper blade so that its cutting action is
directed by the sole of the tool
and particularly useful for
flattening and smoothing boards.

Hatchet It is like an axe but a smaller

version that is used to chop lighter
pieces of wood with a short
handle and its blade is flared on
the bottom and straight across
top.

TOOTH- Cross Cut It has a more teeth yield smoother

CUTTING Saw cut across wood grain and also
TOOLS smaller gullets prevent too-fast
feed rate

Rip-saw A slightly different kind of saw with

crosscut since it has fewer teeth
when cutting with wood and has
larger gullets allows faster stock
removal.

It has thin blades with finely set

Back Saw
teeth that cut precise angles on
moldings with other trim.

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Compass It is suitable for cutting softer

Saw woods and also can be used to
penetrate softer materials.

It has a thin, flexible blade

Coping Saw
designed to cut curves. It is also
essential for making professional-
looking joints in trim moldings.

Dovetail A form of backsaw whose blades

Saw are stiff ended with metal spikes
used to cut fine joints.

HOLDING C-clamp A C-shaped metal body with a

TOOLS screw-thread and handle entering
at one end that is used to hold
pieces of lumber together.

Fixed Vise A device used to secure an object

to allow work to be performed on
it that is attached to the side of the
bench.

Hand Drill It is for making small holes in

wood or metal or any other
materials.

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Bar Clamp It is used for clamping wide stock

or holding larger pieces together.

DRIVING Claw A tool used for driving nails into

Hammer wood or extract nails from the
TOOLS
wood.

Mallet A mallet with rubber or plastic

head is for driving chisels and for
making slight adjustments to a
workpiece without damaging the
surface of the wood.

Screwdriver It is for driving and losing screws.

Screwdrivers should fit the slot of
the screw tightly to avoid stripping
the head of the screw.

MATERIALS

NAMES DESCRIPTION

Lumber Lumber is processed pieces of wood

from timber which is used in making a
wood project.

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Plywood It is an extremely versatile sheet

material that is made up of thinly sliced
layers or plies of wood.

Nails Nails are commonly used in large

projects because it is stronger than
screws.

Screws Screws are used in mid-size or small

projects because it offers more control
and screws are categorized according
to length, slot style, head shape, and
gauge.

Glues & Adhesives To make the wood project hold together

it is a must to use the necessary glue
and adhesive for material.

PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY
1. Understand How Wood Works and Behaves
Before you put any tool to your lumber, you will need to understand its proper orientation
and what direction to plane the board. It’s also important to understand how wood expands and
contracts as humidity fluctuate throughout the year. All wooden construction takes this natural
property into account and ignorance of this can be disastrous.
2. Invest in Your Tools.

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Lesson 4: Masonry

In other words, buy the best tool you can afford. And if you can’t afford it right now,
save up until you can.
3. Know Your Tools.
Know intimately how they work and how to fine-tune them for the best performance. That
goes for hand tools as well as power tools. Maintain and tune-up your table saw periodically.
Make sure all of your chisels and planes are set up, sharp, and ready to put to use.
4. Sharpen Saws, Planes, and Chisels
Sharpening your tools is a basic and foundational skill because it is something that
needs to happen regularly. Not only is it inefficient to work with dull tools, it’s dangerous. If you
feel like you need to push your chisel with body weight to complete the cut, when it does pop
free, you will lose control and your tool will stab into whatever is in its path. Learn how to
sharpen your tools and you will find woodworking to be enjoyable, safe, and efficient.

5. Curb Your Enthusiasm.

Being motivated to be productive is one thing. But being in a hurry and taking shortcuts
(like not properly sanding, or assuming that the glue will fill the gaps in an ill-fitting joint) are
another thing. So the key is not to be impatient. I have to talk myself into slowing down and
“doing it right.”

SAFETY STANDARDS
All those working on the job must understand the basic principles of safe behavior and
act accordingly. Only then can accidents on a construction site be reduced. Everyone should be
safety conscious. Safety consciousness is the awareness of good safety practices. This
includes knowledge, attitude, obedience, and concern.

Major Causes of Accidents:

1. Fire and Explosions 4. Contact with Objects and Equipment
2. Falls 5. Heat
3. Harmful Substances & Environment 6. Radiation

Hand Tools:
1. Keep all hand tools clean, sharp and in good repair.

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Lesson 4: Masonry

2. Use all hand tools for the purpose for which they were intended (i.e. a screwdriver is
not a chisel and vice-versa).
3. Do not carry sharp/pointed objects in pockets.

Power Tools:
1. Make all adjustments and tighten all locking devices before attaching tools to power
supply.
2. Make sure the tool is switched off before connecting to the power supply.
3. Use a grounded outlet, grounded extension cords, and/or a Ground Fault Circuit
Interrupter.
4. Operate all tools with all safety guards in place.
5. Use fence/guide, push-stick, appropriately.
6. Maintain appropriate safety margin between cutting edge and hands.
7. Keep blades/bits, etc. sharp.
8. Keep the tool and surrounding work area in a clean and safe condition.
9. Follow Manufacturers maintenance instructions.
10. Handle all air-actuated devices with extreme caution.

Explosive-Actuated Fastening Tools:

1. One of the important factors in achieving safe, satisfactory use of explosive-actuated
fastening systems is operator training. Only trained and competent operators shall use
explosive-actuated tools.
2. All operators shall wear appropriate personal protection equipment (PPE) (i.e. eye and
ear protection and/or face shields).
3. CSA Z166.1 (Power Actuated Tools – Performance Requirements) and CSA Z166.2
(Power Actuated Tools – Use and Handling) contain useful information about safe
operation and maintenance of explosive-actuated tools.
4. Do not use a tool in an explosive or flammable atmosphere.
5. Inspect the tool before using it to determine that it is clean, that all moving parts operate
freely, and that the barrel is free from obstructions and has the proper shield, guard, and
attachments recommended by the manufacturer.
6. Do not load the tool unless it is to be used immediately.

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Lesson 4: Masonry

7. Do not leave a loaded tool unattended, especially where it would be available to

unauthorized persons.
8. Keep hands clear of the barrel end.
9. Never point the tool at anyone.

Safety Equipments

Safety Hat
A safety hat is required on the construction site. It is
typically called "hard hat." Class A hard hats are
intended for protection against impact hazards and
are used in construction.

Safety Glasses and Full Face Shield

Eye and face protection equipment shall be required
when machines or operations present since there is
possibility of potential eye or face damage.

Ear Muffs
Hearing-protection devices must be worn if working in
areas subjected to noise level of 90 decibels (dB) or
more in several hours.

Gloves
It is used to save the user's hands and fingers from
unnecessary wounds such as cuts, blisters, splinters,
skin punctures or heat and chemical burns.

Safety-toe Shoes/ Rubber Boots

Proper foot protection is needed at all times. Safety-
toe shoes with a steel toe covering are recommended.

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Disposable Mask
Disposable masks are effective for light dust
conditions and should be discarded after a few hours
use.

Safety Clothes/ Work Clothing

Clothes should be loose enough to permit easy
bending. They should not be too big because they can
get caught.

PLANNING A WOODWORK PROJECT

Here are the seven basic steps in planning a woodwork project:

1. Identify and analyze

Start a design by processing and identifying what you want to make— It may be
a chair, a cabinet, a built in bench. Analyzing the hard constraints on the piece: what
functions it will serve, what space is available, and the requirements of weight, stability,
and traffic around it.
2. Set the goal
Clarify what you want from the piece aesthetically and technically. Do you want a
completely new design, or something to match an existing style? Do you want to learn
new techniques? Work with specific materials? Is the priority function or appearance? Or
are the two equal?
3. Generate ideas
This is the fun part and it’s the heart of the matter. The key is to generate as
many ideas as possible, either on paper or in model form. The tools can include
transparent paper and a soft pencil for doodling and drawing, and whatever else works
for making quick models: wire, foam, MDF, softwood, Popsicle sticks, and straws.
4. Select

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Withhold judgment on your ideas for a couple of days. Then give them a
careful review and pick one. The trick here is to make a decision and proceed.
Remember that you can make any of the other ideas at a later date. If you procrastinate,
you don’t learn anything.

5. Build
Make a full-size mock-up if you need one, but make it quickly and cheaply.
You’re looking to refine the proportions of the piece, not work out all the details. Then
make a full-size drawing to determine the details of joinery. Proceed to construction of
the real piece.
6. Document
While you’re building the piece, take photos and make sketches and notes to
document the process. Add them to a file with all your design sketches for the piece,
along with photographs of the models and mock-ups.
7. Evaluate
When you’ve built the piece, always review the steps you took and look for ways
to make the process more enjoyable and productive. Next time you design, revisit the
files for successful pieces to see how their designs developed.

FINISHING MATERIALS
Wood finishing refers to the process of embellishing and/or protecting the surface of a
wooden material.
1. Wax- It can be water-based or oil-based and waxes confer matting effects and wear
resistance to paints.
2. Oil - Oils is similar to wax but it is more durable and oil nourishes and protects wood.
3. Varnish- Available in high-gloss, satin, or matte forms, water-based or solvent-based,
varnishes are the most durable finish which outshine most other finishes in their
resistance to water, heat, solvents, and other chemicals.
4. Shellac- It provides a glossy finish, but lacks durability. This means that you will need to
apply a new coat.
5. Lacquer- It is considered as the fastest-drying finish and more durable than Shellac.
Lacquers add an amazing depth and richness to the wood.

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6. Polyurethane- It is available in satin and high-gloss formulas. The durability of

polyurethane makes it ideal for finishing floors, tables, and desktops.

Activities / Assessment Tasks

C. Written Test
Directions: Encircle the best answer to the following multiple choice questions
and write your answer to the situational questions in the spaces provided about
Carpentry.

1. A narrow and pointed blade carpentry tool used for cutting in tight spaces and making
internal cuts.
A. Coping Saw
B. Spokeshave
C. Screw
D. Compass Saw

2. What happens if a wood project doesn’t undergo the process of wood finishing?
A. It will lead to damages like crack, dry, or swell when placed in a moisture
area.
B. The wood material will eventually become dry rot.
C. It will become more durable.
D. Nothing will change at all.

3. A must-have tool in woodworking that is used for trim, carving and can be patterned with
a mallet hammer when cutting wood.
A. Marking Gauge
B. C-Clamp
C. Chisel
D. Lacquer

4. What would you do if a piece of equipment wasn’t working properly?

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_________________________________________________________________
_____

5. Signs that must be used to warn against potential hazard, or to caution against unsafe
practices.
A. Caution Signs
B. Danger Signs
C. Traffic Signs
D. Exit Signs

6. What would you do if a coworker wasn’t following safety protocols?

7. Safety Clothes or Work Clothing should be ____ enough to permit easy bending.
A. Tight
B. Big
C. Loose
D. Small

8. This masks are effective for light dust conditions and should be discarded after a few
hours use.
A. Respiratory Protection
B. Disposable Masks
C. Ear Muffs
D. Safety Hat

9. What would you do if a coworker was injured by using a wrong equipment on the job and
you were the first to respond?

10. What would you do if a part of safety gear hinders your movement?

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B. Performance Test
Directions: Using wooden popsicle sticks and glue/wood glue, each individual must be
able to build or construct a miniature furniture design, you can use other materials to design
your furniture. The miniature will be graded according to your creativeness and uniqueness of
your design.

Materials:
- Wooden Popsicle Sticks
- Glue/ Wood Glue
- Scissor/ Precision knife/ Cutter
- Ruler
- Pencil

Below are the examples:

Rubrics in Assessing Performance Task:

30 %- Creativity
10%- Planning and Organization of work
20%- Assembly/Layout
40 %- Application of skills in woodworking

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References

Spence P. W. (1999) Carpentry and Building Construction: A Do-it-yourself Guide.

Sterling Publishing

https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=KKeipCXitkMC&lpg=PA7&dq=Safety%
20equipment%20for%20c
arpentry&pg=PA7#v=onepage&;q=Safety%20equipment%20for%20carpentry&f=false

Blandford, Percy W. (1985) The woodworker’s bible : a complete guide to woodworking.

Blue Ridge Summit, PA. by Tab Books

Leventhal, Josh (2014) Woodworking Wisdom & Know-How Everything You Need to
Design, Build and Create. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers New York

Reese D. C & Eidson J. (1999) Annotated Dictionary of Construction Safety and

Health. CRC Press.

https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=yxwrUewbpXQC&printsec=copyright&source=gb
s_pub_info_r#v=onepage&q&f=false

Answer Key:
1. D
2. A
3. C
4. Situational
5. A
6. Situational
7. C
8. B
9. Situational
10. Situational

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 66

Lesson 4: Masonry

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Sta. Mesa Manila

College of Education
Department of Business Teacher Education

A Self-Learning Outcome-Based Education (OBE) Instructional Materials

in BTLE30083 – Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1

Lesson 4
Topic: Masonry

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 67

Lesson 4: Masonry

Contributors:

Jantzen Bernardo
Tricia Mae Quinones
Rasel Jhon Mark Santos
Laurence Victor

DR MARION A. CRESENCIO
Facilitator

LESSON 4: MASONRY
• Masonry Materials
• Strategies in Masonry
• Planning and Designing a House

Overview

This module will spark ideas that will feed one’s mind about masonry. First,
masonry materials are stated along with their descriptions and their purpose. Second, different
types of masonry works are stated together with how to conserve masonry works due to

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Lesson 4: Masonry

damage because of rain, frost, storm, construction activities and etc. Third, masonry
workers are categorized by how they perform their tasks. Fourth, masonry deterioration
problems are explained to prevent further deterioration. Lastly, ways of planning and designing
a house are explained by means of giving ideas, characteristics and basic step by step floor
plan.

Learning Outcomes

After completion of this lesson, you will be able to competently do these:

1. Discuss the ways on how to conserve masonry works.

2. Explain the ways of repairing a deteriorated masonry works.
3. Plan a house that considers creativity, practicality, comfortability, and maximum use of
space.
4. Construct the miniature of a house personally planned and designed.

Course Materials

WHAT IS MASONRY?
Masonry is the art, science and industry of building with stone. If you’ve traveled
throughout various parts of the world, you may have seen prominent structures such as the
Pyramids, the Parthenon and the Great Wall of China all exquisitely crafted from the craft of
masonry.

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Masonry consists of building structures by laying individual masonry units.

Normally the masonry units are laid with cement mortar, which binds them together to create a
structure. Masonry construction can provide beautiful walls and floors at economical prices. Due
to the individual masonry units, masonry construction tends to be quite labor intensive. Because
of the cement, clay or stone nature of the masonry materials, masonry construction tends to be
durable and often requires little maintenance.
Masonry Materials
1. Cement
The cement should be ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
conforming to IS. Usually OPC- 43 grade cement is used in
masonry. Approved blended cement can be also used for
masonry. It is received in bags of 50 kg (or in bulk carriers in case
of storage in silos) and each batch should be accompanied with
test certificate of the factory. Also, it should be tested before use
https://gharpedia.com/blog/typ to ascertain its strength, setting time, etc. In case cement has
es-materials-used-in-masonry/
been stored for over 6 months from date of manufacturer or for any reasons the stored
cement shows signs of deterioration or contamination, it should be tested as per the
direction of the Engineer before use. If blended cement is used, it should be factory
blended only (fly ash only up to 25%). The quality, strength of masonry and plastering work
mainly depend on the quality of cement. So, cement should be tested in field and in
laboratory before use. Cement should be checked for field tests like cement brand,
manufacturing date, fineness, hardness, floating test and also laboratory tests like
soundness, setting time, etc.
2. Sand
Usually importance of sand is overlooked but sand
actually deserves considerable attention, for it affects the
compressive strength, bond strength, workability, drying
shrinkage, and appearance of mortar. Sand shall be well
https://gharpedia.com/blog/types- graded, clean, dry, durable, coarse, hard, angular river
materials-used-in-masonry/
sand free from adherent coatings of clay, dust and organic matters and shall not contain
any appreciable amount clay. Sand should be tested for silt content. Silt should not exceed
7%. Sand should be checked for bulkage, so that correct quantity of sand will be added and

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Lesson 4: Masonry

also check for gradation. The various sizes of particles of which the sand is
composed should be uniformly distributed throughout the mass. Sand should not contain
harmful impurities such as iron, pyrites, coal particles, lignite, mica shale or similar
laminated material, alkali, and organic impurities in such form or quantities so as to affect
the durability or strength of concrete or mortar. The seasonal changes shall be well
guarded. Sand should be invariably washed using screw type sand washing machine only if
the silt content is not within the permissible limits. River sand should be used. Do not use
river sand which is affected by tidal water. Never use sea sand. Also, do not use sand
which contains the white spotted material and shells.
a) Sieving screen
Sieving of sand should be done before use. For
sieving, it is important to maintain the different sizes of
screens for various work. Do not use rusted screens.
Screen should be replaced frequently. Big holes due to
damage should be replaced immediately. Mechanically
https://gharpedia.com/blog/type
s-materials-used-in-masonry/ operated sieving machine is also used for sand sieving.

3. Masonry units
a) Bricks
Bricks should be checked for size, shape, frog,
finishing, color, soundness, breaking etc. It should have
minimum crushing strength of 35 kg/cm2. Brick shall be
locally available, fairly uniform in size, with plane
rectangular faces, shape and color. Brick shall be
uniformly well burnt so as to give clear ringing sound
https://gharpedia.com/blog/types-
materials-used-in-masonry/ when struck and shall be free from cracks or other flaws
which impair their strength. They shall show a fine grained, uniform, homogeneous and

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dense texture on fracture and shall be free from lumps of lime, laminations,
cracks, air holes, soluble salts causing efflorescence or other defects which may impair
their strength, durability, appearance or usefulness for the purpose intended. They shall
have frog of 10 to 20 mm depth. Use bricks which is made from potable water.
i. RCC Band
RCC band also plays important role in masonry
building. RCC Bands in masonry building are reinforced
concrete runner provided in the walls to tie them
together and to impart horizontal bending strength in
them.
https://gharpedia.com/blog/types-
materials-used-in-masonry/

ii. Chicken mesh

After brick work, plastering is done on brick work
to make surface smooth. In plastering chicken mesh is
used at joints. Using chicken mesh when plastering
effectively prevents plaster layer drying out and
cracking. Chicken mesh is available in bundles (in kgs).
https://gharpedia.com/blog/types-
materials-used-in-masonry/

iii. Holdfast
In brick masonry holdfast (with wooden door and
window frame) is used. Holdfast shall be made from mild
steel flats not less than 5mm thick and without any burrs
or dents. Holdfast shall be given a coat of bitumen and
sanded. Each holdfast shall be clearly and permanently
https://gharpedia.com/blog/types-
materials-used-in-masonry/ marked with the name of the manufacturer or his trade-
mark any. The product should also be marked with standard mark. Holdfast is
generally bent into Z-Shape to fix or hold the window or door frame to the opening.
The horizontal length of holdfast is kept around 20 cm, and is installed in the
masonry. It is suggested that minimum two holdfasts on each side of the window

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frame can be provided. The holdfast should be painted with anti-corrosive

paint before fixing. If door or window frame is made from granite there is no need of
holdfast.
b) Cement Concrete (solid) blocks
To avoid confusion with slabs and panels, the height of
the block shall not exceed either its length or six times its width.
The nominal dimensions of concrete block shall be
Length: 400, 500 or 600 mm
Height: 200 or 100 mm
https://gharpedia.com/blog
/types-materials-used-in-
masonry/ Width: 50, 75, 100, 150,200, 250 or 300 mm. The variation in the
length of the block shall not be more than ±5 mm and variation in height and width of
blocks, not more than ±3 mm. The solid concrete blocks are used as load bearing units and
should have a block density not less than 1800 kg/m3. The solid concrete block shall have
compressive strength in between 40-50 kg/sq.cm.
c) Light weight blocks
It is a light-weight, structural material of stream cured
cellular (aerated) concrete. It is available in blocks and large
pre-fabricated units for floor, walls and roofs of all types of
buildings. Generally, the blocks have thickness of 200 mm, 150
mm, 100 mm. The blocks shall have density in between 650-
https://gharpedia.com/blog/typ 800 kg/m3. The light weight concrete block shall have a
es-materials-used-in-masonry/

minimum compressive strength of 35 kg / sq.cm. and bending

compression 15 kg / sq.cm.
d) Stone –rubble
Stones for masonry work should be tested for
different field tests like color, appearance,
absorption, hardness etc. Stone shall be hard,
durable, free from cracks, flaws, sand, holes, veins,
patches of soft or loose material, etc. Stone shall be
https://gharpedia.com/blog/types-materials- obtained from approved quarry. Normally stone used
used-in-masonry/
should be small enough to be lifted and placed in position by hand. The length of stone
shall not exceed three times the height. The height of stone may be up to 30 cms.

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Stone shall be hammer dressed on faces, the sides and the beds, to enable it to
come into close proximity with the neighboring stone. The ‘bushing’ in the face shall not
project more than 40 mm on exposed faces and 10 mm on a face to be plastered.
WAYS TO CONSERVE MASONRY WORKS
It is necessary to protect masonry during construction when the mortar is green or when
masonry has not been laterally supported, against damage due to rain, frost, storm, etc. It is
also necessary to protect some vulnerable parts of masonry such as jambs, corners and sills
and expose masonry, during construction from damage due to construction activities.
1. PROTECTION AGAINST RAIN
A heavy down-pour of rain falling on freshly laid masonry can leach out cement and lime
from the mortar used for laying masonry if mortar has not sufficiently set. In the first instance,
masonry work should be suspended if heavy rainfall is expected. When some masonry work
has been freshly laid and rain is imminent, masonry should be covered with tarpaulins or water-
proof canvas and if these are not readily available, with old gunny bags. It is only the top few
courses which need protection. This protection is needed more in case of slow setting lime or
cement-lime mortars and less in case of fast setting cement mortars.
2. PROTECTION AGAINST FROST
As a general rule no masonry work in exposed situation should be carried out when
ambient, temperature is below 50C, unless special means are adopted to heat masonry,
materials and to protect completed work. When there is likelihood of occurrence of frost at night,
in the first instance, mortar which is quick setting, that is, mortar containing fair proportion of
Portland cement should be used for laying masonry. Where considered necessary, use can be
made of accelerators in cement mortar so that mortar sets quickly and develops sufficient
strength before occurrence of frost. As a further precaution, day’s work should be protected by
covering the freshly laid masonry with tarpaulins, canvas or gunny bags. Use of air-entraining
admixtures in cement mortars results in increased resistance to repeated cycles of freezing and
thawing.
3. PROTECTION AGAINST STORM
A masonry wall is able to resist lateral forces due to wind pressure only when cross walls
have been built or R.C.C. floor/roof bearing on the wall has been laid. A high wall, therefore, is
liable to overturn due to wind pressure if a storm happens to occur, before the wall has been
braced either by cross walls or by floor/roof slab. It is, therefore, necessary to protect an

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unbraced wall during construction if there is a likelihood of occurrence of a storm, with the
help of adequate number of bully stays, fixed on both sides of the wall.
4. CARE OF EXPOSED MASONRY
In case of masonry which is not to be plastered over and is to have exposed finish, care
should be taken that mortar droppings and surface blemishes are removed soon after laying of
masonry, that is, before mortar has set. It is very difficult and laborious to clean the surface of
exposed masonry once mortar droppings have set and surface has been blemished.
5. PROTECTION FROM DAMAGE DUE TO NORMAL CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
Care should be taken that corners/edges and jambs and sills of openings, etc., are not
damaged due to falling of materials, movement of workers, fixing and removal of scaffolding,
centering and shuttering, etc. For preventing damage of this nature, it is necessary to issue
suitable instructions to workers and to impress upon them the necessity of exercising due care.
STRATEGIES IN MASONRY
Types of Masonry Works
Masonry work refers to any structure that has been built by stacking and binding
materials together with mortar – a paste made of cement, water and sand. Various materials like
bricks, stones, and marble can be used in masonry work.

Laying bricks and blocks

http://www.quantity-takeoff.com/img/laying-bricks-and-
blocks.jpg

Chimney building and repair

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/yD8IzQ07Z04/maxresdefault.jpg

Types of Masonry works:

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Dry stacking

https://theconstructor.org/building/dry-stacked-interlocking-
masonry-system-mortarless/9029/

Tuck-pointing deteriorated mortar joints and

replacing shaled, or precious bricks https://i.ytimg.com/vi/StgRjjblZ3g/maxresdefault.jpg

https://c8.alamy.com/comp/P65NYJ/replacing-a-brick-in-a-wall-
P65NYJ.jpg

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 76

Lesson 4: Masonry

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/I_i46Xu37qs/maxresdefault.jpg

Pouring footings, columns,

and support pads

https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9
GcQY07uZTe3xQ6wiX_vxh8QdcDYEmqgGaKjoMg&usqp
=CAU

https://www.thespruce.com/foundation-footings-code-
basics-1822269

Cement repair

https://www.roklinsystems.com/portals/0/Home/FlexSe
t-Concrete-Repair-500x333.jpg

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Cement coating

https://www.123rf.com/photo_93715835_cement-coating-was-
showered-old-plasterwork-was-visible-under-the-plaster-a-

Restorative water-proofing of a block, stone,

or poured concrete foundations

https://www.proteconline.com/images/Industrie
s_Parking/Parking-Meadowlands-Hospital.jpg

Erecting stone or brick walls, retaining walls,

columns decorative or functional structures

https://mortonstones.com/wp-
content/uploads/2016/04/brick-columns-porch-

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Installation of veneer stone,

or faux stone finishes

https://www.finehomebuilding.com/2018/08/08/get-know-
faux-stone-veneer

Concrete parging using lathes

and special mortar mixes

https://i.pinimg.com/236x/11/fa/48/11fa48fd292d04b
0955f3ad79d213e57--foundation-repair.jpg

Installation/restoring decorative limestone, or

natural stone pediments, and architectural
details such as sill, copings, and gargoyles

https://ilco-indianalimestone.netdna-ssl.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/04/Sills1-1024x683.jpg

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Installation of flagstone or quarried stone

paths, walkways, patios, outdoor barbeque,
fire pits, and stairs

https://img.sunset02.com/sites/default/file
s/image/2016/09/main/path-flagstone.jpg

Poured concrete stairs and walkways

https://cdn.homeadvisor.com/files/costguide/task/ima
ges/9514098_300_200.jpg

Concrete of stone driveways

https://www.stoneset.com.au/wp-
content/uploads/2017/06/3002-Concord-6mm-Ash-
Arctic-Overlay-2.jpg

Heritage restoration involving sourcing or

recreating original materials and designs,
including color matching mortars.

https://forbesmoz.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/07/heritage-restoration-melbourne.jpg

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2012 Philippine Standard Occupational Classification (PSOC)

House Builders
House builders erect, maintain and repair houses and similar small buildings using both
traditional or modern techniques and materials. Their tasks include:
a. Preparing ground for erecting building or other structures;
b. Erecting structures to support roof, and building and covering walls with appropriate
materials;
c. Fixing rafters to roof and covering with roofing material;
d. Levelling floor to make it smooth and serviceable;
e. Maintaining and repairing existing structures;
f. Arranging for specialized work such as bricklaying, painting, plumbing and electrical wiring
to be done by subcontractors; and
g. Coordinating and supervising the activities of subcontractors, laborers and other workers.
Examples of the occupations classified here:
House Builder
Nipa house builder (sawali, straw)
Some related occupations classified elsewhere:
Construction project manager 1323
Project builder 1323
Construction supervisor 3123
Bricklayers and Related Workers
Bricklayers and related workers lay bricks, pre-cut stones and other types of building
blocks in mortar to construct and repair walls, partitions, arches and other structures.
Their tasks include:
a. laying stone, brick and similar building blocks to construct or repair walls, partitions,
fireplaces and other structures such as smokestacks, furnaces, converters, kilns and
ovens, piers and abutments;
b. laying footpaths, curb and pavements; and
c. laying bricks or other masonry to build patios, garden walls and other decorative
installations.
Examples of the occupations classified here:

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Block layer
Chimney builder
Construction bricklayer
Firebrick layer
Paver
Refractory bricklayer
Some related occupations classified elsewhere:
Stonemason -7113
Stonemasons, Stone Cutters, Splitters and Carvers
Stonemasons, stone cutters, splitters and carvers cut and shape hard and soft stone
blocks and slabs for the construction and maintenance of stone structures and monumental
masonry, and carve designs and figures in stone.
Their tasks include:
a. driving wedges into quarried stone to break it into slabs or blocks;
b. selecting and grading slabs and blocks of granite, marble, and other stone;
c. cutting, shaping and finishing building and monumental stone such as granite or marble by
using hand or hand-powered tools;
d. making patterns and marking shapes on stone for subsequent sawing, planning, drilling
and other dressing and cutting operations;
e. cutting and carving characters, figures or designs on stone blocks used for monuments or
memorials;
f. setting stone in the erection of monuments and memorials; and
g. repairing and replacing stonework on old buildings, churches and monuments.
Examples of the occupations classified here:
Construction stonemason
Cutter, mosaic
Granite Cutter
Lathe operator (stone)
Mason (general)
Mason lead man
Mason, monument

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Splitter, stone
Stone carver
Stone cutter
Stonemason
Some related occupations classified elsewhere:
Wall and floor tiler -7122
Machine operator (stone cutting or processing) 8112
Concrete Placers, Concrete Finishers and Related Workers
Concrete placers, concrete finishers and related workers erect reinforced concrete
frameworks and structures, make forms for molding concrete, reinforce concrete surfaces,
cement openings in walls or casings for wells, finish and repair cement surfaces and carry out
terrazzo work.
Their tasks include:
a. constructing and repairing reinforced concrete floors, walls, tanks, silos and other concrete
structures;
b. making shuttering or assembling prefabricated forms for molding concrete;
c. cementing openings in walls or casings for wells;
d. finishing and smoothing surfaces of concrete structures; and
e. applying a durable, smooth surfacing composed of cement, sand pigment and marble
particles to floors, known as a terrazzo finish.
Examples of the occupations classified here:
Cement finisher
Concrete finisher, general*
Concrete placer
Concrete shutterer
Gas or oil well cementer
Reinforced concreter (general)
Terrazzo worker
Some related occupations classified elsewhere:
Concrete finishing machine operator 8114
Road surface laying machinery operator 8342

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Carpenters and Joiners

Carpenters and joiners cut, shape, assemble, erect, maintain and repair various types of
structures and fittings made from wood and other materials.
Their tasks include:
a. making, altering and repairing structural and other woodwork at a work-bench and on a
construction site;
b. constructing, erecting and installing heavy-framed wooden structures on building sites;
c. fitting, assembling and altering internal and external fixtures of buildings, such as walls,
doors, door and window frames, facings and paneling;
d. making, repairing and fitting scenic equipment for theatrical performances, motion picture or
television productions; and
e. constructing, assembling, altering and repairing wooden fixtures and fittings in train
coaches, aircraft, ships, boats, floats, and other vehicles.
Examples of the occupations classified here:
Carpenter, finish*
Carpenter, general*
Carpenter, rough*
Joiner
Shipwright (wood)
Wood and sash maker*
Some related occupations classified elsewhere:
Furniture and cabinet maker* 7522
Wheel-wright 7522
Building Frame and Related Trades Workers Not Elsewhere Classified
This unit group covers building frame and related trades workers not classified
elsewhere in Minor group 711, Building frame and related trades workers. For instance the
group includes steeplejacks, scaffolders and demolition workers.
Their tasks would include:
a. climbing and performing miscellaneous construction and building maintenance work on tall
structures such as towers, chimneys and spires;
b. erecting temporary metal or wooden scaffolding on building sites; and

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Lesson 4: Masonry

c. demolishing buildings and other structures.

Examples of the occupations classified here:
Building maintenance man*
Scaffolder
Skilled demolition worker
Steeplejack
Some related occupations classified elsewhere:
Construction laborer 9313
Demolition laborer 9313
Masonry Deterioration and Repair
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by
mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of
masonry construction are brick, stone, marble, granite, travertine, limestone, cast stone,
concrete block, glass block, stucco, and tile.
Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the durability of the
overall masonry construction depends on the materials used, the quality of the mortar and
workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled.
Masonry is commonly used for the walls of buildings, houses, retaining walls, and
monuments. The most common types of masonry used in industrialized nations are bricks,
concretes or a veneer.
Masonry Deterioration Problems
Chipping
- Small pieces or larger fragments of masonry separating from the masonry unit, often at
corners or mortar joints. This may be the result of damage caused by later alterations or
repairs, such as use of too hard a mortar, or by accident or through vandalism.
Preservation Treatments
Dutchman Repair is a type of partial replacement or "piecing-in" that can be done either
with natural stone or with a pre-cast imitation as a treatment for chipping stone. It involves
replacing a small area of damaged stone with a new unit. The new stone is either wedged in
place or secured with an adhesive. The joint between new and old should be kept as narrow as
possible to maintain the appearance of a continuous surface.

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Coving
- The hollowing out of an adobe wall just above grade level. Coving may be caused by
standing rainwater or rainwater splash off the ground. It can also be caused by salts
deposited in the adobe by the evaporation of water.
Preservation Treatments
Areas of adobe that have been subject to coving should be patched with adobe, using
clay with a texture and color close to the original, after improving the drainage and eliminating, if
possible, the moisture problem.
Cracking
- A term describing narrow fissures from 1/16 to 112 inch wide in a block of masonry.
Cracking may result from a variety of conditions, such as structural settlement of a
building, too hard a repointing mortar, or it may be an inherent characteristic of the
masonry itself, such as unfired brick or adobe. Small cracks within a single block of
masonry may not be serious, but longer and wider cracks extending over a larger area
may be indicative of structural problems, and should be monitored.
Preservation Treatments
Cracking in adobe may be repaired using a procedure similar to repointing. It is
necessary to rake out the cracks to a depth of 2 or 3 times the width of a mortar joint to obtain a
good "key", and patch with adobe mud.
Crumbling
- This condition is indicative of a certain brittleness or tendency of the masonry to break up
or dissolve. It may be caused by an inherent weakness of the masonry and gradual
dissolution of the binder, or it may be the result of external factors affecting the strength
or durability of the masonry, such as salts or moisture entering the masonry.
Preservation Treatments
Consolidation is a process carried out in an effort to strengthen masonry, particularly
natural stone and concrete and is generally undertaken in an attempt to bring back together or
consolidate deteriorating or disintegrating masonry (through crumbling. friability. spalling. or
loss of binder in sugaring). Consolidation generally involves application of an inorganic
substance such as barium hydroxide or injection of some type of a chemically-curable monomer

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Lesson 4: Masonry

such as methyl methacrylate and n-butyl methacrylate or a clear silicone polymer such as the
group of silanes, silicones, alkoxysilanes, and silicone esters.
Delamination
- A condition of stone in which the outer surface of the stone splits apart into laminae or
thin layers and peels off the face of the stone. Because of their layered composition, this
may be a natural condition of sedimentary stones such as sandstone or limestone; and
the presence of clay-rich layers can accelerate the process.
- Delamination takes place along the natural bedding planes of the stones when they are
laid vertically, instead of horizontally-the correct way-and, as a result, are exposed to
weathering.
- Delamination differs from spalling in that it is a condition confined to natural, primarily
sedimentary, stone and is not a condition that occurs in manufactured products, such as
brick.
Preservation Treatments
Mechanical Repair. This treatment may be defined as the use of cutting back, drilling,
reinforcement pinning, and grouting methods to fasten together fractured masonry. This type of
repair may be appropriate for use on the following kinds of deterioration: cracking, delamination,
detachment, and exfoliation. Each of these problems merits a slightly different variation of
mechanical repair.
Stucco. An exterior finish for masonry or frame walls, usually composed of cement,
sand, and hydrated lime, which, when mixed with water and applied wet to a surface, adheres to
it and subsequently sets or hardens, preserving in a rigid state the form or texture imposed
during the period of elasticity. If delamination, exfoliation, or spalling is present, the application
of a stucco coating may be an appropriate repair treatment for stone.
Detachment
- The result of a complete break (or failure of an original construction joint) in which the
detached portion of masonry survives intact.
Preservation Treatments
Mechanical Repair. This treatment may be defined as the use of cutting back, drilling,
reinforcement pinning, and grouting methods to fasten together fractured masonry. This type of
repair may be appropriate for use on the following kinds of deterioration: cracking, delamination,

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Lesson 4: Masonry

detachment, and exfoliation. Each of these problems merits a slightly different variation of
mechanical repair.
Efflorescence
- Efflorescence indicates salt accumulations under the surface of the masonry (sub
florescence) which are potentially damaging to the masonry, and are most definitely a
matter of concern.
- Efflorescence itself may be more unsightly than harmful, but its presence on an older or
historic masonry building often serves as a warning, indicating that water has found a
point of entry into the structure. Once this has occurred, more serious damage can
usually be predicted.
Preservation Treatments
Poulticing. A technique used for cleaning or removal of stains from porous masonry. The
principle of poulticing is to draw the stain out of the masonry, to be reabsorbed by the poultice
material, while other cleaning methods would just tend to redeposit the stain in the masonry or
push it deeper into the masonry. A poultice is composed of an absorbent material, such as talc,
fuller's earth, whiting, or even shredded paper that has been saturated with a solvent chosen to
dissolve the specific type of stain.
Water washing is also an effective, if sometimes temporary, technique for removing
efflorescence from the surface of masonry.
Erosion
- Wearing away of the surface, edges, corners or carved details of masonry slowly and
usually by the natural action of wind or windblown particles and water. Erosion is one of
the most serious kinds of adobe deterioration.
Preservation Treatments
Replacement/Patching. Individual masonry units, badly damaged or disfigured by
chipping, erosion, or weathering may have to be replaced with a matching masonry material, an
appropriate substitute material, or patched with a cementitious mixture.
Exfoliation
- Exfoliation, like delamination, is a term primarily used to describe natural stone
deterioration. Peeling, scaling or flaking off of the surface of stone in thin layers is caused

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by the expansion and contraction of trapped moisture, by chemical action such as rusting
of metal, or by weathering.
- Exfoliation most often occurs along natural bedding planes, resulting in an unevenly
layered surface. Incorrectly laid stones with their bedding plane laid up parallel or
perpendicular to the surface of the building thus have a natural tendency to exfoliate
faster, following the lines of the bedding planes.
Preservation Treatments
Stucco. An exterior finish for masonry or frame walls, usually composed of cement,
sand, and hydrated lime, which, when mixed with water and applied wet to a surface, adheres to
it and subsequently sets or hardens, preserving in a rigid state the form or texture imposed
during the period of elasticity. If delamination, exfoliation, or spalling is present, the application
of a stucco coating may be an appropriate repair treatment for stone
Composite Patching/ Plastic Repair. A repair treatment carried out by patching selected
areas of deteriorating masonry with a cementitious material. If composite patching or plastic
repairs are carried out using too hard a mix, they may not adhere, or may accelerate weathering
and deterioration of the adjacent natural stone, partly because of the different rates of
expansion. This type of repair may also be referred to as dental repair, and is sometimes
appropriate for delamination, exfoliation, or spalling.
Friability
- An inherent characteristic of some types of stone, particularly sandstone or limestone,
which have a tendency to break up, crumble or powder easily.
Preservation Treatment
Consolidation is a process carried out in an effort to strengthen masonry, particularly
natural stone and concrete and is generally undertaken in an attempt to bring back together or
consolidate deteriorating or disintegrating masonry (through crumbling. friability. spalling. or
loss of binder in sugaring). Consolidation generally involves application of an inorganic
substance such as barium hydroxide or injection of some type of a chemically-curable monomer
such as methyl methacrylate and n-butyl methacrylate or a clear silicone polymer such as the
group of silanes, silicones, alkoxysilanes, and silicone esters.

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Rising Damp
- The suction of groundwater into the base of masonry walls through capillary action is
called rising damp. Moisture is drawn up into the building walls and released at the
interior and exterior surfaces where a horizontal wet stain or tidemark is left. The moisture
often carries with it salts in solution, which can result in efflorescence and lead to
deterioration of masonry, plaster, wood and paint. Rising damp, often the result of
improper drainage, is a problem common to many older masonry structures, and one that
is difficult to solve completely.
Preservation Treatment
Damp proof Course. Installation in masonry of a horizontal layer of material which is
impervious to water, such as tile, slate, lead-cored bituminous sheet or bituminized felt,
polyethylene sheeting, or metal, to prevent the capillary rise of moisture-rising damp-from the
ground into the masonry wall.
Weathering
- The natural disintegration and erosion of stone caused by wind and rain, resulting in
granular and rounded surfaces. Weathering is particularly pronounced on sharp corners,
or highly carved or projecting architectural details. Acid rain water in particular, in contact
with acid soluble, carbonate stone, can be very damaging, increasing the natural
weathering rates, and also resulting in noticeable softening or loss of masonry details.
Preservation Treatment
Replacement/Patching. Individual masonry units badly damaged or disfigured by
chipping. Erosion or weathering may have to be replaced with a matching masonry material, an
appropriate substitute material, or patched with a cementitious mixture.
WAYS OF PLANNING AND DESIGNING A HOUSE
In planning a house, a floor plan is a must because a floor plan is a scaled diagram of a
room viewed from above. The floor plan depicts the entire house the entire house, building, or a
single room. It may also include measurements, furniture, appliances, or anything necessary to
the purpose of a plan.
In designing a house, floor plans are useful in furniture layout, plumbing layout, wiring
systems, and structural designs.

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What are the key characteristics of a good floor plan when designing your house?
+ Versatile and flexible. Make sure rooms can be easily converted. For example, An office
space to be converted into a bedroom.
+ Ideal room layout. Make sure bedrooms are far from entertaining spaces, bathrooms
should not face common rooms like dining and living area.
+ Size matters. In designing any room, think about how many people will be at that space at
one time.
+ Fits your priorities and lifestyles. If entertaining is important make sure there’s a good
flow from kitchen to an outside space and living room. If you work from home make sure
lightings are adequate in your work space or office.
+ Find balance between architectural details and practical considerations. Think about
safety, cleaning and cost of utility bills before adding majestic designs like chandeliers and
grand staircases.
How to draw a Floor Plan
There are a few basic steps in creating a floor plan;
+ Choose an area. Determine the area to be drawn, decide how much room and floors that
you want.
+ Take measurements. If layout is being created for an entirely new area, be sure to study
the measurements of the partitions of walls and rooms to be sure that the total area will fit
where it is to be built.
+ Draw walls. Add walls for each room of the building. Be sure to scale the partitions of rooms
when adding walls.
+ Add architectural features. Begin adding features to the space by including the
unchangeable things, like doors and windows, as well as refrigerator, dishwasher, dryer,
and other important appliances that must be placed in a specific location.
+ Add furniture. Add furniture. If the floor plan calls for it.

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Activities / Assessment Tasks

A. Written Test
Directions: Write your chosen letter at the space provided.
__1. Grouped below are common materials of masonry construction except one.
a. Stone, block, tile
b. Mortar, stucco, stone
c. Marble, limestone, cast stone
d. Concrete block, glass block, travertine
__2. This may be caused by later alterations or repairs, such as, use too hard a mortar,
or by accident or through vandalism.
a. Chipping
b. Coving
c. Cracking
d. Delamination
__3. A masonry deterioration that is caused by wearing away of the surface, edges,
corners, or carved details by the natural action like wind.
a. Exfoliation
b. Erosion
c. Weathering
d. Friability
__4. An exterior finish for masonry or frame walls, usually composed of cement, sand,
and hydrated lime.
a. Stucco
b. Mechanical repair
c. Poulticing
d. Patching
__5. Which of these occupations are not enumerated on 2012 Philippine Standard
Occupational Classification (PSOC) that involves in masonry works.
a. House builders

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Lesson 4: Masonry

b. Concrete placers, concrete finishers, and related works

c. Corporate Communications Manager
d. Bricklayers, and related works
__6. It is a scaled diagram of a room, house, or building that is viewed from above.
a. Layout
b. Perspective
c. Orthographic
d. Floor plan
__7. Floor plans includes these layouts, systems, and designs except for one.
a. Furniture layout
b. Structural designs
c. Masonry deterioration problems
d. Wiring system
__8. Make sure rooms can be easily converted.
a. Ideal room layout.
b. Versatile and flexible.
c. Size matters.
d. Fit your priorities and lifestyle.
__9. In designing any room, think about how many people will be at that space at one
time.
a. Find balance between architectural details and practical considerations.
b. Fits your priorities and lifestyle.
c. Size matters.
d. Versatile and flexible.
__10. Make sure bedrooms are far from entertaining spaces, bathrooms should not face
common rooms like dinning and living area.
a. Versatile and flexible.
b. Size matters.
c. Fits your priorities and lifestyle.
d. Ideal room layout.

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Lesson 4: Masonry

11.-15. Arrange the following basic steps in creating a floor plan. Use “A” as first and “E”
as last.
__ Add furniture
__ Choose area
__ Draw walls
__ Take measurements
__ Add architectural features
B. Performance Task
Directions: In a long bond or short bond paper draw a floor plan that is suitable for your
family and should be creative, practical, and comfortable and maximize the use of space.
For example:

Materials:
▪︎ Long or short bond paper ▪︎ Ball pen or sign pen ▪︎ Ruler
Rubrics in Assessing Performance Task
• Creativity – 20%
• Practicality – 20%
• Comfortability – 20%
• Maximize the use of space – 20%
• Neatness – 20%
TOTAL – 100

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Creativity – The rooms must be placed creatively within the floor plan.
Practicality - There must be considerations In adding architectural details or designs in rooms.
Comfortability – There should be and ideal room layout for example make entertainment
rooms like living area should not face bedrooms and bathrooms should not be facing kitchen
area.
Maximize the use of space – Rooms should be enough for your family member.
Neatness – Your drawings should not have unnecessary marks or lines.

References

Patel, M. (n.d) Types of Materials that Can be Used in Masonry and its Specifications. Retrieved
from January 09, 2019 in:
https://gharpedia.com/blog/types-materials-used-in-masonry/

Lancaster, P. A. (2007) White papers and helpful information for each of the construction trades.
Retrieved in:
https://www.constructionknowledge.net/masonry/masonry/_masonry.ph

Suryakanta (2016) Building construction. How to protect masonry during construction. Retrieved
in:
https://civilblog.org/2016/09/17/how-to-protect-masonry-construction/

Kelly, B. (2020). Masonry Deterioration and Repair. Retrieved in:

https://dwellingdoctors.com/articles-and-information-/masonry-deterioration-and-
repair/

Philippine Standard Occupational Classification. (2012) Retrieved in:

https://psa.gov.ph/classification/psoc/?q=psoc/minor/711

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Lesson 4: Masonry

Smart Draw, LLC. (2020). How to draw a floor plan with smartdraw. Retrieved in:
https://www.smartdraw.com/floor-plan/how-to-draw-a-floor-plan.htm

Answer Key:
1. B 4. A 7. C 10. D 13. C

2. A 5. C 8. B 11. E 14. B

3. B 6. D 9. C 12. A 15. D

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Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Sta. Mesa Manila

College of Education
Department of Business Teacher Education

A Self-Learning Outcome-Based Education (OBE) Instructional Materials

in BTLE30083 – Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1

Lesson 5
Topic: Plumbing

Contributors:

Cuaresma, Mercy
Mordeno, Darlene Eunice
Pineda, Mark Edilbirt
Suba, Veanne Larae

DR MARION A. CRESENCIO
Facilitator
BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 97
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LESSON 5: PLUMBING
• Plumbing Parts and Designs
• Tools and Materials in Plumbing
• Plumbing Maintenance

Overview

Have you ever wondered how life would be without Plumbing? It’s going to be insane, for
sure, because just thought of having no clean water to drink, filthy smell all over the place, and
the inability to dispose human waste properly is just miserable!
Plumbing is the art and science of installing pipes, fixtures and other apparatus to
convey and supply water in buildings and to dispose and discharge waste water and other
liquids, gases and other substances out of a building in a safe, orderly, healthy and sanitary way
to ensure the health and sanitation of life and property.
This lesson will improve our knowledge in a) recognizing the importance of plumbing
system, the parts, tools and materials used and b) acquiring new skills such as designing
plumbing plans and assembling pipes and fixtures.

Learning Outcomes

After completion of this lesson, you will be able to competently do these:

6. Discuss plumbing parts
7. Identify tools and materials in plumbing
8. Draw a plan of a simple plumbing
9. Assemble different PVC connections

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Course Materials

Plumbing Design
This is a simple example of a
plumbing design. As you can see from the
figure, the blue line represents the fresh
water supply that enters the building and is
then distributed to different fixtures using
pipes. It is also distributed to the hot water
tank to make hot water available for use in
the building. The red line shows that the hot
water from the hot water tank is then
distributed to the individual fixtures. The gray
lines now represent the pipes carrying waste
water out of the building and also vent pipe

Figure 1. Plumbing Design. Retrieved from: carrying gases away from the building
harrisplumbing.ca/how-your-home-plumbing-system-works/
through the roofs.
Basically, plumbing is very important for two main reasons: to bring safe water into the
structure for human use and the other is to remove the wastewater out. There are 2 main types
of plumbing systems: the potable water, sanitary drainage.
Potable Water System brings safe drinking water into the building from the community
water main. There is a valve on the water main itself for each structure that can be used to shut
off its water supply. From there, a single pipe brings water into the structure, and it is then
distributed to individual fixtures through a network of pipes.
Sanitary Drainage System removes wastewater (human waste, fecal matter, cooking,
laundry, etc.) from a building. The sanitary drainage system is connected to a series of vent
pipes that go through the roof vertically; this allows for the venting of gases and for the entire
system to operate at atmospheric pressure. The sanitary drainage system ultimately takes
wastewater to the community sewer system.

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There is another type of plumbing system which is called the Storm Water Drainage
System which basically carries rain water away from the building. Gutters are a part of the storm
water drainage system visible from outside the structure; in some modern buildings, a separate
system of drains carries water into the community storm sewers.
An efficient plumbing system starts with a design that saves water and energy
resources. A good design incorporates short runs between plumbing fixtures and uses state-of-
the art materials. A plumbing design must include two systems: the system that supplies water
and the system that gets rid of waste. There are some things that you should consider in
designing a plumbing system like the plumbing codes, and the overall building design.
Before you begin designing a house for plumbing, drain, waste and vent systems, you
must follow local building codes to ensure design compliance. You can check with your local
building jurisdiction before you begin to design your home. Plumbing codes limit the number of
fixtures that can be on a vent stack, on a drain system in a room, or where supply lines and
drains must be placed inside the walls. Local building jurisdictions provide information as to the
codes they follow as well as giving you the specifics of where they diverge from standard codes.
Because water supply is one complete system, it travels between the rooms that require
plumbing. This also applies to the DWV (drain, waste, and vent) system, which usually runs
alongside or near the water supply system. To save on resources and to make the system more
efficient, consider grouping rooms that require plumbing closer together. For instance, place a
laundry room adjacent to or near the kitchen, while placing bathrooms in key locations near
bedrooms.

Figure 2. Plumbing
Design. Retrieved from:
edrawsoft.com/template-
home-plumbing-
plan.html

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Plumbing Parts
A basic plumbing system consists of three parts which are combined together to create a
functional plumbing system that serves a variety uses in the home. Bathrooms, kitchen and
even garages are all common place where complete plumbing systems can be found.
1. Drainage
Once the water travels through your
pipes and out your fixtures, it needs a place
to go. Without a drainage system in place,
your house would quickly get flooded after a
couple of showers. Each fixture has its own
drain that connects to the main drain line
where excess water and any other waste that
goes down the drain will eventually end up in Figure 1.Drainage System. Retrieved from:
heritageplumbinginc.com/drainage-system/
the city sewer or your own septic system. It's
important to make sure that your drains are cared for properly because if they get backed up
and start overflowing, it can be both a messy and smelly problem to deal with.
2. Fixtures
As your pipes carry water throughout your
home, those water needs an ultimate place to
go. That's where fixtures come in. Fixtures are
things like bathroom sinks, kitchen sinks, tubs
and showers, dishwashers, washing machines,
water heaters and any other appliance in your
home that requires water. Some of these
fixtures draw water on an as-needed basis,
while others draw water from the pipes at the Figure 4. Plumbing Fixtures. Retrieved from:
allaboutplumbinganddrains.com/our-
turn of a handle or press of a button. services/plumbing-repairs/bath-kitchen/plumbing-
fixtures

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3. Pipes and Fittings

The pipes and fittings are essentially the skeleton of
your plumbing system. Pipes are used to transport
water from the main city line or well, throughout your
home, and finally to the individual places it needs to go.
Fittings are the parts that connect each pipe to the next
Figure 5. Assorted Pipe Fittings.
one. Fittings allow the pipes to change angles and Retrieved from
thomasnet.com/articles/hardware/underst
make the best use of the space inside your walls, anding-pipe-fittings/

ceilings, and floors. Most plumbing systems will have two sets of pipes and fittings. One set
for cold water and the other for hot. Below are the commonly used types of plumbing pipes,
their uses and advantages, and disadvantages:
Cast Iron pipe is a large-diameter, high-quality, heavy metal
pipe, dull black with a rough, mottled surface making it perfect
for underground waste lines and helps suppress the sound of
flowing wastewater very well. Due to its strong and long-lasting
abilities, it requires a heavy-duty reciprocating saw or a special
Figure 6. Cast Iron. Retrieved
cutting tool called a cast-iron pipe cutter to cut. from: indiamart.com/
A PVC or Polyvinyl Chloride is a white rigid plastic which
is strong, chemical-resistant, and heat resistant pipe that can be
easily cut and fit. It’s used for sanitary waste lines, vent pipes,
drain traps and as cold and hot potable water lines. Their
thickness and configurations vary depending on the application
where it will be used. PVC pipes are light and easy to work with
Figure 7. PVC Pipe. Retrieved
from: indiamart.com and install and can be easily cut with a hacksaw or tubing cutter.
A Chromed Brass is often used instead of PVC for
exposed waste line applications, such as “P” traps or other drain
traps where appearance is important. This pipe has a large
diameter of more than 1 inch. They could easily be cut with a
hacksaw and connected with slip fittings.

Figure 8. Chromed Brass.

Retrieved from: thespruce.com

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Just like the chromed brass, Chromed Copper is also used

where the appearance of exposed water supply lines is essential. It is
also has a bright, shiny chrome finished appearance but has a smaller
diameter (3/8” or less), unlike the chromed brass. It can easily be cut
Figure 9. Chromed Copper. with a tubing cutter or hacksaw and joined with chromed brass
Retrieved from:
toolstation.com compression fittings.
Another type of pipe is the Galvanized Iron. It is a dull silver-
gray rigid metal pipe that is used for water supply lines and drain
lines in older homes. This type was once a popular method of
plumbing water supply lines at home, but because it is not
Figure 10. Galvanized Iron.
corrosion-resistant and can be rusty, it has been largely replaced Retrieved from:
with copper pipe or PEX plastic pipe. It can be cut using a pipelinedubai.com/what-is-a-
galvanized-steel-pipe.html
reciprocating saw or hacksaw and joined using threaded galvanized
iron fittings.
Copper Pipes are durable, long lasting and corrosion-
resistant. In terms of water supply, they are definitely better than
PVC pipes since they do not carry health risks PVC pipes have. It
can be used as waste lines at home and for gas piping too. It has
soft metal making it easy to be cut with a tubing cutter or hacksaw Figure 11. Copper Pipes
Retrieved from:
and making fabricating easier too, however, it is prone to damage powersteel.com.

and may develop pinholes over time and can rupture from frozen water in pipes. Sections are
joined together with soldered copper connectors or copper compression fittings. It comes in two
types: Flexible copper pipe is used in short runs, for water supply, and the water supply tubing
for refrigerators and dishwashers; Rigid type comes in several wall thicknesses: K, L, and M.
Type M is the one normally used for water supply pipes.
CPVC or Chlorinated Poly-Vinyl Chloride is a dull white/ cream-
colored plastic designed to withstand high pressure and temperature
perfect for hot and cold water supply piping. The pipe is easily cut with
a tubing cutter or hacksaw. CPVC is joined permanently together using
plastic fittings and solvent glue, or with grip fittings where the pipes may
Figure 12. CPVC Pipe.
Retrieved from: need to be disassembled in the future.
njmmanews.com/

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This pipe is called PEX or Cross-linked Polyethylene

is used for water supply and radiant heating pipe. These
colors basically represent hot (red) and cold (blue) water and
there is a white flexible plastic pipe too. This piping material
is strong that it has been in use since the 1970s. Its flexibility
enables easier and faster installation. It’s corrosion resistant,
and it can withstand temperatures from below 32 F to 200 F
Figure 13. PEX Pipe. Retrieved
from:senorpex.com/what-is-pex/ and unlike copper pipe, it will not develop pinholes. PEX is
made of cross-linked HDPE (high-density polyethylene) polymer. The reduced number of
required fittings in a PEX system also reduces the possibility of leaks. PEX is cut and fit with
specialized fittings and tools.
The last one is the Black Iron. It is often used for feeding gas supply to the furnace,
boiler, or water heater. It is dull black rigid pipe, usually one inch or less in diameter. Black pipe
looks almost exactly like a galvanized iron pipe, except it is darker and specifically designed for
gas applications. It can be cut using a reciprocating saw or hacksaw. The pipe is joined using
threaded black pipe fittings.
Tools and Materials Used in Plumbing
There are many tools a plumber needs to do a good plumbing job. While many simple
plumbing tasks can be completed with a few common hand-held tools, other more complex jobs
require specialized tools, designed specifically to make the job easier. Here are some of the
tools that will be used in plumbing:
Safety Tools:
• Goggles - Examining leaks and soldering pipes
can harm your eyes, so wearing goggles while on
the job is crucial.
• Gloves - Having a set of heavy-duty gloves will
protect every plumber’s hands and help them keep
a better grip on wet and slippery items more easily. Figure 14. Safety Tools Retrieved from:
cdn.shortpixel.ai/client
• Heat shields/pads – will help protect the plumbers
and the surrounding environment from heat damage or fire when soldering is necessary.

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Wrenches
• Pipe wrench serves as the largest wrench of every plumber. It is typically used on
heavy-duty fixtures such as galvanized steel or iron. These wrenches are adjustable and
come in different lengths.
• Basin wrench is a specialized tool that plumbers use
specifically to work on faucets. It is designed to be T-
shaped and has a clamp-like mechanism that allows
plumbers to reach into narrow spaces and loosen or tighten Figure 15. Basin Wrench
Retrieved from: encrypted-
the nuts that keep faucets working. tbn0.gstatic.com

• Allen wrench is a small L-shaped wrench with various sizes.

It has a hexagonal head that are used with many plumbing
fasteners.
• Pliers help plumbers to loosen and tighten nuts and bolts
Figure 16. Allen Wrench
that are too small for the wrench to grip.
Retrieved from:
Pipe Works shop.ottobock.us/store/medias

• Hacksaw is used for removing or cutting a variety of hardware such as pipes, nuts,
bolts, and screws. It is also important for the plumbers to secure their blades tightly and
keep spare blades if necessary.
• Tube and Plastic Pipe Cutters can cut through copper
and plastic pipes. These cutters are used by clamping onto
the pipe and rotating it entirely around the pipe. Each
couple of rotations, the tubing cutters should be tightened, Figure 17. Tube and Plastic Pipe
Cutters Retrieved from:
and as a result, the tube will be cut all the way through. shop.ottobock.us/store/medias

• Pipe Bender is a tool used to bend pipes in different

shapes and sizes to fit into the space that they are going to
be installed.
• Press Fitting System helps the plumbers securely attach
the pipes together by pressing it, producing an impermeable
seal. Figure 19. Press Fitting System
Cutters Retrieved from:
• Hole saw are used to cut holes in flooring or walls to run waterworksnz.co.nz

plumbing pipe through.

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• Plumber’s Torch is small, handheld tool that allows plumbers to apply intense heat in
specific areas, soldering and sealing pipes for installment or replacement.
Clearing Clogs
• Cup Plungers is used for unclogging showers, sinks, and bathtubs by putting a rubber
cap over the drain.
• Flange Plunger is specifically made for unclogging toilets. It
has a soft rubber flap designed to fit snugly into the hole of
the toilet to seal well for optimal pressure.
• Hand Auger. It is a circular, handheld device that allows
plumbers to drive a cable deep down a drain in order to
break apart and clear clogs. Figure 20. Hand Auger
Retrieved from: thespruce.com
Other Essential Tools for Plumbing
• Faucet Keys are small, X-shaped tool that is designed to open and close spigots and
hose bib faucets.
• Stubby Screwdriver used to tighten or loosen screws in small places that is
inaccessible by a normal screw.
• Washers and O rings keep seals tight to prevent
leaks from occurring.
• Borescope are small cameras connected to a long,
flexible cable that are meant to be inserted down into
drains and sewers lines to give plumbers a better look Figure 21. Borescope Retrieved from:
m.media-amazon.com
of the condition of the piping.
• Thread Sealing Tape (Plumber’s Tape) helps patch or prevent possible leaks at
threaded joint connections in piping.
Plumbing Maintenance
Plumbing maintenance is something you
should do regularly to catch small problems that can
turn into large, expense problems later. Maintenance
also helps you conserve water and save on energy
bills. Figure 22. Plumbing Maintenance. Retrieved
from: pegasusplumbing.com.au/plumbing-
maintenance

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Benefits of properly functioning plumbing systems

• Access to clean water is essential to good health, hygiene and well-being.
• Home plumbing systems add convenience to modern living.
• Modern plumbing can help communities in times of water shortages and drought.
• Water-saving devices increase water efficiency and your home’s energy savings.
The checklist below includes daily tips, weekly inspections and maintenance for each
season. By following this checklist, you can save on energy costs, conserve water and keep
your home plumbing system running properly.
Daily Maintenance Tips
Daily maintenance includes preventing clogs, which are one of the most common
plumbing issues homeowners face. Clogs are not only nuisances; they also shorten the lifespan
of your waste pipes by adding extra pressure and added stress. Even a slow drain can cause
problems, so it’s best to get a clog cleared before it becomes a complete blockage. The
bathroom and kitchen are the two rooms in your home that supply the most water and are at the
highest risk of developing plumbing issues.
a) In the Kitchen
Kitchen drains often clog due to debris or wastes going down the sink that shouldn’t. To
prevent clogged drains in this room, never put grease or oils down the sink. This includes
cooking oils and fats, such as butter, that can congeal in the pipes, blocking water flow.
Improper use of the garbage disposal is another common reason for clogged kitchen
drains. Follow this kitchen plumbing maintenance checklist to help you avoid this problem:
✓ Always turn your water and disposal on before adding food.
✓ Never put fibrous or stringy food wastes down the disposal. These include banana peels,
celery, potato peels, and other foods that are difficult to grind up.
✓ Always allow the cold water to run for at least 15 seconds after using the disposal. This
ensures food wastes are flushed down the main line.
✓ Run your dishwasher at night to conserve hot water and maintain good water pressure
throughout the day.

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b) In the Bathroom
The bathroom is another room where drains often become clogged. All the products you
use to wash, moisturize and condition are often oily or greasy in order to provide moisture for
your skin and hair. Once they make their way down your drain, however, they can cling to pipes,
attract other debris and cause blockages.
You can reduce clogs and even prevent them by following this plumbing maintenance checklist:
✓ Keep shower and sink drains flowing freely by reducing your use of bath oils and
installing screens over drains to prevent hair from going down the drain.
✓ Avoid toilet clogs by not using it as a trash can. Ideally, only human waste and toilet
paper should be flushed. While tampons and some wipes are labeled as flushable, it is
better not to do so.
✓ Wait about 10 minutes between showers to help maintain proper water pressure and hot
water throughout the day. Maintaining proper water pressure helps prevent unwanted
stress on your home plumbing system.
✓ Avoid using chemical clog removal products that can cause more harm than good.
These products can corrode your pipes.
Weekly Maintenance
Checking on your pipes once a week is great idea for all homeowners. This is good way
to prevent small problems from becoming huge, costly ones. Some weekly plumbing
maintenance includes the following:
✓ Check for leaks. Look under the sinks for signs of moisture, such as puddles of water,
water marks, a musty smell and mold growth.
✓ Test all sink and shower drains for speed or drainage. If bubbles appear while water
drains, it is usually a sign of a slow drain. All drains should have a full swirl while the
water goes down.
✓ Turn on each water faucet in your home — water shouldn’t be coming out of the handles
or valves.
✓ Clean your lint traps on your washing machine.

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Activities / Assessment Tasks

D. Written Test
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it on the space provided
at space before the number.
1. One of the common issues that you can experience in your home plumbing system is
clogs and to solve these, clearing clogs are used. What specific type of clearing clog are
used to unclog showers, sink and bathtubs?
a. Pipe Bender
b. Cup Plungers
c. Faucet Keys
d. Hand Auger
2. Which of the following pipe is better to use that does not carry health risks PVC pipes
have?
a. Pipe Bender
b. Pipe Wrench
c. Chromed Copper
d. Copper Pipes
3. It is one of the things that you should consider in a designing a plumbing system
because it ensures the proper performance of the plumbing system and limit the fixture
installation in the design your house.
a. Plumbing Codes
b. Plumbing Fixtures
c. Pipes & Fittings
d. Drainage
4. One of the main reasons why plumbing is important is to bring safe water into the
structure for human use, what certain type of plumbing system is made to perform this
task?
a. Water Supply System
b. DWV System
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c. Storm Water Drainage System

d. Potable Water System
5. Sanitary Drainage system removes waste water from a building. It is connected to a
series of pipe that go through the:
a. Roof horizontally; this allows for the venting of gases and the entire system to
operate at atmospheric pressure.
b. Building vertically; this allows water to be distributed to the community sewer
system
c. Roof vertically; this allows for the venting of gases and the entire system to
operate at atmospheric pressure.
d. Outside of a building to carry rain water away into the community storm sewers.
6. These are the skeleton of your plumbing system, where, ____ is used to transport water
from the city, throughout your home and the places where it needs to go while, ____
connects and allows it to change angles and use the spaces in the walls, ceilings and
floors of your house.
a. Plumbing Codes: Plumbing Fixtures
b. Pipes: Fittings
c. Piper Works: Clearing Clogs
d. Potable Water System: Storm Water Drainage System
7. A pipe that is perfect for your home's hot and cold-water supply piping that is designed
to resist high pressure and temperature.
a. Poly-Vinyl Chloride or PVC
b. Chlorinated Poly-Vinyl Chloride or CPVC
c. Copper Pipes
d. Cross-Linked Polyethylene or PEX
8. Tools are required in plumbing in order for a plumber to do his job properly and easier,
what essential tools are used by plumbers to prevent their eyes, hands
and surroundings from harm of examining leaks and soldering pipes.
a. Safety Tools
b. Press Fitting System
c. Pipe Works

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d. Thread and Sealing Tape (Plumber’s Tape)

9. Which of the following is NOT a wrench tool used by plumbers to loosen or tighten nuts
and bolts of a pipe and pipe fittings?
a. Pliers
b. Basin Wrench
c. Pipe Wrench
d. Washers and O Rings
10. A piping material that has been use since 1970 because of its strong characteristic. The
advantage of using this pipe in your home plumbing system is it is easier and faster to
install than the other pipes.
a. Cast Iron
b. Chlorinated Poly-Vinyl Chloride or CPVC
c. Cross-Linked Polyethylene or PEX
d. Black Iron
11-15. Write an essay answering the situation below:
Aling Paleng is 68 years old and wants to install a new toilet because she noticed that it
is always clogged for no reason, you probably know that installing a new one won't solve the
clogging problem and it is because of the things that is blocking the drain hole, what would you
do to stop the clogging and save Aling Paleng on buying a new toilet? What are the
maintenance tips you would suggest to keep her toilet in good condition?

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 111

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

E. Performance Test
Directions: In a blank piece of bond paper, draw a simple plumbing plan that composes of at
least 1 Plumbing System (Portable Water System or Sanitary Drainage System) for your own
dream house.

Rubrics in Assessing Performance Task

Creativity Neatness Application Practicality Total
(25%) (25%) (25%) (25%) (100%)
Must look Used Able to show 1 Is a practical
pleasing to the appropriate plumbing system design that can
eyes. symbols, linings, effectively. be used to real
Used different to the design. life homes
illustrations to
properly show
what the

References

Common Pipe Material Used In the Home (2020). Retrieved September 15, 2020 from:
https://www.thespruce.com/types-of-home-piping-materials-1824879

Home Plumbing Maintenance Checklist. Retrieved September 15, 2020 from:

https://www.mrrooter.com/greater-syracuse/about-us/blog/2015/june/home-plumbing-
maintenance-checklist-what-you-sho/

21 Best Tools for Plumbers in 2020 (2020). Retrieved September 16, 2020 from:
https://www.servicetitan.com/blog/best-plumbing-
tools?fbclid=IwAR1MODkRPQNDFt93RhUBdGOHI2s57ugT9QcyN_yCvsOiqsOtnCfZEqj
_wBQ

Plumbing 101: What Are the Different Parts of a Plumbing System? (2018). Retrieved
September 18, 2020 from:
https://info.kensplumbing.net/blog/plumbing-101-what-are-the-different-parts-of-a-
plumbing-system

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 112

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

How To Design Plumbing. Retrieved September 17, 2020 from:

https://homeguides.sfgate.com/design-plumbing-
42763.html?fbclid=IwAR1MODkRPQNDFt93RhUBdGOHI2s57ugT9QcyN_yCvsOiqsOtn
CfZEqj_wBQ#:~:text=An%20efficient%20plumbing%20system%20starts,that%20gets%2
0rid%20of%20waste

The Three Major Types of Plumbing System. Retrieved September 17, 2020 from:
https://www.dmsplumbinglasvegas.com/the-three-major-types-of-plumbing-
systems/?fbclid=IwAR1MODkRPQNDFt93RhUBdGOHI2s57ugT9QcyN_yCvsOiqsOtnCf
ZEqj_wBQ
How Your Plumbing System Works. Retrieved September 17, 2020 from:
https://www.harrisplumbing.ca/how-your-home-plumbing-system-works/

Types of Plumbing Pipes and Their Uses (2018). Retrieved September 16, 2020 from:
https://tureksplumbing.com/types-of-plumbing-pipes/

Answer Key to the Written Test

1. B
2. D
3. A
4. D
5. C
6. B
7. B
8. A
9. D
10. C

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 113

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Sta. Mesa Manila

College of Education
Department of Business Teacher Education

A Self-Learning Outcome-Based Education (OBE) Instructional Materials

in BTLE30083 – Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1

Lesson6
Topic: Tile Setting

Contributors:
Balingit, John Michael
Cabrera, Mark Christian
Guzilan, Christine
Membrano, Rosemarie
Perez, Carl Kenneth

DR MARION A. CRESENCIO
Facilitator

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 114

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

LESSON 6: TILE SETTING

• Tools and Materials

• Tile Designs and Usage
• Setting Tiles

Overview

Tiles have been around for 4,000 years and are still being used as of now. We could
almost see it at every structure nowadays. It has many styles or designs that are suitable for
different situations. Tiles give a unique aesthetics to the parts of structure it was installed. For
this lesson, we’ll be able to understand why tiles are essential for a structure, what tiles are to
be used at specific parts of home, how to install tiles properly and basic knowledge about tile
materials and different types of it.

Learning Outcomes

After completion of this lesson, you will be able to competently do these:

1. Discuss the importance/essentials of tiles as a finishing.

2. Choose the best/appropriate style or design of tiles in the different parts of the house.
3. Demonstrate the correct way of setting durable tiles.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 115

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Course Materials

Importance of Tiles as Finishing

As said earlier tiles gives a home or building a unique kind of aesthetics. It creates the
desired ambience yet hard to choose what tiles are to be used. Now having tiles does not only
provide aesthetic but other benefits too, as well as demerits. Benefits would be tiles are
extremely resilient to tear and wear which is perfect for high traffic areas.
Another benefit would be in your pocket. It includes tiles being cost effective and low
cost maintenance as it is durable and also cheap for flooring materials. Also having tile flooring
could increase the resale value of the house that is being sold. Lastly it is eco-friendly because
it is made from glass, sand or clay.
Types of Tiles (see pictures at page 9)
Ceramic tiles are durable, easy to install, clean and suitable for many applications like
bathrooms, kitchens or even entry ways. It has two types unglazed ceramic tile gives artistic,
rustic finish while glazed on the other hand provides more protection for longer lasting floors.
Porcelain tile has the ability to emulate natural stone, brick or wood and without
maintenance. It’s an all-purpose tiles come in variety of design, colors and styles to allow
versatility when designing a space. Could be used for outdoors as it will not freeze, fade or
crack. Other application of it includes bath or kitchen and kitchen backsplashes. Always
remember that it needs adhesive when laying it down the flooring.
Cement tiles are extremely versatile and can provide you with amazing patterns and
colors. Can be sanded and resealed, like wood floors but the drawback is that cement tile must
be resealed once a month to maintain its beauty.
Marble tiles are costly but adds a touch of elegance and refinement to any room. Best
to use at kitchen or bath but has a massive drawback. It is difficult to clean and prone to
scratches and stains.
Mosaic tiles gives you a chance to flex your creative interior design muscles since it
comes in so many different shapes, sizes, colors, styles and even materials.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 116

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Granite tiles are cheap and have a similar look and feel to marble because of its natural
flecks. It is best use at laundry rooms or secondary space where performance and lower cost
are your priority.
Limestone tiles achieve a truly rustic style filled with natural tones, shades and
variation. It shows a natural appearance that’s almost reminiscent of ancient architecture and
design. Durable but soft and easy to cut into desired patterns and placements. Drawback is that
to ensure it lasts long, it must be sealed properly and to clean it one must use neutral pH
cleaning agents and avoid citrus and vinegar based products. It is best used at patio or
outdoors.
Travertine tile provides soft, subdued palette that gives a beautiful neutral tones. It
requires a once-a-decade resealing. Because it is easy to be impacted by water, stains and
traction it is best used at walls instead of floors.
Quarry tile is made with materials that are very similar to bricks. It is naturally dense,
nonporous and water resistant with an extremely low water absorption rate. It can be glazed or
left in the natural finish.
Encaustic Tiles are made using coloured clays which run through the whole body and
up to six different colours could be used to form a pattern in the tile.
Terracotta Tiles are produced by shaping special clay into a mould and firing this in a
kiln, although some artisan producers leave their tiles out to dry naturally in the sun.
Tiles Usage
Since tiles are easy to install and could be used anywhere here are some of places
around the house tile could be commonly used at:
Counter
Ceramic tile is among the most common materials for kitchen countertops. Because it’s
hard and water-resistant, it holds up extremely well to the moist and often humid environment of
the kitchen. If you’re busy, you’ll also like its low-maintenance nature; a quick wipe once in a
while is usually all it needs.
Bathroom
Tiles are mostly placed at bathroom walls and floor. Tiles that were used should have
water-resistant and slip-resistant features.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 117

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Backsplash
The backsplash tiles protect the walls against spills coming from the sink and counter.
Thus tiles with water resistant features are used.
Flooring
Tile is one of the cheapest flooring options, especially compared to the popular materials
such as hardwood and marble. Most tiles can withstand heavy use in living rooms and the heat
and moisture of bathrooms. Best of all, it is easy to install- you don’t need much prior
experience to lay a floor tile on your own.
Wall
Small decorative tiles make great accents for walls, counter and flooring. They usually
come in stronger, deeper colours and feature interesting patterns. Use them to dress up large
walls to create designs on your tile floor. Mosaic tiles are best used at walls.
Let say you want tiles and certain parts of your home but you have hard time what
should be use, these are some of the recommendations on which is which:
Steps and Staircase: Most times it is subjected to great deal of stress, mostly when
moving furniture. So best recommended would be ceramic tiles because it is easy to install,
durable and clean.
Entrance areas: As it is one of the places first seen when entering tiles such as ceramic
with designs that compliments with the living area.
Balconies and Terraces: Being station outdoors, porcelain tiles are best options for
these parts of house. It has a variety of designs and will not easily fade, freeze or crack.
Limestone tiles are also a good option.
Living areas: Usually living can have a medium to high traffic performances so having
ceramic tile flooring would be good.
Kitchens: Marbles tiles or metal tiles are best used at kitchens.
Bathroom: Tiles that are slip-resistant and water-resistant should be used at bathrooms.
Granite tiles would be good for bathroom and laundry area because it gives a natural looks on it.
Porcelain would also look good. Resin tile also.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 118

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Tools Used for Setting Tiles

Common Float: A wooden float used in spreading and

levelling fresh concrete.

https://www.google.com/search

Grout Float: This is a rubber-backed, rectangular trowel

spreading the grout. It resembles the common float.
https://www.google.com/search

Finishing Trowel: It looks like a common float but made of flat

steel. https://www.google.com/search

Pointed Trowel: The most extensively used trowel in the tile setting
industry. Mainly used in straightening tiles, filling, placing mortar in
small spaces. The end of the handle may be used to tap tiles into

https://www.google.com/search

place that have shifted.

Notched and Margin Trowel: Notched tools are used in spreading

concrete and at the same time create wavy surface to enable the
underneath part of tile to easily stick on the concrete.

https://www.google.com/search

Tile Spacer: Spacers are used to keep each

tile an equal distance apart during tile
installation. Spacers make it possible to keep
straight grout lines and square tiles together
as the adhesive dries.
https://www.google.com/search

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 119

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Plumb and level: Used to check the vertical as well as

horizontal alignment of structures to be tiled.

https://www.google.com/search

Plumb bob: It is very accurate in testing the vertical alignment of walls

and posts.

https://www.google.com/search

Mallet: A mallet is a kind of hammer, usually of rubber, or sometimes

wood with a large head used to drive beating block.

https://www.google.com/search

Spacer Puller: Remove spacers after tiles have been placed but
before they fully adhere.

https://www.google.com/search

Caulking gun: Purposely intended for applying caulk.

https://www.google.com/search

Tile Cutters and Nippers: Tools which are very useful in cutting
ceramic tiles

https://www.google.com/search

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 120

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Materials for Setting Tiles

1. Tiles(ex. Ceramic, Porcelain, Cement, Marble. Mosaic, Granite, Limestone, Travertine,
Quarry, Encaustic, Terracotta)

https://www.google.com/search

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 121

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

2. Thin-Set Tile Mortar: Thin-set tile mortar is suitable for floors

and outdoor tiles. A thin layer of adhesive is spread onto a
surface where tile is laid.

https://www.google.com/search

3. Organic Mastic: It is a form of adhesive used for wall tiles that

enables it to stick immediately in place.

https://www.google.com/search

4. Brick Mortar: Brick mortar is coarser than thin-

set. It has larger gauge sand and even small pebbles,
ideal for mortaring brick walls and walkways.
https://www.google.com/search

5. Epoxy Thin Set Mortar: A resin-based mortar that comes in

three separate components: resin, hardener, and powder. It sets
quickly and very strongly. Various brands are available in the
market.
https://www.google.com/search

6. Caulk: It includes silicone,

polyurethane, polysulfide and acrylic
sealant. It is mostly done with ready-
mixed construction chemicals and is
called caulk.
https://www.google.com/search

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 122

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

7. Protective Membranes: Ceramic tile membranes are used to provide protection for
ceramic tile installations from external stresses.
Types of Protective Membranes
a. Crack Isolation Membrane: Used wherever hairline
cracking in underneath structure occurs. It isolates
ceramic tile and stone installations from damages of
horizontal movements.

https://www.google.com/search

b. Anti-Fracture Membrane: Used to minimize the

transfer of minor crack caused by the movement of
infra- structure. It can be used to cover an entire floor or
over individual cracks that is 1/8" in width or less.

https://www.google.com/search

c. Waterproofing Membrane: This is used to waterproof

ceramic tile substrates in wet areas while providing a
suitable surface to adhere tile to.

https://www.google.com/search
d. Uncoupling Membrane: It separates a ceramic tile or
stone floor from the inner structure and minimizes the
transfer of thermal movement, shrinkage of cement,
subfloor deflection, and minor crack transfer caused by
underneath movement to the tile flooring.
Setting Tiles https://www.google.com/search

Step 1: Prepare the Surface

Make sure your surfaces are clean, smooth, and dry for best results. Take time to repair,
patch, and level any damaged or uneven areas. Double check to make sure the surface is
structurally sound and the area free of wax, soap scum, and grease.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 123

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Remove any mouldings, trim, or appliances that may interfere with tile application and
check the doorjambs to make sure tile has clearance when installed beneath. Identifying those
potential complications in advance will help your installation run smoothly.
Step 2: Begin Your Layout
For an efficient layout, start by marking the center point of each of the walls in the room.
Next, snap chalk lines between the centers points of opposite walls to pinpoint the center of the
room. Make any necessary adjustments to ensure that the intersection creates perfect squares.
Starting at the center point, lay a row of loose tiles along the center lines in both
directions, using tile spacers as you go for even, uniform joints. Once you reach the walls, you'll
need to cut tiles for a proper fit. If the cuts needed are smaller than half of a tile, you can adjust
the center line by snapping a new line a half-tile size closer to the wall. If necessary, repeat this
step along the intersecting center line for a precise design.
To make a large room more manageable, divide each section into smaller 2' x 3' grids by
snapping additional lines parallel to the centrelines.
Step 3: Apply the Adhesive
As a general rule of thumb, be mindful to mix only enough of the adhesive to be used
within 30 minutes. Using the flat side of the trowel type recommended on the adhesive package,
spread a 1/4" coat on the surface of one grid area without covering the guidelines.
After doing so, hold the trowel at a 45-degree angle and use the notched side to comb
adhesive into standing ridges. When you remove the excess adhesive, you leave behind a
uniform, ridged setting bed for your tile. As another rule of thumb, do not spread a larger area of
your adhesive than can be set in 15 minutes.
Stick to the script and facilitate your tile installation with the perfect adhesive application.
Step 4: Cut Tile as Needed
Start by marking carefully measured cuts-to-be with a pencil or felt-tip pen on the tile
surface. You can use a tile cutter to achieve pinpoint straight or diagonal cuts. Make masterful
curved cuts with a nipper, chipping away small pieces for best results
Step 5: Set Your Tile
Now that you've primed the surface, created the layout, applied the adhesive, and cut
the tile, you are fully prepared for the actual installation of your tile.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 124

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Begin by installing tiles in the center of the room, one grid at a time, finishing each grid
before moving on to the next. Within each grid, it will help to start the first tile in the corner and
work outward.
Using a slight twisting motion, set tiles one at a time and avoid sliding them into place.
Be sure to either insert spacers as each tile is set or leave equal joints between tiles. Save the
perimeter tiles in each grid for last, leaving a 1/4th inch gap between the tile and wall.
Once a grid is completely installed, tap in all tiles with a rubber mallet or hammer and
wood block to ensure a solid bond and level plane. Remove excess adhesive from joints with a
putty knife and from tile with a damp sponge to prevent an uneven appearance.
Lastly, allow your hard work at least 24 hours to set before walking on it. And of course,
take at least 20 minutes to admire the time and care you have put in to your new floor.
Step 6: Grouting Joints
Now that your tile is in place and has had 24 hours to set, your last Step is to "grout" or
fill the joints and consolidate your floor into one mass.
As you remove the tile spacers and spread grout on the tile surface, use a rubber grout
float or a squeegee to force it down into the joints.
Tilt the float at a 45-degree angle and with the edge of the float; remove the excess
grout from the surface immediately. Now tilt the float at a 90-degree angle and scrape it
diagonally across the tiles.
Once you've let the grout set slightly for around 15 to 20 minutes, use a damp sponge to
clean any residue from the surface and smooth the grout joints. Make sure to rinse your sponge
frequently and change the water when needed.
Polish with a soft cloth when the grout has dried and haze forms on the tile surface, and
rinse again with sponge and clean water if necessary. Give your newly grouted floor 72 hours
before any heavy use and at least three weeks before applying sealers or polishes

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 125

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

Activities / Assessment Tasks

C. Written Test
Directions: Write the correct answer before the number.
1. What type of tile has the ability to emulate natural stone, brick or wood and without
maintenance?
A. Cement tile C. Granite tile
B. Porcelain tile D. Quarry tile

2. Melissa would like to order tile that is durable but soft and easy to cut into desired
patterns and placement. What would it be?
A. Limestone tile C. Mosaic tile
B. Marble tile D. Terracotta tile

3. If you use six different clay colours to form a pattern in the tile. What kind of tile would it
be?
A. Encaustic tile C. Ceramic tile
B. Travertine tile D. Terracotta tile

4. Jc was thinking of using a type of tile that gives a artistic and rustic finish for his stairs.
What kind of tile is it?
A. Porcelain Tile C. Unglazed Ceramic Tile
B. Limestone Tile D. Quarry Tile

5. This are the importance of tile as finishing except one.

A. It gives a home or building a unique kind of aesthetics and creates the desired
ambience.
B. Tiles are extremely resilient to tear and wear which is perfect for high traffic
areas.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 126

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

C. Tiles being unaffordable and high cost maintenance as it is fragile and also
expensive for flooring materials.
D. It is eco-friendly because it is made from glass, sand or clay.

6. Risa want to use a tile that's hard , water-resistant and holds up extremely well to the
moist and often humid environment of the kitchen countertops. Which tile should she
use?
A. Marble tile C. Terracotta tile
B. Cement tile D. Ceramic tile

7. This is a part of the house that most tiles can withstand heavy use in living room and the
heat and moisture of bathrooms. What part it is?
A. Flooring C. Wall
B. Counter D. Bathroom

8. Pointed trowel are mainly used for expect:

A. Straightening tiles C. Placing mortars in small places
B. Filling D. Applying caulk

9. After Xian flatten his wall he want to test the vertical alignment of the wall if it's accurate.
What tool should he use?
A. Plumb and level C. Plumb bob
B. Mallet D. Spacer puller

10-15. Arrange the following steps in Setting Tiles.

__Set your tile
__Apply adhesive
__Prepare the surface
__Begin your layout
__Grouting joints
__Cut tile as needed

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 127

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

D. Performance Test
Directions:
By group create your own desired tile pattern using the
given tiles.
Area size: 8x10 (inch.)
Tiles size: 1x1, 1x1.5, 2x1.5
Here are the steps/guide:
Step 1: Find the center and then draw the X and Y axis
Step 2: From the center, place the desired tile
Step 3: From there, continue to place tiles until the end of
area.

Rubrics in Assessing Performance Task

Creativity 25%

Neatness 35%

Following instructions 35%

Using two/three tiles 5%

___________

Total 100%

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 128

Lesson 6: Tile Setting

References

7 Benefits of Tile Flooring at Home (2019). Retrieved September 15, 2020 from:
http://www.drchemdry.com/7-benefits-of-tile-flooring-at-home/

Gould, W. (2019). Types of Tiles Retrieved September 16, 2020 from:

www.realsimple.com/home-organizing/decorating/types-of-tiles

Groneman, C. (1997). General Woodworking. TILE Setting, Construction Sector. CBC,

TR. TESDA Retrieved September 16, 2020 from:
http://www.depedbataan.com/resources/9/k_to_12_tile_settings_learning_module.pdf

Haider, U. (2010) Uses of Tiles. Retrieved September 16, 2020 from:

http://m.authorstream.com/presentation/uhk136-468045-uses-of-tiles/.

Installing Tile Floors, Step by step. (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2020 from:
https://www.mohawkflooring.com/tile/guides/tile-istallation

Mohawk Industries. (2019). Installing Tile Floors, Step by step tile installation. Retrieved
September 16, 2020 from: https://www.mohawkflooring.com/tile/guides/tile-installation

Answer Key:
1.B 6.D
2.A
7.A
3.A
8.D
4.C
9.C
5.C
10-15. 5, 3, 1, 2, 6, 4

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 129

Lesson 7: Electricity

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Sta. Mesa Manila

College of Education
Department of Business Teacher Education

A Self-Learning Outcome-Based Education (OBE) Instructional Materials

in BTLE30083 – Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1

Lesson 7
Topic: Electricity

Contributors:

ELNIE JOY T. SAYON

AIRA MAE N. MATULAC
BAMBIH JOY M. BEREBER
JOHN LEONELLE A. DONDOYANO

DR MARION A. CRESENCIO
Facilitator

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 130

Lesson 7: Electricity

LESSON 7: ELECTRICITY
• Electrical Tools
• Ohms and Watts Law
• Standard Electrical Symbols
• Electrical Wiring Circuits
• Electrical Wiring and Installation
• Safety and Maintenance

Overview

A whole city is compromise of lights, powered by synthetic electricity. A secondary

energy source that came from other sources, such as coal and natural gas, which is mostly
used for heating, lighting, providing power for machinery, etc. But that also means that a lot of
studies were needed in order to evaluate and standardized the used electricity.
This module will tackle the basics of electricity. It will provide learners knowledge about
the common electrical tools, Ohms and Watts’ law, standard electrical symbols, electrical wiring
circuits and wiring installations, and its safety and maintenance.

Learning Outcomes
After completion of this lesson, you will be able to competently do these:

10. Identify the different electronic/electrical components and symbols.

11. Describe the different electrical hand tools and how these tools are properly used and
cared to maintain its efficiency.
12. Plan a simple but accurate electrical wiring.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 131

Lesson 7: Electricity

Course Materials

Electrical tools
The electrical task was accomplished systematically to save time, effort, and resources.
Most of the work can`t be done using our hands. That is where electrical tools or equipment is
used to do the job. Below, are the following tools used in electrical wiring installation.
1. Screwdrivers ─ Used to loosen or tighten the slotted head screw.
• Standard/Flat Screw Driver─ A wedge-shaped tip
screwdriver for single-slotted screws.
• Philips Screw Driver─ Cross-shaped tip for cross-

slotted screws.
• Stubby Screw Drivers─ Either flat or Philip screwdriver with a short
blade and short handle that is used to turn screws in tight spaces

where the usual screwdrivers can`t be used.

• Allen Screw Drivers/Hex key─ could be in the shape of
a screwdriver or wrench and is usually used for hexagonal- slotted screws.
2. Hammers─ It may look like the hammer used by carpenters but they have distinct
characteristics that allow them to be used for electrical applications. Generally, more
expensive than the usual hammer. The handle was made of rubber-coated high-density
insulated fiberglass to prevent accidental electrocution against a live wire.
• Electrician`s Hammer─ Somewhat the same as a claw hammer
(carpenter's hammer) but are more compact in design and have a handle
made up of fiberglass to absorb shocks and vibrations while impact. The
claw face head is used to remove nails while the flat face head is used to
hammer the nail into the materials.
• Lines Man Hammer─ These are fully polished and well-designed fiberglass
handle to absorb shock and vibrations, which occur during the hammering of
nails, bolts or hammering on utility poles. These have double rounded face
head and are used by the electricians.

BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 132

Lesson 7: Electricity

3. Pliers─ Made from metals with insulated-handle and are used for cutting, twisting,
bending, holding, and gripping wires and cables.
• Combination Pliers (Lineman’s pliers) ─ Used for gripping,
holding, and cutting wires and cables.
• Side-Cutting Pliers─ Used for cutting fine, medium, and big
wires and cables.
• Long-nose Pliers─ Used for cutting and holding fine wires that
are placed on tight spaces or opening. It was also used in making
terminal loops of wires.
4. Wire strippers─ A tool used for removing insulation of wires ranging
from gauge #10 to gauge #20.
5. Electrician`s knife─ Used by lineman to remove the insulation of

wires and cables on low and high voltage transmission lines. It may
also be used to cut boxes that carry electrical equipment. It is
specially designed to avoid damaging the core wire when it’s is being
stripped.
6. Electric Drill─ Small drilling machine with a chuck capacity of ¼" to
3/8" that is used to make holes on metal sheets and concrete walls.
7. Hacksaw─ Use to cut metallic conduit and armored cable.

Ohm’s Law
In 1872, George Simon Ohm discovered that there was a definite relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit.
➢ Voltage is the pressure or force that causes electrons to move in a conductor. In electrical
formulas and equations voltage is represented with a capital E, while on laboratory
equipment or schematic diagrams it is often symbolized with capital V.
➢ Electron current or amperage was defined as the movement of free electrons through a
conductor. Its symbol is capital I in electric formulas, while capital A is commonly used as a
symbol in the laboratory or on schematic diagrams because it indicates amperage (amps).
➢ Resistance is defined as the opposition to current flow. The amount of opposition to
current flow made by a material depends upon the amount of available free electrons it has
BTLE 30083: Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1 Page 133
Lesson 7: Electricity

and the types of obstacles the electrons run into as they attempt to move through the
material. It is represented by the symbol R in equations.
The shorthand notation for ohm is the Greek letter capital omega Ω. One ohm is the amount of
resistance that will limit the current in a conductor to one ampere when the voltage is applied to
the conductor in one volt. The formula for Ohm’s Law is E=RI
where; I = current (A) *if any two of the component values are
E = voltage (V) known, the third can be calculated.
R = resistance (Ω)

Watt’s Law
Watt is a method of measuring the rate of energy transfer of an appliance. It is the
relationship between power and the quantities defined by Ohm’s Law. Watt’s Law was named
after James Watt, a Scottish engineer, and chemist. This law states that the power “n” a circuit
is a product of voltage and current.
In addition to the three quantities that were defined by Ohm's Law, we will define power, as
it is part of Law.
➢ Power (P) is a measure of the quantity of work a circuit
can do, or a component can consume per unit time.
Simply put, it is the amount of electrical energy
transferred per unit time. The unit of power is joule per
second (J/sec) also known as watts (W). The formula for
Watt’s Law is P=IV
where; I = current
P = power
V = voltage.

Many ask often about the difference between Ohm’s Law and Watt’s Law. While
ohm's Law is describing as the relationship between resistance, voltage, and current
in a circuit; Watt's Law describes the relationship between power, voltage, and
current.

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Standard Electrical Symbols

Electrical symbols virtually represent the components of electrical and electronic circuits
and represent its various devices or functions, such as wires, batteries, resistors, and transistors
in a schematic diagram. These symbols are covered by national and international standards, in
particular:
➢ IEC 60617 (also known as British Standard BS 3939)
➢ JIC (Joint Industrial Council) symbols as approved and adopted by the NMTBA (National
Machine Tool Builders Association)
➢ ANSI Y32.2-1975 (also known as IEEE Std 315-1975 or CSA Z99-1975)
➢ IEEE Std 91/91a: graphic symbols for logic functions (used in digital electronics).
➢ Australian Standard AS 1102. (Based on a slightly modified version of IEC 60617)
The usage of symbols is largely standardized across internationals, but some are unique in a
way that is drawn differently from country to country, and often leads to confusion and errors.
These are common examples of electrical symbols that are standardized:

Antenna Battery Capacitor Diode Light Bulb

Inductor Resistor Source Switch Wire

• Antenna- Marks a device, rod, or wire designed to capture radio and electromagnetic
waves into an electrical signal and vice versa.
• Battery The number of lines indicates the number of series of cells in the battery.
• Capacitor- A capacitor symbol shows two terminals running into plates. The curved plate
is a polarized capacitor. The curved side has a lower voltage. A small plus sign can be
added to the straight side indicated the positive pin.
• Diode- Allows current to flow in one direction. It’s always polarized with an anode (A,
positive) and cathode side (C, negative).

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• Inductors- Also called a “coil” or “reactor”. The coils store energy in a magnetic field or
flux.
• Light Bulb – it produces light when a current is passed through it.
• Resistor-A resistor reduces the current flow.
• Source- Represents the power source for your electronics. This symbol represents a
direct current (DC).
• Switch- Disconnects the current when open.
• Wire– a wire connects other components, allowing the current to flow. It is drawn as
straight lines.
Electrical Wiring Circuits
An electrical circuit is a path in which electrons from a voltage or current source flow.
The point in which electrons enter the electrical circuit is called the "source of electrons"
Moreover, when the point where electrons leave and complete the path of an electrical circuit is
called “return” or “earth ground”. The part that is between the source and returns is called
"load", in which the electrons start and the point where they return to the source.
Circuits use two forms of electrical power The Alternating Current (AC) and direct current
(DC) AC often powers large appliances and motors and is generated by power stations. DC
power battery operated vehicles and other machines and electronics.
Three Main Types of Electric Circuits
1. Closed Circuit- When load works on its own in a circuit then it is
called Close Circuit. The value of the current flow depends on a
load.

2. Open Circuit- When there is a faulty electrical wire in a circuit or

switch is OFF, then it is called Open Circuit. You can see that the
bulb is not glowing because either the switch is off or there is fault
on the wire.

3. Short Circuit- When both points (+ and -) of the voltage source in

a circuit get joint with each other for some reason then it is called
a short circuit. It generally happens when the conducting electrical
wires get joint of even because of shorting in the load.

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Kinds of Electric Circuit

➢ Series Circuit- When two or more loads are connected in a
series, then it is called a series circuit. In this type of circuit, if
one load or bulb gets fuse, then the rest of the bulbs will not get
power supply and will not glow.
➢ Parallel Circuits- When two or more loads are connected in
parallel, then it is called Parallel Circuit. In this type of circuit,
the voltage capacity of all loads must be equal to the input
supply. The power of the load can be different and if one load
or bulb gets fuse then the rest of the bulbs will still get power
supply and will glow.
➢ Series-Parallel Circuits- These circuits is the combination of
series-connected and parallel-connected. The circuit currents
vary from every branch. The component voltage drop depends
on the branch current coming from the supply voltage and the
circuit resistance offered to the voltage source.
➢ Simple Circuit- It is a closed-loop of a conductor that
electrons can travel around, usually consisting of a power
source and an electrical component or device and conducting
wire.

Electrical Installation and Maintenance

Electricity light up many events in our life, but we still need to be precautious about the danger it
may brought to us. We also need to give attention on how poor maintenance on electrical
system may lead to failure in equipment, fire and electrocution. Listed below are the importance
of having knowledge and proper skills in installation and maintenance.
➢ Good Installation and maintenance are equivalent to safety.
They say that the worse it looks, the less likely that a professional has completed
the installation. When wirings are properly installed, wires are well tightened up and
aligned in proper places. Some high voltage wirings are sealed in insulators to avoid
accidents and electrocution. Skilled Electricians follows a pattern in wiring to reflect good

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installation. It keeps the place surroundings clean and arranged making the place be safe
for people to pass by.
➢ Proper Labelling saves money and time
Installations require clear labelling on wires with tags, connection jacks, and
other fixtures. Some wires also have different colors to determine their functions. When
wires are in proper places, it would be easy for the electrician to determine which wire
needs to fix using color-coding. The lesser time the electrician would spend for fixing, the
lesser cost you would pay.
➢ Proper Maintenance paves the way for efficiency
This will be achieved by doing a regular system audit to check for the simplest fix
faults, which may be brought bigger problems. It is very essential especially for quality
control whether or not your business edifice is big.
Here is a list of some common issues that electricians usually watch out for during maintenance:
➢ Wiring problems which can be evident through smells of ozone or burning plastic
➢ Damage or scratch marks on the surface of electrical connections
➢ Previous history or constant issue on overheating appliances
➢ Wires submerged on stock water in the basement or ceiling caused by leaking pipes or
heavy rains
➢ Flickering plugs or appliances
Safety and Maintenance
Electrical Safety Hazards
Safety in the workplace is necessary. Nothing can replace a worker one that has died or
suffered from the irreparable consequences of an electrical accident. No matter how much an
employer tries to protect its workers or how much safety training is provided, the responsibility
lies with the worker. The human factor is part of every accident or injury. It is significant to know
electrical safety hazards and present ways to avoid their consequences. In minimizing electrical
hazards, we need to consider the following:
1. Design a safer system.
When designing a safer system, the following factors should be considered:
• Provide maximum protection to personnel, equipment, and property.

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• Meet all applicable code requirements (OSHA, NFPA, Building and Insurance
codes, etc.).
• Utilize current-limiting overcurrent protective devices to minimize Arc-Flash
hazards.
• Utilize "touch-safe" components to minimize exposure to energized components.
• Utilize fuses with blown fuse indication to minimize exposure to energized
components while troubleshooting.
• Provide selective coordination (only the fault area is shut-off). Provide a system
that is safe to service and maintain.
2. Use and upgrade to current-limiting overcurrent and protective devices.
The incident energy from an Arc-Flash depends on the magnitude of the current and the
time it is allowed to flow. Within their current-limiting range, current-limiting devices reduce
the peak fault current. Current-limiting fuses have faster clearing times when operating within
their current-limiting range than standard circuit breakers. The faster the overcurrent
protective device clears the fault, the lower the I²t and incident energy. If current-limiting
fuses are used, the incident energy and the Hazard Risk Category may be reduced
significantly.
3. Implement an Electrical Safety Program.
Electrical Safety Programs protect both employees and employers, provide procedures,
and work practices to ensure safety. NFPA 70E Article 110.7 requires employers to establish
an Electrical Safety Program that must be documented and include the following
components: Scope of the Program, Company Philosophy, Responsibilities, Establishment of
a Safety Team or Committee, Written Procedures, Work Instructions, Identification of
Industry Codes & Standards to be adhered to, etc.
4. Observe safe work practices.
Test equipment as well as hand tools are
often overlooked and must be insulated and rated
for the voltage of the circuits where they will be
used. All tools and equipment used for
maintenance must also be periodically inspected
to ensure they are not damaged and are still in

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good working condition.

5. Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
The proper selection and use of Personal Protective Equipment will significantly reduce
the risk of Arc-Flash and other electrical hazards to personnels working on energized
equipment. The selection of PPE is dependent on the task to be performed.
6. Use Warning Labels.
The use of detailed warning labels increases safety as well
as minimizes the time required to identify minimum levels of PPE.
Other types of warning labels must be used to include
information on proper fuse replacements, disconnection location, and other sources of
power, etc. These labels can be placed directly on pieces of equipment or on enclosure
doors. Computer programs and adhesive blank labels make it easy to create labels for any
purpose.
7. Use an Energized Electrical Work Permit.
It is required to have a detailed written Energized Electrical Work Permit that must be
used and signed by responsible management whenever work is performed on live energized
equipment.
8. Avoid hazards of improperly selected or maintained overcurrent protective devices.
Whether in the design or maintenance of an electrical system, hazards do exist. Circuit
breakers and other electrical equipment must be maintained and utilized regularly to ensure
that they will operate properly.
9. Achieve or Increase Selective Coordination.
When an overcurrent occurs in a system, the line side of the overcurrent should be open
immediately. This reduces the unnecessary shutdown of other equipment and finds the
problem easily. Such a system is defined as “selectively coordinated”. In a selectively
coordinated system, a fault at point A will cause the fuse or circuit breaker may trip
immediately before the fault open, keep the power supply flow to the rest of the feeder and
branch circuits throughout the facility.

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Electrical safety is significant. Employees working on electrical systems are at risk

all day, but with the well-designed overcurrent protective system along with the
implementation of safe work practices and the utilization of the PPE, risk will be
reduced.

Basic Maintenance of Electrical Tools and Equipment

To be sure that your tools operate when required, you must take care of them. A great
way of cleaning your tools is one thing that you can do for it to be useful for the next years.
1. Clean out the Dust. To make sure that your electrical tools are ready to be used, keep
them clean and free of dust. Spend some time to clean out the dust on your tools while
they are not in use.
2. Check the Cords. Look for any damage insulators on the power cords of your electrical
tools. This will ensure that your electrical tools function properly.
3. Use the right tool correctly. Use tools correctly and for their intended purposes. Follow
the safety directions and operating procedures recommended by the manufacturer. When
working on a circuit, use approved tools with insulated handles.
4. Protect your Tools. Keep tools and cords away from heat, oil, and sharp objects. These
hazards can damage insulation. If a tool or cord heats up, stop using it. Report the
condition to a supervisor or instructor immediately.
5. Use double-insulated tools. Portable electrical tools are classified by the number of
insulation barriers between the electrical conductors in the tool and the worker.
6. Storing Your Tools. Keep your electrical tools stored in their cases. This will keep them
from dirt while not being used.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) are gadgets to protect workers from injury or
illness caused by having contact with the dangers/hazards in the workplace whether they are
chemical, biological, radiation, physical, electrical, mechanical, and others.
These are the common Personal Protective Equipment gadgets:

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Hard Hats Helmets Gloves Goggle Mask

Work boots Pant

Suggested Readings:
K to 12 – Electrical Learning Module
K to 12 – Technology and Livelihood Education: Electrical Installation

Activities / Assessment Tasks

E. Written Test
Directions: Read the questions carefully. Then choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. The following are included in the basic tools for wiring installation EXCEPT:
a) Electric Drill c) Puller
b) Long Nose Pliers d) Wire Stripper
2. Find the current I through a resistor of resistance R = 3 Ω if the voltage across the resistor
is 18 V.
a) 1 A c) 6 A
b) 3 A d) 12 A
3. It is two or more coils coupled by magnetic induction.
a) Antenna c) Inductor
b) Diode d) Transformer
4. A path in which electrons from a voltage or current source flow is called?
a) Electrical Circuit c) Electrical Source
b) Electrical Path d) Electrical Wire
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5. These are gadgets to protect workers from injury or illness caused by having contact with
the dangers/hazards in the workplace.
a) Personal Protective Equipment c) Property Plant Equipment
b) Private Protective Equipment d) Protective Personal Equipment

F. Performance Test
Completing The Circuit
Directions:
This activity will measure your comprehensive understanding about electricity
and how the basic electrical wiring is done. It is composed of 4 items. Read and follow
the instructions on each item carefully. You can write and draw your answers in a paper.
Don’t forget to write the question first before writing or drawing the answers. Good luck
and have fun!

Battery Light Bulb Wire

1. Draw a way to light a bulb using the symbols above.

2. Draw a way to connect the bulb, battery, and wire that the won’t light up the bulb. Use
the symbols above.

3. Illustrate a series circuit or a parallel circuit using the given symbols above. Choose only
one type of circuit.

Rubrics in Assessing Performance Task

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Illustration Being able to illustrate / draw each item correctly. 75

Use of Symbols Being able to use the correct symbols on each illustrations. 15
Neatness Have observe a neat and organize output. 10
TOTAL: 100

References

Electrical circuit. (2020, August 29). Retrieved from

https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuit
Electrical Symbols. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.smartdraw.com/circuit-diagram/electrical-symbols.htm
Santos, J. (2019, June 15). Introduction to Electrical Installation and Maintenance. Retrieved
from
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/jhunalvins29/introduction-to-electrical-installation-and-
maintenance
Search: Electronics Tutorial: The Best Electronics Tutorial Website. (2020, March 19). Retrieved
from
http://www.electronicsandyou.com/blog/electric-circuit-types-of-electric-circuit.html
The Complete Guide to Screwdrivers. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://uk.rs-online.com/web/generalDisplay.html?id=ideas-and-advice/screwdrivers-
guide
Yurtoğlu, N. (2018).
Http://www.historystudies.net/dergi//birinci-dunya-savasinda-bir-asayis-sorunu

Written Test: Answer Key (c, c, d, a, a)

Performance Task: Answer Key

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Lesson 7: Electricity

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Lesson 7: Electricity

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Sta. Mesa Manila

College of Education
Department of Business Teacher Education

A Self-Learning Outcome-Based Education (OBE) Instructional Materials

in BTLE30083 – Introduction to Industrial Arts – Part 1

Lesson 8
Topic: Electronics

Contributors:
Balbin, Jose Mari Honorio B.
Culata, Aila Marie P.
Pastor, Richel Agnes G.
Pulga, Wenson L.
Simplicio, Cassandra N.

DR MARION A. CRESENCIO
Facilitator

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Lesson 7: Electricity

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Lesson 7: Electricity

LESSON 8: ELECTRONICS
● Fundamentals of Electronics
● Electronic Components and Symbols
● Perform Basic Electronic Repairs

Overview

Electronics is a branch of physics and electrical engineering which

deals with the emission, behavior, and effects of electrons. Learning Electronics will make us
understand the control of electricity, communication and process of information with electronic
devices and their utilization.

Learning Outcomes

After completion of this lesson, you will be able to competently do these:

1. Discuss the fundamentals of electronics
2. Identify electronic components and symbols
3. Perform a simple electrical wiring.
4. Perform basic electronic repairs.

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Course Materials

What is Electronics?

Electronics is a branch of physics and electrical engineering which deals with the
emission, behavior, and effects of electrons, as well as the use of electricity to control,
communicate, and process information with electronic devices and their utilization. With the help
of research, many scientific and technical disciplines also dealt with different aspects of
electronics. Research in this field also led to the development of such key devices: transistors,
integrated circuits, lasers, and optical fibers throughout history.

History of Electronics

The Vacuum Tube Era

With the identification of the electron by the

English physicist Sir Joseph John Thomson and the
measurement of its electric charge by the American
physicist Robert A. Millikan in 1909, the history of
electronics began to evolve separately from that of
electricity in the late 19th century.

It was revealed by the English engineer J.A Fleming, and by Thomson and his
students from his observation in his early work of light bulbs, the so-called Edison effect was the
result of the emission of electrons from the cathode, the hot filament in the lamp. The motion of
the electrons to the anode, a metal plate, constituted an electric current that would not exist if
the anode were negatively charged.

This discovery provided stimulus for the development of electron tubes, including a
proved X-ray tube by the American engineer William D. Coolidge and Fleming's thermionic
valve (a two-electrode vacuum tube) for use in radio receivers. In 1906, Lee de Forest
developed a type of vacuum tube (three-electrode vacuum tube or simply triode) that was

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capable of amplifying radio signals. This led to the introduction of tetrode and pentode tubes
that dominated the world until World War II.

The vacuum tube allowed the development of radio broadcasting, long-distance

telephone, television, and the first electronic digital computers. These early electronic
computers were, in fact, the largest vacuum-tube systems ever built. Perhaps the best-known
representative is the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), completed in
1946.

While the cathode-ray tube was originally developed for

displaying electrical waveforms on a screen for engineering
measurements, it eventually evolved into the television picture
tube.

Vacuum tubes had shortcomings such as thermal

fatigue, which ultimately causes a physical fracture in some part of
the interior structure of the tube, or from degradation of the
properties of the cathode by residual gases in the tube. This
motivated scientists at Bell Laboratories to seek an alternative to
the vacuum tube and led to the development of the transistor.

The Transistor

The invention of the transistor in 1947 was introduced by John Bardeen, Walter H.
Brattain, and William B. Shockley of the Bell research staff. They developed the point-contact
transistor and later on the junction transistor, as well as the investigation of the properties of
semiconductors. While John Bardeen won a Nobel Prize for Physics in 1972 for the Theory of
Superconductivity. Bardeen focused on the electrical conduction in semiconductors and metals,
and surface properties of semiconductors.

Early transistors were produced using germanium as the semiconductor material.

During the late 1950's researches, silicon succeeded in producing material suitable for
semiconductor devices.

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The following years witnessed the invention of the integrated circuits (ICs)
independently by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments Incorporated in 1958 and by Jean Hoerni and
Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation in 1959. The years 1958 to 1975 marked
the introduction of ICs with enlarged capabilities of over several thousand components on a
single chip such as small-scale integration, medium-large scale and very large-scale integration
ICs.

Basic Electronic Concepts

There are a number of basic concepts that form the foundations of today's electronics
and radio technology. Electrical current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance are a
few of the basic elements of electronics and radio.

1. Electrical Current - An electric current is a flow of electric charge in a circuit. More

specifically, the electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric
circuit. The charge can be negatively charged electrons or positive charge carriers
including protons, positive ions or holes.
2. Resistance - Resistance is the hindrance to the flow of electrons in material. While a
potential difference across the conductor encourages the flow of electrons, resistance
discourages it. The rate at which charge flows between two terminals is a combination of
these two factors. In some instances, it is necessary to have elements which resist the
flow of current. These items are called resistors and they are made out of materials
which do not conduct electricity as well as materials like copper or other metals.
3. Voltage - Voltage can be considered as the pressure that forces the charged electrons
to flow in an electrical circuit. This flow of electrons is the electrical current that flows. If a
positive potential is placed on one end of a conductor, then this will attract that negative
charges to it because unlike charges attract. The higher the potential attracting the
charges, the greater the attraction and the greater the current flow.
4. Capacitance - Capacitance is effectively the ability to store charge. In its simplest form a
capacitor consists of two parallel plates. It is found that when a battery or any other
voltage source is connected to the two plates as shown a current flow for a short time
and one plate receives an excess of electrons, while the other has too few. In this way

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one plate, the one with the excess of electrons becomes negatively charged, while the
other becomes positively charged.
5. Inductance - An inductor is an electronic component consisting of a coil of wire with an
electric current running through it, creating a magnetic field.

Ohm’s Law

Ohm's Law is one of the most fundamental and

important laws governing electrical and electronic circuits. It
relates current, voltage and resistance for a linear device, such
that if two are known, the third can be calculated. With current,
voltage and resistance being three of the major circuit
quantities, this means that Ohm's Law is also immensely
important.

Ohm's Law is used within all branches of electrical and electronic science. It is used
for calculating the value of resistors required in circuits, and it can also be used for determining
the current flowing in a circuit where the voltage can be measured easily across a known
resistor, but more than this, Ohm's Law is used in a vast number of calculations in all forms of
electrical and electronic circuit- in fact anywhere that current flows.

Electronic Components and Symbols

Below is a list of various electronic

components and materials their symbols:

● Wire - A wire is a single, flexible, two-

terminal material that enables energy to
flow through it. These are primarily used
to link power supplies to and between the
parts of the PCB (Printed Circuit Board).

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● Switches come in many forms:

pushbuttons, rockers, momentary, and
others but their fundamental role is to
interrupt electrical current by switching on
or off a circuit.

● Resistors are used to withstand the flow or

to regulate the voltage of a circuit. The
offered resistance quantity by a resistor is
evaluated in Ohms. You can determine the
resistance value of most resistors from its
code on the outside: the colored stripes.

● Capacitors store and discharge electricity

back into the circuit when the voltage drops.
A condenser is like a battery that can be
recharged and then discharged.

● Diode allows the electricity to flow in only

one direction and blocks it from flowing the
opposite way within the circuit.

● Transistors are the small switches that

switches on or off a current when triggered
by an electrical signal. It can also be used
to amplify electronic signals as well as
being a switch. Except with no moving
components, a transistor is comparable to a
relay.

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● Power Supplies is an electronic device that

supplies electrical energy to an electrical
charge. The role of the power supply is to
convert energy according to our
requirements from one form to another.

Circuit Diagrams

The circuit diagram (also known as an elementary diagram; electrical diagram; and
electronic schematic) is generally a graphical representation of an electrical circuit. It visualizes
the interaction between circuit components, by showing the actual electrical connections. Circuit
diagrams visualize the physical arrangement of wires and the components that connect them
within different electronic systems.

What are Circuit Diagrams Used For?

Circuit diagrams are used for illustrating different kinds of electrical circuits. Very similar
to the network diagrams, the circuit diagrams are providing a visual representation of the
schematic arrangement of all components and the wire
relationships between them. This is very helpful when
preparing a project for an electrical system that should be built
or when trying to track down an issue in an already existing
one.

As mentioned above, the circuit diagram visualizes electrical circuits. This is achieved by
providing a schematic illustration where each component integrated into the electrical circuit is
represented through an iconic symbol. For one to be able to read and understand the circuit
diagrams, it is necessary to know what icon represents each component.

Performing Electronic Repair

Common electrical problems and solutions:

1) Electrical surges
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It can occur due to poor wiring in the house or lightning strikes or faulty
appliances or damaged power lines. Surges are common and last for a microsecond but
if you experience frequent surges lead to equipment damage that degrade life
expectancy particularly.
Check the device that connects to the home grid or the wiring and try
disconnecting the poor-quality power boards or devices from the outlet. If the surges
don’t occur again, your problem is solved. If it is not, you must call an electrician.

2) Overloading
Sometimes your light fixture has a bulb or other fitting with high watts than the
designed fixture. This is a code violation and the risk level is quite high. The high heat
from the bulb can melt the socket and insulation present in wires of the fixture. This
results in sparks from one wire to another and causes electrical fires. Even after the bulb
is removed, the socket and wires will still be under damage.
It is always better to fit a bulb or any other fittings by staying within the wattage. If
the fixtures are not marked with wattage, it is advisable to use a 60-watt bulb or even
smaller ones.

3) Recessed light ‘Goes out’ and comes back on

Recessed lighting (like downlights) are equipped with safety devices that cut out
power to the light when it gets too hot. You’re either using too high wattage on the bulb,
or insulation in the ceiling is too close to the bulb.
• Check for excessive heat
• Check overhead lights every so often:
• Are they producing excessive heat?
• What is the total wattage on the circuit?
• Are they insulated properly?
• Overheated lighting can be a fire risk, so be sure to test regularly.

Suggested Readings:
Electronics Club. (n.d.). Circuit Symbols. Retrieved September 16, 2020, from:
https://electronicsclub.info/circuitsymbols.htm

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Thiele, Timothy (2020, January 3). All About Electrical Wiring Types, Sizes, and
Installation.

Retrieved September 17, 2020, from

https://www.thespruce.com/electrical-wiring-1152909

Activities / Assessment Tasks

A. Written Test
Directions: Answer the following questions. Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1. It is a branch of physics and electrical engineering which deals with the omission,
behavior, and effects of electrons.
A. Cosmology
B. Electronics
C. Mechanics
D. Optics

2. When did the history of electronics begin to evolve separately from electricity?
A. Late 18th century
B. Early 19th century
C. Mid-19th century
D. Late 19th century

3. It is a basic electronic concept that can be considered as the pressure that forces the
charged electrons to flow in an electrical circuit. What electronic concept is being

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described?
A. Capacitance
B. Electrical Current
C. Resistance
D. Voltage

4. It is the flow of an electric charged in a circuit.

A. Electrical Current
B. Inductance
C. Resistance
D. Voltage

5. Ohm's Law is one of the most important laws governing electrical and electronic circuits.
What is Ohm's Law used for?
A. Apply to non-linear elements which do not have current exactly proportional to the
applied voltage.
B. Apply to semiconductors & insulators.
C. Apply to unilateral networks.
D. Calculate the relationship of voltage, current and resistance in an electrical circuit.

6. Switches come in many forms. Which of these switch symbols is the On-Off Switch?

A. C.

B. D.

7. The role of power supply is to convert energy according to our requirements from one
form to another; battery is one example. Which of these power supply symbols
represents a battery?

A. C.

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Lesson 7: Electricity

B. D.

8. ___ provides a visual representation of the schematic arrangement of all components

and the wire relationships between them.
A. Circuit Diagram
B. Component Diagram
C. Hasse Diagram
D. Routing Diagram

9. If an electrical surge occurred due to poor wiring, what should you do?
A. Check for a device connected in the wiring and try disconnecting it from the outlet.
B. Check if a wire is heating excessively, then try changing outlets.
C. Cut the old wires and replace it with new ones.
D. Let it be, it will fix itself.

10. You noticed that the downlights in your living room turned off then turned on again
without anyone touching the switch. What could be the possible cause of this?
A. Meralco cut off the electricity because you didn't pay on the due date.
B. The flow of electricity in the wires was not consistent.
C. The lights got too hot because it was using too high wattage.
D. There is a ghost in the house.

B. Performance Test
Directions: The following incomplete diagrams show electrical circuits. You may use clip arts or
search pictures to complete each item. (Reminder: “ ” is the symbol for a bulb.)
1. Provide the required symbol to make a simple electrical wiring.

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Lesson 7: Electricity

2-3. Provide the flow and connection of wires needed to complete the set-up.

Rubrics in Assessing Performance Task

Correctness: if the branches of

40%
circuit are properly connected.

Completeness/Functionality: if
all of parts of the circuit are 30%
present.

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Lesson 7: Electricity

Neatness: If the circuit is

presentable and easy to 30%
understand.

Total 100%

References

ElProCus Technologies Pvt Ltd. (n.d.). Brief History of Electronics and It's Development.
Retrieved September 16, 2020, from:
https://www.elprocus.com/know-about-brief-history-of-electronics-and-their-generations/

Robert I. Scace. (n.d.). Electronics. Retrieved September 16, 2020, from:

https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronics/Superconducting-electronics

Electronics Notes. (n.d.). Basic Electrical & Electronics Concepts. Retrieved September 16,
2020, from:
https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/basic_concepts/

CircuitsToday Electronic Solutions. (n.d.). Electronic Circuit Symbols. Retrieved September 16,
2020, from:
https://www.circuitstoday.com/electronic-circuit-symbols

Electronics Club. (n.d.). Circuit Symbols. Retrieved September 16, 2020, from:
https://electronicsclub.info/circuitsymbols.htm

Das, S. (2019, December 27). Active and Passive Electronic Components [Blog post]. Retrieved

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Lesson 7: Electricity

from: https://www.electronicsandyou.com/blog/active-and-passive-electronic-
components.html

Platinum Electricians. (n.d.). 10 Common Electrical Problems Around The Home [Blog post].
Retrieved from: https://www.platinumelectricians.com.au/blog/common-electrical-
problems-around-the-home/#

Anchor Panasonic Pvt. Ltd. (2017, December 2). Top 15 Common Electrical Problems and
Solutions [Blog post]. Retrieved from: https://lsin.panasonic.com/blog/common-electrical-
problems-and-solutions/

Santos, Jimmy. (2014). Equipment Maintenance and Repair in Laboratory Setting. Retrieved
September 16, 2020, from: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1kRHzbwRBih9EMdFIn-
90DT0Zvx8Lvaxz/view

Answer Keys:
1. B.
2. D.
3. D.
4. A.
5. D.
6. B.
7. D.
8. A.
9. A.
10.C.

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