ST. PATRICK SENIOR SEC.

SCHOOL, PUDUCHERRY -5
PHYSICS PRACTICALS MANUAL
EXPERIMENTS - SECTION A
1. OHM’S LAW – RESISTIVITY OF TWO WIRES
AIM :
To determine the resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Two resistance wires (nichrome, constantan) of 1 m length, a voltmeter (0-3V), a milli ammeter
(0-500mA), a low resistance rheostat, a battery eliminator, plug key, connecting wires, a piece of
sand paper, screw gauge and a meter scale.

THEORY / FORMULA :
Ohm’s law states that the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference (V) applied across its ends provided the temperature remains constant.
𝑉
V ∝ I or V = IR or R = 𝐼 (Ω)
Where R is the resistance of the wire.

A graph is plotted between potential difference (V) taken along x-axis and current (I) along y-axis.
A graph will be a straight line passing through the origin.
1
R = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉−𝐼 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝 𝑕 (Ω)
𝑅 𝜋𝑟 2
Specific Resistance or resistivity (ρ) = (Ωm)
𝑙
Where r is the radius of the wire (m)
L is the length of the wire (m)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM : MODEL GRAPH :

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS :

Range of voltmeter = ____ to ____ V

Range of milliammeter = ____ to ____ mA
Least count of voltmeter = ____ V
Least count of milliammeter = ____ mA
Length of the resistance wire A = ____ m
Length of the resistance wire B = ____ m
Radius of the resistance wire A = ____ m
Radius of the resistance wire B = ____ m
Wire used S. No. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
(V) (mA)
CONSTANTAN 1
WIRE (A) 2
3
4
5
NICHROME WIRE 1
(B) 2
3
4
5
PROCEDURE :
(a) To measure the resistance of the wire :
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram.
2. Label the two resistance wires as A (constantan wire) and B (nichrome wire).
3. Arrange all the apparatus on the working table.
4. Remove the insulation from the ends of connecting wires using sand paper.
5. Connections are made as per circuit diagram. Ensure that the positive terminals of milli ammeter
and volt meter are connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
6. Battery, key, rhesostat, resistance wire and milli ammeter should be connected in series, whereas
voltmeter should be in parallel.
7. Record the range and least counts of the milliammeter and voltmeter.
8. Ensure the pointers of milliammeter and voltmeter are at zero mark. Otherwise correct it.
9. Insert plug in the key and note down the readings of voltmeter and milliammeter.
10. Now, increase the voltage in steps and mesure the current. Take and record a set of 4 readings.
11. Choosing the suitable scales, plot a graph by taking V along x-axis and I along y-axis.
12. We obtain Straight line graphs passing through the origin. Resistance of the wire is measured by
taking a slope and it’s reciprocal.
13. The same procedure is repeated for the wire B also to find the resistance.
(a) To measure the resistivity of the wire :
1. The length of the resistance wire is measured by using the meter scale.
2. The radius of the resistance wire is measured by using the screw Gauge.
𝑅𝜋𝑟 2
3. The specific resistance / resistivity of the wire is measured by using the formula ρ = 𝑙

RESULT :
1. The current though the given wire varies linearly with the potential difference across its ends.
2. The resistance of the wire A = ____ Ω and the resistivity of the wire A = _____ Ω m.
3. The resistance of the wire B = ____ Ω and the resistivity of the wire B = _____ Ω m

PRECAUTIONS :
1. All the connections should be neat and tight.
2. The ends of connecting wires must be cleaned with a sand paper.
3. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel.
4. Always connect the positive terminal of the ammeter and voltmeter to the positive terminal of the
battery.
5. The resistance wire should be wounded on a wooden strip so that end points may not get short-
circuited.
6. Current should be passed for a short time only to avoid heating of wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. Resistance of the wire may change (increase) due to excessive heating.
3. There may be error in measuring length and radius.
2. METRE BRIDGE – RESISTANCE OF A GIVEN WIRE
AIM :
To determine the resistance of a given wire using Metre Bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, a resistance wire (Nichrome wire of 1 m length), resistance
box, lechlanche cell, plug key, jockey, connecting wires.

THEORY / FORMULA :
With known resistance R in the left gap and unknown resistance S in the right gap of the metre
bridge, null point B is obtained at a distance of l cm from the left end A. By the principle of
Wheatstone’s Bridge,
𝑃 𝑅
=𝑆
𝑄

100−𝑙
Resistance of the given wire S= R ( ) Ω
𝑙

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS :

Sl. Known Balancing Length BC =

No. Resistance R Length l (cm) (100 – l) S= R (
100−𝑙
)Ω
(Ω) (cm) 𝑙

1
2
3
4
5
Mean

PROCEDURE :
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram.
2. Arrange all the apparatus on the working table.
3. Remove the insulation from the ends of connecting wires using sand paper.
4. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
5. To check the connections, first press jockey at left end A and next at right end B, the deflections of
the galvanometer should be in opposite directions. If not check the continuity of junctions.
6. Take a suitable resistance R from the resistance box, measure the balancing length l. Repeat the
experiment for different values of R.
7. Record all the observations in a tabular column.
100−𝑙
8. The resistance of the given wire is measured by using the formula S= R Ω
𝑙

RESULT :
1. The resistance of the given wire = ____ Ω

PRECAUTIONS :
1. All the connections should be neat and tight.
2. The ends of connecting wires must be cleaned with a sand paper.
3. The battery connections should be closed before pressing jockey.
3. The jockey should be moved gently. It should not be pressed too hard.
4. The known resistance value should always be adjusted in such a way to get null deflection
between 30-70 cm.

SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
2. End resistances and end errors are to be corrected.
3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes.
3. METRE BRIDGE – Verification of the law of series combination of resistances
AIM :
To verify the law of series combination of resistances using a Metre Bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance wires (Nichrome and constantan wires of 50
cm in length), resistance box, lechlanche cell or battery eliminator, plug key, jockey, connecting
wires.

THEORY / FORMULA :
With known resistance R in the left gap and unknown resistance S (R1 or R2 or series combination of
R1 and R2) in the right gap of the metre bridge, null point B is obtained at a distance of l cm from the
left end A. By the principle of Wheatstone’s Bridge,

100−𝑙
S= R Ω
𝑙

RS = R1 +R2 (Ω)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS :

Resistance Sl. Known Balancing Length BC Mean

No. Resistance Length = (100 – l) S= R(
100−𝑙
) unknown
R (Ω) AB = l (cm) 𝑙 resistance
Ω
(cm) (Ω)
1
R1 2 R1 = _____Ω
3
1
R2 2 R2 = ____Ω
3
R1 and R2 1
in series 2 Rs = ____Ω
3
PROCEDURE :
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram.
2. Arrange all the apparatus on the working table.
3. Remove the insulation from the ends of connecting wires using sand paper.
4. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
5. To check the connections, first press jockey at left end A and next at right end B, the deflections of
the galvanometer should be in opposite directions. If not check the continuity of junctions.
6. Take a suitable resistance R from the resistance box, measure the balancing length l. Repeat the
experiment for different values of R.
7. Record all the observations in a tabular column.
100−𝑙
8. The resistance of the given wire is measured by using the formula S= R Ω
𝑙
9. The same procedure is followed for resistance wires R1, R2 and they are in series.

RESULT :
The law of combination of resistances in series stands verified.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. All the connections should be neat and tight.
2. The ends of connecting wires must be cleaned with a sand paper.
3. The battery connections should be closed before pressing jockey.
3. The jockey should be moved gently. It should not be pressed too hard.
4. The known resistance value should always be adjusted in such a way to get null deflection
between 30-70 cm.
5. Ensure that the same lengths of resistance wires R1 and R2 are used for determining Rs as have
been used for determining R1 and R2 individually.

SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
2. End resistances and end errors are to be corrected.
3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes.
4. The effective lengths of resistance wires may vary.
4. SONOMETER – Frequency of a.c. mains
AIM :
To find the frequency of a.c. mains using a sonometer and a horse shoe magnet.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
A sonometer with a brass wire stretched over it, two knife edges, a horse shoe magnet, a.c. main
(step-down transformer), slotted weights of 0.5 kg with hanger.

THEORY / FORMULA :
The frequency of fundamental mode of a wire of length l, mass per unit length m and stretched under
tension T is given by

1 𝑇
ν = 2𝑙 Hz.
𝑚

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS :

Mass per unit length of the wire used m = _____ kgm-1

Sl. Load Tension Resonant length Frequency of

No. including T = Mg Loading Unloading Mean vibration of the
mass of (N) l1 (m) l2 (m) (l1+l2)/2 wire
hanger M (kg) (m) 1 𝑇
ν = 2𝑙 Hz.
𝑚
1
2
3
Mean

Mean Frequency ν = _______ Hz.

Frequency of a.c. mains, f = ν = ______ Hz.
PROCEDURE :
1. Place the sonometer on the table with its pulley end projecting slightly outside the edge of the
table.
2. Check that the pulley is frictionless, if necessary oil it.
3. Place the wedges below the wire at the centre and add 0.5 kg weights to the hanger to keep the
wire taut.
4. Mount the permanent horse shoe magnet vertically at the middle and connect the two ends of
sonometer wire to the secondary of a.c. mains.
5. Start increasing the separation between the wedges slowly till the wire begins to vibrate with
maximum amplitude. Note down the mass and vibrating length (l1) between the wedges and record it
in the column of loading.
6. Now increase the load in steps of 0.5 kg and note down the vibrating lengths.
7. Then start decreasing the separation between the wedges and note down vibrating lengths (l2) for
all unloading values. Record all the observations in a tabular column.
8. Find the mean of l1 and l2 and it can be taken as l. The tension of the wire is calculated for each
mass loaded using T = Mg. ( g = 9.8ms-2)
9. Take a wire of the sonometer. Find it’s mass and mass per unit length (m).
1 𝑇
10. The frequency of a.c. mains is calculated by using the formula ν = 2𝑙 Hz.
𝑚

RESULT :
Frequency of a.c. mains using sonometer and horse-shoe magnet, ν = ______ Hz.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. The material of the sonometer wire should be brass ( non-magnetic).
2. The wire should be of uniform area of cross section.
3. Pulley should be frictionless.
4. The wedges should have sharp edges and sufficient height.
5. The wire should be brought to elastic mode by loading and unloading before doing experiment.
6. Resonant length should be observed for both loading and unloading.
7. While calculating T = Mg, weight of the hanger must be added.
8. The tension in the wire should not exceed its elastic limit.

SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The sonometer wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
2. Some friction may be present at the pulley.
3. Frequency of a.c. mains may not be stable.
SECTION B
5. FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE MIRROR
AIM :
To find the focal length of a concave mirror using UV method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Concave mirror, light source, mirror holder, white screen and meter scale.

THEORY / FORMULA :
The focal length of a concave mirror is
𝑢𝑣
f= cm
𝑢 +𝑣
where f is the focal length of a concave mirror (cm).
u is the object distance (cm).
v is the image distance (cm).

DIAGRAM :

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS :

Focal length of a concave mirror by distant object method f = ____ cm

Sl.No. POSITION OF OBSERVED DISTANCE 𝑢𝑣

f=
Concave Mirror P Object O Image I PO = u (cm) PI = v (cm) 𝑢 +𝑣
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
Mean

PROCEDURE :
(a) Distant object method :
1. Place the concave mirror and focus distant object like a tree or building.
2. Place the screen in front of mirror and adjust the screen so as to get inverted, clear and sharp edge
of the object.
3. Measure the distance between centre of mirror and screen as focal length (f).
(a) U-V method :
1. Find 2f using the above value of f found by distant object method.
2. Write this 2f value as third reading in the column u.
3. write 2f-4, 2f-2, 2f+2, 2f+4 as first , second, fourth and fifth reading in the column of u.
4. Now adjust the screen to get well defined image for each value of u and record it as v.
𝑢𝑣
5. The focal length of the concave mirror is calculated by using the formula f = cm
𝑢 +𝑣

RESULT :
The focal length of the concave mirror by
(a) Distant object method f = ____ cm.
(b) U-V method f = ____ cm.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. The object distance should not be less than the focal length.
2. The object distance and image distance should be measured without any parallax error.
3. The mirror should be handled properly so that it may not break.
4. The values of u and v should not differ much.

SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The personal errors and parallax errors may not be removed.
2. Sign convention may not be applied correctly.
6. FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX MIRROR
AIM :

To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :

Convex mirror, convex lens, light source, mirror holder, white screen and meter scale.

THEORY / FORMULA :

The focal length of a convex mirror is

𝑅
f = cm
2
where f is the focal length of a convex mirror (cm).
R is the radius of curvature of the convex mirror (cm).

DIAGRAM :
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS :

Sl.No. POSITION OF Radius of

Object O (cm) Convex lens Convex Image I curvature PI
L (cm) Mirror P (cm) (cm)
(cm)
1
2
3
4
5
Mean Radius of curvature

PROCEDURE :
1. Place the object (candle), convex mirror, convex lens and the screen in a straight line as shown in
the figure.
2. See that the distance of the object from the convex lens is greater than the focal length of convex
mirror.
3. Adjust the position of the convex lens or the convex mirror with respect to the source such that the
inverted image of the source is formed in coincidence with the object on the same side of the source
itself.
4. Note down the positions of object (O), convex lens (L) and convex mirror (P).
5. Now remove the convex mirror without disturbing the object and convex lens.
6. Adjust the screen to get a well defined inverted image of the object and note down the position of
the image (I).
7. The procedure is repeated for different position of convex lens and convex mirror.
8. The distance between the position of the convex mirror and the screen gives the radius of
curvature of the convex mirror.
𝑅
9. The focal length is calculated by using the formula f = cm
2
RESULT :
1. The focal length of the given convex mirror f = ____ cm

PRECAUTIONS :
1. The object distance should not be less than the focal length.
2. The focal length of the convex lens should be greater than that of convex mirror.
3. The object distance and image distance should be measured without any parallax error.
4. After removing the convex mirror, the positions of object and convex lens should not be disturbed.
5. The mirror and lens should be handled properly so that they may not break.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

1. The personal errors and parallax errors may not be removed.

2. Sign convention may not be applied correctly.
7. FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX LENS
AIM :
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Convex lens, light source, lens holder, white screen and meter scale.

THEORY / FORMULA :
The focal length of a convex lens is
𝑢𝑣
f= cm
𝑢 −𝑣
where f is the focal length of a convex lens (cm).
u is the object distance (cm).
v is the image distance (cm).

DIAGRAM AND MODEL GRAPH:

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS :

Focal length of a convex lens by distant object method f = ____ cm

Sl.No. POSITION OF OBSERVED DISTANCE 𝑢𝑣

f=
OBJECT O CONVEX IMAGE I LO = u LI = v (cm) 𝑢 −𝑣
(cm) LENS L (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
Mean

PROCEDURE :
(a) Distant object method :
1. Place the convex lens and focus a distant object like a tree or building.
2. Place the screen behind the lens and adjust the screen so as to get inverted, clear and sharp edge of
the object.
3. Measure the distance between centre of lens and screen as focal length (f).

(a) U-V method :

1. Find 2f using the above value of f found by distant object method.
2. Write this 2f value as third reading in the column u.
3. write 2f-4, 2f-2, 2f+2, 2f+4 as first , second, fourth and fifth reading in the column of u.
4. Now adjust the screen to get well defined image for each value of u and record it as v.
𝑢𝑣
5. The focal length of the convex lens is calculated by using the formula f = cm
𝑢 −𝑣
6. Plot a graph by taking object distance u in negative x-axis and image distance v in positive y-axis.
The graph will be rectangular hyperbola.
7. The focal length of convex lens from graph is calculated by using the formula
𝑢 𝑣
(i) f =[ 2 ]= ___ cm (ii) f = 2 = ___ cm (iii) Mean value f = ____ cm

RESULT :
The focal length of the convex lens by
(a) Distant object method f = ____ cm.
(b) U-V graphical method f = ____ cm.
(c) Calculation method f = ____ cm.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. The object distance should not be less than the focal length.
2. The object distance and image distance should be measured without any parallax error.
3. The lens should be handled properly so that it may not break.
4. The values of u and v should not differ much.

SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The personal errors and parallax errors may not be removed.
2. Sign convention may not be applied correctly.
8. I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A P-N JUNCTION DIODE
AIM :
To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
A p-n junction diode (OA-79 or IN4007), a resistor of value 3Ω, ½ W, a variable voltage power
supply, voltmeter (0-3V), milliammeter (0-200mA), voltmeter (0-12V), microammeter (0-200A), a
plug key, connecting wires or a p-n junction diode kit with all components.

THEORY / FORMULA :
A graph drawn between applied voltage and current flowing through p-n junction diode is called I-V
characteristics of a p-n junction.

Forward Resistance of the diode (RF) = VF / IF (Ω)

Where VF is the change in forward voltage (V)
IF is the change forward current. (mA)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS :

Range of voltmeter = 0 to ___V Least count of voltmeter = ____ V
Range of milliammeter = 0 to ___ mA Least count of milliammeter = ____ mA
Range of microammeter = 0 to ___ A Least count of microammeter = ____ A
Sl. FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS
No. Forward Voltage Forward current Reverse Voltage Reverse current
VF (V) IF (mA) VR (V) IR (A)
1 0 0
2 0.1 1
3 0.2 2
4 0.3 3
5 0.4 4
6 0.45 5
7 0.5 6
8 0,55 7
9 0.6 8
10 0.65 9
11 0.7 10
12 0.75 11

PROCEDURE :
(a) Forward Bias characteristics
1. If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to p-side and the negative terminal to the n-side,
then the p-n junction is called forward biased.
2. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. The voltage across the diode can be varied with the help of DC power supply.
4. The forward voltage is increased in steps of 0.1 V and the corresponding forward current values
are tabulated.
5. The forward current and forward voltage are taken as positive.
6. A graph is drawn taking forward voltage (VF)along x-axis and forward current (IF) along y-axis.
7. The knee voltage and forward resistance is calculated from the graph by taking slope.
(a) Reverse Bias characteristics
1. If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to n-side and the negative terminal to the p-side,
then the p-n junction is called reverse biased.
2. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. The voltage across the diode can be varied with the help of DC power supply.
4. The reverse voltage is increased in steps of 1 V and the corresponding reverse current values are
tabulated.
5. The reverse current and reverse voltage are taken as negative.
6.. A graph is drawn taking reverse voltage (VR)along negative x-axis and reverse current (IR) along
negative y-axis.
RESULT :
The I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias is drawn.
The forward resistance of the p-n junction diode is RF = _______ Ω.
The knee voltage of the p-n junction diode is _____ V.
PRECAUTIONS :
1. Voltmeter, milliammeter and microammeter should be of appropriate ranges.
2. The p-side of the diode should be connected to positive terminal of battery in forward bias. The p-
side of the diode should be connected to negative terminal of battery in reverse bias.
3. During forward biasing, current should not exceed permissible limit.
4. During reverse biasing, applied voltage should be less than breakdown voltage.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The junction diode may be damaged.
2. Polarities of battery, junction diode, ammeters, voltmeter may not be proper.
3. The passage of current through the diode for a long time may heat up the diode.
ACTIVITIES - SECTION A
1. ASSEMBLING THE COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
AIM :
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
A resistor, an ammeter (0-1.5 A), a volt meter (0-5 V), a rheostat, a battery eliminator, plug key,
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

PROCEDURE :

1. Draw a neat circuit diagram.

2. Arrange all the components on the working table.
3. Connections are made as per circuit diagram. Ensure that the positive terminals of ammeter and
volt meter are connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
4. Battery, key, rhesostat, resistance and ammeter should be connected in series, whereas voltmeter
should be in parallel.
5. Insert plug in the key and see that ammeter and voltmeter show deflections on the right side.
6. The deflections in ammeter and voltmeter verify the continuity of the assembling circuit.

RESULT :
The components of the given electrical circuit have been correctly assembled.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. All the connections should be neat and tight.
2. The ends of connecting wires must be cleaned with a sand paper.
3. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel.
4. Always connect the positive terminal of the ammeter and voltmeter to the positive terminal of the
battery.
2. CIRCUIT CORRECTION
AIM :
To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/ rheostat, key,
ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct the
circuit and also the circuit diagram.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
A given open circuit comprising a resistor, an ammeter, a volt meter, a rheostat, a battery eliminator,
plug key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

OBSERVATION:

Sl. Circuit Correct Incorrect

No. component connection connection
1 Battery
2 Key
3 Rheostat
4 Resistor
5 Ammeter
6 Voltmeter

PROCEDURE :
1. Draw the given open circuit diagram.
2. Mark the components which have not been connected in proper order.
3. Make a list of all components in the observation table and mark (√ ) in appropriate column.
4. Now, draw the correct circuit diagram.
5. Assemble and connect the components as per correct circuit diagram.
6. Insert plug in the key and see that ammeter and voltmeter show deflections on the right side.
7. Now, the correct circuit is functional and verified.

RESULT :
The electrical circuit assembled as per correct circuit diagram is functionally correct and verified.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel.
2. Always connect the positive terminal of the ammeter and voltmeter to the positive terminal of the
battery.
3. HOUSEHOLD CIRCUIT
AIM :
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three on/off switches, a fuse and a power
source.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Three bulbs (40W, 220V each), three on / off switches, a socket, a plug, a fuse of 1.0 A, flexible
connecting wires, main switch.

THEORY:
1. A household circuit works on ac mains of 220V, 50 Hz with different current ratings.
(a) Light line of 5 A for low power appliances like bulbs, fans, tubes et.,
(b) Power line of 15 A for heavy appliances like heater, air conditioner, geysers etc.,
2. If P1, P2, P3, …. are the powers consumed by different appliances, then the total power in
household circuit is P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ……
𝑃
Current drawn from the mains of V volts will be I = 𝑉
3. To protect the appliances from damage, a fuse of ratings 10 to 20 % higher than normal is
connected in series.
4. Different appliances are connected in parallel between live and neutral wires. Each appliance is
provided with separate switch in its live wire.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

PROCEDURE :
1. Connect the three bulbs B1, B2 and B3 separately in series combination with on / off switches S1,
S2 and S3 respectively.
2. Connect these three bulb-switch combinations in parallel across the live and neutral wires.
3. Connect a fuse F of proper rating in live wire of the circuit.
4. Connect a three way socket at the end of live and neutral wires. Connect a wire from its earth pin.
5. Insert the plug in the socket fitted on the main electric board.
6. By pressing the switches S1, S2 and S3 one by one, check that each bulb is switched on and off
independently.
7. Press the three switches simultaneously and note what happens.

RESULT :
1. A Household circuit is assembled. Each bulb functions independently with separate switch.
2. The three bulbs can function simultaneously when three switches are pressed simultaneously.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. Take care while working with mains.
2. The fuse and switches must be connected in live wire.
3. The fuse with proper rating should be used.
ACTIVITIES - SECTION B
4. IDENTIFICATION OF COMPONENTS
AIM :
To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
A multimeter, a mixed collection of diode, LED, resistor and capacitor.

THEORY :
DIODE : A two terminal device which conducts only in forward bias.
LED : A two terminal device which conducts and emits light only in forward bias.
RESISTOR : A two terminal device which conducts equally in both directions.
CAPACITOR: A two terminal device which offers infinite resistance to dc and finite resistance for
ac.
DIAGRAMS :

OBSERVATIONS :

Item Code State of conduction of a component Identified component

A Conducts equally in both directions
B Conducts in one direction without emission of light
C Conducts in one direction with emission of light
D Does not conduct, gives an initial deflection which
decays to zero

PROCEDURE :
1. Look for the colour bands on the components. If a components has a set of three colour bands
followed by silver, gold or brown, then the component is resistor.
2. Insert the black and red probes into common and positive terminals of the multimeter. Turn its
selector switch to resistance mode.
3. Touch the two probes to the two ends of each component and note the direction of deflection in
the multimeter. Interchange the positions of two probes and again note down the direction of
deflection. If the multimeter shows an equal deflection in both directions, then the component is a
resistor.
4. If the multimeter shows deflection in one direction without emission of light, then the component
is a diode.
5. If the multimeter shows deflection in one direction along with emission of light, then the
component is a LED.
6. If the multimeter does not show any deflection on connecting its probes either way to a
component, then the component is a capacitor.
7. Record all our observations in a tabular column.

RESULT :
The components are identified as resistor, diode, LED and capacitor from the given mixed group of
components.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. Clean the probes properly before checking the connections.
2. Use the selector switch in resistance mode with highest range.

5. REFRACTION AND LATERAL DEVIATION IN A GLASS SLAB

AIM :
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :

A rectangular glass slab, a drawing board, white paper, cello-tape / drawing pins, alpins, protractor,
ruler, sharp pencil and eraser.

THEORY:

When a ray of light incident on a glass slab undergoes refraction and lateral deviation. The incident
ray and emergent ray are parallel. The perpendicular distance between incident ray and emergent ray
is called lateral displacement.

DIAGRAM :

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS :

Sl. Thickness Angle of Angle of Difference Lateral

No. of glass slab incidence i emergence e i⁓e displacement d
(cm) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (cm)
1 400
2 500
PROCEDURE :
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of cello-tape or drawing pins.
2. Place the glass slab on the white sheet. Mark its boundary PQRS with a pencil.
3. Remove the glass slab and take a point B on the face PQ. Draw normal NB on PQ. Draw an
incident ray AB making an angle of incidence 400 with normal.
4. Again, place glass slab within its boundary PQRS. Fix two alpins P1 and P2 vertically on the
incident ray.
5. Looking into the slab from the opposite face RS, position the eye in such a way that the feet of
pins P1 and P2 appear to be one behind the other. Now fix pins P3 and P4 vertically in line with pins
P1 and P2.
6. Remove the pins and encircle the pin-pricks. Remove the slab and complete the path ABCD. Draw
perpendicular CE on AB produced and measure the length of CE. This gives lateral displacement d.
7. Repeat the experiment with different angle of incidence. Record your observations in a table.

RESULT :
1. The angle of incidence = The angle of emergence.
2. The emergent ray is parallel to incident ray.
3. The lateral displacement increases with angle of incidence.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. The boundary of the glass slab should be marked with sharp pencil.
2. Alpins should be fixed vertically.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 300 and 600.

6. FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX LENS

AIM :
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by using a candle and
screen.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Convex lens, a candle, lens holder, white screen and meter scale.

THEORY:
The position, nature and size of image formed by a convex lens depends on the position of object
with respect to the lens. Following ray diagrams show the various possible cases.
WORKING DIAGRAM :

OBSERVATIONS:

Rough Focal length of a convex lens f = ____ cm

Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image

At infinity At F Highly diminished Real and inverted
Beyond 2F Between f and 2F diminished Real and inverted
At 2F At 2F Same size as the object Real and inverted
Between f and 2F Beyond 2F magnified Real and inverted
At F At infinity Highly magnified Real and inverted
Between F and lens On the same side of magnified Virtual and erect
object

PROCEDURE :

1. Find rough focal length by distant object method.

2. Place the candle, lens and screen on the optical bench and mark the positions of F, 2F on both
sides of lens.
3. For different positions of object shown on the above table, place the candle and observe the nature
and size of the image.
4. The size and nature of image for all six positions are noted and observed correct.

RESULT :
1. As the object moves from infinity towards the focus of the lens, the size of the image increases
and the image moves away from the focus. The images are real and inverted.
2. When the object is at the focus, the image is real, inverted and blurred with highly magnified.
3. When the object distance is less than the focal length, the image is virtual, erect and magnified.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. The experiment is performed at a shaded place.
2. The candle flame should be as high as the optical centre.
3. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image formed.
4.. The lens should be handled properly so that it may not break.
SUGGESTED INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS
1. To study various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a cell depends.

2. To study the variations in current flowing in a circuit containing an LDR because of a variation in
(a) the power of the incandescent lamp, used to 'illuminate' the LDR (keeping all the lamps at a fixed
distance).
(b) the distance of a incandescent lamp (of fixed power) used to 'illuminate' the LDR.

3. To find the refractive indices of (a) water (b) oil (transparent) using a plane mirror, an equiconvex
lens (made from a glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable object needle.

4. To investigate the relation between the ratio of (i) output and input voltage and (ii) number of
turns in the secondary coil and primary coil of a self-designed transformer.

5. To investigate the dependence of the angle of deviation on the angle of incidence using a hollow
prism filled one by one, with different transparent fluids.

6. To estimate the charge induced on each one of the two identical Styrofoam (or pith) balls
suspended in a vertical plane by making use of Coulomb's law.

7. To study the factor on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by observing the effect of this
coil, when put in series with a resistor/(bulb) in a circuit fed up by an A.C. source of adjustable
frequency.

8. To study the earth's magnetic field using a compass needle -bar magnet by plotting magnetic field
lines and tangent galvanometer.
MODEL OF INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
( FIRST THREE PAGES)

___________________________ GOVERNMENT HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL

_________________________________, PUDUCHERRY – 605004

(AFFILIATED TO CBSE, NEW DELHI. - AFFILIATION NO. : _____________)

PHYSICS PROJECT
ON
_______________________
(2024-25)

NAME :

REGISTER NO. :

CLASS :

SUBJECT :

SUBJECT CODE ` :

PROJECT GUIDE :
_____________________________ GOVERNMENT HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL
_________________________, PUDUCHERRY – 605004

(AFFILIATED TO CBSE, NEW DELHI. - AFFILIATION NO. : __________)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that _______________ of class XII has successfully completed

the investigatory project on the topic “_____________” under my guidance during the

year 2024-2025 in partial fulfillment of the Physics Practical Examination conducted

by CBSE.

Teacher in charge Head of Institution

Internal Examiner External Examiner

______________________ GOVERNMENT HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL
___________________, PUDUCHERRY – 605004

(AFFILIATED TO CBSE, NEW DELHI. - AFFILIATION NO. : ______________)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my deep sense of gratitude to my Physics Teacher and Guide Mr. /

Mrs.__________________________________, who guided me throughout the course

of the project and for the successful completion. His / Her valuable guidance, constant

encouragement, constructive comments and motivation enforced me to complete this

project.

Then I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr./Mrs. _____________

Vice Principal of _________________ Government Higher Secondary School,

______________, Puducherry for providing me an opportunity and coordination in

extending every possible support for completion of this project.

I also express my thanks to my parents and siblings for their motivation and

support. I must thank my classmates for their timely help and support. I would also

like to thank all those who have directly or indirectly helped me towards the

completion of this project.

Student name

Class