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Complex Function

Complex function

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Priyadarshan Hazarika
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49 views54 pages

Complex Function

Complex function

Uploaded by

Priyadarshan Hazarika
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© © All Rights Reserved
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+i=- iret By ©) or f(2)=0. or fle) = constant. Solution. U/(z)= [ay] = u (xy) + iv (x,y), then u(x, y) = Nlayi,e Gy) =0 At the origin, we have x30 = ro au _ 4 MO. u0,0) _ fp, 0-0 wy 0 ¥ oy jy HEM—O.O)_ 1, 0-0 40 = x0v0, 7) — v0, 0} = it 0-0 ey au % oo ang MH ay i.e, CR, equations are satisfied at the origin. However Proy= 14 LO=LO _ py vivl—0 Mant eae _ tmx? sto s+ when 2 > 0 along the line y = mz a -ya-a Solution, 4, ftey= Le PO +D= VOD yy -FO-O_ ae saa oe OB ay Ho Fate 8 3 $id Lt f@)= Ly S01) ya = Lt xa +i =0 eae 738 x+y Ee Also f (0) = 0 (given). ‘Thus Lt, flz)=/(0) when x > 0 first and theny +0 and also vice-versa. Now let both x and y tend to zero simultancously along the path y = mx. ‘Then Sieh saa Le fe= ut #as9-ya=9 yo x+y = 1p PO+d— mPa) _ , Ml+i-m'a-d) 9 £30 (14 mx? x0 L+m' Hence Lt, /(2) =O), in whatever manner 2 — 0. -. /(2)is continuous at the origin, a a Now nae 2 $157, = ule, y) + tole, y)- wey x? “ Also uO, 0) = 0, and v(0, 0) = ly f()=01 @), tk west), ea ©a Hence at (0,0). 5p = 3y and So=- 52 ‘Thus the C-R equations are satisfied at the origin. Lp L2=fO =f). ue TQ x -y iG? +99 ) But "= f ao eho 2 250 (x + yx tiy) 1—m! +i +m) (+ m?\L+im) which assumes different values as m varies. So f(z) is not unique at (0, 0) i.e., (0) does not exist. Thus f (2) is not analytic at the origin even though it is continuous and satisfies the C-R equations thereat. Ifz 0 along the path y = mx, then f (0) = Solution, If(r, 8) be the coordinates of a point whose cartesian coordinates are (x, y), then 2 =x + iy = re”, utiv=f@)=f(re bib a ene wi eepteea Sn tatmld Gr an. Differentiating it partially w.r.t. rand @, we have Ou ys a = and SiS = pre). ire air Equating real and imaginary parts, we get er) Differentiating (é) partially w.r.t. r, we get @u__ 1 w,1 dy ore 72 Or Oar Differentiating (ii) partially w-r.t v 8, we have Fu __, 26 ‘Thus using (i), (i) and Gu) Fula, 1 %u__ Law ar? 7 age 08 (1) HARMONIC FUNCTIONS If f()=u + iv be an analytic function in some region of the 2-plane, then the Cauehy-Riemann equations are satisfied. ; au _ a au __ av ie. =e and Bw BE (2) Differentiating (1) with respect to x and (2) with respect toy, we obtain Pu _ dv we any AB) and 4) Adding (3) and (4) and assuming that &-% Fe we gotty at ot BE 9, 5) ay? Similarly, by differentiating (1) with respect to y and (2) with respect to x and subtracting, we obtain (6) ‘Thus both the functions w and v satisfy the Laplace's equation in two variables, For this reason, they are known as harmonic functions and their theory is called potential theory. (Rohtak, 2005) (2) Orthogonal system. Consider the two families of curves ulx, y) =e, (7) and lay) = 8) Differentiating (7), we get m 2 dy 29 dy __ dulae _dvlay _ or Pm Buh = OTD =m, (ony) {By (1) and (2)1 dy ax Similarly (8) gives =m, (say) dx duldy myn, =~ 1, Le, (7) and (8) form an orthogonal system, Hence every ancilytic function fiz) = u + iv defines two families of curves ulx, 9) =e, and U(e,y) = eq which form an orthogonal system. (U.P.T.U., 2009) APPLICATIONS TO FLOW PROBLEMS As the real and imaginary parts of an analytic funetion are the solutions of the. Laplace's equation in two variables, the conjugate functions provide solutions to a number of field and flow proble: As an illustration, consider the irrotational motion of an incompressible fluid in two dimensions. Assuming the flow to be in planes parallel to the xy-plane, the velocity V of a fluid partiele can be expressed as Vaults oD) Since the motion is irrotational, therefore, by § 6.18 (1), there exist a scalar function (x, y) such that V= Vol, 9 2) [The function (x, y) is called the velocity potential and the curves (x, y) = ¢ are known as equipotential lines.] s ya = ‘Thus from (1) and (2), 0, and v, = 5 3) dv, , ey Also the fluid being incompressible div V = 0 [by §8.7 (lie, Gi +57 = 0. Substituting the values of v, and v, from (3), we get which shows that the velocity potential ¢ is harmonic. It follows that there must exist a conjugate harmonic function w(x, y) such that w(z) = 9(x, y) + iytx, y) (a) is analytic. Also the slope at any point of the curve y(x, y' [By C-R equations} =vjv, [By (3)1 This shows that the velocity of the fluid particle is along the tangent to the curve (x, ») =’, ie. the particle moves along this curve. Such curves are known as stream lines and w(x, )is called the stream function. Also the equipotential lines 4(x, y) = ¢ and the stream lines yx. y) = ¢’ cut orthogonally.From (4), 2 20, EO; a [By C-R equations =0,-iv, By (3)1 * The magnitude of the fluid velocity = (v2 + v2) = | dwhdz | ‘Thus the flow pattern is fully represented by the function w(2) which is known as the complex potential. Similarly the complex potential 2o(z) can be taken to represent any other type of 2-dimensional steady flow. In electrostatics and gravitational fields, the curves o(x, y) = ¢ and yx, y) = ¢” are equipotential lines and lines of force. In heat flow problems, the curves (x, y) = ¢ and yr, y) =c! are known as isothermals and heat flow lines respectively. Given (x, y), we can find yix, y) and vice-versa. Solution. It is readily verified that y satisfies the Laplace's equation. +. and y must satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations : onli) o by, Integrating w.r.t. x, we get > + 1(y) where n(y) is an arbitrary function of y. x toy © Wi) gives—ae+ 2 ye ngves (x! G+yP whence 1(y) = 0, £¢., n(y) = ¢, an arbitrary constant. ‘Thus o=-By+ S40 ey Otherwise (Milne-Thomson’s method*) : dw 20, ay dy, dv _|_ ailoreat = We have ee ee te Qy- tea By Milne-Thomson’s method, we express dw/dz in terms of 2, on replacing x by z and y by 0. 4 dw_; 1 e 4 -i(22-4) Integrating w.r.t. 2, we get w = i (2 + V/z) +A where A is a complex constant. “Since 2 =x iy and Z = x—ty, we have x=hG+n, » 2 FO) = (xy) + ives.) AD Now considering this as a formal identity in the two independent variables =, = and putting = Fle) = (2, 0) + ayle, 0) 2) 2 (2)is the same as (1), if we replace x by andy by 0. ‘Thus to express any function in terms of x, replace x by x and y by 0. This provides an elegant method of finding f (2) when its real part or the traaginary part is given. It is due to Milne-Thomson.Solution. Let f(z) = u + iv, where w f'e= Me Z & Bide [By C-R equations] _ (cosh 2y — cos 2x) 2 cos 2x ~ sin 2x(- 2sinh 2y) (cosh 2y — cos 2x)” (cosh 2y — cos 2x)” = 2608 2x eosh Zy—2 ; 2sin Bx sinh 2y (eosh 2y— cos 2x (cosh 2y — cos 2x)? By Milne-Thomson’s method, we express f(z) in terms of z by putting x =z and y = 0. 1Gyq 2822-2 Vy -2 = POs Teen dat *\* Teese” Tain? s Integrating w.r.t. z, we get /(2) = cot 2 + ic, taking the constant of integration as imaginary since u does not contain any constant. cosee? 2 cos x +sinx~e* 2(cos x — cosh y) Qu _ av _ (sin x ~ cos x) cosh y +1 — 2(cos x — cosh y)” Solution. We have u—v = i) wd au (cos x ~ cosh y) &” + (cos x +sin xe”) sinh y ay oy ‘2(cos x — cosh y)* é _ dv _ du _ (sin x + 08 x) sinh y + €°? (cos x ~ cosh y sinh y) ax ax Q(eos x — cosh »)* Subtracting (ii) from (i), we get (sin x — 08 x) cosh y — (sin x + cos.x) sinh y +1 ou _ =e (sin x + cos x ~ cosh y —sinh y) ox ‘2(eos x — cosh y)* Adding (O and (i#), we have (sin x — cos x) cosh y +(sin x + e08 x) sinh y +1 4+ (sin x + cos x — cosh y~sinh ») (cos x — cosh y) ; av __1-cosz Thus (Puttingx=z and y=0l 1 z ~ poo gre Since f (w/2) = 0, Henceu=—P sin 20 +r sin 8 + 0) where $(0) is an arbitrary function. =— 27% eos 20 +r cos 0 + 90) From (ii) and (iii), we get ~ 22 c05 28 +r cos = Sk = 274 c0s 20+ r cos 8+ 90) a ¥O)=0 or 8) =e Thus u =~? sin 26+,7 sin 6 +c is the conjugate harmonic of v. 2, Now v will be harmonic if it satisfies the Laplace equation = thee ae ‘iy, From (i), 28 =~ ar? cos 20+ ros 0, From (ii), 2% = 2.08 26 ar ie “ = 20s 20+} (2r cos 20~cos 0)-+ 5 (~4r* cos 20 + r eos 0) r = 4008 20~ } cos 0-4 c0s 204 1 cos 0=0 Solution. (a) Take u(x, y) =x4 + y*—6x2y?. Then the family of curves v(x, y) = constant will be the required trajectories if f(z) = u + iv is analytic. au au _ Now Se Tae ARayt, = ay — 1aety av _ au re 128F Integrating, v= dxty — dey? + ele) Differentiating partially w.r-t. x fig dels) _ do. dw tasty — ay 4 SE ee ay? + 12x%y 46) 20 or c= constant ‘Thus the required orthogonal trajectories are v = constant or x°y — xy* = constant. (®) Writing u(r, 6) = cos n8 =a and v(r,6) we have u(r, 6) + io(r, 8) = 0+ iB =r" (cos n0 +i sin n®) = r*. 6ca ‘Hicnier Exonesnie Mareearies | This is an analytic function. Thus f(z) = u + iv, gives the curves u = a and v = B which cut orthogonally. Example 20.11. Two concentric circular eylinders of radit ry ry (r, ,) are kept dt potential® 9, and 5) respectively. Using complex function w = a log z + ¢, prove that the capacitance per unit length of the eapacitor: formed by them is 212./log (r,/r,) where his the dielectric constant of the medium. Solution. Wehave + iy=a log(re) +c wherez =x + iy = rel® S O=alogr+e, and a8 so that o,=alogr, +c, ,=alogr, +c ‘Thus the potential difference = 4 ~@, = @ (log ry — log r)) Also the total charge (or flux)= (°* ay = f°" ado = 2na. ‘The capacitance being the charge required to maintain a unit potential difference ; the capacitance without dielectrie - charge 2na an potential difference ~ allog r, —log 7) — Tog(r,/7) A medium of dielectric constant 4 increases the potential difference to 4 times that in vacuum for the same charge. Thus the capacitance with dielectrie = 2ni/log (rJr,). Example 20.12. I/ftz) is a regular function'of z, prove that 2 of Pig $i) [2 »2 ine =4 | 77) |% (.N,T.U:, 2006; Kottayam, 2008) Pr ve [fe P41 6) 1 (Matdras, 2006) Solution. Let f(z) = ulx, y) + iv(x, y) so that | f(2) Fe 2 + v? = G(x, y), (say). © _ 5, Ae 5 5, ong OO +(® pd’, (avy x oy He 4 9 and 58 9-2 {4% = y og + (2) ae Ox ae ae) * Pat sen eae ott Adding, we have Hp He afte -2y) (2p F aly -QY Ql -()] 0 Since w, v have to satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations and the Laplace's equation. (3) (BG) CR) a ete —al(my «(Ry ‘Thus (i) takes the form 3 2 Hence Ble? i rep or V? | f(z) [2=4 | fe) [?. PROBLEMS 20.1 L tre= {2° Ear hae ve prove that /@) (00/0482 + along any radius veetor but not as 2 > 0 along the curve y= ax’.(CXcuLs OF CoueLex Funcrons Show that (a) (2) = ay + 4 is.everywhere cottintious but is not analytic. (0) f(2)= 2+ 25 is not analytic anywhere in the complex plane do a ; H(i = + bbe analytte, thed stow Oat | F1C) | s 2 (Mursboi, 2007) ae Oy i 3 4. Find the constants a, 8, c,d and eiff(2) = (ax* + bx? + ey* + dx? — 292) « ity — eg + day) is analytio. * (Humbe, 2008) 5, Show that 0. Hence the interior of the circle x? +y?= 1 in the z-plane is mapped onto the entire half of the w-plane to the right of the imaginary axis. ‘ (6) To find the invariant points of the transformation, we put w =z in (i). lsiz l-iz or iz?+(i-1)z41=0 i 2 i 1-i Vii-1)* - 441 —dn+it Vien) which are the required invariant points. Example 20.14, Show that w = = 0 into the interior of the unit ciréle | w | $1 in the w-plane. (Mumbai, 2007) Solution. Since w= -2Mi +2), Lbecomes —zMi+2)|=1 or |i-z|=|itz| Jitetiy| or [-x+id-y)]=|x+i0+y) | VG? + (1+ 9?) or (1-9? = (1 +? or y=Owhich is the real axis Hence the real axis ofthe z-plane is mapped to the cirele | 1 | Now for the interior of the cirele | w | =1 Jwi0 Hence the half plane y > 0 is mapped inta the interior of the eircle | w eae Find the invariant points of the transformation w = (2 1)/l » 1). (Meidras, 2003) ind the transformation which maps the points ~ 1, of the 2-plane onto 1, ,—1 of the w-plane respectively. Also find its invariant pointe. WLU, 201) 3. Find the bilinear transformation whieh maps 1, /,—1 to2, f,~2 respectively. Find the fixed and critical points of the transformation, (SV.T.U,, 2608 ; Mumbat, 2007 ; V.7.U., 2006) 4, Determine the bilinear transformation that maps the points 1—2i, 2 +1, 2+ 8% respectively into 2-424, 1+ 3, 4. (I.N-TU,, 2008 ; Coimbatore, 1999) 5, Find the bilinear transformation’ which maps (0 the points 2 = 1, 4, —1 into the points w =0, 1, WT, 2008 ; Mambai, 2007) (fi) the points 2~0, 1, {into the points w= 1+ i, -i, 2-4 6 aerw,, 2010 8) (ii) Rie)> 0 into interior of unit eirdle so thal2 =», é, 0 map into w = —1,~i, 1. : 6, Under the transformation = £—E, show that the map ofthe straight line x= y ica circle and find its contre and adie. . (Marctfwada, 2008)Hiawen Enciiernins MATHEMATICS 7. Show that the bilinear transformation wo = Ce » Ske 4) maps the circle 2 44x (Mumbai, 2007 :J.N-T.8., 2008; Bhopal, 2002) 8. Show that the condition for transformation w = (oz + biMez +d). v0 make the cra | w |= 1 orrespond toa straight lino in the 2-plane is'| a | = |.¢ |. 9. Show that the transformation w =i(1 21 42) miaps theivdle [2 | = ‘inka alate ontua tn ollastan ails interior of the eirele | 2 | 0,0» a and 6’ a. (0) Ifp is the modulus and @ the amplitude of the function /(2) which is supposed to be non-zero, then Tz) = pe® (2) +. from (1) and (2), we have = (3) and é (4) Now let C, be another curve through P in the z-plane and C,’ the corresponding curve through P” in the w-plane. If the tangent at P to C, makes an 26 with the x-axis and tangent at P’ to C,’ makes an 2B’ with the weaxis, then as in (4), w=B-B 48) Equating (4) and (5), of -a=6'-B or B-a=f'—«' =y(Fig. 20.5) ‘Thus the angle between the curves before and after the mapping is preserved in magnitude and direction. Hence the mapping by the analytic function w = f(z) is conformal at each point where f(z) #0. Obs. L.A point at which [%2)=0 is called a eritical point of the transformation. Obs, 2. The relation (4), ic..." = a+ $ shows that the tangent at P to the curve (y@I ander the given transformation. ‘Obs. 3. The relation (3) shows that in the transformation, elements of are passing through P in any direction are changed in the ratio p ; 1, where p = | f"(e)|,.ue.,an infinitesimal length in the z-plane is magnified by the factor \f"(e)| Consequently the infinitesimal areas are magnified by the factor | f2)|®in a conformal transformation: is rotated through an 2 = ampChicas oF Commex Funcrions | 589 | hw =/()is analytic then u and v must satisfy C-R equations. au Bu) | de a0 ; My] [ae Be |_(a) Pie i de meas a [Ce ia ae ay ax de Hence in confor tansfirentstieianlsndtentimsl Grcis tire maers/ied 2y/ the fuctor (22) Aloo the condition of conformal maping ie I{%%) «0, Obs, 4. The angle preserving property of the conformal transformation has many important physical applications. For instance, consider the flow of an incompressible fluid in a plane with velocity potential 6 (x, y) and stream fonetion ‘vox, 9). We know that @'and are real and imaginary parts of some analytie function w = f(z). As @ = constant and y = constant represent a system of orthogonal curves; these are transformed by the function w = /(2) into w set of orthogonal ines in the w-plane and vice-versa. ‘Thus, the conjugate functions } and y when subjected (0 conformal transformation remain conjugate functions, ie., the solutions of Laplace's equation remain solutions of the Laplace's equation after the transformation. This is the rain reason for the treat importance of the conformal transformation in applications. SPECIAL CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATIONS (D) Transformation w = 2. We have ut iv = (e+ iy) usx?—y? and a Ifwis constant (say, a), then x?— "= a which ia a rectangular hyper- bola, Similarly, if v is constant (say, b), then xy = b/2 which also represents a rectangular hyperbola, Hence a pair of lines u’= a, v = b parallel to the axes in the w-plane, znap int. pair of orthogonal rectangular hyperbolae in the z-plane as shown in Fig. *2.7 (p. 455). Again, if-x is constant (say, c), then y = u/2e and y? = c?—u, Elimina- tion of y from these equations gives v* = 4e%(c? — u), which represents a parabola. Similarly, ify is a constant (say,d), then elimination of x from the wptane ‘equations (1) gives v? = 4d%(d° + u) which is also a parabola. Fig. 206 Hence the pair of lines x = ¢ and y = d parallel to the axes in the z-plane map into orthogonal parabolas in the w-plane as shown in Fig. 20.6. 0 for 2 = 0, therefore, it is a critical point of the mapping. Re’ then in polar form w = z* becomes Re“ = re”, This shows that upper half of the 2-plane 0 0. ‘Thus the upper half of the 2-plane corresponds to the interior of the eircle |w Solution. We have Jw] Determine the region of the w-plane into whieh the Following regions are mapped by the transformation tb = 2% ( first quadrant of plane (iNT. 2000) (Gi) region bounded by x =1, y= 1,x+y=1 (Kottayom, 2006 ; V..U., 2000 8) (is) the region 1 0. (Osmania, 2002) Prove that the transformation w= sin 2, maps the families of lines x = constant and y = constant into two families of confocal central conies. (NTU, 2003) ‘Discuss the transformation w =e", and show that it transforms the region between the real azis and a/line parallel to real axis aty =x, into the upper half of the w-plane. Discuss filly the transformation ‘w'=c cosh 2, where ¢ is a real numbér. What physical problem enn we study with the help of this transformation ? (EERE ScHWarz-CHRISTOFFEL TRANSFORMATION This transformation maps the interior of a polygon of the w-plane into the upper half of the z-plane and the boundary of the polygon into the real axis. The formula of this transformation isPriciwve oF Covniex Furcrone ca wplane 0 cn Cun oa We = Ae mF em) lem) * A) de or where Oy, .., 6, are the interior angles of the polygon having vertices w,, w,,...,, which map into the points ppp on,, ON the real-axis of the z-plane (Fig. 20.11). AlsoA and B are complex constants which determines the size and position of the polygon. Proof. We have from (1), amp (22) amp irs ( at) enpte-aie (82) epee + (Set) mente we : ‘As 2 moves along the real axis from the left towards x,, suppose that w moves dlong the side w,.0, of the polygon towards w,. As 2 crosses x, from left to right, @, = amp (2 —x,) changes from x to 0 while all other terms of (3) remain amaiiieted. Henos only (2-1) amp ( — x) decreases by (f-1) K=O, - m Ge increases by x—4 in the anti-clockwise direction. In other words, amp (dwfdz) increases by r¢t,.'Thus the direction of w, turns through, the angle xc, and w now moves along the side wv, of the polygon Similarly when 2 passes through x, 0, = amp (z —x,) and @, = amp (z ~ x,) change from x to 0 while all other terms remain unchanged. Hence the side wv turns through the angle x dg. Proceeding in this way, we see thet. asz moves along, Js, w trees the polygon 1, wy u, .. w,, and conversely. Example 20,16, Find the transformation which maps the semi-infinite strip in the w-plane (Fig. 20.12) into the upper half of the z-plane (VLU, ME. 2008 ; Osmania, 2003) ¥4 # 1 AB Oy =plane Fig. 20.12 Solution. Consider ABCD as the limiting case of a triangle with two vertices B and C and the third vertex A or Dat infinity. Let the vertices B and C map into the points B’ (— Land C’ (1) of the z-plane. Since the interior angles at B and C are 12, we have by the Schwarz-Christoffel transformation, a ean nie =AG+D* (2-DF Ne? -)# were — 4 B= Aco e+B Nie? =1) Lw=0. + O=Acosh(1) +B, i. or Hence w PROBLEMS 20. 1. Find the transformation which maps tbe semi-infinite strip of width rbounded by the lines u=0, 0 =» andu=0 into the upper half of the 2 plane. 2. Show how you will use Schwar2-Christoffel transformation to map the semi-infinite strip enclosed by the real axis and the lines 1 = + 1 of the w~plane into the upper half of the =-plane. 3, Find the mapping function which maps semi-infinite strip in the 2-plane — 2/2 ) [By Cauchy’s integral formula] a Pe ke Solution. (i) f(z) = sin® z is analytic inside the circle C: |z| = 1 and the point a = 7/6 (= 0.5 approx.) lies within C. ™ z £2) . by Cauchy’s integral formula /"(a) Za) dz, * wet fae eo ge ae = mi(2 cos 22), (ii) f (z) = e* is analytic within the circle +. By Cauchy's integral formula: 7” (a) = 3 Oss sean Git) “= is not analytic at 2 = i. ery @+ni) (2-niP However both z = & xi lie within the eircle |z| = 4. B +P tn mi? where A = 7/2x%i, C = —7/2n%, B = D =~ Wan? . 7 é é 1 e i Fane eae 7 {leseaee- fe alder e+ as} 1 ani f(- mi) =. ral ni) + 2ni fi) where f(z) = e*, 1§ 19.9]Solution. Th boundary af th given triangle const of thre lines AB, BC, CA. ig. 29.18). f Hae= fetder [odes fete ne a Along AB: y=1 BCA, 1 4 0 Nowe ite fe We gextiond dewds aaa = a [etaen foto iy oe] hey = fe dy= {fe ea, -1) Fig. 20.19 + Along CA: y=" 1 ase {ee l? Q+idx .2a(Lti,x,dze=(1+ dy 6-D _9-#-» ~aig +a digit tea Thus from (i) fe dz = i) de i Also since f(x) = e* is analytic everywhere, by Cauchy's theorem f f(z) = 0 Atti) Hence from (ii) and (iti), § Cauchy's theorem is verified Solution. (a) Since £ = 3.5 is the only singular point of (42* + z + 5/(z — 3.5) and it lies outside the ellipse C, therefore, (42? +z + 5Viz — 3.6) is analytic everywhere within C. Hence by Cauchy’s theorem, fas 4e*+2+5 2-35 (6) Sinco (2) =422 +2+8 is analytic within C and § integral formula se. F3.5) Land —i all lie within C, therefore, by Cauchy's f= aif fla aCERES az? +245, Pri? + +5) ie, nial? + 6 + 5) o = 2ni (8C + 1) and F() = 167i ‘Thus Fi) = 2ni(— 4 +i + 5) = 2mi-1) F(—1) = 2ni[8(- 1) + 1) = — 14x and F (— i) = 167. (1) CONVERSE OF CAUCHY’S THEOREM: MORERA’S THEOREM* Ife) is continuous in a region Dand § f(z)dz = 0 around every simple closed eurve C in D, then f() is analytic in D. % Since f f(2)dz = 0, then the line integral of f (2) from a fixed point z9 to a variable point x must be independent of the path and hence must be a function of z only. Thus [[ fled = 02), (say), Let (2) =U + iVandf(z)=u+iv ve [™ ei aye 5 pee Then U+iV= Teas iv) (die + idy)= J.2"" (ude — ody) +é f°" ode + udy) (x9 a9) U= Je (ude udy), V = Jeo ete + uly) Differentiating under the integral sign, BO OT oy OY ey egy p, OU OM OU WV, ae ay ae ay ay oe ‘Thus U and V satisfy C-R equations. Also, since f (z) is given to be continuous, u and v and therefore, dU/dx, AU/dy, AV/ax, AV/Ay, are also continuous. -. 9(2) is an analytic function and oe) ‘Thus, f(2) is the derivative of an analytic function 6 (z). Hence f(z) is analytic by § 20.14 Cor. (2) Cauchy’s inequality’. If f(z) is analytic within and on the cirele C: [2 -a| =r, then Mn! ia N. lof: Def: p. 389) ‘As in the case of real series (p. 390) Weirstrass’s M-test holds for series of complex terms. So the series (2) is uniformly convergent in a region R if there is a convergent series of positive constants YM,, such that | u,@) | $M, for all z in R. Also a uniformly convergent series of continuous complex functions is itself continuous and can be inte- grated term by term.

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