UNIT I

Introduction
 Communication Models
 Architecture of Internet
 ISO-OSI Reference Model
 7 layered Protocol Architecture
 5 Layered Protocol Architecture

Transmission & Data Encoding

 Different Encoding Schemes
 Signal Encoding Techniques
 Types of Guided and unguided Media
Data Communication Model
 Data transmission deals with transmission of signals in reliable & efficient manner.

Communication Model
 Simple model of communication is shown

Example: Communication between workstation & server over telephone network

 Another example is exchange of voice signals between two telephone over same network.
 Key elements of model are:

I. Source
Device generates data to be transmitted

Ex:-telephone or pcs

II. Transmitter
Data generated by source system are not as it is transmitted

Rather, a transmitter transforms & encodes information in such a way to produce

electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across transmission system

Ex:-Modem takes digital bit stream from attached device such as PC & transforms bit stream into analog
signals that can be handled by telephone networks.

III. Transmission System

This can be single or complex network connecting source & destination.

IV. Receiver
Receiver accepts signal from transmission system and converts it into a form that can be
handled by destination device.

Ex: - Modem will accept an analog signal coming from network or transmission line & convert it into
digital bit stream.
V. Destination
Takes incoming data from receiver key tasks that must be performed in data communication
streams are:

Communication task are

 Transmission system utilization
Make efficient use of transmission facilities that are typically shared among a no. of
communicating device. Various techniques (multiplexing) are used to allocate total capacity of
transmission medium among users.
 Interface
To communicate, a device must interface with transmission system
 Signal Generation
Once, the interface is established, signal generation is required for communication.
Properties of signal such as form & intensity must be such that signal is capable of being
propagated through transmission system and it should be interpretable as data at receiver.
 Synchronization
There should be some form of synchronization between transmitter & receiver. The receiver
must be able to determine when a signal begins to arrive & when it ends.
 Exchange Management
If data are to be exchanged in both directions over a period of time, the two parties must co-
operate. Ex:- Telephonic conversation
 Error Detection & Correction
In all communication systems, there is potential for error, transmitted signals are distorted to
some extent before reaching their destination. Error detection & correction are necessary as
errors cannot be tolerated. Ex:- in file transfer, it is not acceptable for contents of file to be
altered.
 Flow Control
Flow control is required to assure that source does not overwhelm the destination by sending
data faster than they can be processed & absorbed.
 Addressing and Routing
When more than two devices share a transmission facility, a source system must indicate the
identity of intended destination
Transmission system must assure that the destination system & only that system, receives data.
A specific route through this network must be chosen.
 Recovery
Recovery concept is different from error correction
Recovery techniques are needed in situations in which an information exchange such as
database transaction or file transfer is interrupted due to a fault somewhere in the system
Objective is to either resume activity at the pint of interruption or atleast to restore the state of
systems involved to condition prior to beginning of exchange
 Message Formatting
It is the agreement between two parties as to the form of data to be exchanged or transmitted,
such as binary code for characters
 Security
The sender of the data may wish to be assured that only intended receiver actually receives the
data.
Receiver of data may wish to be assured that received data have not been altered in transit
And data is from the proposed sender.
 Network Management
Network Management is needed to configure the system, monitor its status, react to failures
and overloads and plan intelligently for future growth.
Simplified Data Communication Model

Fig: Simplified data communication model

Let us consider, the user of pc wishes to send a message m to another user... We can view it as a
sequence of bits of memory… PC is connected to some transmission medium such as local network or
telephone line by a receiving device such as local network transreceiver or modem.
Input data are transferred to transmitter as sequence of voltage shifts [g (t)] representing bits on some
communication bus or cable. Transmitter is directly connected to medium and converts incoming
stream g (t) into signal s (t) suitable for transmission. As the transmitted signal is subject to impairments
before it reaches receiver, it may be different from received signal.
Receiver will attempt to estimate the original signal s (t) based on r (t) & its knowledge of medium,
producing a sequence of bits g’(t). These bits are sent to output personal computer, where they are
buffered in memory as block of bits (g’). The destination stream will try to determine & rectify if any
error has occurred, by co-operating with source
These data are sent to intended user via an output device such as printer, screen in the form of
message (m’).

DATA COMMUNICATION NETWORKING

Sometimes, it is not possible for two communication devices to be point to point connected because
of following contingencies
 The devices are very far apart, it would be expensive to connect them. Ex:-To string a dedicated
link between two devices thousands of kilometres apart
 There is set of devices, each of which may require a link to many of others at various times. Ex:-
All the telephones in the world and all the terminals and computers owned by single
organizations it is impractical to provide a dedicated wire between each pair of devices.
Solution to this problem is to attach each device to communication network.
There are two categories of communication network which are classified as
1. WAN(Wide Area Network)
2. LAN(Local Area Network)

WAN(Wide Area Network)

It covers large geographical area; typically WAN consists of number of interconnected
switching modes.
A transmission from any device is routed through these internal nodes to specified destination
device.
These nodes are not concern with the content of data; rather their purpose is to provide a
switching facility that will move data from node to node until they reach a destination
WANs are implemented using various technologies:
i. Circuit switching & Packet Switching
ii. Frame Relay
iii. ATM Networks
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
In this dedicated communication path is It is not necessary to dedicate communication path
established between two stations through nodes through the network
of network
Path is connected in sequence of physical links Data are sent in sequence of small chunks, called
between nodes packets
On each link, logical channel is dedicated to Each packet is passed through network from node
connection to node along some path to ensure from source to
destination
Data generated by source station is transmitted At each node entire packet is received stored
along dedicated path as rapidly as possible briefly and they are transmitted to real node
At each node, incoming data are routed or
switched to appropriate outgoing channel without
delay
Ex: Telephone network Ex: Terminal to computer and computer to
computer connection

Frame Relay
There is considerable amount of overhead built into packet switching schemes to compensate for
errors.
The overhead includes additional bits added to each packet to introduce redundancy & additional
processing at the end stations and intermediate switching nodes to detect and recover from errors.
With the modern high speed tele-communication systems, this overhead is unnecessary and
counterproductive.
It is unnecessary because the rate of errors has been dramatically lowered and any remaining errors
can easily be caught in end system by logic that operates above the level of packet switching logic.
Frame relay was developed to take advantage of this high data rates and low error rates
Original packet switching networks were designed with a data rate to end user of about 64KBps, frame
relay network are designed to operate efficiency at user data rates of upto 2MBps
Key to achieve these high data rates is to strip out more of overhead involved with error control.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), sometimes referred to as cell relay.
ATM can be viewed as an evolution from frame relay
Difference between frame relay and ATM is that Frame relay uses variable length packets, called
frames and ATM uses fixed length packets called cells
As with frame relay, ATM provides little overhead for error control, depending on internet reliability of
transmission system and on higher layers of logic in end system to catch and correct errors
By using fixed length packet, processing overhead is reduced even further for ATM compared to frame
relay. The result is ATM is designed to work in range of 10s & 100s of Mbps
ATM can also be viewed as an evolution from circuit switching, with circuit switching only fixed data
rate circuits are available to end systems.
ATM allows definition of multiple virtual channels with data rates that dynamically defined at the time
virtual channel is overhead created. ATM offers constant data rate channel even though it is using
packet switching technique.

LAN-Local Area Networks

LAN is communication network that interconnects a variety of devices & provides a means for
information exchange among those devices. These are several key distinctions between LANs & WANs.
i. The scope of LAN is small, typically a single building or a cluster of buildings.
ii. LAN is owned by some organization that owns attached devices.
iii. Internal data rates of LANs are typically much greater than those of WANs.
iv. LANs come in number of different configurations
a.)Switched LANs—single switch with number of attached devices, or number of
interconnected switches.
b.)Wireless LANs—use a variety of wireless transmission technologies and organizations.

Wireless Networks
Wireless technology is common for both wide area voice and data networks
Wireless networks provide advantages in the areas of mobility and ease of installation and
configuration.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)

MAN is network with size between LAN & WAN
It normally covers area inside town or city
It is designed for customers who need high speed connectivity, normally to internet and have end
points spread over a city or part of city
 Ex:-MAN is part of telephone company network that can provide high speed line to customer
 Cable TV network today also be used for high speed data connection to internet.

Simplified Network Model

The Internet
Internet is worldwide, publicity accessible network of interconnected computer that transmit data by
packet switching (exchange of packets using Internet Protocol)
Internet can be termed as Network of Networks.
It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business and government networks which
together carry various information and services such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfers etc.

HISTORY
A network is group of connected communicating devices such as computers and printers
An internet (lowercase i) is two or more networks that can communicate with each other
Most notable internet is called Internet (uppercase I), a collection of more than hundreds of
thousands of interconnected networks.
In mid 1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were stand-alone devices. Computers
from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another.
The Advanced Research Projects Agency(ARPA) in the Department of Defence(DoD) was interested in
finding way to connect computers so that researchers could share their findings.
ARPA presented its idea for ARPAnet (small network of connected computers). Each host computer
would be attached to specialized computer called IMP (Interface Message Processor).
The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to one another. One IMP had to be able to communicate with
other IMPs as well as its own attached host.
Main thing that support internet are TCP/IP reference model & TCP/IP protocol stack
Machine can be a part of internet when it can run TCP/IP protocol stack, has an IP address & also
should have the ability to send & receive IP packets from other machines on internet.
Machines must have the ability to call up ISP(Internet Service Provider) using modem.
Main applications of Internet:
1) Email
2) News
3) Remote Login
4) File Transfer
5) Streaming Media
6) WWW(World Wide Web)
7) Voice telephony (VOIP-Voice over Internet Protocol) etc.

Architecture of Internet
User (Client) who dials up on a telephone line using electronic device called MODEM
Modem converts digital signals generated by pc to subscribed ISP’s POP (Point Of Presence)
POP removes telephone connection & gives connection to the ISP’s regional network and again
converts signals back to digital form
The regional ISP, which consists of thousands of inter connected routers across number of backbone
networks, transfer packet-switched data to other backbones (if client is not present in the current ISP
network). These routers are connected by high-band width fiber optics.
Servers provide services for clients are connected directly to backbone networks. Backbone networks
are interconnected to each other through NAP (Network Access Points) which contains many routers to
forward packet from one backbone to other. In addition to NAP’s, larger backbones, have numerous
direct connections between their routers using technique called private peering.

Architecture of Original ARPANET

ARPANET is network which was designed for ARPA (Advanced research Projects Agency). It was packet
switched network consisting of subnet & host computers. The subnet consisted of minimum computers
called IMP’s (Interface Message processor) connected by transmission lines. For reliability, each IMP
was connected to atleast two other IMPs. Software has two parts subnet & host.
Subnet Software has IMP protocol and source IMP to destination IMP protocol designed to improve
quality and reliability.
The host end of host IMP connection i.e. host- host protocol and application software were outside
subnet when message has been accepted on host-IMP wire & placed it on host IMP unto destination
work was done.

Need for Protocol Architecture

When computers, terminals or other data processing devices exchange data, the procedure involved
can be quite complex.
Ex:- Consider File Transfer
Typical Tasks to be performed are
i. Source system must activate communication path with desired destination
ii. Source system must assure that destination system is prepared to receive data
iii. File Transfer application on source must assure that File management program on destination
system is prepared to accept & store file for particular user.
iv. If file format used on two systems are incompatible, one or other system must perform format
transaction function
v. High Degree of co-operation between two systems is needed.
vi. So, Instead of implementing logic further as single module, task is broken up into subtasks,
each of which is implemented separately. Modules are arranged in vertical stack in protocol
architecture
vii. Each layer in stack performs separate functionality for communication with another system.
Each layer provides service to next higher layer. For communication, same set of layer function
must exist in two systems.
viii. Layers in two systems communicate. Communication is done by means of blocks of data with
the help of set of rules or conversions known as protocol, which formatted block of data
follows.
Protocol Features are:
1. Syntax—Format of data /block
2. Semantics—control information for coordination and error handling
3. Timings—speed matching and sequencing

A Simple Protocol Architecture

A file transfer application can be implemented using three modules as

a) File Transfer Application:

It deals with details of data and file transfer commands
b) Communication service module:
It is responsible for making sure that the file transfer commands and data are reliably exchanged
between systems.
c) Network access Module:
The nature of exchange between system is independent of nature of network that interconnects
them.

A Simplified Architecture for File Transfer

A three layer model of Protocol Architecture

Communications can said to involve three agents
 Applications
 Computer
 Network
Ex:-A file transfer application can be executed on computer that can often support multiple
simultaneously applications. Computers are connected to network and data to be exchanged
are transferred by network from one computer to another
Considering these concepts, we can organize the communication task into three relatively
independent layers
 Network Access layer
 Transport Layer Three Layered Architecture
 Application Layer

Network Access Layer

It is concerned with the exchange of data between a computer & network which it s attached
Sending computer must provide the network with address of destination computer, so that network
may route to appropriate destination. Sending computer may invoke certain services such as priority by
network.

Transport Layer
Data between communicating device should be exchanged reliably. Data should arrive at the
destination and in same order in which they were sent by sender. Thus transport layer provides
mechanism for providing reliability shared by all applications.

Application Layer
It contains logic needed to support the various user applications
Figure shows, three computers connected to network access, transport layer and application layer.

Fig: Protocol architecture and network

For successful communication two levels of addressing are required.
Each computer on the network must have a unique within that computer; this allows transport layer to
support multiple applications at each computer
These addresses are known as SAPs (Service Access Points)
Let us say an application associated with SAP1 at wishes to send a message to an application associated
with SAP2 at computer
The application at SAP1 hands the message over to its transport layer with the instructions to send it to
SAP2 on computer Y. To control this operation, control information as well as user data, must be
transmitted

Let us say, sending application generates a block of data and passes this to the transport layer which
breaks this block into two smaller pieces to make it more manageable. To each of these pieces transport
layer appends a transport header, containing control information
The combination of data from the next higher level (layer) & control information is known as protocol
data unit (PDU).
If it belongs to transport layer, it is refers to as transport PDU. Header in each transport PDU contains
control information used by peer transport protocol at computer B
Header Includes
1) Destination SAP
When destination transport layer receives the transport PDU, it must know to who the data are
to be delivered
2) Sequence number
Transport protocol is sending a sequence of PDU’s, it numbers them sequentially so that if they
arrive out of order, destination transport entity may reorder them
3) Error Detection Code
Sending transport entity may include a code that is fun of content of remainder of PDU
The receiving transport protocol performs same calculation and compares the result with incoming
code.
A discrepancy result, if there has been some error in transmission; in that case, receiver can discard PDU
& take collective action.

Network Access Protocol appends network access header to data it receives from transport layer
creating network access PDU.
Header Includes
 Destination computer Address
The network must know to which computer on the network data are to be delivered
 Facilities Request
Network access protocol might want the network to make use of certain facilities such as
priority.

Fig: Operation of Protocol Architecture

ISO-OSI Reference Model
ISO (international Standard Organization) began establishing Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model in 1977 in order to support intermetabiltiy
Two major components in OSI Model
 Seven-Layer model called abstract model
 Set of concrete protocols
OSI model defines abstract method for communication & for designing network protocols. OSI
reference model of functions that provides its services to next higher layer above it & receives services
from lower layer below it
Control is passed using communication channel & data exchange takes place by starting from top most
layer at source which is application layer & proceeding down to physical layer which is bottom layer until
application layer of destination is reached
OSI model is standard model that is used both in networking protocol & distributed applications
OSI model describes inter-computer communication
Each Layer in OSI model exists as an independent unit

PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical layer covers physical interface between devices & rules by which bits are passed from one
to another. It deals with transmission of unstructured bit stream over physical medium.
Physical layer has four important characteristics
i. Mechanical
Relates to properties of interface to transmission medium. Specification is of pluggable
connector that joins one or more signal conductors, called circuits.
ii. Electrical
Relates to representation of bits (in terms of voltage levels), data transmission rate of bits.
iii. Functional
Specifies function performed by individual circuits of physical interface between system and
transmission media
iv. Procedural
Sequence of events by which bit streams are exchanged across physical medium.

DATA LINK LAYER

Physical layer provides only raw hit stream service. Data link layer make physical link reliable & provides
means to activate maintain & deactivate link
Data link layer provides higher layer error detection & control. With Fully functional data link layer
protocol next layer may assume error free transmission over the link.

NETWORK LAYER
Network Layer provides transfer of information between end systems across some sort of
communication network. At this layer, computer system engages in a dialogue with network to specify
the destination address & to request certain network facilities, such as priority.

TRANSPORT LAYER
Transport layer provides a mechanism for exchange of data between end systems. There are two
services ensures that data are delivered error free, in sequence with no losses or duplication.
Connectionless service does not ensure delivery of data.
Size & complexity of transport protocol depends on how reliable or unreliable the network and network
layers services are examples of some standard (ISO) protocols are TCP(Transmission control protocol)
(connection-oriented) & UDP(user-datagram protocol) connectionless
SESSION LAYER
Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between applications in end systems
Services provided are
 Dialogue Discipline
This can be two way simultaneous (full-duplex) or two way alternate (half-duplex))
 Grouping
Flow of data can be marked to define groups of data
 Recovery
Session layer can provide a check pointing mechanisms, so that if a failure of some sort occurs
between checkpoint sessions entity can retransmit all data since last checkpoint

PRESENTATION LAYER
Presentation Layer defines format of data to be exchanged between applications and offers applications
program a set of data transformation services. Examples of specific services at this layer include data
encryption and compression.

APPLICATION LAYER
Application Layer provides means for application program to access OSI environment
This layer contains management functions and generally useful mechanisms to support distributed
applications. Examples are file transfer application, electronic mail etc.
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
TCP/IP model organizer communication task into five relatively independent layers
 Physical Layer
 Network Access Layer
 Internet Layer
 Host to Host & transport layer
 Application Layer
Fig: Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

1.) PHYSICAL LAYER

Physical Layer covers physical interface between data transmission medium or network.
Specifies characteristic of transmission medium nature of signals of signals, due rate etc.
2.) Network access Layer
This layer is concerned with exchange of data between an end system (server, workstation) &
network with address of destination computer, so that network may route the data to
appropriate destination. Sending computer may invoke services such as priority that might be
provided by network. Specific software at this layer depends on type of network to be used;
different standards have been developed for circuit switching, packet switching, frame relay,
LANs etc.
The Network Access Layer is concerned with access to & routing data across a network for two
end systems attached to same network. In cases, where two devices are attached to different
networks procedures are needed to allow data to traverse in multiple inter connected networks.
This is the function of Internet Layer.
Internet Protocol (IP) is used to provide routing function across multiple networks. This protocol
is implemented not only in end systems but also in routers.
A router is processor that connects two networks & whose function is to relay data from one
network to other on its route from source to destination end system.

TCP & UDP

For most of applications running with TCP/IP protocol architecture, transport layer protocol is TCP. TCP
provides a reliable connection for transfer of data between applications. Connection is simply a
temporary logical association between source and destination.
Each TCP PDUC (Protocol Data Unit), called TCP segment, includes
 Source port
 Destination port in Segment header
Which serves as SAP (Service access point) port value to identify respective users (applications) of two
TCP ENTRIES?
For duration of connection each entity keeps track of TCP segments coming & going to other entity, in
order to regulate flow of segments & to receiver from damaged segments.
In addition to TCP one more transport layer protocol is used as part of TCP/IP protocol suite
UDP-user datagram protocol
UDP enables a procedure to send message with minimum protocol mechanism
UDP does not guarantee delivery, preservation of sequence, or protection against replication.
Transaction oriented application make use of UDP ex:-SNMP-Simple Network Management Protocol, as
it is connectionless, UDP has very link to do.

Operation of TCP and IP

Fig: TCP/IP Concepts

Figure shows how TCP/IP protocols are configured for communications. Total communication facility
may consist of multiple networks referred to as SUBNETWORKS. Some sort of network users’ protocol,
such as Ethernet logic, is used to connect computer to subnetwork
This helps host computer to send data across subnetwork to another destination host. If destination
host is on another subnetwork then router will forward data. IP is implemented in all host computers
(end systems) & routers.
TCP is implemented only at end systems (host computers) it keeps track of blocks of data to assure that
all are delivered reliably to appropriate application.
For successful communication, two levels of addressing are needed.
 Each host on subnetwork must have global internet address(data is delivered to proper
host)
 Each process with host must have address unique in that host(this allows host-host
protocol (TCP) to deliver data to proper process or application)
These addresses are known as ports.
Operation
Suppose process associated with port 1 at host A wants to send message to another process associated
with port 3 at host B. The process at A hands message down to TCP with instruction to send it to host b,
port3. TCP hands message down to IP with instruction to send it to host B. IP need not be told identity of
destination port 3; all it needs to know is data (message) is for host B. Next, IP hands message down to
network access layer (Ethernet logic) with instruction to send it to router J

To control this operation:

Control info & user data must be transmitted as shown below

Sending process generates block of data & parses this to TCP

TCP may break this block of data in the smaller pieces to make it more manageable. To each pieces, TCP
appends control information as TCP header & forms TCP segment. The control information is to be used
by peer TCP protocol entity at host B
These headers include:
 Destination Port
When TCP entity at B receives segment, it must know to whom data are to be delivered
 Sequence Number
TCP numbers the segments that it sends to a particular destination port sequentially, so that if
they arrive out of order, TCP at B can reorder them
 Checksum
Sending TCP includes a code that is function of contents of remainder of segment. Receiving TCP
performs same calculation & compares the result with incoming.. Any difference is error in
transmission. Next TCP hands each segment over to IP with instruction to transmit it to B.
These segments must be transmitted across one or more subnetworks & through one or more
routers. This operation, too need use of control information. Thus IP appends header of control
information to each segment to form IP datagram
IP datagram stores destination host address (host B).
Finally, each IP datagram is given to network access layer for transmission across first
subnetwork in its journey to destination.
Network Access Layer appends its header creating packet or frame. Packet is transmitted across
subnet with respect to router J. Packet header contains information that subnetwork need to
transfer data across subnetwork. Example of header information includes
Destination subnetwork address
Subnet must know to which attached device packet is to be delivered
Facilities requests
Network access protocol might request use of certain subnetwork facilities such as priority.
At router J, packet header is stripped off & IP header examined on the basis of destination
address information in IP header, IP module in router directs datagram out across subnetwork
to B. When data are received at B, reverse process occurs. At each layer, corresponding header
is removed & remainder is parsed on to next higher layer, until original user data are delivered
to destination process.
Generic nae given for block of data exchanged at any protocol level is referred to as PDU-
Protocol Data Unit.

TCP/IP Applications
1.) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Provides basic electronic mail facility. It provides mechanism for transferring messages among
separate hosts.
Features of SMTP includes
 Mailing lists
 Return receipts
 Forwarding etc.
SMTP does not specify how messages are created messages & makes use of TCP to send it to an
SMTP module on another host. Target SMTP module will make use of local electronic mail
package to store incoming message in users mailbox.
2.) File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
It is used to send files from one system to another under user command. Both text & binary files
are accommodated. When user wishes to engage in file transfer, FTP sets up TCP connection to
target system for exchange of control messages. This connection allows user ID & password to
be transmitted & allows user to specify file & file actions desired. Once File transfer is approved,
second TCP connection is set up for actual data transfer. File is transferred over data
connection, without overhead of any headers or control information at application level. When
transfer is complete, control connection is used to signal completion & to accept new File
transfer commands
3.) TELNET
Provides remote login capability. This enables user at a terminal or PC to logon to remote
computer & function as if directly connected to that computer. TELNET is actually implemented
in two modules.
 User TELNET
Internet with terminal without module to communicate with local terminal
 Server TELNET
This interacts with an application, acting as surrogate terminal handler so that remote
terminals appears as local to application. Traffic between two is carried by TCP
connection.
DATA TRANSMISSION
Concept and terminology
 Analog & Digital Transmission
 Transmission Impairments
 Transmission Media
Successful transmission of data depends principally on two factors
i. Quality of the signal
ii. Characteristics of the medium

Transmission Terminology
Data transmission occurs between transmitter and the receiver over same transmission medium
Transmission medium are of two types = guided and unguided media
i. Guided Media
Waves are guided along physical path
Ex:- Twisted Pair, Coaxial cable, Optical Fibre
ii. Unguided Media
(Wireless)provide means for transmitting electromagnetic wave but do not guide them
Ex:- propagation through air, vacuum & seawater

Direct Link
 Used to refer to transmission path between two devices in which signals propagate directly
from transmitter to receiver with no intermediate devices(for both media)
 Point to point:- A guided transmission medium is point to point if it provides a direct link
between two devices & those are only two devices sharing medium
 Transmission may be
a. Simplex Signals
These are transmitted in only one direction, one station is transmitted & others is
receiver
b. Half Duplex
Both stations may transmit, but only one at a time
c. Full Duplex
Both stations may transmit simultaneously

Frequency, Spectrum & Bandwidth

Signal is generated by transmitter & transmitted over a medium it can be expressed as a function of
time or frequency

Time Domain Concept

I. Analog Signal
It is the one in which signal intensity varies in smooth fashion over time- no breaks or
discontinuities in signal.
II. Digital Signal
It is the one in which signal intensity maintains costant level for some period of time and then
changed to another constant level

III. Periodic Signal

Same signal pattern repeats over time

T=1/f=period of signal
a) Peak Amplitude
Maximum values or strength of signal over time(volts)
b) Frequency
Rate(cycles/sec) or (Hz) at which it repeats (period)
c) Phase
Measure of relative position in time within a single period of signal
For periodic signals F(t), phase is functional part t/T of period T through which t has advanced relatix to
an arbitrary constant

d) Wavelength
Signal distance occupied by single cycle, or distance between two points of
corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles

Frequency Domain Concept

Electromagnetic signal will be made up of many frequencies

1) Fundamental Frequency
When all frequency compose of signal are integer multiples of one frequency. Frequency is
reflected to as fundamental frequency.
2) Spectrum
Range of Frequency that signal contains
3) Absolute Bandwidth
It is the width of the signals
4) Effective Bandwidth
Most of energy of signal is contained in a relatively narrow band of frequencies. This band is
referred to as effective band width.

5) DC Component
If signal includes a component of zero frequency that component is direct element (de) or
constant component.
With no dc component, a signal has average amplitude of zero. With a dc component, it has
frequency term and non-zero avg amplitude.

Analog & Digital Transmission

The term analog(continuous) & digital(discrete) are frequently used in data communications in
 Data
 Signalling
 Transmission
1. Data
Entities that convey meaning or information
2. Signals
Signals are electromagnetic representation of data
3. Signalling
Physical propagation of signal along a suitable medium
4. Transmission
Is communication of data by propagation & processing of signals
5. Audio
Audio is form of acoustic sound wave & can be perceived directly by human being
6. Analog Signal
It is continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a variety
of media, dependant on spectra
7. Digital Signal
Sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a wired medium

DATA & SIGNALS

Data may be encoded into signals in variety of ways

Digital Signals
Represent data with sequence of voltage pulses

Both analog & digital signals may be transmitted on suitable transmission media
Way these signals are treated is function of transmission system
ANALOG SIGNAL DIGITAL SIGNAL
ANALOG DATA Signal occupies same spectrum Analog Data are encoded using
as analog data codec to produce a digital bit
Analog data are encoded to stream.
occupy different portion of
spectrum
DIGITAL DATA Digital data are encoded using Signal consists of two voltage
modem to produce analog signal levels to represent binary values
Digital data are encoded to
produce a digital signal with
digital properties

Treatment of Signals
 Analog Signal – Analog Transmission
It is propagated through amplifiers
Same treatment whether signal is used to represent analog data or digital data
 Analog Signal - Digital Transmission
Assumes that analog signal represents digital data
Signal is propagated through repeaters
At each repeater, digital data are received from inbound signal & used to generate a new analog
outbound signal
 Digital Signal – Analog Transmission
Not used
 Digital Signal – Digital Transmission
Digital signal represents a stream of 1’s and 0’s which may represent digital data or may be
encoding of analog data
Signals propagated through repeaters at each repeater stream of 1’s & 0s is recovered from
inbound signal & used to generate a new digital outbound signal
Mostly used transmission system is digital because of following points
 Digital Technology
The advent of large scale integration(LSI) & VLSI technology has caused a continuing
drop in cost & sizes of digital circuitry.
Analog equipment has not shown a similar drop
 Data Integrity
With use of repeater rather than amplifiers, effect of noise and other signal impairment
effect of noise and other signal impairment are not comulative
Thus it is possible to transmit data longer distances & over lower quality lines by digital
means while maintaining integrity of data.
 Capacity Utilization
It has become economical to build transmission links of very high network, including
satellite channels & optical fibers.
High degree of multiplicating is needed to utilize such capacity effectively
This is more easily & cheaply achieved with digital rather than analog transmission
technology
 Security and privacy
Encryption technology can be readily applied to digital data & to analog data that have
been digitalised
 Integration
By treating analog & digital data digitally, all signals have same form & can be treated
similarly
Economies of scale & convenience can be achieved by integrating voice, video & digital
data.

Transmission Impairments
With any transmission system, the signal that is received may differ from the signal that is transmitted
due to various transmission impairments
For analog signals these impairments can degrade the signal quality.
For Digital signals, bit errors may be introduced a binary 1 is transferred into binary 0 & vice versa.
The most significant impairments are:
 Attenuation & Attenuation Distortion(Change shape):
The strength of signal falls off with distance over any transmission medium
For guided media, this reduction in strength, or attenuation is generally exponential & thus is
typically expressed as constant number of decibels/unit distance
For unguided media, attenuation is more complex function of distance & makeup of atmosphere

Attenuation introduces three considerations for transmission engineer

i. A received signal must have sufficient strength so that electronic circuitry in the receiver
can detect the signal
ii. A signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without
error.
iii. Attenuation is often an increasing function of frequency.
The first and second problems are cleared by attention to signal strength & use of amplifiers and
repeaters.
REPEATER
A device that receives data on one communication link and transmits it bit by bits on another link as fast
as the data are received with buffering
For point to point link, the signal strength of the transmitter must be strong enough to be received
intelligibly, but no so strong as to overload the circuitry of transmitter or receiver which would cause
distortion.
Beyond a certain distance, the attenuation becomes unacceptably great & repeaters or amplifiers are
used to boost the signal as regular intervals.
These problems are more complex for multipoint lines where the distance from transmitter to receiver
is variable.
The third problem is particularly noticeable for analog signals, because the attenuation various as a
function of frequency, the received signal is distorted reducing intelligibly.
To overcome this problem, techniques are available for equalizing attenuation across band of frequency
This is commonly done for voice grade telephone lines by using loading coils that change the result is to
smooth out attenuation effects.
Another approach is to use amplifiers that amplify high frequency more than lower frequency.

DELAY DISTORTION
Delay distortion occurs because the velocity of propogation of signal through a guided medium varies
with frequency.
For band limited signal, the velocity tends to be the highest near the center frequency & fall off toward
the two edges of the band.
Thus various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at different times resulting in
phase shifts between the different frequencies.
The effect is referred to as delay distortion because the received signal is distorted due to varying delays
experienced at its constituent frequency
Equalising techniques can also be used for delay distortion

NOISE
For any data transmission event, the receiving signal will consist of the transmitted signal, modified by
various distortions imposed by transmission system, plus additional unwanted signal that are inserted
somewhere between transmission & reception
The latter, undesired signals are referred to as noise.
Noise is the major limiting factor in common system performance.
Noise may be divided into four categories
1) Thermal noise
2) Intermodulation noise
3) Crosstalk
4) Impulse noise

Thermal Noise
It is due to thermal agitation of electrons. It is present in all electronic devices & transmission media & is
a function of temperature. Thermal noise is uniformly distributed across the bandwidths typically used
in common systems. It is referred to as white noise.
Thermal noise cannot be eliminated & therefore places an upper bound on common system
performance. Because of weakness of signal received by satellite earth stations thermal noise is
particularly significant for satellite communication. The amount of thermal noise to be found in a
bandwidth of 1Hz in any device or conductor is

A measure of relative strength of two signals. Number of decibel is 10 times the log of ratio of power of
two signals.
The noise is assumed to be independent of frequency. Thus the thermal noise in watts present in a
bandwidth of B Hertz can be expressed as

Intermediate Noise
When signals at different frequency share the same transmission medium the result may be
intermodulation noise. The effect of intermediate noise is to produce signals at a frequency that is the
sum or difference of the two original frequencies or multiples of those frequencies. Ex: the mixing of
signals at frequencies F1 & F2 might produce frequency F1+F2. Intermodulation noise is produced by
non linarites in the transmitter, receiver &/or intervening transmission medium.

Cross Talk
Cross talk has been experienced by anyone who while using the telephone has been able to hear
another conversation. It is an unwanted coupling between signal paths. It can occur by electrical
coupling between nearby twisted pair or coaxial cable lines carrying multiple signals, although highly
directional antennas are used, microwave energy does spread during modulation. All the types of noise
discussed so far have reasonably magnitudes. Thus it is possible to engineer a transmission system to
cope with them.

Impulse Noise
It is non-continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration & of relatively high
amplitude. It is generated from variety of causes, including external electromagnetic disturbances such
as lightning & faults and flaws in communication system.

Channel capacity
There are variety of impairments that distant or corrupt a signal. The maximum rate at which data can
be transmitted over a given communication path or channel under given condition is referred to as
channel capacity. There are four concepts here that are trying to relate to one another
1) Data rate : rate at which (bits/sec) data can be communicated
2) Bandwidth : Bandwidth of transmitted signal
3) Noise: A level of noise over communication path.
4) Error Rate: this is rate at which error occurs. Reception of 1 where 0 was transmitted and vice
versa.
NYQUIST BANDWIDTH
Let us consider that channel is noise free in this environment the limitation on data rate is simply the
bandwidth of signal. Nyquist states that the rate of signal transmission is 2B then a signal with
frequency no greater than B is sufficient to carry is also true. Converse is also true.
Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate that can be carried is 2B.

M= number of discrete signal or voltage levels.

The data rate can be increased by increasing number of signal elements.

Shannon Capacity Formula

Nyquist formula indicates that, doubling the bandwidth doubles data rate. Relationship between data
rate, noise & error rate. The presence of noise can corrupt one or more bits. At given noise level, the
higher data rate the higher error rate.
Mathematician Claude Shannon has hide this entire concept together in a formula.
Key parameter is signal to noise ratio (SNR). It is the ratio of power in a signal to power contained in
noise that is present at particular point in the transmission. The ratio is expressed in decibels as

SNR ratio is important in transmission of digital data because, it sets the upper bound on achievable
data rate. Shannon’s result is that the maximum channel capacity, in bits/second abbeys equation

Signal to noise ratio is more convenient for determining data rate & error arte
Parameter is .
Signal Encoding Techniques
1) Digital data, Digital signal
2) Digital data, Analog signal
3) Analog Data, Digital Signal
4) Analog Data, Analog Signal

Digital Data, Digital Signal

Simplest form of digital encoding of digital data is to assign one voltage level to binary one and another
voltage level to binary zero. More complex encoding schemes are used to improve performance by
altering spectrum of signals & providing synchronization capability
Encoding and modulation Techniques
Either form of data could be encoded into either form of signal.

For digital signalling, a data source g(t) which may be digital or analog is encoded into a digital signal x(t)
Actual form of x (t) depends on encoding technique & is chosen to optimize use of transmission medium
Encoding may be chosen to conserve B or to minimize errors.
The basis for analog signalling is continuous constant Frequency signal known as carrier signal.
Frequency of carrier signal is chosen to be compatible with transmission medium being used.
Types of line coding

DC Component (Direct Current)

Signals of low frequencies are created only if voltage level is constant for duration of time. When
frequency level reaches zero, D.C. component problem is created. DC component is problematic in
devices that cannot handle low frequencies & in devices that couples electrical signals.
Digital Data, Digital Signal
A digital signal is sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses, each pulse is signal element signal
is
 Unipolar
If signal element all have same algebraic sign (all +ve or -ve)
 Polar
One logic rate is represented by =ve voltage level & other by –ve voltage level

Data signalling rate/Data rate (bps)

Rate in bits/sec, data are transmitted
Duration or length of a bit is amount of time it takes for transmitter to emit the bit.
For data rate R, bit duration is 1/R.

Modulation Rate (band is unit)

Rate at which signal level is changed.
Factors determining success of receiver in interpreting signal.
Increase in data rate increases (BER) Bits Error rate
Increase in SNR to bit error rate.
Increase in B increases data rate

Another factor that can be used to improve performance is encoding scheme.

Mapping from data bits to signal elements

Ways to evaluate/compare various

1) Signal Spectrum
A lack of high frequency component means less B is required for transmission with a dc
component to signal, there must be direct, physical attachment of transmission components;
with no dc component, a coupling via transformer is possible (this provides excellent electrical
isolation reducing interference)
Transmission characteristics of channel are worse near band edge. Therefore good signal design
should concentrate transmitted power in middle of transmission bandwidth. In such case
smaller distortion can be achieved in received signal.
For this codes can be designed with aim of shaping spectrum of transmitted signal
2) Clocking
We mentioned need to determine the beginning & end of each bit position
Providing separate clock lead to synchronize transmitter & receives both (expensive also)
Determine is to provide synchronization mechanism i.e., based on transmitted signal this can be
achieved by suitable encoding
3) Error Detection
It is useful to have error detection capability built into physical signalling encoding scheme,
permits errors to be detected more quickly
4) Signal Interference & noise immunity
Certain codes exhibit superior performance in presence of noise
Measured in BER
5) Cost & complexity
Higher signalling rate to achieved given data rate, greater is cost.
Return to Zero (RZ)
For synchronization purpose, each bit need more than just two values.
Solution is return to zero, which uses three-values +ve, -ve and zero.
In RZ, signal changes not between bits but during each bit.
Unlike NRZ-L, a +ve voltage means 0 and a –ve voltage means 1.
But unlike NRZ-L halfway, through each bit interval, signal returns to zero.
1->positive to zero
0->negative to zero

Advantages
1. It requires two signals to encode 1 bit & therefore occupies more bandwidth.
2. It is very effective because an encoded signal must contain a provision for synchronization.

Scrambling Techniques
Biphase techniques are used in LAN but not used in long distance application, because they require high
signalling rate, relative to data rate.
To overcome this problem scrambling technologies are used
The approach is, sequence that would result in constant voltage level on line is replaced by filling
sequences must be recognized by receiver & replaced with original sequence.
So, there is no data rate increase (penalty) as filling sequence is of same length as original sequence
Design Goals are:
i. Mode component
ii. No long sequence of zero level line signals
iii. No reduction in data rate
iv. Error detection capability

Two techniques are commonly used in long distance transmission service

Coding scheme that is commonly used in North America is known as bipolar with 8 zeros substitution
(B8ZS) based on bipolar amounts.

Biphase Scheme
Manchester & differential Manchester encoding schemes & advantages
 Synchronization (set clock codes)
 No DC component (yields many benefits)
 Error detection
Absence of an expected transmission can be used to detect errors
 Noise on line
It would have to involve both signals before & after expected transition to cause undetected
error.

Modulation Rate
When signal encoding techniques are used, a distinction needs to be made between data rate (bits/sec)
and modulation rate (band )
i. Data rate : (Bit rate)=1/Tb; Tb-Bit duration
ii. Modulation rate: rate at which signal element are generated.

D=Modulation Rate (Band)

R= Data Rate (bps)
M=Number of different signal elements=2^L
L=number of bits per signal element
Anyway characterizing modulation rule is to determine average number of transmission that occurs per
bit time.

B8ZS
We have seen that drawback of Amts rule is that long string of zeros may result in loss of
synchronization.
To overcome this problem, encoding is amended with following rules.
a) If an octet of all zeros occurs & the last voltage pulse preceding this octet was +ve, than eight
zeros of octet are encoded as
b) If an octet of all zeros occurs & last voltage pulse preceding this octet was –ve then eight zeros
are encoded as

A coding scheme that is commonly used in Europe & Japan is known as High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros
(HDB3)
This scheme replaces strings of four zeros with sequences containing one or two pulses.
In each case, fourth zero is replaced with code variation.
In addition, a rule is needed to ensure that successive violations are alternate polarity so that no dc
component is introduced.
If last violation was +ve, this violations must be –ve & vice versa.

B-Valid Bipolar Signal

Digital Data, Analog Signals:
Most familiar use of this transformation is for transmitting digital data through public telephone
network.
Telephone network was designed to receive, switch & transmit analog signals in voice frequency range
of about 300 to 3400 Hz.
Digital devices are attached to network via modem (modulator-demodulator), which converts digital
data to analog signals & vice versa.

Modulation involves operation one or more of three characteristics of carrier signals

 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase

There are three basic encoding or modulation techniques for transforming digital data into analog
signals.
a) Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)
b) Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)
c) Phase Shift Keying(PSK)
In all cases resulting signal occupies a bandwidth centred on carrier frequency.

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

In ASK, two binary values are represented by two different amplitudes of carrier frequency.
One of amplitude is zero i.e. one binary digital is represented by presence, at constant amplitude of
carrier, the other by absence of carrier.
Resulting transmitted signal for one bit time is

1. Ask is susceptible to sudden gain change

2. It is rather insufficient modulation technology on voice grade lines, it is typically used away up to
1200bps
ASK technology is used to transmit digital data over optical fibre.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Most common form of FSK is binary FSK (BFSK)
In which two binary values are represented by two different frequencies near carrier frequency
Resultant Transmitted signal for one bit time is

Where F1, F2 are typically offset from carrier frequency Fc by equal but opposite units

FSK is used for fuel duplex operation over voice grade line
Voice grade line will pass frequencies in range of 300 to 3400 Hz
To achieve Full Duplex transmission, this bandwidth is splitted
In one direction (Transmit or Receive), the frequency used to represent 1 & 0 are centred on 1170
Hz with shift of 100Hz on either side.
BFSK is less susceptible to error than ASK, on verse grade lines, it is typically used upto 1200bps.It is
also commonly used for high frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio transmission.
It can also be used at even higher frequency on local area network that uses coaxial cable

MFSK
More than two frequencies are used in this case, each signalling element represents more than one
bit.
Transmitted MFSK signal for one signal element time can be defined as

Analog Data, Digital Signal

Correcting analog data into digital data, this process is known digitalization.
Once analog data have been converted into digital data, number of things can happen.
 Digital data can be encoded as digital signal using a code other than NRZ-L, extra step is
required
 Digital data can be transmitted using NRZ-L
 Digital data can be converted into analog signal, using one of modulation technology

Codec is used for correction of analog data into digital form

Two technologies are used:
I. Pulse Code modulation
II. Delta modulation

Pulse Code Modulation

Pulse code modulation (PCM) is based on sampling theorem.
If signal f (t) is sampled at regular intervals of time & at a rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, then samples contain are information original signal.
Function f (t) may be reconstructed from these samples by use of low pass filter.
If voice data are limited to frequency below 4000Hz, a conservative procedure for intelligibility, 8000
samples/second would be sufficient to characterize voice signal complexity.
However, these are analog samples called PAM (pulse Amplitude Modulation) samples.
To convert to digital, each of these analog samples must be assigned a binary code.
Pam samples are taken at rate of 2B or once every Ts=1/2B seconds.
Each PAM sample is approximated by being quantized into one of 16 different levels.
Each sample can be represented by 4 bits.
As quantized values are only approximation it is impossible to recover the original signal exactly.
By using 8 bit sample, which allows 256 quantizing levels, quality of received voice signal is comparable
with that achieved via analog transmission.
This implies, a data rate of 8000 samples X 8 bits/sample = 64 kbps.

PCM starts with continuous amplitude (analog) signal, from which a digital signal is produced as in figure
Digital signal consist of block of n-bits, where each n-bit is amplitude of PCM pulse.
On reception, process is reversed to produce analog data.
By quantizing PAM pulse original signal is now only approximated & can’t be received property.
This effect is quantizing errors or quantizing noise.
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) for quantizing increases SNR by about 6dB which is factor of 4.
Typically PCM scheme is refined using a technique known as non-linear encoding.
Means, quantization levels are not equally spaced.
The problem with equal spacing is that the mean absolute error for each sample is same regardless of
signal level.
Consequently, lower amplitude values are relatively more distorted.
 By using greater no. of quantizing steps for signals of low amplitude, smaller no. Of quantizing
steps for signal of large amplitude a mark reduction in overall signal distortion is achieved.
 Non-linear encoding can significally improve PCM SNR ratio for rare signal improvement.

DELTA MODULATION (DM):

 Variety of techniques has been used to improve performance of PCM or to reduce its
complexity.
 One of most popular alternative to PCM is delta modulation.
 With delta modulation, an analogue IP approximated by staircase function that moves up or
down by one quantification level at each sampling interval (TS).
 Example:
 Figure shows staircase function is overlaid on the original analog waveform.
 Behaviour of staircase function is binary.
 At each sampling time function moves up or down a constant amplitude, thus O/P of delta
modulation process can be represented as single binary digit for each sample.
 Bit stream is produced by approximating derivative of an analog signal rather that its
amplitude.
 A 1 is generated if staircase function is to go up during next inter val.
 O is generated otherwise.
 Staircase function tracks original analog waveform as closely as possible.
Logic A Process: (f/b mechanism)
1. For transmission:
 At each sampling time, analog I/P are compared to most recent value of approx.
Staircase function.
 If value of sampled waveform exceeds that of staircase function, 1 is generated,
otherwise 0.
 Staircase is always changed in direction of i/p signal.
 o/p of SM is thus binary signal that can be used at receiver to reconstruct staircase
function.
There are two important parameters in DM.
1) Step of step must be chosen to produce base two errors or noise.
2) Sampling rate.

 Accuracy of scheme can be improved by increasing sampling rate. However this increases data
rate of O/P signal.
 When analog wave is changing very slowly, there will be quantizing noise. This noise increases
as delta.
 When analog wave is changing more rapidly their staircase function, slope overload noise is
there increases as delta decreases.

Analog Data, Analog Signals:

 Analog to analog conversation is needed, if the medium is to and pass in nature or if only a band
pass channel is available to us.
 Ex: radio, govt. Assigns a narrow bandwidth to each stations is to low-pass signal, all in same
range.
 To be able to listen to different stations, the low pass signal need to be shifted each to different
range.
 Analog to analog conversion is accomplished in three ways.
1) Amplitude modulation
2) Frequency Modulation
3) Phase modulation.
1) Amplitude Modulation:
 Carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with changing amplitude of
modularity signal.
 Frequency and phase of carrier remains same only amplitude changes to follow variations in
information.
 Modulating signal is example of carrier.
 AM is implemented using simple multiplier because amplitude of carrier signal needs to be
changed according to amplitude of modulating signal.
Diagram

AM Bandwidth:
 Bandwidth is twice bandwidth of modulating signal and covers range centred on carrier.
 Signal components above and below carrier frequency carry exactly same info.

Frequency Modulation:

 In FM, frequency of carrier is modulated to follow changing voltage level of modulating signal.
 Peak amplitude and phase of carrier signal remain constant, but amplitude of info signal
changes, frequency of carrier changes correspondingly.
 FM is normally implemented by using voltage-controlled oscillator as with FSK.
 Frequency of oscillator changes according to i/p voltage which is amplitude of modulating signal.

FM Bandwidth:
 Actual bandwidth is difficult to determine exactly, but it can be shown empirically that it is
several times that of analog signal or 2(1+b) B.
Phase Modulation (PM):
 In PM transmission, phase of carrier signal is modulated to follow changing voltage level
(amplitude) of modulating signal.
 Peak amplitude and frequency of carrier signal remain constant, the phase of carrier frequency
chages correspondingly.
 PM is same as FM with one difference.
 In FM, instantaneous change in carrier frequency is proportional to amplitude of modulating
signal whereas in OM, instantaneous change in carrier is propotional to modulating signal.

 Implemented using voltage controlled oscillator along with derivation.

 Frequency of oscillator changes according to derivating of I/P voltage which is amplitude of
modulation signal.
 Beta is difficulty to determine exactly empirically several times that of analog signal.

Transmission Media:
 Transmission medium is physical path between transmitter and receiver.
 There are two types of transmission media.

1) Unguided Media: Electromagnetic waves are guided along a solid medium, such as copper
twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, and optimal fiber.
2) Unguided Media: Wireless transmission occurs through the atmosphere, outer space or
water.
Characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by
 Characteristics of medium.
 Characteristics of signal.
For guided media:
Media itself is more important in determining the limitations of transmission
For unguided media:
Bandwidth of signal produced by transmitting antenna is more important than medium in determining
transmission characteristics
 Property of signal is directionality
1) Lower frequency signals are omnidirectional(signal propagates in all directions from
antenna)
2) At higher frequencies, it is possible to focus signal into beam(directional)
There are number of design factors responsible to transmission medium & signal which determine data
rate & distance.
i) Bandwidth
Increase in bandwidth of signal, increase or higher data rate
ii) Transmission Impairments
Impairments, limit the distance for guided media, twisted pair generally suffers more
impairment than coaxial cable which in turn suffers more than optical fiber
iii) Interference
Interference is more in unguided media than guided media
iv) Number of Receivers
A guided medium can be used to construct a point to point link or a shared link with
multiple attachments
Each attachment introduces some attenuation & distortion on line, limiting distance & or
data rate.

Guided Transmission Media

For guided transmission media, transmission capacity (in terms of data rate or B) depends on
 Distance
 Whether medium is point to point or multi-point
 There are three commonly used guided media
i) Twisted pair
ii) Coaxial cable
iii) Optical fiber

Twisted pair
It is expensive & most widely used guided transmission medium
Physical Description

 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in regular spiral pattern.
 A wire pair acts as single communication link.
 Numbers of these pairs are bundled together into cable by wrapping them in tough protective
sheath.
 Cables may contain hundreds of pairs
 Twisting tends to decrease crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs in cable.
 Neighbouring pairs in bundle have different twist lengths to reduce crosstalk interference.
 Twist length typically varies from 5 to 15mm.
 Thickness of wire varies from 0.4 to 0.9 mm.
Applications
 Used for both analog & digital signal transmission.
 Most commonly used in telephone network & for communication within buildings.
 In telephone system, individual residential telephone sets are connected to local exchange (end
office) by twisted pair wire
 These are called subscriber lops.
 Within office building, each telephone is also connected to twisted pair, which goes to private
branch exchange (PBX) system.
 Twisted pair installations were designed to support voice traffic using analog signalling
 Using modem, this can also handle digital data traffic at modest data rate.
 Twisted pair is also used for digital signalling data rate of 64 kbps in common
 Also used for LAN supporting pcs with data rate of 10Mbps
 Data rate of 1Gbps is also achieved with limited number of devices & geographical scope of
network.
 For long distance application data rate of 4 Mbps or more is achieved.
Transmission Characteristics
 Both analog & digital signalling is done using twisted pair
 For Analog signals-amplifiers are requires every 5-6 km
 For digital transmission repeaters are requires every 2-3 km
 Twisted pair is limited in distance and data as compared to other guided transmission media.
 Attenuation for twisted pair is very strong function of frequency; other impairments are also
severe for twisted pair.
 Medium is quite susceptible to interference & noise because of its easy coupling with
electromagnetic fields, also impulse noise is easily intrudes in twisted pair.
Several measures are taken to reduce impairments like
 Shielding the wire with metallic braid (sheathing reduces interference).
 Twisting reduces low frequency interference
 A differential twist length in adjacent pairs reduces crosstalk.

Unshielded & Shielded Twisted pair

Twisted pair comes in two varieties
Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
 It is ordinary telephone wire, office building are prewired with UTP
 Least expensive & commonly used for LAN
 Easy to work and install
 UTP are subjected to external electromagnetic interference from nearby twisted pair and from
noise in environment.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 To improve characteristics of UTP is to shield the twisted pair with metallic braid or sheathing
that reduces interference
 This STP provides better performance at higher data rates.
 More expensive & more difficult to work with STP

Category3 & Category5 UTP

 Most office building are prewired with 100ohm twisted pair cable called as voice grade.
 Limited distances & data rates are achieved with voice grade but they are alternate for use as
LAN they are alternate for use as LAN medium as they are already installed.
 In 1991, EIA (Electronic Industries Association) published std.EIA-568 commercial building
telecommunications cabling standard, which specifies use of voice grade UTP & STP for in-
building data applications.
 As users to an migrating to higher performance workstations & best methods.
 It covers 150ohm STP & 100ohm UTP
 TA-568 A recognizes. Hence categories of UTP cabling are
i) Category 3
UTP cables & associated connecting hardware whose transmission characteristics are
specified up to 16 MHz
ii) Category 4
UTP cables & associated connecting hardware whose transmission characteristics are
specified up to 20 MHz
iii) Category 5
UTP cables & associated connecting hardware whose transmission characteristics are
specified up to 100 MHz
 Category 3 & Category 5 cables are used in LAN applications
 Category 3 corresponds to voice grade found in most office buildings.
 Category 5 corresponds to data grade & common for preinstallation in new office buildings.
 Key difference between category 3 & category 5 cable is number of twists/unit distance.
 Category 5 is highly twisted with twist length -> 0.6 to 0.85 cm (costly and much greater
performance).
 Category 3 -> twist length-> 7.5 to 10 cm
CO-AXIAL CABLE
Physical Description

 Coaxial Cable, consists of two conductors but constructed differently to permit it to operate
over wider range of frequencies
 Consists of hollow outer cylindrical conductor surrounded by single inner wire conductor
 Inner conductor is used in place by either regularly spaced insulating rings or solid dielectric
material
 Outer conductor is covered with jacket or shield.
 Diameter of cable varies from 1 to 2.5 cm
 Coaxial cable can be used over long distances & support more stations on shared line than
twisted pair.
Applications
 Television distribution
 Long distance telephone transmission
 Short run computer system links
 LANs
 Coaxial cable is widely used as means of distributing TV signals to individuals homes
 Cable TV
 Used for distant telephone network
 Using FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing), coaxial cable can carry over 10,000 voice channels
simultaneously.
 Using digital signalling, coaxial cable can be used to provide high speed I/O channels on
computer system.
Transmission Characteristics
 Used to transmit both analog & digital signals
 Coaxial Cable has superior frequency characteristics than twisted pair & hence can be used at
higher frequencies & data rates
 Because of its shielded, concentric construction coaxial cable is much less susceptible to
interference & crosstalk.
 For long distance transmission of analog signals, amplifiers are needed every few kilometre with
closer spacing required if higher frequency are use
 Usable spectrum for analog signalling extends to 500 MHz
 For digital signalling, repeaters are used every kilometre or so
OPTICAL FIBER
Physical Description

 An optical fiber is thin (2 to 12.5micrometer) Flexible medium capable of guiding an optical ray.
 Various glasses & plastics can be used to make optical Fibres.
 An optical fiber cable has cylindrical shape & consists of three concentric sections.
Core:
Innermost section & consists of one or more very thin strands, fibers of glass plastic.
Diameter of case range from 8-100 micrometres
Cladding:
Even fiber surrounded by cladding. Glass or plastic coating that has properties different from core.

 Interference between core and cladding acts as reflector to confine light that would otherwise
escape core.
 Outermost layer, surrounding one or more bundle of cladded fibers (jacket).
 Jacket composed of plastic & other materials layered to protect moisture, abrasion, crusting &
other environment dangers.
Applications
 Most significant development of practical fiber optic communication system
 Optical fiber already use in long distance telecommunications.
 Military applications
 LANs
Characteristics of optical fiber
i) Greater capacity
 More bandwidth, more data rate of hundreds of Gbps over tens of kilometres
 For coaxial cable -> 100 (hundreds of) Mbps for 7 km
 For twisted pair -> Few Mbps over 1 km or upto 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps over few tens
of meters
ii) Smaller size & lighter weight
 Optical fibers are thinner than coaxial and twisted pair of cables
 For cramped conduits in buildings & underground along public right-of-way,
advantage of small size is considerable
 Corresponding reduction in weight reduces structural support requirements
iii) Lower attenuation
 Attenuation is significantly lower for optical fiber & constant over wide range
iv) Electromagnetic isolation
 Optical fiber systems are not affected by external electromagnetic fields
 Thus system is not vulnerable to interference, impulse noise or crosstalk
 Fibers do not radiate energy, so there is little interference with other equipment
 Fiber is inherently difficult to tap
v) Greater repeater spacing
 Fewer repeater means lower cost & fewer sources of error
 Repeater spacing is tens of kilometres for optical fiber is common
 Spacing of hundreds of kilometres have been demonstrated
 Coaxial & twisted pair have repeaters every few kilometres
Characteristic Applications
i) Long Haul Trunks
 Long haul transmission in telephone networks
 Long haul routes average about 1500 km in length & offer high capacity (20,000-
60,000 voice channels).
ii) Metropolitan trunks
 Metropolitan trunking circuits have an average length of 12km & may have as many
as 1,00,000 voice channels in trunk group.
 Most facilities are installed in underground conduits & are repeater less, joining
telephone exchanges in metropolitan or city area.
iii) Rural exchange trunks
 Rural exchange trunks have circuit length ranging from 40 to 160 km & link town to
villages
iv) Subscriber loops
 Subscriber loop circuit are fibers that run directly from central exchange to
subscriber
 Full service network capable of handling not only voice & data but also image and
video
v) LANs
 Standards have been developed & products introduced for optical fiber networks
that have total capacity of 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps & can support hundreds or even
thousands of stations in large office building or complex of buildings

Attenuation of typical guided media Composite Graph

Composite graph

Transmission Characteristics
 Optical fiber transmits a single-encoded beam of light by means of total internal
reflection
 Total internal reflection can occur in any transparent medium that has higher index
of refraction than surrounding medium
 Optical fiber acts as waveguide for frequencies in range of 10^14-10^15 Hz (Portion
of infrared and visible spectra)

Step Index Multimode

 Light from source enters the cylindrical glass or plastic core
 Rays at shallow angles are reflected & propagated along fiber; other rays are absorbed by
surrounding material. This form of propagation is step-Index Multimode


 It refers to variety of angles that will reflect
 With multimode transmission, multiple propagation paths exist, each with different path length
& hence time to traverse fiber
 This causes signal elements (pulses) to spread out in time, which limits rate at which data can be
accurately received.
 This type of fiber is best suited for transmission over very short distances

Single-Mode
 When fiber core radius is reduced, fewer angles will reflect
 By reducing radius of core to the order of wavelength, only a single angle or mode can pass;
coaxial ray
 This single mode propagation provides superior performance
 Distortion which is found in multimode cannot occur in single mode
 Used for long distance application (telephone & cable television)

Graded Index Multimode

 By varying index of refraction of the core a third type of transmission, known as graded index
multimode is possible
 This type is intermediate between other two in characteristics
 The higher refractive index at centre makes light rays moving down axis advance more slowly
than those near cladding
 Rather than zig sagging off the cladding light in core curves helically because of graded index,
reducing its travel distance
 The shortened path & higher speed allows light at periphery to arrive at receiver at about same
time as straight rays in core axis
 Graded index fibers are used in LANs
 Two different light sources are used in fiber optic systems
 LED (Light Emitting Diode)
 It is less costly, operates over a greater temperature range & has longer operational life
 ILD (Injection Laser Diode)
 It operates on laser principle, more efficient & can sustain greater data rates.

Wireless Transmission
 1 GHz – 40 GHz -> microwave frequency
 Microwave is suitable for point to point transmissions at these frequency highly directional
beams are possible.
 30 MHz to 1 GHz frequency-> range is suitable for omnidirectional application (radio range)
 Infrared portion of spectrum 3x1011 to 2x10^14^meters
 Useful for point to point & multiport (local) application within confined areas (single room)
 In wireless media, transmission & reception are achieved by means of an antenna.

Antennas
 Electrical conductor or system of conductors used either for radiating electromagnetic energy or
for collecting electromagnetic energy
 For transmission, electrical energy from transmitter is converted into electromagnetic energy by
antenna & radiated into surrounding environment
 Vice versa for reception
 Performance of antenna is radiation pattern which is graphical representation of an antenna as
function of space coordinates.
i) Isotropic Antenna
 (Idealized antenna) is point in space that radiates power in all directions equally
 Actual radiation pattern for isotropic antenna is a sphere with antenna at centre
ii) Parabolic Reflective antenna
 Generally used in terrestrial microwave & satellite application
 Parabola: is locus of all points equidistant from fixed line & a fixed point on a
line
 Fix point is focus & fix line is directrix.
 Antenna gain: measure of directionality of antenna
 Power output, in particular direction, compared to that produced in any direction by perfect
omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna)
 Effective area of an antenna-> is related to physical size of antenna & to its shape.
 Relation between effective area & antenna gain

Terrestrial Microwave
Physical Description
 Most common type of microwave antenna is parabolic dish
 Size is about 3m in diameter
 Antenna is fixed rigidly & focuses a narrow beam to achieve line of sight transmission, on to
receiving antenna
 Microwave antennas are located at substantial heights above ground level to extend the range
between antennas & to be able to transmit over intervening obstacles
 To achieve long distance transmission, series of microwave relay towers is used

Application
 Long haul communication service as an alternative to coaxial cable or optical fiber
 Microwave facility requires fewer amplifiers or repeaters than coaxial cable over same distance
but require line of sight transmission
 Used for both voice & television transmission
 Short point to point link between building
 Cellular Systems
 Short haul microwave can also be used for by pass application
(A business can establish, a microwave link to long distance telecommunication facility in same city,
by parsing local telephone company)

Transmission Characteristics
 Covers substantial portion of electromagnetic spectrum
 Frequency range is 1 to 40 GHz
 Higher frequency used, higher B and therefore higher data rate
 As with any transmission system, main source of loss is attenuation
 For microwave (& radio frequency) loss is


 d= distance
 Loss varies as square of distance
 In cables, loss varies exponentially with distance (linear in dB)
 Repeaters, Amplifiers may be placed further apart for microwave system 10-100 km
i) Attenuation is increased with rainfall – noticeable attenuation in rainfall is above 10 GHz
ii) Interference – with growing popularity of microwave, transmission areas overlap &
interference is always danger
 Assignment of frequency band is strictly regulated
i) For long haul telecommunication system – 4 GHz to 6 GHz band (11GHz is used due to
congestion)
ii) For cable TV system – 12 GHz band
iii) Short point to point link – High frequency band 22 GHz is used
 For higher frequency, antennas are smaller & cheaper

Satellite Microwave
Physical description
 Communication satellite is, microwave relay station
 It is used to link 2 or more ground based stations.
 Satellite receives transmission on one frequency band (uplink), amplifies or repeats the signal &
transmits it on another frequency (downlink)
 A single orbiting satellite can operate on number of frequency bands (transponder
channels/transponders)
 For proper functioning of satellite for communications it is required that it remain stationary
with respect to its position over earth.
 Otherwise it would not be within line of sight of its earth stations at all times
 To remain stationary, satellite must have a period of rotation equal to earth’s period of rotation.
 This match occurs at height of 35863km at equator
 If two satellite using same frequency band, if close enough together, interference with each
other, to avoid standard require -4 degree spacing in 4/6 GHz band & 3 degree spacing at 12/14
GHz
Applications
 Television distribution
 Long haul telephone transmission
 Private business networks
 Programs are transmitted to satellite & then broadcast down to number of stations, which then
distribute programs to individual viewers.
 PBS (Public Broadcasting Service)- distributes television programming almost exclusively by use
of satellite channels
 DBS (Direct Broadcasting Satellite)- video signals are transmitted directly to home user
 Satellite providers can divide total capacity into number of channels & lease these channels to
individual business users.
 User equipped with antennas at number of sites, can use a satellite channel for private network

VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal)

 System provides low cost alternatives, low cost VSAT antenna

Transmission Characteristics
 Frequency range (optimum) for satellite is 1 to 10 GHz
 Below 1 GHz – there is significant noise from natural sources, including galactic, solar &
atmospheric noise & human made interference from various electronic devices.
 Above 10 GHz – signal is attenuated to atmospheric absorption & precipitation
 Most satellite providing point to point service today use frequency band
 -5.925 to 6.425 GHz (uplink) earth to satellite & 3.7 to 4.2 GHz (downlink) satellite to earth
 Combination is referred to as 4/6 GHz band
 For continuous operation without interference a satellite can’t transmit & receive on same
frequency

Terrestrial Microwave
 12(d)/14(u) GHz band
 Uplink 14 to 14.5 GHz Once saturated 20/30 GHz -> 27.5 to 30 GHz
Downlink 11.7 to 12.2 GHz to 17.7 – 20.20 GHz
 Because of long distances, there is propagation delay of about quarter second from transmission
from one earth station to reception by another station

Broadcast Radio
Physical Description
 Broadcast radio is omnidirectional & microwave is directional
 Broadcast radio does not require dish shaped antennas & antennas need not be rigidly mounted
to a precise alignment

Application
 Radio is general term used to encompass frequency in range of 3 KHz to 300 GHz
 Broadcast radio covers VHF & past of UHF band; 30 MHz to 1 GHz
 This range covers FM radio & UHF & VHF television
 Range is also used for data networking application

Transmission Characteristics
 Range 30 MHz to 1 GHz is an effective one for broadcast communication
 Broadcast radio waves are less sensitive to attenuation from rainfall
 As in microwave, amount of attenuation due to distance obeys equation

 Because of longer wavelength, radio waves suffer relatively less attenuation

Sources Of Impairment
1) Multipath interference
2) Reflection from land, water, natural or human made objects, can create multipath between
antennas (ex TV reception displays multiple images as airplane parses by)

Infrared
 Infrared communication is achieved using transmitter/receivers (transreceiver) that modulate
non coherent infrared light
 Transreceiver must be within a line of sight of each other directly or via reflection from light
coloured surface such as ceiling of room
 Infrared does not penetrate wall, thus security & interference problem encountered in
microwave systems are not present.
 There is no frequency allocation issue with infrared, because no licensing is required.
UNIT II
Data Communication Interface
 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
 Line Configuration
 Interfacing

Data link controls

 Flow control
 Error detection
 Error control
 HDLC
 Other data link control protocols
 Performance issues
DATA COMMUNICATION INTERFACE,

DATA LINK CONTROL

 Transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.
 Serial transmission of data means data is transferred over a single patch rather than parallel set of
lines.
 With serial transmission signaling elements are sent down the line one at a time.

Data Transmissiom

Serial Parallel

Synchronous Asynchronous

Parallel Transmission:
 m/sm for parallel transmission is conceptually simple one.
 Use n wires to send n-bits at one time. Each bit has its own wire , and all n bits of a group can be
transmitted with each clock track from one device to another.
 If n=8(data bits)
 Eight wires are bounded in a cable with a connector at each end.

 Fig: Parallel transmission

 Advantage: Parallel transmission can increase transfer speed by a factor of n over serial
transmission.
 Disadvantage: Requires n-communication lines just to transmit bit stream.
 -Limited to short distances.
Serial Transmission
 In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication rather than n
to transmit data between two communication devices.

 Fig: Serial Transmission

Asynchronous Transmission
 In Asynchronous Transmission timing of signal is not important. Information is received and
transmitted upon by agreed upon patterns.
 Pattern is based up on grouping of the bit straight into bytes.
 In each group usually 8-bits are sent along the link as a unit.
 Sending system handles each group independently without regard to a timer.
 Without Synchronization receiver can’t use timing to predict when the next group will arrive.
 To alert the receiver the arrival of new group, extra bits were added. We send a bit(0)at beginning
and one or more step bits (1’s) at end of each byte.
 There may be gap between each byte. Gap can be represented either by an idle channel or a
stream of additional step bits.
 This mechanism is called asynchronous because, at the byte level sender and receiver need not
have to be synchronized.
o Fig: Asynchronous transfer

 Advantages: cheap effective units.

 Disadvantages: less speed.

Synchronous Transmission
 In synchronous transmission bit stream is combined into longer frames which may contain
multiple bytes.
 We send(Frames) bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps.
 It is responsibility of the receiver to group bits into bytes for decoding purpose.

Fig: Synchronous Transfer

 If sender wishes to send data in separate bursts, gaps between bursts must be filled with a special
sequence of 0’s and 1’s,which means idle.
 Advantages: speed
 With synchronous transmission there is another level of synchronization required to allow the
receiver to determine the beginning and end of a block of data.
 Each block begins with a preamble bit pattern and generally ends with a postamble bit pattern.
 Data plus preamble, postamble and control information is called a frame.
 typically Frames start with preamble called flag which is eight bit long. Same flag is used as
postamble.

Line configuration:
 Two characteristics that distinguish various data link configuration are:

i) Topology ii) Type of link –Half duplex or Full duplex

Topology:
 The topology of a data link refers to the physical arrangement of stations on a trans-mission
medium.
 If there are only two stations (e.g., a terminal and a computer or two computers), the link is point
to point.
 If there are more than two stations, then it is a multipoint topology.
 If each terminal has a point-to-point link to its computer, then the computer must have one I/O
port for each terminal.
 Also there is a separate transmission line from the computer to each terminal. In a multipoint
configuration, the computer needs only a single I/O port and a single transmission line, which
saves costs.

Fig: Traditional Computer/Terminal Configurations

Full Duplex and Half Duplex:

 Data exchanges over a transmission line can be classified as full duplex or half duplex.
 With half-duplex transmission, only one of two stations on a point-to-point link may transmit at a
time. This mode is also referred to as two-way alternate.
This can be compared to a one-lane, two-way bridge.
 In full-duplex transmission, two stations can simultaneously send and receive data from each
other. Thus, this mode is known as two-way simultaneous and may be compared to a two-lane,
two-way bridge. With digital signaling, which requires guided transmission, full-duplex operation
usually requires two separate transmission paths (e.g., two twisted pairs), while half duplex
requires only one.

Interfacing:
 With digital data processing devices have limited data processing capability. Typically, they
generate simple digital signal, such as NRZ-L and DCE, across which they can transmit data is
limited. Consequently it is rare for such a device to attach directly to a transmission or a
networking facility.
DTE: (data terminal equipment)- Includes terminals and computers. DTE makes use of
transmission system through the mediation of data circuit terminating equipment (DCE).
Ex of DCE is modem
 The DCE is responsible for transmitting and receiving bits, one at a time, over
 a transmission medium or network.
 This requires both data and control information to be exchanged. This is done over a set of wires
referred to as interchange circuits.
 The two DCEs that exchange signals over the transmission line or network must understand each
other. That is, the receiver of each must use the same encoding scheme (e.g., Manchester, PSK)
and data rate as the transmitter of the other.
 Each DTE-DCE pair must be designed to interact cooperatively.

 To ease the burden on data processing equipment manufacturers and users, standards have been
developed that specify the exact nature of the interface between the DTE and the DCE.
 Such an interface has four important characteristics:
• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Functional
• Procedural

Mechanical Characteristics:
 The mechanical characteristics pertain to the actual physical connection of the DTE to the DCE.
 the signal and control interchange circuits are bundled into a cable with a terminator connector,
male or female, at each end.
 The DTE and DCE must present connectors of opposite genders at one end of the cable, effecting
the physical connection.
 This is analogous to the situation for residential electrical power. Power is provided via a socket
or wall outlet, and the device to be attached must have the appropriate male connector (two-
pronged, two-pronged polarized, or three-pronged) to match the socket.

Electrical Characteristics:
 The electrical characteristics deals with the voltage levels and timing of voltage changes.
 Both DTE and DCE must use the same code (e.g., NRZ-L), must use the same voltage levels to
mean the same things, and must use the same duration of signal elements. These characteristics
determine the data rates and distances that can be achieved.

Functional Characteristics:
 Functional characteristics specify the functions that are performed by assigning meanings to each
of the interchange circuits.
 Functions can be classified into the broad categories of data, control, timing, and electrical
ground.

Procedural Characteristics:
 Procedural characteristics specify the sequence of events for transmitting data, based on the
functional characteristics of the interface.
 Two main standard interfaces are:
 V.24/EIA-232-F
 ISDN Physical Interface.

V.24/EIA-232-F
 One of the most widely used interfaces is specified in the ITU-T standard, V.24. In fact, this
standard specifies only the functional and procedural aspects of the interface; V.24 references
other standards for the electrical and mechanical aspects.
 In the United States, there is a corresponding specification, virtually identical, that covers all four
aspects: EIA-232-F.
 The correspondence is as follows:
• Mechanical: ISO 2110
• Electrical: V.28
• Functional: V.24
• Procedural V.24
 EIA-232 was first issued by the Electronic Industries Alliance in 1962, as RS-232. It is currently
in its sixth revision, EIA-232-F, issued in 1997. The current V.24 and V.28 specifications were
issued in 1996 and 1993, respectively.
 This interface is used to connect DTE devices to voice-grade modems for use on public analog
telecommunications systems. It is also widely used for many other interconnection applications.
Mechanical Specifications:

 The mechanical specification for EIA-232-F is illustrated in Figure above. It calls for a 25-pin
connector, defined in ISO 2110, with a specific arrangement of leads.
 This connector is the terminating plug or socket on a cable running from a DTE (e.g., terminal) or
DCE (e.g., modem).
 Though a 25-wire cable could be used to connect the DTE to the DCE, many applications require
far fewer wires.

Electrical Specifications:
 The electrical specification defines the signaling between DTE and DCE. Digital signaling is used
on all interchange circuits. Depending on the function of the interchange circuit, the electrical
values are interpreted either as binary data or as control signals.
 The convention specifies that, with respect to a common ground, a voltage more negative than –3
volts is interpreted as binary 1 and a voltage more positive than +3 volts is interpreted as binary 0.
This is the NRZ-L code. The interface is rated at a signal rate of <20 kbps and a distance of <15
meters.
 The same voltage levels apply to control signals: a voltage more negative than –3 volts is
interpreted as an OFF condition and a voltage more positive than +3 volts is interpreted as an ON
condition.

Functional Specifications:
 Table below summarizes the functional specification of the interchange circuits
 The circuits can be grouped into the categories of data, control, timing, and ground.
 There is one data circuit in each direction, so full duplex operation is possible. In addition, there
are two secondary data circuits that are useful when the device operates in a half-duplex fashion.
 There are 16 control circuits. The first 10 of these listed in Table relate to the transmission of data
over the primary channel.
 For asynchronous transmission, six of these circuits are used (105, 106, 107, 108.2, 125, 109).
 In addition to these six circuits, three other control circuits are used in synchronous transmission.
 The Signal Quality Detector circuit is turned ON by the DCE to indicate that the quality of the
incoming signal over the telephone line has deteriorated beyond some defined threshold.
 The Data Signal Rate Selector circuits are used to change speeds; either the DTE or DCE may
initiate the change.
 Circuit 133 enables a receiver to turn the flow of data on circuit 104 on and off.
 The next three control circuits (120, 121, 122) are used to control the use of the secondary
channel, which may be used as a reverse channel or for some other auxiliary purpose.
 The last group of control signals relates to loopback testing. These circuits allow the DTE to
cause the DCE to perform a loopback test. These circuits are only valid if the modem or other
DCE supports loopback control.
 Local loopback: In the local loopback function, the transmitter output of the modem is connected
to the receiver input, disconnecting the modem from the transmission line.
 A stream of data generated by the user device is sent to the modem and looped back to the user
device.
 Remote loopback: the local modem is connected to the transmission facility in the usual fashion,
and the receiver output of the remote modem is connected to the modem's transmitter input.
 Loopback control is a useful fault isolation tool. For example, suppose that a user at a personal
computer is communicating with a server by means of a modem connection and communication
suddenly ceases. The problem could be with the local modem, the communications facility, the
remote modem, or the remote server.
 A network manager can use loopback tests to isolate the fault.
• Table: Loopback Circuit Settings for V.24/EIA-232

Fig: Local and Remote loopback

Procedural Specifications:
 The procedural specification defines the sequence in which the various circuits are used for a
particular application.
 Examples:
 For connecting two devices over a short distance within a building. It is known as an
asynchronous private line modem, or a limited distance modem.
 The limited distance modem accepts digital signals from a DTE, such as a terminal or computer,
converts these to analog signals, and then transmits these over a short length of medium, such as
twisted pair.
 On the other end of the line is another limited distance modem, which accepts the incoming
analog signals, converts them to digital, and passes them on to another terminal or computer.
 The exchange of data is two way.
 The following interchange circuits are actually required:
• Signal Ground (102)
• Transmitted Data (103)
• Received Data (104)
• Request to Send (105)
• Clear to Send (106)
• DCE Ready (107)
• Received line Signal Detector (109)

 The circuits just listed are sufficient for private line point-to-point modems, but additional circuits
are required to use a modem to transmit data over the telephone network.
 In this case, the initiator of a connection must call the destination device over the network. Two
additional leads are required:
• DTE Ready (108.2)
• Ring Indicator (125)
 With the addition of these two lines, the DTE-modem system can effectively use the telephone
network in a way analogous to voice telephone usage.

 Following figures depicts the steps involved in dial-up half-duplex operation.

ISDN Physical Interface:

 The wide variety of functions available with V.24/EIA-232 is provided by the use of a large
number of interchange circuits. This is a rather expensive way to achieve results.
 An alternative would be to provide fewer circuits but to add more logic at the DTE and DCE
interfaces.
 This approach reduces costs of logic circuitry.
 This approach was taken in the X.21 standard for interfacing to public circuit-switched networks,
specifying a 15-pin connector.
 More recently, the trend has been carried further with the specification of an 8-pin physical
connector to an Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).
 ISDN is an all-digital replacement for existing public telephone and analog telecommunications
networks.

Physical Connections:
 In ISDN terminology, a physical connection is made between terminal equipment (TE) and
network-terminating equipment (NT).
 These terms correspond, rather closely, to DTE and DCE, respectively.
 The physical connection, defined in ISO 8877, specifies that the NT and TE cables shall
terminate in matching connectors that provide for eight contacts.
 In a typical application, it may be desirable to provide for power transfer from the network side
toward the terminal to, for example, maintain a basic telephony service in the event of failure of
the locally provided power.
 This power transfer can be accomplished using the same leads used for digital signal transmission
(c, d, e, f), or on additional wires, using access leads g-h.
 The remaining two leads are not used in the ISDN configuration but may be useful in other
configurations.

Electrical connections:
 The ISDN electrical specification dictates the use of balanced transmission. With balanced
transmission, signals are carried on a line, such as twisted pair, consisting of two conductors.
 Signals are transmitted as a current that travels down one conductor and returns on the other, the
two conductors forming a complete circuit.
 For digital signals, this technique is known as differential signaling,1 as the binary value depends
on the direction of the voltage difference between the two conductors.
 Unbalanced transmission, which is used on older interfaces such as EIA-232, uses a single
conductor to carry the signal, with ground providing the return path.
 Figure below shows contact assignments for each of eight lines on both NT and TE sides.
 Two pins are used to provide data transmission in each direction. These contact pins are used to
connect twisted pair leads coming from NT and TE devices.
 Because there are no specific functional circuits, transmit/receive circuits are used to carry both
data and control signals.
 Control information is framed in the form of messages.
 Specifications provides for capability to transfer power across interface.
 Direction of power depends on application.
 The balanced mode tolerates more, and produces less, noise than unbalanced mode.
 The data encoding format used on the ISDN interface depends on the data rate. For the basic rate
of 192 kbps, the standard specifies the use of pseudo ternary coding.
 Binary one is represented by the absence of voltage, and binary zero is represented by a positive
or negative pulse of 750 mV ±10%.
 For the primary rate, there are two options:
 1.544 Mbps using alternate mark inversion (AMI) with B8ZS (Figure 5.6)
 2.048 Mbps using AMI with HDB3.

Null Modems:

 If the distances between devices are so close as to allow two DTEs to signal each other directly.
In this case, the V.24/EIA-232 interchange circuits can still be used, but no DCE equipment is
provided.
 For this scheme to work, a null modem is needed, which interconnects leads in such a way as to
fool both DTEs into thinking that they are connected to modems.
Fig: Example of a Null Modem

Types of Errors:
 In digital transmission system,an error occurs when a bit is altered between transmission and
reception; i.e. binary 1 is transmitted and binary 0 is received or vice versa.
 Two types of errors can occur i.e. single bit error and burst error.
 Single bit error does not affect nearby bits;it is isolated one.
 A burst error of length B is contiguous sequence of B bits in which the first and last bits and any
number of intermediate bits are received in error.

Error Detection:
 Regardless of design of transmission system,there will be errors,resulting in change of one or
more bits in a transmitted frame.We assume that data are transmitted as one or more contiguous
sequence of bits,called frames.
 We define these probabilities w.r.t. errors in transmitted frames.
 Pb:Probability that bit is received with error(BER).

 P1: Probability that frame arrives with no bit errors.

 P2: Probability that, with error-detection also, a frame arrives with undetected errors.
 P3: Probability, with an error undetected also in use, frame arrives with one or more detected bit-
errors.
 First consider the case in which no means are taken to detect errors. Then the probability of
detected errors(P3) is zero.
 To express the remaining probabilities, assume the probability that any bit is in error is constant
and independent for
 each bit. Then we have
P1 = (1 – Pb)F
P2=1-P1
Where F is the number of bits per frame.
 The probability that frame arrives with no bit errors decreases when the probability of a single bit
error increases.
 The probability that a frame arrives with no bit errors decreases with increasing frame length; the
longer the frame, the more bits it has and the higher the probability that one of these is in error.
 This is the kind of result that motivates the use of error-detecting techniques.
 All of these techniques operate on the following principle.

Fig: Error detection process

 For a given frame of bits, additional bits that constitute an error-detecting code are added by the
transmitter.
 This code is calculated as a function of the other transmitted bits.
 For a data block of k bits, the error-detecting algorithm yields an error-detecting code of n - k
bits, where (n-k)<k.
 The error-detecting code, also referred to as the check bits, is appended to the data block to
produce a frame of n bits, which is then transmitted.
 The receiver separates the incoming frame into the k bits of data and (n-k) bits of the error-
detecting code.
 The receiver performs the same error-detecting, calculation on the data bits and compares this
value with the value of the incoming error-detecting code.
 A detected error occurs if and only if there is a mismatch.

Parity Check
 The simplest error-detecting scheme is to append a parity bit to the end of a block of data.
 The value of parity bit is selected so that the character has aneven number of 1s (even parity) or
an odd number of 1s (odd parity).
 Note, however, that if two (or any even number) of bits are inverted due to error, an undetected
error occurs.
 Typically, even parity is used for synchronous transmission and odd parity for asynchronous
transmission.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 One of the most common, and one of the most powerful, error-detecting codes is the cyclic
redundancy check (CRC).
 Given k-bit block of bits, or message, the transmitter generates an (n-k) bit sequence, known as a
frame check sequence (FCS), such that the resulting frame, consisting of n bits is exactly divisible
by some predetermined number.
 The receiver then divides the incoming frame by that number and, if there is no remainder,
assumes there was no error.
 To clarify this, various procedures are there:
i) Modulo 2 Arithmetic.
ii) Polynomials.
iii) Digital Logic.

Modulo 2 Arithmetic
 Modulo 2 arithmetic uses binary addition with no carries,which is just the exclusive-OR (XOR)
operation.
 Binary subtraction with no carries is also interpreted as the XOR operation.
 For example,
1111 1111 11001
+1010 -0101 * 11

0101 1010 11001

11001
101011
Now define

T = n-bit frame to be transmitted

D = k-bit block of data, or message, the first k bits of T
F = (n – k)-bit FCS, the last (n – k) bits of T
P = pattern of n - k + 1 bits; this is the predetermined divisor.
 We would like T/P to have no remainder. It should be clear that
T = 2n-k.D+ F
 That is, by multiplying D by 2n-k,we have in effect shifted it to the left by (n-k) bits and padded
out the result with zeroes.
 Adding F yields the concatenation of D and F, which is T.
 We want T to be exactly divisible by P.
 Suppose that we divide 2n-k.D by P:

2n-k.D =Q+R -----------------------(1)

P P
 There is a quotient and a remainder. Because division is modulo 2, the remainder is always at
least one bit shorter than the divisor.
 We will use this remainder as our FCS.
Then T=2n-k.D+R

 Does this R satisfy our condition that T/P has no remainder?

 To see that it does,
 Consider

T = 2n-k.D+R = 2n-k.D + R
P P P P

 Substituting in Equation (1), we have

T=Q+R+R
P P P

 Any binary number added to itself modulo 2 yields zero. Thus

T = Q + R+R = Q
P P

 Thus, there is no remainder, and therefore T is exactly divisible by P.

 Thus, the FCS is easily generated:
 Simply divide 2n-k.D by P and use (n-k) bit remainder as the FCS.
 On reception, the receiver will divide T by P and will get no remainder if there have been no
errors.

 EXAMPLE:
 Given
o Message D = 1010001101 (10 bits)
o Pattern P = 110101 (6 bits)
o FCS R = to be calculated (5 bits)
 Thus, n = 15, k = 10, (n–k)= 5.
 The message is multiplied by 25 , yielding 101000110100000.
 This product is divided by P:

 The remainder is added to 25 .D to give T=101000110101110 which is transmitted.

 If there are no errors, the receiver receives T intact. The received frame is divided by P.
 Because there is no remainder, it is assumed that there have been no errors.
 The pattern P is chosen to be one bit longer than the desired FCS, and exact bit pattern chosen
depends on the type of errors expected.
 At minimum, both the high- and low-order bits of P must be 1.

Polynomials
 A second way of viewing the CRC process is to express all values as polynomials in a dummy
variable X, with binary coefficients.
 The coefficients correspond to the bits in the binary number.
Thus, for D = 110011 we have
 D(X) = X5+X4+X+1
and for P = 11001 we have P(X)= X4+X3+1
 Arithmetic operations are again modulo 2.The CRC process can now be described as
Xn-k.D(X) = Q(X) + R(X)
P(X) P(X)

T(X) = Xn-k.D(X) + R(X)

EXAMPLE:
 Using the preceding example, for D = 1010001101,we have
D(X) = X9+X7+X3 +X2+1.
For P = 110101,we have P(X) = X5+X4+X2+1.
 We should end up with R = 01110 which corresponds to
R(X) = X3 +X2+X.
 An error E(X) will only be undetectable if it is divisible by P(X).
 Following errors are not divisible by a suitably chosen P(X) and hence are detectable:
o All single-bit errors, if P(X) has more than one nonzero term.
o All double-bit errors, as long as P(X) is a special type of polynomial, called a primitive
polynomial.
 (iii)Any odd number of errors.
 (iv)Any burst error for which the length of the burst is less than or equal to n – k (FCS).
 Four versions of P(X) are widely used
CRC-12 = x12+x11+x3+x2+x+1
CRC-16 = x16+x15+x2+1
CRC-CCITT = x16+ x12+x5+1
CRC-32 = x32+x26+x23+x22+ x16+ x12+x11+x10+x8+x7+x5+x4+ x2+x+1

 The CRC-12 system is used for transmission of streams of 6-bit characters and generates a 12-bit
FCS.
 Both CRC-16 and CRC-CCITT are used for 8-bit characters,
 in the United States and Europe, respectively, and both result in a 16-bit FCS.
 CRC-32 is specified as an option in some point-to-point synchronous transmission standards and
is used in IEEE 802 LAN standards.

 Digital Logic
 The CRC process can be represented by, and indeed implemented as, a dividing circuit consisting
of XOR gates and a shift register.
 The shift register is a string of 1-bit storage devices.
 Each device has an output line, which indicates the value currently stored, and an input line.
 At clock times, the value in the storage device is replaced by the value indicated by its input line.
 The entire register is clocked simultaneously, causing a 1-bit
 shift along the entire register.
 The circuit is implemented as follows:
 The register contains n-k bits, equal to the length of the FCS.
 There are up to n-k XOR gates.
 The presence or absence of XOR gate corresponds to the presence or absence of a term in the
divisor polynomial, P(X), excluding the terms 1 and Xn-k.

Data D = 1010001101 D(X) = x9+x7+x3+x2+1

Divisor P = 110101 P(X) = x5+x4+ x2+1
Fig: Circuit with shift registers for dividing by the polynomial
X5 + X4 + X2 + 1

Data Link Controls

 To send data over data communication link, control logic is added above physical interfacing
called data link control or data link control protocol.
 When data link control protocol is used transmission medium between systems is referred to a
data link.
 To see the need for data link control, we list some of the requirements and objectives for effective
data communication between two directly connected transmitting-receiving stations:
 Frame synchronization: Data are sent in blocks called frames. The beginning and end of each
frame must be recognizable. We briefly introduced this topic with the discussion of synchronous
frames.
• Flow control: The sending station must not send frames at a rate faster than the receiving
station can absorb them.
• Error control: Bit errors introduced by the transmission system should be corrected.
• Addressing: On a shared link, such as a local area network (LAN), the identity of the
two stations involved in a transmission must be specified.
 Control and data on same link: It is usually not desirable to have a physically separate
communications path for control information. Accordingly, the receiver must be able to
distinguish control information from the data being transmitted.
 Link management: The initiation, maintenance, and termination of a sustained data exchange
require a fair amount of coordination and cooperation among stations. Procedures for the
management of this exchange are required.
 None of these requirements is satisfied by the techniques
 a data link protocol satisfies these requirements.
 Two key mechanisms that are part of data link control:
flow control and error control.

 Flow Control

 Flow control is a technique for assuring that a transmitting entity does not overwhelm a receiving
entity with data.
 The receiving entity typically allocates a data buffer of some maximum length for a transfer.
 When data are received, the receiver must do a certain amount of processing before passing the
data to the higher-level software. In the absence of flow control, the receiver’s buffer may fill up
and overflow while it is processing old data.
 The model we will see is a vertical-time sequence diagram, showing time dependencies and
illustrating the correct send-receive relationship.
 Each arrow represents a single frame transiting a data link between two stations.The data are sent
in a sequence of frames, with each frame containing a portion of the data and some control
information.
 Transmission time: The time it takes for a station to emit all of the bits of a frame onto the
medium is the transmission time. This is proportional to the length of the frame.
 Propagation time: The propagation time is the time it takes for a bit to traverse the link between
source and destination.

Fig: Model of Frame Transmission

Stop-and-Wait Flow Control

 A source entity transmits a frame. After the destination entity receives the frame, it indicates its
willingness to accept another frame by sending back an acknowledgment to the frame just
received.
 The source must wait until it receives the acknowledgment before sending the next frame. The
destination can thus stop the flow of data simply by withholding acknowledgment.
 A source will break up a large block of data into smaller blocks and transmit the data in many
frames. This is done for the following reasons:
 The buffer size of the receiver may be limited.
• The longer the transmission, the more likely that there will be an error, necessitating
retransmission of the entire frame. With smaller frames, errors are detected sooner, and a
smaller amount of data needs to be retransmitted.
• On a shared medium, such as a LAN, it is usually desirable not to permit one station to
occupy the medium for an extended period, thus causing long delays at the other sending
stations.
 With the use of multiple frames for a single message, the stop-and-wait procedure may be
inadequate. The essence of the problem is that only one frame at a time can be in transit. To
explain we first define the bit length of a link as follows:

B= length of the link in bits; this is the number of bits present on the link at an instance in time
when a stream of bits fully occupies the link
V = velocity of propagation, in m/s
d = length, or distance, of the link in meters
R = data rate of the link, in bps

 In situations where the bit length of the link is greater than the frame length, serious inefficiencies
result.

Fig: Stop and wait link utilization

we can express a as

where L is the number of bits in the frame (length of the frame in bits).
 When a is less than 1, the propagation time is less than the transmission time. In this case, the
frame is sufficiently long that the first bits of the frame have arrived at the destination before the
source has completed the transmission of the frame.

 When a is greater than 1, the propagation time is greater than the transmission time. In this case,
the sender completes transmission of the entire frame before the leading bits of that frame arrive
at the receiver.

SLIDING AND FLOW CONTROL

 Efficiency of transmission can be greatly improved by allowing multiple frames to be in transit at

the same time.
 Let us examine how this might work for two stations, A and B, connected via a full-duplex link
 Station B allocates buffer space for W frames. Thus, B can accept W frames, and A is allowed to
send W frames without waiting for any acknowledgments
 To keep track of which frames have been acknowledged, each is labeled with a sequence number
B acknowledges a frame by sending an acknowledgment that includes the sequence number of
the next frame expected
 This acknowledgment also implicitly announces that B is prepared to receive the next W frames,
beginning with the number specified
 This scheme can also be used to acknowledge multiple frames
 B could receive frames 2, 3, and 4 but withhold acknowledgement until frame 4 has arrived. By
then returning an acknowledgment with sequence number 5, B acknowledges frames 2, 3, and 4
at one time.
 A maintains a list of sequence numbers that it is allowed to send, and B maintains a list of
sequence numbers that it is prepared to receive.
 Each of these lists can be thought of as a window of frames.
 The operation is referred to as sliding-window flow control.
 Several additional comments need to be made. Because the sequence number to be used occupies
a field in the frame, it is of bounded size
 For example, for a 3-bit field, the sequence number can range from 0 to 7.Accordingly,frames are
numbered modulo 8;that is, after sequence number 7,the next number is 0
 For a k-bit field the range of sequence numbers is 0 to 2k-1 and frames are numbered modulo
2k.Maximum window size is 2k-1.
 Figure shows a way of depicting sliding-window process. It assumes 3-bit sequence no, so frames
are numbered sequence from 0-7 and then same numbers are reused for subsequent frames.
o
 Shaded rectangles indicates frames that may be sent
 Each time a frame is sent, the shaded window shrinks; each time an acknowledgement is
recorded, shaded window grows
 Frames between vertical bar and shaded window have been sent but not yet acknowledged
 Sender must buffer these frames in case they need to be retransmitted.
 Example is shown below

 Sliding window flow control is potentially much more efficient than stop-and-wait flow control.
 As with sliding window flow control, transmission link is treated as pipeline that may be filled
with frames in transit.
 In stop-and-wait, only one frame may be in the pipe at a time.
 Example assumes a 3-bit sequence number field and a maximum window size of seven frames.
 Initially, A and B have windows indicating that A may transmit seven frames, beginning with
frame 0 (F0).
 After transmitting three frames (F0, F1, F2) without acknowledgment, A has shrunk its window
to four frames and maintains a copy of the three transmitted frames. The window indicates that A
may transmit four frames, beginning with frame number 3.
 B then transmits an RR (receive ready) 3,which means “I have received all frames up through
frame number 2 and am ready to receive frame number 3 and am prepared to receive seven
frames, beginning with frame number 3.”
 A may discard the buffered frames as acknowledgment has been received for them.
 A Proceeds to transmit frames 3, 4, 5, and 6.
 B returns RR 4, which acknowledges F3, and allows transmission of F4.
 By the time this RR reaches A, it has already transmitted F4, F5, and F6, and therefore A may
only open its window to permit sending four frames beginning with F7.
 The mechanism so far described provides a form of flow control.
 Most protocols also allow a station to cut off the flow of frames from the other side by sending a
Receive Not Ready (RNR) message.
 RNR 5 means “I have received all frames up through number 4 but am unable to accept any
more.”
 We have discussed transmission in one direction only. If two stations exchange data, each needs
to maintain two windows, one for transmit and one for receive, and each side needs to send the
data and acknowledgments to the other.
 To support this requirement, a feature known as piggybacking is provided.
 Each data frame includes a field that holds the sequence number of that frame plus a field that
holds the sequence number used for acknowledgment.
 If a station has data to send and an acknowledgment to send, it sends both together in one frame,
saving communication capacity.
 If a station has an acknowledgment but no data to send,it sends a separate acknowledgment
frame.
 If a station has data to send but no new acknowledgment to send, it must repeat the last
acknowledgment sequence number that it sent.
 Receiving stations ignores repeated acknowledgment of frames.
 ERROR CONTROL
 Error control refers to mechanisms to detect and correct errors that occur in the transmission of
frames.
 data are sent as a sequence of frames;
 frames arrive in the same order in which they are sent and potentially variable amount of delay
before reception.
 There is the possibility of two types of errors:
 Lost frame: A frame fails to arrive at the other side.For example,a noise burst may damage a
frame to the extent that the receiver is not aware that a frame has been transmitted.
 Damaged frame: Some of the frame bits are in error (have been altered during transmission).
 Error detection techniques are based on the following aspects:
 Error detection:
 Positive acknowledgment: The destination returns a positive acknowledgment for error-free
frames.
 Retransmission after timeout: The source retransmits a frame that has not been acknowledged
after timeout.
 Negative acknowledgment and retransmission: The destination returns a negative
acknowledgment to frames and the source retransmits such frames.
 Collectively, these mechanisms are all referred to as automatic repeat request (ARQ).
 Three versions of ARQ have been standardized.

1)Stop-and-wait ARQ:
 This is based on the stop-and-wait flow control technique.
 The source station transmits a single frame and then must await an acknowledgment (ACK).
 No other data frames are sent until the destination station’s reply arrives in the form of an
acknowledgment at the source station.
 Two sorts of errors could occur.
 I)The frame that arrives at the destination is damaged.
 The receiver detects this by using the error-detection technique referred to earlier and discards the
frame.
 To overcome this, the source station is equipped with a timer.
 After a frame is transmitted, the source station waits for an acknowledgment. If no
acknowledgment is received by the time that the timer expires, then the same frame is sent again.
 For this, source station should maintain a copy of a transmitted frame until an acknowledgment is
received.
 II)Acknowledgment is damaged.
 Station A sends a frame.
 The frame is received correctly by station B.
 Station B responds with an acknowledgment (ACK).
 The ACK is damaged in transit and is not recognizable by A.
 Now ,after time out at A,A will resend the same frame.
 This will make duplicate copies of frames at the receiver side.
 B has accepted two copies of the same frame as if they were separate.
 To avoid this problem,
 Frames are alternately labeled with 0 or 1, and positive acknowledgments are of the form
ACK0 and ACK1.
 According to sliding window flow control ACK0-means received frame 1 and ready to receive
frame 0.
 Figure shows example of Stop and wait ARQ

 Fig: Stop and wait ARQ

 Principle advantage of Stop and wait ARQ is its simplicity and disadvantage is that its inefficient
mechanism.
 Sliding window flow control technique can be adapted to provide efficient line use.

2)Go Back N ARQ:

 Error control based on sliding-window flow control that is most commonly used is called go-
back-N ARQ.
 In this method, a station may send a series of frames sequentially numbered modulo some
maximum value.
 The number of unacknowledged frames outstanding is determined by window size, using the
sliding window flow control technique.
 While no errors occur, the destination will acknowledge incoming frames as usual.
 If the destination station detects an error in a frame, it may send a negative acknowledgment for
that frame (REJ=reject) for the frame.
 The destination station will discard that frame and all future incoming frames until the frame in
error is correctly received.
 Thus, the source station, when it receives a REJ, must retransmit the frame in error plus all
succeeding frames that were transmitted in the interim.
 Example
o Suppose that station A is sending frames to station B.
o After each transmission, A sets an acknowledgment timer for the frame just transmitted.
o Suppose that B has previously successfully received frame and A has just transmitted
frame i.
 The go-back-N technique takes into account the following contingencies:

Damaged frame:
 If the received frame is invalid (i.e., B detects an error, or the frame is so damaged that B does not
even perceive that it has received a frame)
 B discards the frame and takes no further action as the result of that frame. There are two sub
cases:
o Within a reasonable period of time, A subsequently sends frame(i+1)
o B receives frame (i+1) out of order and sends a REJ i.
o A must retransmit frame i and all subsequent frames.
o A does not soon send additional frames. B receives nothing and returns neither an RR nor
a REJ.
o When A’s timer expires, it transmits an RR frame that includes a bit known as the P bit,
which is set to 1.
o B interprets the RR frame with a P bit of 1 as a command that must be acknowledged by
sending an RR indicating the next frame that it expects, which is frame i.
 When A receives the RR, it retransmits frame i. Alternatively, A could just
retransmit frame i when its timer expires.
Damaged RR:
 There are two sub cases:
o B receives frame i and sends RR (i+1) which suffers an error in transit.
o Because acknowledgments are cumulative (e.g., RR 6 means that all frames through 5 are
acknowledged),it may be that A will receive a subsequent RR to a subsequent frame and
that it will arrive before the timer associated with frame i expires.
o If A’s timer expires, it transmits an RR command as in Case 1b.
o It sets another timer, called the P-bit timer.
o If B fails to respond to the RR command, or if its response suffers an error in transit, then
A’s P-bit timer will expire.
o At this point, A will try again by issuing a new RR command and restarting the P-bit
timer.
o This procedure is tried for a number of iterations. If A fails to obtain an acknowledgment
after some maximum number of attempts, it initiates a reset procedure.
Damaged REJ:
 If a REJ is lost, this is equivalent to Case 1b
 When frame 5 is received out of order, B sends a SREJ 4, indicating that frame 4 has not been
received
 At this point B continues to accept incoming frame and buffers them until frame 4 is received
 B can place all frames in order for delivery to higher-layer software
 Selective regret is more efficient than go back N because it minimizes amount of retransmission
 Receiver must maintain buffer large enough
 Mostly useful in satellite link because of long propagation delay.

3)Selective-Reject ARQ
 With selective-reject ARQ, the only frames retransmitted are those that receive a negative
acknowledgment.
 In this case called SREJ, or those that time out.
 Figure illustrates this scheme
HIGH-LEVEL DATA LINK CONTROL (HDLC)
 The most important data link control protocol is HDLC (ISO 3009, ISO 4335). Not only is HDLC
widely used, but it is the basis for many other important data link control protocols, which use the
same or similar formats and the same mechanisms as employed in HDLC.

Basic Characteristics
 HDLC defines three types of stations, two link configurations, and three data transfer modes of
operation. The three station types are
• Primary station: Responsible for controlling the operation of the link.
Frames issued by the primary are called commands.
• Secondary station: Operates under the control of the primary station.
Frames issued by a secondary are called responses. The primary
maintains a separate logical link with each secondary station on the line.
• Combined station: Combines the features of primary and secondary. A
combined station may issue both commands and responses.
 The two link configurations are
• Unbalanced configuration: Consists of one primary and one or more
secondary stations and supports both full-duplex and half-duplex
transmission.
• Balanced configuration: Consists of two combined stations and supports
both full-duplex and half-duplex transmission.
 The three data transfer modes are
• Normal response mode (NRM): Used with an unbalanced configuration.
The primary may initiate data transfer to a secondary, but a secondary
may only transmit data in response to a command from the primary.
• Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM): Used with a balanced
configuration. Either combined station may initiate transmission without
receiving permission from the other combined station.
• Asynchronous response mode (ARM): Used with an unbalanced
configuration. The secondary may initiate transmission without explicit
permission of the primary.
 The primary still retains responsibility for the line, including initialization, error recovery, and
logical disconnection.
 NRM is used on multidrop lines, in which a number of terminals are connected to a host
computer.
 The computer polls each terminal for input.
 NRM is also sometimes used on point-to-point links.
 2) ABM is the most widely used of the three modes; it makes more efficient use of a full-duplex
point-to-point link because there is no polling overhead.
 3) ARM is rarely used; it is applicable to some special situations in which a secondary may need
to initiate transmission.

Frame Structure
 HDLC uses synchronous transmission. All transmissions are in the form of frames, and a single
frame format suffices for all types of data and control exchanges.
 Figure shows the structure of the HDLC frame. The flag, address, and control fields that precede
the information field are known as a header.
 The FCS and flag fields following the data field are referred to as a trailer.

 Flag Fields: Flag fields delimit the frame at both ends with the unique pattern 01111110.
 A single flag may be used as the closing flag for one frame and the opening flag for the next.
 On both sides of the user-network interface, receivers are continuously hunting for the flag
sequence to synchronize on the start of a frame.
 While receiving a frame, a station continues to hunt for that sequence to determine the end of the
frame.
 There is no assurance that the pattern 01111110 will not appear somewhere inside the frame, thus
destroying synchronization.
 To avoid this problem, a procedure known as bit stuffing is used.
 1 bit error may merge or split two frames.
Fig: An inverted bit splits a frame in two

Fig: An inverted bit merges two frames

Address Field: The address field identifies the secondary station that transmitted or is to receive
the frame. This field is not needed for point-to-point links but is always included for the sake of
uniformity.
 The address field is usually 8 bits long but, by prior agreement, an extended format may be used
in which the actual address length is a multiple of 7 bits.
 The leftmost bit of each octet is 1 or 0 according as it is or is not the last octet of the address field.
 The remaining 7 bits of each octet form part of the address.
 Between the starting and ending flags, the transmitter inserts an extra 0 bit after each occurrence
of five 1s in the frame.
 After detecting a starting flag, the receiver monitors the bit stream. When a pattern of five 1s
appears, the sixth bit is examined.
 If this bit is 0, it is deleted. If the sixth bit is a 1 and the seventh bit is a 0, the combination is
accepted as a flag.
 If the sixth and seventh bits are both 1, the sender is indicating an abort condition.
 With the use of bit stuffing, arbitrary bit patterns can be inserted into the data field of the frame.
This property is known as data transparency.

Example:

Fig: Bit Stuffing

Control Field: HDLC defines three types of frames, each with a different control field format.

Information frames(I-frames) carry the data to be transmitted for the user (the logic above HDLC
that is using HDLC). Additionally, flow and error control data, using the ARQ mechanism, are
piggybacked on an information frame.
 Supervisory frames (S-frames) provide the ARQ mechanism when piggybacking is not used.
 Unnumbered frames (U-frames) provide supplemental link control functions.
 The first one or two bits of the control field serves to identify the frame type.
 All of the control field formats contain the poll/final (P/F) bit.
 Its use depends on context. Typically, in command frames, it is referred to as the P bit and is set
to 1 to solicit (poll) a response frame from the peer HDLC entity.
 In response frames, it is referred to as the F bit and is set to 1 to indicate the response frame
transmitted as a result of a soliciting command.

Information Field: The information field is present only in I-frames and some U frames.
 The field can contain any sequence of bits but must consist of an integral number of octets.
 The length of the information field is variable up to some system defined maximum.

Frame Check Sequence Field: The frame check sequence (FCS) is an error detecting code
calculated from the remaining bits of the frame, exclusive of flags.
 The normal code is the 16-bit CRC-CCITT defined in Section 6.3.
 An optional 32-bit FCS, using CRC-32, may be employed if the frame length or the line
reliability dictates this choice.

Operation
 HDLC operation consists of the exchange of I-frames, S-frames, and U-frames between two
stations.
 The various commands and responses defined for these frame types are as follows:
 The operation of HDLC involves three phases.
 Initialization: one side or another initializes the data link so that frames may be exchanged in an
orderly fashion.
 Exchange of data and the control information
 Termination of the operation.
 Initialization: Either side may request initialization by issuing one of the six set mode
commands. This command serves three purposes:
 It signals the other side that initialization is requested.
 It specifies which of the three modes (NRM, ABM, ARM) is requested.
 It specifies whether 3- or 7-bit sequence numbers are to be used.
• If the other side accepts this request, then the HDLC module on that end transmits an
unnumbered acknowledged (UA) frame back to the initiating side. If the request is
rejected, then a disconnected mode (DM) frame is sent.

Data Transfer: When the initialization has been requested and accepted, then a logical
connection is established.
 Both sides may begin to send user data in I frames, starting with sequence number 0.
 The N(S) and N(R) fields of the I-frame are sequence numbers that support flow control and error
control.
 An HDLC module sending a sequence of I-frames will number them sequentially, modulo 8 or
128, depending on whether 3- or 7-bit sequence numbers are used, and place the sequence
number in N(S).
 N(R) is the acknowledgment for I-frames received; it enables the HDLC module to indicate
which number I-frame it expects to receive next.
 S-frames are also used for flow control and error control.
 The receive ready (RR) frame acknowledges the last I-frame received by indicating the next I-
frame expected.
 Receive not ready (RNR) acknowledges an I-frame, as with RR, but also asks the peer entity to
suspend transmission of I-frames.
 When the entity that issued RNR is again ready, it sends an RR.
 REJ initiates the go-back-NARQ.
 It indicates that the last I-frame received has been rejected and that retransmission of all I-frames
beginning with number N(R) is required.
• Disconnect: Either HDLC module can initiate a disconnect, either on its own initiative if
there is some sort of fault, or at the request of its higher-layer user.

• HDLC issues a disconnect by sending a disconnect (DISC) frame.

• The remote entity must accept the disconnect by replying with a UA and informing its
layer 3 user that the connection has been terminated.
• Examples of operation:

1. The HDLC protocol entity for one side issues an SABM command to the other side and starts a
timer.

• On other side, upon receiving the SABM, returns a UA response and sets local variables
and counters to their initial values.
• The initiating entity receives the UA response, sets its variables and counters, and stops
the timer.
• The logical connection is now active.
• The same figure shows the disconnect procedure.
• One side issues a DISC command, and the other responds with a UA response.
2. Figure illustrates the full-duplex exchange of I-frames.

• When an entity sends a number of I-frames in a row with no incoming data, then receives
sequence number is simply repeated (e.g., I,1,1; I,2.1 in the A-to-B direction).
 When an entity receives a number of I-frames in a row with no outgoing frames, then they receive
sequence number in the next outgoing frame must reflect the cumulative activity (e.g., I,1,3 in the
B-to-A direction).
 Note that, in addition to I-frames, data exchange may involve supervisory frames.

3.Busy condition may arise because an HDLC entity is not able to process I-frames as fast as
they are arriving, or the intended user is not able to accept data as fast as they arrive in I-frames.

 In either case, the entities receive buffer fills up and it must halt the incoming flow of I-frames,
using an RNR command.
 In this example, A issues an RNR, which requires B to halt transmission of I-frames.
 The station receiving the RNR will usually poll the busy station at some periodic interval by
sending an RR with the P bit set.
This requires the other side to respond with either an RR or an RNR. When the busy condition
has cleared, A returns an RR, and I-frame transmission from B can resume.
4.Reject Recovery:

 A transmits I-frames numbered 3, 4, and 5. Number 4 suffers an error and is lost.

 When B receives I-frame number 5, it discards this frame because it is out of order and sends an
REJ with an N(R) of 4.
 This causes A to initiate retransmission of I-frames previously sent, beginning with frame 4.

5.Timeout Recovery:

 A transmits I-frame number 3 as the last in a sequence of I-frames.

 The frame suffers an error.
 B detects the error and discards it.
 B cannot send an REJ, because there is no way to know if this was an I-frame.
 As the timer expires, A initiate’s recovery action.
 This is usually done by polling the other side with an RR command with the P bit set.

Error Detection:
Fig: Error correction process
 On the transmission end, each k-bit block of data is mapped into an n-bit block (n>k) called a
codeword, using an FEC (forward error correction) encoder.
 The codeword is then transmitted. During transmission, the signal is subject to impairments,
which may produce bit errors in the signal.
 At the receiver, the incoming signal is demodulated to produce a bit string that is similar to the
original codeword but may contain errors.
 This block is passed through an FEC decoder, with one of four possible outcomes:
 If there are no bit errors, the input to the FEC decoder is identical to the original codeword, and
the decoder produces the original data block as output.
 For certain error patterns, it is possible for the decoder to detect and correct those errors. Thus,
even though the incoming data block differs from the transmitted codeword, the FEC decoder is
able to map this block into the original data block.
 For certain error patterns, the decoder can detect but not correct the errors. In this case, the
decode simply reports an uncorrectable error.
 For certain, typically rare, error patterns, the decoder does not detect that any errors have
occurred and maps the incoming n-bit data block into a k-bit block that differs from the original
k-bit block.
 The error-correcting code follows the same general layout as for error-detecting codes.
 The FEC algorithm takes as input a k-bit block and adds (n-k) bits of check bits to that block to
produce an n-bit block of data.
 For some FEC algorithms, the FEC algorithm maps the k-bit input into an n-bit codeword in such
a way that the original k bits do not appear in the codeword.

Block Code Principles

 To begin, we define a term that shall be of use to us. The Hamming distance d(v1,v2) between
two n-bit binary sequences v1 and v2 is the number of bits in which v1 and v2 disagree.
 For example, if v1 = 011011, v2 = 110001
V1: 011011
V2: 110001
101010 No. of 1’s is 3
 Then d(v1 , v2) = 3
 Now let us consider the block code technique for error correction.
 Suppose we wish to transmit blocks of data of length k bits. Instead of transmitting each block as
k bits, we map each k-bit sequence into a unique n-bit codeword.
UNIT-III
Control Unit
Performs:
i. Establishment of connection
ii. Control Unit must maintain connection
iii. Control Unit must tear down the connection either in response to requirement from one of the
parties or for its own reason

Characteristics of circuit switched device

Blocking
Occurs when network is unable to connect two stations because all possible paths are in use

Space Division switching

 Switch is used to carry analog or digital signals
 As its name implies, a space division switch is one in which the signal paths are physically
separated from one another (division in space)
 Each connection requires establishment of physical path through switch that is dedicated solely
to transfer of signals between two endpoints
 Basic building block of switch is metallic cross point or semiconductor gate that can be enabled
& disabled by control unit
 Figure shows simple cross bar matrix with 10 full duplex lines
 Matrix has 10 inputs and 10 outputs
 Each station attached to matrix via one input & one output line
 Interconnection is possible between any two lines by unabling the appropriate cross point
 Total 100 cross points are required
Limitations:
 Number of cross points group with square of n-switched stations, this is costly for large switch
 Loss of cross point presents connection between two devices whose lines intersect that cross
point
 Cross points are inefficiently utilized, even when all attached devices are active, only small
fraction of cross points are engaged.

To overcome these limitations

 Multiple stage Switches

Advantage:
 The number of cross points are reduced, increasing cross bar utilization – total number of cross
points for 10 stations is reduced from 100 to 48
 There is more than one path through network to connect two endpoints increasing reliability
 Multistage network requires more complex control scheme
 To establish path in single stage network, it is only necessary to enable a single gate
 In multistaging network, a for path through the stage must be determined & appropriate gate is
enabled
 Multistage space division may be blocking whereas single stage cross bar matrix is non-blocking
(path is always available to connect an input to output)
 Heavier lines indicate the lines that are already in use
Ex: input line can’t be connected to 3,h,s even though all these output lines are available
 An multiple stage switch can be made non blocking by increasing number of size of intermediate
switch, but this will increase cost also

Control Signaling
 In circuit switching control signals are means by which the network is managed & by which calls
are established , maintained & terminated
 Both calls management & overall network management require that information be exchange
between subscriber & switch, among switches, between switch & network management center
 For large public telecommunication network, a relatively complex control signaling scheme is
required
Signaling Functions
 Control signal affect network behavior, including both network services visible to the subscriber
& internal mechanism
 As network become complex, number of the functions performed by control signal grows
 Audible communication with subscriber , including dial tone, ringing tone, busy signal…
 Transmission of number dialed to switching offices that will attempt to complete a connection
 Transmission of information between switches indicating that a call cannot be completed
 Transmission of information between switches indicating that a call has ended & path can be
disconnected
 A signal to make a telephone ring
 Transmission of information used for billing purpose
 Transmission of information used in diagnosing & isolating system failures
 Control of special equipment such as satellite channel equipment
 Example: Telephone connection

Functions performed by control signals are:

1. Supervisory
2. Address
3. Call Information
4. Network Management

Supervisory:
 Generally used to refer to control function that have a binary character ()true/false ; on/off)
 Ex: Request for service, answer, alerting & return to idle
 They deal with the availability of called subscriber & if the needed resource is available, if so, to
seize it
 They are used to communicate state of required resources

Address:
 Signals identify subscriber
 Ex: Dialing telephone number

Call Information:
 Signals that provide information subscriber about the status of call – call information signals are
audible tones.

Above three signals are directly involved in the establishment & termination of all.

Network Management:
 Used for maintenance, troubleshooting & overall operation of network – signals are in the form
of messages.

Location of Signaling
Control signaling needs to be considered in two contexts.
i. Signaling between subscriber & network
 Needs human user
ii. Signaling within network
 Computer to computer
 Signaling operates differently within these two contexts
 Local switching office to which subscriber is attached must provide mapping between the
relatively less complex signaling technique used by subscriber & more complex technique used
within network
Common Channel Signaling
Comments
In Channel Band Transmits control signals in same  Simple reach necessary
band of frequency used by voice for call information
signals signal
 Can be used over any
type of subscriber line
Out of Band Transmits control signal using Out of band signaling provides
same facilities as voice signal but continuous supervision for
different part of frequency band duration of connection

Inchannel:
Same channel is used to carry control signals as is used to carry call to which control signals relate.

Disadvantages:
 As public tele communication network become complex & provide a richer set of services, the
drawbacks of inchanel signaling become more apparent
 Information transfer rate is quite limited with Inchannel signaling
 More amount of delay from time a subscriber enters an address (phone number & connection
establishment)
Out Bound:
 Very narrow band width is available
 Both of these problems can be addressed with common channel signaling
 In which control signals are carried over paths completely independent of voice channel
 One independent control signal path can carry the signals for number of subscriber channels &
hence is a common control channel for these subscriber channels.
 It reduces call set up time compared with inchannel method.

 Common channel can be configured with bandwidth required to carry control signals for variety
of functions.
 Two modes of operation are used in common signaling
Associated mode
Common channel closely tracks, along its entire length, the inter switch track group
Disassociated mode
Control signals are on different channel from subscriber signals & inside switch control signals are
routed directly to control signal processor

Disadvantages
 Network is augmented by additional nodes called signal transfer points
 Two separate network will link between them
 Network Management is more easily exerted in disassociated mode
 Ex: ISDN

Signaling Network Element (SS7)

SS7 defines three functional entities
1) Signaling Point (SP) – capable of handling SS7 signal control / msg
2) Signal Transfer Point (STP) – capable of routing control / msg
3) Signaling Link – data link that connects signaling points

Signaling Network Structures

 Complex network will typically have both signaling points (SP) & signal transfer points (STP)
 Signaling network that includes both SP & STP nodes could be considered as having a
hierarchical structure in which the SP’s constitute the lower level & STP’s represent higher level
 Latter may further be divided into several STP levels
 Following figure shows SS& network
 Several parameters could influence the decisions (on cerning design of network & number of
levels to be implemented)
1. STP Capabilities
Include number of signaling links that can be handled by STP, signaling message transfer
time & message through out capacity
2. Network Performance
Includes number of SP’s & signaling delays
3. Availability & Reliability
Measures the ability of network to provide service in the face of STP failures

Softswitch Architecture
 Latest trend in development of circuit switching technology is generally referred to as Softswitch
 Softswitch is general purpose computer running specialized software that turns it into smart
phoe switch
 Softswitch cost significantly less than traditional circuit switches & can provide more
functionality
 Softswitch can convert a stream of digitized voice bits into packets
 In any telephone network switch, the most complex element is software that controls call
processing
 This software performs call routing & implements call processing logic
 Typically this software runs on processor that is integrated with physical circuit switching
hardware
 More flexible approach is to physically separate the call processing function from hardware
switching function
 In Softswitch terminology, the physical switching function is performed by Media Getaway (MG)
 Call processing logic resides in Media Gateway Controller (MGC)
Packet Switching Principles
 For voice connection, circuit switching will enjoy a high percentage of utilization, because most
of the time one party or other is talking
 However, as circuit switching network began to be used increasingly fore data connections two
short comings became apparent
 In typical user/host data connection (PC on which user logged on to database server) most of
the time line is idle, thus with data connections, a circuit switching approach is inefficient
 In circuit switching network, the connection provides for transmission at constant data rate
 Thus each of two devices that are connected must transmit & receive at same data rate as the
other
 In packet switching data are transmitted in short packets typical upper bound on packet legth is
1000 octects (bytes)
 If source has longer message to send, it is broken up into series of packets
 Each packet contains portion of user data plus control information

Control Information
Information network requires to be able to rote packet through network & deliver it to intended
destination
Advantages
 Line efficiency is greater, because single node to node link can be dynamically shared by many
packets over time.
 Packets are queued up & transmitted as rapidly as possible over the link
 Packet Switching network performs data rate conversion
 Two stations of different data rate can exchange packets because each connects to its node at
proper data rate
 When traffic becomes heavy on circuit switching network some calls are blocked on the other
hand, in packet switching network, packets are still accepted, but delivery delay increases

Switching techniques
 If a station has message to send through a packet switching network that is of length greater
than maximum packet size, it breaks message up into packets & sends these packets one at a
time to network
 Now network will handle this stream of packets as it attempts to route tem through network &
delivers to intended destination

Datagram Approach
Each packet is treated independently with no reference to packets that have gone before

Virtual Circuit Approach

Similar to circuit switching so virtual circuit

Advantages
 If two stations wish to exchange data over an extended period of time, there are certain
advantages to virtual circuit:
 Network may provide services related to virtual circuit, including sequencing & error control
 Packets are transmitted in network more rapidly with virtual circuit
 It is not necessary to make routing decisions

Packet Size
 There is significant relationship between packet size & transmission time
 There is virtual circuit from station-x to station-y via nodes a & b
 Message to be sent comprises of 43 octets & each packet contains 30 octets of control
information at beginning of each packet i.e. header
COMPARISON of circuit switching & Packet Switching
1) Performance
Concerned with three types of delays
2) Propagation Delay
Time taken to propagate signal from one node to next – negligible time – speed is
equivalent to 2x10^8 m/s
3) Transmission Time
Time it takes for transmitter to send out block of data
4) Node Delay
Time it takes for node to perform necessary processing as it switches data
Circuit Switching Virtual circuit packet switching Datagram Packet Switching
Dedicated path No dedicated path NO dedicated path
Continuous Transmission of data Transmission of packets Transmission of packets
Messages are not stored Packets may be stored until Packet may be stored until
delivered delivered
Path is established for entire Route is established for entire Route is established for each
conversation conversation packet
Call Setup Delay Call Setup Delay
Transmission delay is negligible Packet transmission delay Packet transmission delay
usually no speed or code Speed & code conversion Speed & code conversion
conversion
Fixed Bandwidth Dynamic use of bandwidth Dynamic use of bandwidth
No overhead bits after call setup Overhead bits in each packet Overhead bits in each packet

X.25 Interface
 Technical aspect of packet switching network is interface between attached devices and network
 In packet switching, attached stations must organize their data into packets for transmission
 This requires certain level of cooperation between network & attached stations
 This cooperation is embodied in an interface standard X.25
 X.25 is an ITU-T standard that specifies an interface host system & packet switching network
 X.25 functionality is specified on three levels
 Physical level
o Deals with physical interface between attached station & link that attaches station to
packet switching mode
 Link level
o Provides reliable transfer of data across physical link, data is transmitted as dequence of
frames
o Link level standard is referred to as LAPB (link Access Protocol Balanced)
 Packet Level
o Packet Level provides virtual circuit service

X.25 Packet
 Identifying by number particular virtual circuit with which this data is to be associated
 Provide sequence number used for flow & error control
PCS) - Send sequence number – outgoing data packet on virtual circuit
PCR) – Receive sequence number – acknowledgement of packet received on virtual circuit

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

 ATM is also called as cell relay
 It provides faster packet switching than X.25

Protocol Architecture
 It is similar to packet switching using X.25 & frame relay
 Data transfer in form of chunk
 ATM allows multiple logical connections to be multiplexed over single physical interface
 In ATM, information flow on each logical connection is organized into fixed size packets called
cells
 ATM is streamlined protocol with minimum error & flow control capability
 This reduces overhead & processing ATM cells & reduced numbers of overhead bits required
with each cell, thus enabling ATM it to operate at high data rate
 Standards issued for ATM by ITU-T are based on protocol architecture, as shown
 It provides interface between users & network

1) Physical Layer
Involves specification of transmission medium & signal encoding scheme
Data rates in physical layer ranges from 25.6 Mbps to 622.08 Mbps
2) ATM Layer
Provides packet transfer capabilities related to ATM Functions
3) AAL Layer
Service dependent (common to all source)
 ATM layer defines transmission of data in fixed cells & defines use of logical connections
 Use of ATM creates the need for adaption layer to support information transfer protocols which
are not based on ATM
 AAL maps higher level information into ATM cells to be transported over an ATM network
 Collects information from ATM cells for delivery to higher layers
 User Plane – provides user information transfer along with associated control (flow/error)
 Control Plane – performs all control & connection control functions
 Management Plane – includes plane management which perform management function related
to system as whole & provides coordination between all planes & layer management

ATM Logical Connection

 Logical connection of ATM is called as Virtual Channel Connection (VCCs)
 VCC is analogical to virtual circuit in X.25
 It is basic unit of switching in ATM network
 VCC is setup between two end users through network & variable rate
 Full duplex flow of fixed size cells is exchanged over the connection
Uses: VCCs are also used for user network exchange (control signaling) & network – network exchange
(Network management & routing)

For ATM, a second sublayer of processing has been introduced that deals with concept of virtual path

Virtual Path Connection

It is bundle of VCC’s that have same endpoints
Therefore all the cells flowing over all of VCC’s in single VPC are switched together
Due to trend in high speed networking control cost of network is very high
Uses:
Virtual path technique helps contain the control path by grouping connections which share common
paths through Network into single unit
Network management actions can then be applied to small number of groups of connections instead of
large number of individual connections

Advantages:
1. Simplified Network Architecture
 Network transport function can be separated into those related to individual logical
connection (virtual channels)
 Those related to group of logical connections (virtual path)
2. Increased Network Performance & Reliability
 Network deals with fewer aggregated entities
3. Reduced processing & short connection setup time
 Much of work is done when virtual path is setup
 By reserving capacity on virtual path connection in anticipation of latter call arrivals,
new virtual channel connection can be established by exceuting simple control function
at endpoints of virtual path connection
 No call processing is required at transit nodes
 Thus addition of new virtual channel to existing virtual path involves minimal processing
4. Enhanced Network Services
Virtual path is used internal to network, but is also visible to end user, thus user may define closed user
group or closed network of virtual channel bundles

How call is established in ATM using virtual channel?

General way for all virtual call establishment process using virtual channel
Virtual path control mechanism:
Include calculating routes, allocating capacity & storing connection static information
To set virtual channel:
There must first be virtual path connection to the required destination node with sufficient available
capacity to support virtual channel with appropriate quality of service
Virtual channel is setup by storing required state information (virtual channel – virtual path mapping)

Virtual Path/ Virtual Channel Terminology

Virtual channel:
 A generic term used to describe unidirectional transport of ATM cells associated by common
unique id value
Virtual Channel Link:
 A means of unidirectional transport of ATM cells between a point where VCI valu is assigned &
point where that value is translated or terminated
VCI:
 Unique numerical tag that identifies a particular VC link for given VPC
Virtual Channel Connection:
 A concatenation of VC links that extends between two points where ATM service users access
ATM layer
 VCCs are provided for purpose of user – user, user – network or network – network information
transfer

Virtual Path (VP)

A generic term used to describe unidirectional transport ofATM cells belonging to virtual channels that
are associated by common unique identifier value.

Virtual Path Link (VPI)

A group of VC links identified by common value VPI, between appoint where a VPI value is assigned &
point where value is translated & terminated

VPI
Identifier for particular VP link

Virtual Path Connection (VPC)

Concatenation of VP links that extends between point where the VCI values are assigned & the point
where those values are translated or removed

VCC uses
Between end users
Carry end to end user data , control information between users
VPC between end users provide them with overall capacity set of VCCs does not exceed VPC capacity
Between end user and network entity
Used for user to network control signaling
User to network VPC can be used to aggregate traffic from end user to network exchange or network
server
Between Two network entities
Used for network management & routing function
Network – network VPC can be used to define common route for exchange of network management
information

Virtual Path Virtual Channel Characteristics

QOS – Quality of Service
Cell loss ratio (ratio of cells lost to cells transmitted) & cell delay variation

Switched (on demand connection) & Semi permanent virtual channel connection (long duration)
Require call control signaling for setup & tearing down

Call sequence integrity

Sequence of cells transmitted within VCC is preserved

Traffic Parameter Negotiation & usage monitoring

Virtual channel identifier restriction within VPC
One or more virtual channel identifiers or numbers may not be available to user of VPC but they are
reserved for network use [Ex: VCC used for network management]

ATM Cells
ATM must make use of fixed size cells, consisting of 5 octet header +48 octet info field
Use small cells may reduce queuing delay for high priority cell, because it waits less if it arrives slightly
behind a lower priority cell that has granted access to resource
It appears that fixed size cells can be switched more efficiently, which is important for very high data
rate of ATM

Generic Flow Control (GFC)

Appears only at user network interface hence, it can be used for control of cell flow only at local-user-
network interface
The field could be used to assist customer in controlling flow of traffic for different QOS

Virtual Path id VPI

Routing field for network it is 8-bit user interface & 12 bits at network interface
VCI is used for routing to & from end user

Payload Type (PT)

Type of information is information field
Value 0 first bit indicate user information
Second bit indicates whether congestion has been experienced [1-yes 2-No]
Third bit – indicates SDU (Service Data Unit)
One bit field is used to discriminate two types of ATM SDU associated with connection
SDU=1 in payload type field indicates cell carries network management & maintenance information

Cell loss Priority (CLP)

Bit provides guidance to network in event of congestion
Bit=0 – relatively high priority which should not be discarded unless no the alternative is available
Bit=1 – indicates that this cell is subject to discard within network
HEC – Header Error Control
It is used for both error control & synchronization

Generic Flow Control

 ITU-T recommendation lists specifies use of GFC field to control traffic flow at user hardware
interface
 GFC Flow control is part of proposed controlled cell transfer (CCT) capability intended to meet
required of non ATM LANs ->connected to ->Wide Area ATM (WAN ATM)
 GFC is intended to provide good service for high volume burstly traffic with variable lengths

Header Error Control:

Each ATM cell includes an 8-bit header error control (HEC) field that is calculated based on the
remaining 3 bits of the header (8x5)octets=40
Polynomial used to generate the code is x^8+x^2+x^1

HEC Algorithm

At initialization, receivers error correction algorithm B in default mode for single bit error correction
Transmission of ATM cells
 ITUT – I.432 standard specifies that ATM cells may be transmitted at one of several data rates
->622.08 Mbps
->155.52 Mbps
->51.84 Mbps
->25.4 Mbps
 We need to specify transmission structure that will be used to carry this payload
 Two approaches are defined in I.432
Cell Based Physical Layer:
 For cell based physical layer, no framing is imposed
 The interface structure consists of continuous stream of 53-octet cells
 Because there is no external frame imposed in cell based approach, some form of
synchronization is needed
 Synchronization is achieved on the basis of header error control field (HEC) in cell header
Unit 4
 Traditional Ethernet:
Topologies & Transmission media ,LAN protocol architecture ,MAC sub layer-CSMA/CD ,physical layer
,implementation bridged, switched & full duplex Ethernet layer 2 &3 switches.

 Fast Ethernet:
MAC sub layer ,physical layer implementation

 Gigabit Ethernet:

MAC sub layer ,physical layer ,implementation.

 Topologies:

 Network topologies:
Logical connection of various computers in network.

 Basic topologies are

 Bus
 Ring
 Star
 Tree
 Mesh
 Hybrid

VI. 1.Bus topology

 All computers connected to long cable called bus.
 Node that wants to send data puts data on bus which carries it to destination node.
 Any computer can send data over bus at any time.
 Bus is shared among all computers.
 When two or more computers want to send data at same time ,an arbitration mechanism is
needed to prevent simultaneous access to bus.
 Easy to install but not flexible.
 Difficult to add new nodes to bus.
 If position of bus breaks down difficult to isolate fault.
VII. 2.Ring topology

 Devices are arranged in the form of ring, each having two neighbouring devices.
 To send data to destination node which is far apart, data should be passed through many
intermediate node.
 Easy to install &configure.
 Fault isolation is easy because a signal that circulates all the time in ring helps in identifying
faulty node.
 Data transmission in only one direction any faulted node can break whole ring.
 Cannot connect large no. of devices.

VIII. 3.Star topology

 Nodes are connected to the central nodes called Hub

 Any node which wants to send the data can send it to the Hub which in turn sends it to the
destination.
 Easy to install &configure.
 If links fail it separates the node connected to the link from network &network continues to
function.
 If Hub goes down ,entire network will collapse.
IX. 4.Tree topology

 Hirerchy of various Hubs .

 All nodes are connected to one Hub or other.
 To central Hub only few nodes are connected directly.
 Central /Active Hub looks at incoming bits &regenerates them so that they can travel longer
distances .
 Secondary Hubs in tree Topology may be active or positive Hub.
 Failure of transmission line separates a node from network.

X. 5.Mesh topology
 Also called complete topology.
 Each node is connected to every other node in network.
 For n-nodes ,there are n(n-1)/2 links.
 As ,there is dedicated links, topology does not have congestion problems.
 Further, it does not need a special MAC protocol to prevent simultaneous access to
transmission media, since links are dedicated ,not shared.
 Data security is provided.
 Complex network& cost associated with able length

XI. 6.Hybrid Topology

 Two or more topologies together

XII. Traditional Ethernet:

 LAN is a computer network that is designed for a limited geographic area such as building or
campus.
 Although LAN can be used as an isolated network to connect computers in an organisation for
the sole purpose of sharing resources .
 Most LAN today are also linked to a WAN or internet.
 LAN market has seen several technologies such as Ethernet ,token ring, token bus, FDDI(Fibre
Distributed Data Interfacing),LAN’S.
 These are designed to regulate manufacturing &interconnectivity between different event
LANS.

XIII. IEEE standards : (project 802)

XIV.
 Enables intercommunication between among equipment from a variety of manufactures.
 Project 802 does not replace any part of OSI or internet model instead ,it is way of specifying
functions of physical& data link layer of major LAN protocol.
 IEEE has subdivided data link layer into
-Logical Link Layer .
-Media Access control.

 IEEE has also created several physical layer standard for different LAN protocols.

XV. IEEE standard for LANS(Protocol Architecture)

XVI. Data link layer: (handles framing ,flow& error control)

 In IEEE std.802,flow,error&part of framing are collected into sublayer called LLC(logical link
layer).
 Framing is handled in both LLC&MAC sub layer.
 LLC provide are single data link control protocol for all IEEE LAN’S.
 MAC provides different protocols for different LAN’S.
 Single LLC protocol can provide interconnection between different LAN’S because it makes Mac
sub layer transparent.

XVII. Framing :
 LLC defines protocol data unit (PDU) some what similar to HDLC.
 Header contains control field like HDLC .
 Two other header fields define upper layer at source &destination that uses LLC
 These fields are :
DSAP-Destination Service Access Point.
SSAP-Source Service Access Point.

XVIII. HDLC Frame Compared With LLC& MAC Frames:

 LLC is used to provide flow & error control for upper layer protocols that actually demand
services.
 If LAN or several LAN’S are used in isolates system, LLC may be needed to provide flow and error
control for application layer protocols.
A. MAC-Media Access Control:
 Defines specific access method for each LAN.
 It defines CSMA/CD –Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection as media access method
for Ethernet –LAN’S
 Token Ring passing method for token rings &token busses LAN’S.

 MAC contains no. of distinct modules ,each defines access method &framing format specific to
corresponding LAN protocol.

B. Physical layer:
 Physical layer is dependent on implementations and type of physical media used.

 There is only one MAC sub layer for std. Ethernet but different physical layer specifications for
each Ethernet implementation.

C. Standard Ethernet:
 Ethernet evolution through 4 generations.

XIX. MAC sub layer:

 MAC sub layer governs operation of access method .
 It also frames data received from upper layer & passes them to physical layer.

XX. Frame Format- 802 MAC Frame:

SFD-start Frame de limiter ,flag(10101011)

 No mechanism for ack received frames, so un readable medium.

1. Preamble-
 7 bytes of alternate 0’s & is coming frame & enables it to synchronise its i/p timing.
 Pattern provides only at least & timing pulses.
 Preamble is added at phy. Layer & is not part of frame.
a) SFD-Signals Beginning of frame:
 SFD warns the stations that this last chance for synchronisation.
 Last 2 bits is parallel& alerts receiver that next field is destination address.

b) Destination Address:
 6 bytes contains physical address of destination station or stations to receive packet.

c) Source Address:
 6 bytes field contains physical address of sender of packet.

d) Length/type:
 Length field/type field ->to define upper layer protocol using MAC frame .

e) DATA:
 Carries data encapsulated from upper layer protocols.

f) CRC:
 Error detection information CRC-32 is used.

XXI. Frame Length:

 Ethernet has imposed restrictions on both min & max length of frame.

 MIN LENGTH restrictions required for correct operations of CSMA/CD.

 Ethernet frame needs to have min length of 512 bits or 64 bytes.
 Part of this length is header + trailer. If we count 18 byes of header + trailer then min length of
data from upper layer =46 bytes.
 If upper layer packet is less than 46 bytes padding is added to make up the difference.
 MAX LENGTH of frame without preamble &SFD field is 1518 bytes.
 If we subtract 18 bytes of header &trailer max length of payload =1500 bytes .

(1) MAX LENGTH restriction has two historical reasons

 Max length restriction helped to reduce size of buffer .
 Memory was very expensive when Ethernet was designed.
 Max length restriction prevents one station from mono policing shared medium blocking other
station that has to send.

XXII. Addressing :
 Each station on Ethernet n/w has its own n/w interface card .
 NIC fits inside the station &provides station with 6 byte phy. Address.
 Address is in hex form with colon between bytes .
06:01:02:01:2c:4b

6 bytes=12 hex digits =48 bits.

XXIII. Unicast ,Multicast &Broadcast Address

 Source address is always unicast address i.e frame comes from only one station.
 Destination address , can be unicast ,multicast broadcast.
 If least significant bit (lst) of first byte in a destination is 0, address is unicast otherwise
multicast.

(1) Multicast address in which all bits are 1’s broadcast address .
Examples

1. 4A:30:10:21:10:1A
2. 47:20:1B:2E:08:EF
3. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

How address is sent on the line:

47:20:1B:2E:08:EE is sent out on line.

Address sent left →right byte by byte→ for each byte, it is sent right→ left bit by bit

1110 0010 0000 0100

7 4 0 2

Access Method CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD and its precursors can be termed random access or contention, techniques, they are
random access in the sense that there is no predictable or scheduled time for any station to
transmit; station transmissions are ordered randomly.

They exhibit contention in the sense that stations struggle for time on shared medium.

Earliest of these techniques known as ALOHA or pure ALOHA.

It specifies that station may transmit a frame at any time.

It does not sense the common channel before initiating transmission because of which it does not
have any information bout states of other users.

Later CSMA protocol were developed that sensed the channel before initiating the transmission in
order to achieve quarter efficiency.

Using CSMA protocol each of device that are connected to N/W are able to examine states of
channel before, sending information transmission takes place only if the communication channel is
idle.

XXIV. Different versions of the CSMA Protocol

1. Non – Persistent CSMA

In this type of CSMA device first senses the communication channel if it is ideal then transmission is
initiated but if the channel is busy, station waits for a period of time before starting the transmission.

2. P-persistent csma
This type of csma is basically used in slotted aloha ,where a packet is transmitted into slots ,that is
available then packet is transmitted to next slot with probability i-p.

3. I- persistent csma.

Every device in network that wish to transmit first sense if channel is free or not ,it transmit the pack
longer delays .

Back off algorithm can be used to facilitate longer delays .

4. CSMA/CA(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

 It is a scheme of access defined in std.IEEE802.3.
 It is generally used in mobile LAN’S.

 Back off algorithm is combined with carrier sensing scheme in order to gain efficiency among
devices that are completing with each other when channel is busy.

XXV. CSMA/CD(carrier sense multiple access with collision detection )

 Later versions CSMA/CD is CSMA/CD rules of CSMA/CD are:
1. Transmission should be initiated only if channel is idle.
2. Station should continue to sense the channel ,until it is free .If channel is idle ,only then
transmission can take place.
3. Jamming signal is to be transmitted to each station ,if collision is detected ,to that every
station in N/W get know that a collision have been detected.
4. Back off scheme is applied after transmission jamming signal .According to this approach
,device waits for random period of time after sensing that station is busy ,after that duration
of time transmission is again started by listening to channel.
5. Using CSMA /CD access scheme capacity that was wasted using CSMA scheme is decreased
depending on time taken to detect collision.
6. Another important rule of CSMA/CD is that frame should be very large so that collisions can
be detected before transmission ends.

Slot Time:

Round trip + time reg to send Jam sequence

It is time required for a station to send 512 bits.

Actual slot time depends on data rate.

For traditional 10 Mbps Ethernet is 51.2 µs.

Slot Time and Collision :

The choice of 512 bit slot time was chosen for proper functioning of CSMA/CD.

To understand the situation, let us consider two cases:

Case 1 :

We assume the sender ends minimum size packet of 512 bits.

Before sender can send entire packet out, signal travels through n/w and reaches end of n/w.

If there is another signal at end of n/w collision occurs.

Sender has opportunity to abort sending of frames to send again sequence to inform other station
collision.

Round trip time + time required to send jam sequence should be less than time required for sender to
send min. frame 512 bits.

Sender needs to be aware of collision before entire frame is sent.

(1) Case 2:

Sender sends a frame larger than minimum .

 If station has sent out first-512 bits & has not heard a collision it is guaranteed
 That collision will never occur during the transmission of this frame.
 The reason is that signal will reach the end of N/Win less than one –half slot time.
 If all stations follow CSMA/CD protocol ,they have already sensed existence of signal.
 If they want sent a signal on the line before one half slot time expired ,a collision has occurred
&sender has sensed the collision.
 In other words ,collision can only occur during first half of slot time &if it does it can sensed by
sender during slot time.
 This means that after sender sends the first 512 bits, it is guaranteed that collision will not occur
during transmission of this frame.
 Medium belongs to sender & no other station will use it.
 Sender needs to Listen to collision only during first -512 are sent.

XXVI. Physical layer implementation for standard Ethernet:

 Standard Ethernet defines several physical layer implementation.

XXVII. Encoding & Decoding:

 All standard implementation use digital signals at 10 Mbps.
 At sender ,data are converted to digital signal using Manchester scheme & at receiver the
received signal is interpreted as Manchester & decoded into data .
a) 1.IOBASE 5:
Name devices from size of cable ,which is roughly in size of garden hose & too stiff to bend with
our hands.

IOBASE 5 was first Ethernet specification to use a bus topology with external transceiver connected via
thick tap to coaxial cable.

Transceiver is responsible for transmitting ,receiving & detecting collisions.

Transceiver is connected to station via a transceiver cable that provides separate paths for sending
&receiving.

This means that collision can only happen in coaxial cable .

B. 2.IOBASE 2:

 Cable is much thinner and more flexible.

 Cable can be bent to pass very close to stations.
 Transceiver is installed inside station normally it is past of N/W.
 Collision occurs in thin coaxial cable
 Cost effective than thick co axial cable.
 Tee connections are much cheap than taps.
 Length of segment can exceed 185m.Due to high level of attenuation in thin co axial cable.

C. 3.IOBASE T:

 Two pairs of twisted pairs cables create two paths.

 Sending or receiving data between stations & hubs.
 Max length of twisted cable is defined 100m to minimize effect of attenuation in cable.

D. IOBASE F: Fibre Ethernet

 IOBASE F uses star topology to connect to stations to hub.

 Stations are connected to hub using two fibre optic cables .

XXVIII. Bridged Ethernet :

 10 mbps std. Ethernet has gone through changes before moving to higher data rates.
 These changes actually opened road to evolution of Ethernet to be compatible with higher data
rate LAN’S.
 First step in Ethernet evolution was division of LAN by bridges.
 They raised the bandwidth & they separate collision domains .

1. Raising the Bandwidth

 In an bridge Ethernet N/W, total 10 Mbps capacity is shared among all stations with a frame to
send.
 If only one station has frame to send it benefits from total capacity ,but if more stations has
frame to send, capacity is shared .
 Ex :For two stations avg rate is 5 Mbps.
 Bridge divides N/W into two or more N/W.
 In N/W with heavy load each station theoretically is offered 10/4 Mbps instead 10/8 Mbps
assuming traffic is not going through bridge.

2. Separating Collision domains

 Another advantage of bridge is separation of collision .
 Collision domain base becomes more smaller & probability of collision is reduced.

XXIX. Switched Ethernet

 Idea of bridged LAN can be extended to switched LAN .
 Instead of having 2 N/W why not have N- network .
N- no. of Stations of LAN .
 Using N port switch band width is only shared between station & switch .
 Collision domain is also divided into N domains.

A. Full duplex Ethernet :

 One of limitation of 10 Base5& 10Base 2 is that communication is Half duplex.
 Next step to evolution was to move from switch Ethernet to full duplex Ethernet .
 Full duplex mode increases capacity of each domain from 10 to 20 Mbps.
 Instead of using one link between station & switch ,configuration uses links.
 One to transmit &one to receive .

 NO NEED FOR CSMA/CD.

 In full duplex switched Ethernet ,there is no need for CSMA/CD method.
 Each station is connected to switch via two separate link
 Each station or switch can send & receive independently with out worrying of collision.
 There is no need for carrier sensing as each link is point to point ,no longer a need for collision
detection.

1. MAC Control Layer :

 Std. Ethernet was designed as connectionless protocol at MAC sub layer .
 There Is no explicit flow error control to inform the sender that frame has to arrived at
destination without error .
 When receiver receives frame it does not send any +ve or –ve ack.
 To provide for flow & error control in full duplex switched Ethernet ,new sub layer called MAC
control is added between LLC sub layer MAC control MAC sub layer.

2. FAST Ethernet
 Transmit data 10 times faster at rate of 100 Mbps .
 Goals of fast Ethernet
1. Upgrade data rate to 100 Mbps .
2. Make it compatible with std. Ethernet .
3. Keep same 48 bit address ,frame format ,& min & max frame length.

a) MAC sub layer

MAC sub layer is same .

however ,a decision was made to drop the bus topology & keep only star topology .

for star topology,

there are two choices :

1. Half duplex – connection via hub.

2. Full duplex-connection via switch with buffer at each port.

The access method is some CSMA/CD for half duplex approach, for full duplex fast Ethernet
there is no need for CSMA/CD.

However ,the implementation keep CSMA/CD for backward compatibility with Ethernet.

B. Auto Negotiation :

 New feature added to fast Ethernet is fast negotiation .

 It allows station or a hub range of capabilities.
 Auto negotiation allows two station /devices to negotiate on mode or data rate operation .

a) Purpose of Auto negotiation:

1. To allow incompatible device to connect to each .
2. To allow one device to have multiple other capabilities .

XXX. Physical layer :

 physical layer in fast is more complicated than in std. Ethernet
 topology – fast Ethernet is designed to connect two or more stations together .
 if there are only stations ,they can be point to point.
 Three or more stations need to be connected in star topology with hub or switch in centre.
Implementation:
 Fast Ethernet phy layer implementation can be categorised as either two wire or four wire.
 Two wire ,5 utp (100 base TX)
 Four wire -3 utp (100 Base T4)
XXXI. Encoding
 Manufacture encoding needs 200M band width for 100 Mbps data rate.
 But this is unsuitable for twisted pair cable
 For this reason some alternative encoding /decoding is designed.

1. 100 Base TX
1. MLT Encoding –
Uses three levels +v,0,-v

 If next bit is zero –no transition .

 If bit is 1 & current level is not 0,next level is 0.

XXXII. Gigabit Ethernet :

 The need for even higher data rate resulted in designed of gigabit Ethernet protocol (1000
Mbps)
 Goals of gigabit Ethernet design .
1.upgrade data rate to 1 gbps .

2. Make it compatible with std. or fast Ethernet

3. Use same 48 Bit address , frame format .

4. Keep same min & max frame length to support auto negotiation as in fast Ethernet

XXXIII. Half Duplex mode:

 Gigabit Ethernet can also be used in half duplex mode.
 In this case a switch can be replaced by hub which acts as common cable in which a collision
might Occur .
 Half duplex mode uses CSMA/CD.
 However, max length of N/W in this approach is totally dependent on min frames .
 These are three methods defined
1. Traditional
2. Carrier extension
3. Frame bursting

A. Traditional

 In traditional approach min length 512 bits we keep same length.

 However because the length of a bit is 1/100 sorter in gigabit Ethernet than in 10 Mbps
Ethernet ,slot time for gigabit Ethernet is 512*1/1000 ms, which is equal to 0.512 ms.
 Reduced slot time means that collision is detected 100 times earlier.
 This means that max length of N/W is 25m.
 This length can be suitable if all the stations are in one room ,but it may not even be long
enough to connect the computers in the single office.

B. Carrier extension:
 To allow for longer N/W ,we increase min frame length.
 Carrier extension approach defines min length of frame as 512 bytes .
 This means that min length is 8 times longer .
 This method forces station to add extension bits to any frame that is less than 4096 bits.
 In this way max length of N/w can be increased 8 times to length of 200m.

C. Frame bursting:
 Carrier extension is very in efficient if we have a series of short frames to send.
 To improve efficiency frame was proposed instead of adding an extension to each frame
,multiple frames are sent.
 To make these multiple frames look like single frame padding is added between frames so that
channel is not idle..

XXXIV. Physical layer:

A. Topology:
 Gigabit Ethernet is designed to connect two or more stations.
 F only two stations ,they can be connected point to point.
 Three or more stations need to be connected in star topology with hub or switch at centre .
 Another possible configuration is to connect several star topologies or let a star topology be part
of another .

1.

2. Implementation :

 Gigabit Ethernet can be categorised as two wire or four wire implementation .

 Gigabit Ethernet cannot use Manchester encoding scheme because it involves a very high
bandwidth.
 The two wire implementations use NRZ scheme but NRZ does not show self
synchronisation.properly.
 To synchronise bits ,particularly at this rate 8B/10B block encoding is used.
 This block encoding prevents long sequence of 0’s & 1’s in the stream but resulting stream is
1.25 Gbps.
 One wire is used for sending &one wire is used for receiving .
 In four wire implementation it is not possible to have 2 wires for i/p & 2 for o/p because each
wire would need to carry 500 Mbps which exceeds capacity for category 5 utp.
 A solution 4dpam5 encoding iss used to reduce the bandwidth.
 Thus all 4 wires are involved in both i/p & p/p each wire carries 250 Mbps which is in range for
category 5 UTP cable

XXXV. Ten gigabit Ethernet :

 IEEE created ten gigabit Ethernet & called id STD 802.3 9e

a) Goals:
1. Upgrade data rate to 14 Gbps.
2. Make it compatible with other Ethernet.
3. Use same 48 bit address
4. Use same frame format.
5. Keep same min & max frame length
6. Allow interconnection of exiting LAN into metropolitan area N/w or WAN
7. Make Ethernet compatible with technologies such as frame relay & ATM .

B. MAC sub layer:

Ten gigabit Ethernet operates only in full duplex mode which means there is no need for contension;
CSMA/CD

C. Physical layer:


Physical layer in ten gigabit Ethernet is designed using Fibre optics cable over long distances

10 G Base S-Short wave length |850 nm multimode |300m max length

10 G Base L- Long wave length |1310 nm single mode |10 km

10 G Base E-extended max length|1550nm single mode|40 km

1. Layer 2-3 switches

Five categories of connecting devices based on layer which they operate in N/w.

a) Passive hub

 It is just a connector .
 Connects wires coming from different branches .
 Its location in internet model is below physical layer

b) Repeaters :

 Operates at physical layer.

 A repeater receives a signal & before it becomes too weak or corrupted ,regenerates the original
bit pattern.
 Repeaters then sends refreshed signal.
 Repeater can extend physical length of LAN

2. Active Hubs:
 It is multiport repeater.
 It is used to create connections between stations in physical star topology.
 Hubs can also be used to create multiple levels of hierarchy.
 Hubs are implemented in some Ethernet .

3. Bridges :
 A bridge operates in both physical & data link layer.
 As physical layer device –it generates signal.
 As data link layer –check physical (MAC) address source & destination contained in frame.

4. 2-Layer switches:

 2- layer switch performs at physical & data link layer.

 It is a bridge, a bridge with many ports & design that allows better performance.
 Bridge with few ports can connect few LANS together.

D. Routers:

 A router is 3-layer device that routes packets based on their logical address .
 Router normally connects LAN’S & WAN’S in internet & has routing table that is used for making
decisions about route.
 Routing tables are normally dynamic & are updated using routing protocols .
F. 3- layer – Switches
 3 layer switch is router ,but faster & more sophisticated.
 The switching fabric in 3 layer switch allows faster table faster table 100 kbps& forwarding.

G. Gateway:
 A gateway is normally a computer that operates in all 5 layers of internet or 7 layer of OSI
model.
 A gateway takes application msg, reads it, interprets it.
 Can be used as connecting device between two internets networks that use diff models.
UNIT - V
Cellular Wireless Networks:

->Cellular radio is a technique that was developed to increase the capacity available for mobile radio
telephone service.

->Prior to cellular radio, mobile radio telephone service was only provided by a high-power
transmitter/receiver.

->A typical system would support about 25 channels with an effective radius of about 80 km.

->way to increase the capacity of the system is to use lower-power systems with shorter radius and to use
numerous transmitters/receivers.

Principles Of Cellular Network:

1) Layout of cellular network

2) Operation of cellular systems
3) Effects of mobile radio broadcast
4) Fading in mobile environment

1) Layout of cellular network:

-> essence of a cellular network is the use of multiple low-power transmitters, on the order of 100 W or
less.

->Because the range of transmitter is small, an area can be divided into cells, each having its own
antenna.

->Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served by a base station, consisting of transmitter,
receiver, and control unit.

->Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk or cells are
sufficiently apart from each other so as to use same band.

Shape of cells:

i) Square:

->Simplest layout of cellular network is square shape cells

->If the width of a square cell is d, then a cell has four neighbors at a distance d and four neighbors at a
distance squareroot(2d) .

->It is useful when all adjacent antennas are at equidistance.

ii)Hexagon:

->A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant antennas.

->radius of a hexagon is defined to be the radius of the circle that circumscribes it (equivalently, the distance
from the center to each vertex; also equal to the length of a side of a hexagon.

->For a cell radius R, the distance between the cell center and each adjacent cell center is

d = squareroot(3) R.
Frequency reuse:

->In a cellular system, each cell has a base transceiver. The trans-mission power is carefully controlled to allow
communication within the cell using a given frequency while limiting the power at that frequency that escapes the cell
into adjacent ones.

->objective is to use the same frequency in other nearby cells, thus allowing the frequency to be used for multiple
simultaneous conversations.

->10 to 50 frequencies are assigned to each cell, depending on the traffic.

Increasing capacity:

->more customers use the system, traffic may build up so that there are not enough frequencies assigned to a cell to
handle its calls.

->number of approaches used are:

i) Adding new channels:

->when a system is set up in a region, not all of the channels are used.

->growth and expansion can be managed in an orderly fashion by adding new channels.

ii) Frequency borrowing:

->frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells.

iii) Cell splitting:

->According to technique, split each cell into smaller cells to increase the capacity of cell.

->Size of original cell is in range of 6.5-13km.

->in general limit of each smaller cell is 1.5 km.

Fig: Cell Splitting

iv) Cell sectoring:

->cell is divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with its own set of channels, typically three
or six sectors per cell.

->Each sector is assigned a separate subset of the cell’s channels, and directional antennas at the base
station are used to focus on each sector.

v) Microcells:

->As cells become smaller, antennas move from the tops of tall buildings to the tops of small buildings
and even to lamp posts to form microcells.

->Due to this power will be reduced and it is good for city streets,along roads and it is also useful in our
inside buildings.

2) Operation of cellular systems:

Fig: Overview of Cellular System

->Each cell is served by base station (BS).

->BS includes an antenna, a controller, and a number of transceivers, for communicating on the channels
assigned to that cell.

->Controller is used to handle the call process between the mobile unit and the rest of the network.

->Every BS is connected to a mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO).

->One MTSO serves many BSs.

->Link between an MTSO and a BS is by a wire line, although a wireless link is also possible.

->MTSO connects calls between mobile units.

->MTSO can also be connected to the public telephone or telecommunications network and can make a
connection between a fixed subscriber to the public network and a mobile subscriber to the cellular network.

->MTSO assigns the voice channel to each call, performs handoffs, and monitors the call for billing information.

->Use of a cellular system is fully automated and requires no action on the part of the user other than
placing or answering a call.

->Two types of channels are available between the mobile unit and the base station (BS):

i) Control channels:

->Used to exchange information having to do with setting up and maintaining calls.

->Establish relationship between a mobile unit and the nearest BS.

ii) Traffic channels:

->Carry a voice or data connection between users.

Various steps in a typical call between two mobile users within an area controlled by a single MTSO:

i) Mobile unit initialization:

-> It examines and choose the strongest setup control channel.

-> It automatically selected the BS antenna of the cell.

->The handshake mechanism is used in between the mobile device and MTSO.

Fig: monitor for strongest signal

ii) Mobile-originated call:

->A mobile unit originates a call by sending the number of the called unit on the preselected setup
channel.

->Receiver at the mobile unit first checks that the setup channel is idle by examining information in the
forward (from the BS) channel.

->If channel is idle then mobile device sends request to BS and BS passes this request to MTSO.
Fig: Request for connection

iii) Paging:

->MTSO then attempts to complete the connection to the called unit.

->MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending on the called mobile number.

->Each BS transmits the paging signal on its own assigned setup channel.

Fig: Paging

iv) Call accepted:

->Called device identifies its number from setup channel and gives response to mobile device through
base station and MTSO.

->A circuit is created between the calling and called BSs by MTSO.
->MTSO choose a traffic channel within range of each base station cell and identifies all base stations.

->Hence connection is established between 2 mobile devices.

Fig: Call accepted

v) Ongoing call:

-> While the connection is maintained, the two mobile units exchange voice or data signals, going through
their respective BSs and the MTSO.

Fig: Ongoing call

vi) Handoff:

->When a mobile device is out of covering area of particular cell and enters into the range of another cell
while establishing a connection, then traffic channel has to transform to new cell without any interruption
for call.
Fig: Handoff

Call blocking:

->During the mobile-initiated call stage, if all the traffic channels assigned to the nearest BS are busy,
then the mobile unit makes a preconfigured number of repeated attempts.

->After a certain number of failed tries, a busy tone is returned to the user.

Call termination:

->When one of the two users hangs up, the MTSO is informed and the traffic channels at the two BSs are
released.

Call drop:

->During a connection, because of interference or weak signal spots in certain areas, if the BS cannot
maintain the minimum required signal strength for a certain period of time, the traffic channel to the user
is dropped and the MTSO is informed.

Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber:

->MTSO connects to the public switched telephone network.

->Thus MTSO can make connection with a mobile user in its area and a fixed subscriber via the
telephone net-work.

3) Mobile radio propagation effects:

i) Strength of signal:
->The base station and mobile device should have to maintain the strength of signal in order to provide
quality of signal at receiver.

->If quality of signal is so strong then it leads to co-channel interference with other cells.

->Strength of signal depends on mobile device,as we know mobile devices moves from one place to
another.

ii) Signal broadcast effect (Fading):

->Sometimes it may happen that strength of signal is within a proper coverage area, signal broadcast
effects may interrupt the signal and cause errors.

->This problem is called fading.

Types of fading:

->Fading effects in a mobile environment can be classified as either fast or slow.

->As mobile unit moves down a street in an urban environment rapid variations in signal strength occur
over distance of about one half a wavelength.

->At frequency of 900MHz,which is typical for mobile cellular applications, wavelength is 0.33m.

a) Fast fading:
->Changes of amplitude can be as much as 20 o 30 dB over a short distances.

->This type of rapidly changing fading phenomenon, known as fast fading.

b) Slow fading:

->It refers to slower changes due to mobile user who moves to different height buildings and gaps in
between the buildings.

c) Nonselective (flat) fading:

->In this all frequency components of the received signal fluctuate in the same proportions simultaneously.

Effect of multipath propagation:

a) Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases.

b) Particular for digital transmission, intersymbol interference (ISI).
c) Sending a narrow pulse at a given frequency across a link between a fixed antenna and a mobile device, channel
may deliver multiple copies at diff times.
Delayed pulses acts as noise,making recovery of bit information difficult.

d) As mobile device moves from one place to another then amount of LOS(line of sight) increases.

e) Very difficult to design signal processing to filter out multipath effects.

Since mobile antenna moves,location of various obstacles changes; hence the number,magnitude and timing of
secondary pulses charge.

This make it difficult to design signal processing techniques.

Whenever an electromagnetic wave encounters that kind of an edge,then wave broadcast in different directions by
making edge as source.

Scattering:

->It happens when there is delay in progress of wavelength of signal.

->Incoming signal is scattered into several weaker signals.

->scattering can also occur when lamp posts and traffic signs are used.

->If size of obstacle is on the order of wavelength of signal or less,scattering occurs.

Fig: Sketch of Three Important Propagation Mechanisms: Reflection (R), Scatter-ing (S), Diffraction
(D)

4) Fading in mobile environment:

->Fading refers to the time variation of received signal power caused by changes in the transmission
medium or paths.

->In a fixed environment, fading is affected by changes in atmospheric conditions, such as rainfall.

->But in a mobile environment, where one of the two antennas is moving relative to the other, the relative
location of various obstacles changes over time, creating complex transmission effects.

Multipath propagation:

->Consists of 3 important mechanism:

i) Reflection:

->It is electromagnetic signal which happens on surface that is corresponding to wavelength of signals.

ii) Diffraction:
->It occurs at surface of an object which is relatively large compared to wavelength of electromagnetic wave.

iii) Selective fading:

->It affects unequally the different spectral components of a radio signal.

-> If attenuation occurs over a portion of the bandwidth of the signal, the fading is considered to be selective.

First generation analog

->Original cellular telephone networks provided analog traffic channels, these are now referred to as first generation
system.

->Most common first generation system in north America has been Advanced mobile phone service(AMPS)
developed by AT&T.

->AMPS operates in 300MHz band.

System uses 2 separate analog channels, one for forward(BS to mobile station) communication and one
for reverse(mobile station to BS) communication.

->Band width - 869-894MHz - forward communication

824-849MHz - reverse communication

->Each band is divided into 832 channels 21 out of 832 channels are used for control.

->AMPS has frequency reuse factor of 7, this means only one-seventh of these 395 traffic channels are
actually available in a cell.

Transmission:
-> AMPS uses FM and FSK for modulation.

->Voice channels are modulated using FM and control channels use FSK to create 30KHz analog signals
for this AMPS uses FDMA to divide each 25MHz band into 30KHz channels.

Operation:

->Each AMPS-capable cellular telephone includes a numeric assignment module (NAM) in read-only memory.

->NAM contains the telephone number of the phone, which is assigned by the service provider, and the serial number
of the phone, which is assigned by the manufacturer.

->When the phone is turned on, it transmits its serial number and phone number to the MTSO.

->MTSO maintains a database with information about mobile units.

->MTSO uses the phone number for billing purposes.

Steps of events when call is placed:

i) Subscriber initiates a call by keying in the telephone number of the called party and presses the send
key.

ii) MTSO verifies that the telephone number is valid and that the user is authorized to place the call; some service
providers require the user to enter a PIN (personal identification number) as well as the called number to counter
theft.
iii) MTSO issues a message to the user’s cell phone indicating which traffic channels to use.

iv) MTSO sends out a ringing signal to the called party.

All of these operations occur within 10 s of initiating the call.

v) When the called party answers, the MTSO establishes a circuit between the two parties and initiates
billing information.

vi) When one party hangs up, the MTSO releases the circuit, frees the radio channels, and completes the
billing information.

Second generation CDMA (2G):

->Second generation systems are digital.

->Second generation systems provide higher quality signals, higher data rates for support of digital
services, and greater capacity.

->Some differences between the two generations:

i) Digital traffic channels:

->The most notable difference between the two generations is that first-generation systems are almost
purely analog, whereas second-generation systems are digital.

->First generation systems are designed to support voice channels using FM whereas Second generation
systems provide digital traffic channels which readily support digital data.

ii) Encryption:

->User and control traffic is digitized in second generation systems, so it is simple matter to encrypt all
traffic to prevent eavesdropping whereas first-generation systems send user traffic the clear, providing no
security.

iii) Error detection and correction:

->2G uses error detection and correction techniques.

iv) Channel access:

->2G uses time division multiple access (TDMA) or code division multiple access (CDMA).

Code division multiple access:

->In FDMA each cell is allocated a frequency bandwidth, which is split into two parts, half for reverse (mobile
unit to base station) and half for forward (base station to mobile unit).

->For full-duplex communication, a mobile unit uses both reverse and forward channels.

->CDMA for cellular systems uses direct-sequence spread spectrum (DS-SS), which uses a chipping code
to increase the data rate of the transmission, resulting in an increased signal bandwidth.
->Multiple access is provided by assigning orthogonal chipping codes to multiple users, so that the
receiver can recover the transmission of an individual unit from multiple transmissions.

Advantages of CDMA:
i) Frequency diversity:

-> Because the transmission is spread out over a larger bandwidth, frequency-dependent transmission
impairments, such as noise bursts and selective fading, have less effect on the signal.

ii) Multipath resistance:

->Chipping codes used for CDMA not only exhibit low cross correlation but also low autocorrelation.

Therefore, a version of the signal that is delayed by more than one chip interval does not interfere with the
dominant signal as much as in other multipath environments.

iii) Privacy:

->Each user has a unique code, privacy is inherent.

iv) Graceful degradation:

->With CDMA, as more users access the system simultaneously, the noise level and hence the error rate increases;
only gradually does the system degrade to the point of an unacceptable error rate.

Drawbacks of CDMA:

i) Self-jamming:

->Unless all of the mobile users are perfectly synchronized, the arriving transmissions from multiple users will
not be perfectly aligned on chip boundaries.

->Thus the spreading sequences of the different users are not orthogonal and there is some level of cross
correlation.

->In TDMA or FDMA, there is reasonable gap (guard bands of frequency or time) therefore received signals are
orthogonal or nearly so.

ii) Near-far problem:

-> Signals closer to the receiver are received with less attenuation than signals farther away.

Third generation system (3G) :

->The objective of the third generation (3G) of wireless communication is to provide fairly high-speed
wireless communications to support multimedia, data, and video in addition to voice.

3G capabilities:

i) Voice quality comparable to the public switched telephone network.

ii) Support for 2.048 Mbps for office use

iii) Symmetrical and asymmetrical data transmission rates.

iv) Support for both packet-switched and circuit-switched data services.

v) More efficient use of the available spectrum in general .

vi) Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment.

vii) Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services and technologies.

->Alternative schemes that have been adopted as part of IMT 2000 which covers a set of radio interfaces for
optimized performance in different radio environments.

i) W-CDMA or wideband CDMA:

fully exploits CDMA technology to provide high data rates with efficient use of bandwidth.

ii) CDMA 2000

iii) TD-CDMA

iv) TDD (TDMA based network)

v) DECT (FDMA based network)

Bluetooth:
->Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions

such as telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers,

coffee makers, and so on.

->Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the

network is formed spontaneously; the devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each

other and make a network called a piconet.

->Bluetooth LAN network cannot be large. If there are many gadgets that try to connect, there is chaos.

Applications:

i) Peripheral devices such as a wireless

mouse or keyboard can communicate with the computer through this technology.

ii) Monitoring devices can communicate with sensor devices in a small health care center.

iii) Home security devices can use this technology to connect different sensors to the main security
controller.
iv) Conference attendees can synchronize their laptop computers at a conference.

->Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the IEEE 802.15 standard which
defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN) operable in an area the size of a room or a hall.

Architecture:

-> Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

i) piconet

ii)scatternet

i) Piconet:

-> A piconet can have up to eight stations, one of which is called the primary and the rest are called
secondaries.

-> All the secondary stations synchronize their clocks with primary.

-> piconet can have only one primary station.

-> communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-many.

-> Maximum number of secondaries=7 + 1 primary i.e total =8

-> Additional 8 secondaries can be added in parked state.

-> A secondary in a parked state is synchronized with the primary, but cannot take part in communication
until it is moved from the parked state.(only eight stations can be active in a piconet)
ii) Scatternet:

-> Piconets can be combined to form a scatternet.

-> Secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another piconet.

-> This station can receive messages from the primary in the first piconet (as a secondary) and, acting as
a primary, deliver them to secondaries in the second piconet.

Bluetooth Devices:

-> Bluetooth device has a built-in short-range radio transmitter.

-> current data rate is 1 Mbps with a 2.4-GHz bandwidth.

-> There is a possibility of interference between the IEEE 802.11b wireless LANs and Bluetooth LANs.

Bluetooth Layers:

-> Bluetooth uses several layers that do not exactly match those of the Internet model.
i) Radio Layer:

-> It is equivalent to the physical layer of the Internet model.

-> Bluetooth devices are low-power and have a range of 10 m.

-> Bluetooth uses a 2.4-GHz ISM band divided into 79 channels of 1 MHz each.

-> Bluetooth uses the frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) method in the physical

layer to avoid interference from other devices or other networks.

-> To transform bits to a signal, Bluetooth uses a sophisticated version of FSK, called

GFSK (FSK with Gaussian bandwidth filtering.

ii) Baseband layer:

-> It is equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs.

-> access method is TDMA, The primary and secondary communicate with

each other using time slots.

-> communication is only between the primary and a secondary; secondaries cannot communicate
directly with one another.

-> TDMA: Bluetooth uses a form of TDMA that is called TDD-TDMA (timedivision duplex TDMA).

-> TDD-TDMA is a kind of half-duplex communication in which the secondary and receiver send and
receive data, but not at the same time (halfduplex).

-> communication for each direction uses different hops:

(a) Single secondary communication - primary uses even slots

- secondary uses odd slots

(b) Multiple secondary communication

Dwell time - 625 microseconds

-> Bluetooth hops 1600 times/second , therefore each device changes its modulation frequency 1600
times/second.

-> Device uses frequency for only 625 microseconds(1/1600 sec) before it hops to another frequency.

Physical links:

->Two types of links can be created between a primary and a secondary:

(a) SCO links (synchronous connection-oriented)

(b) ACL links (asynchronous connectionless link)

-> SCO used when avoiding delay in data delivery is more important than error free delivery(integrity).

-> ACL used when integrity is more important.

Frame format:

-> A frame in baseband layer can be one of three types:

(i) One-slot

(ii) Three-slot

(iii) Five-slot

-A slot is 625 microseconds

iii) L2CAP:

-> Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol, or L2CAP (L2 here means LL).

-> equivalent to the LLC sublayer in LANs.

-> It is used for data exchange on an ACL link.

-> L2CAP data packet format :

-> L2CAP has specific duties:

(a) Multiplexing
(b) Segmentation
(c) Reassembly
(d) QOS(quality of service)
(e) Group management

WIRELESS LANs:

-> Wireless LANs makes use of wireless transmission medium.

-> Wireless LANs were less used until relatively because of high prices,low data rates,occupational safety
concerns and licensing requirement.

-> As these problems have been addressed popularity of wireless LANs has grown rapidly.

Applications:
(a) LAN extension
(b) Cross-Building Interconnect
(c) Nomadic Access
(d) Ad Hoc Networking

(a) LAN extension:

-> Wireless LANs saves cost of cabling and eases task of relocation and other modifications to network
structures.

-> However, this motivation for wireless LANs was overtaken by events.

(i)as awareness of the need for LANs became greater,architects designed new buildings to include
extensive prewiring for data applications.

(ii)with advances in data transmission technology, there is an increasing reliance on twisted pair cabling
for LANs and, in particular, Category 3 and Category 5 unshielded twisted pair.
(iii)Thus, the use of a wireless LAN to replace wired LANs has not happened to any

great extent.

(b) Cross-Building Interconnect:

-> connect LANs in nearby buildings, be they wired or wireless LANs.

-> point-to-point wireless link is used between two buildings.

(c) Nomadic Access:

-> Nomadic access provides a wireless link between a LAN hub and a mobile data terminal equipped with
an antenna, such as a laptop computer or notepad computer.

(d) Ad Hoc Networking:

-> An ad hoc network is a peer-to-peer network (no centralized server) set up temporarily to meet some
immediate need.

-> For example, a group of employees, each with a laptop or palmtop computer, may convene in a
conference room for a business or classroom meeting.

-> The employees link their computers in a temporary network just for the duration of the meeting.
-> In number of environments,there is a role for wireless LAN as alternative to wired LAN.

Example:

(i) Building with large open areas such as manufacturing plants,stock exchange trading floors and
warehouses.

(ii) Historical buildings with insufficient twisted pair of wire and where drilling for new wiring is prohibited.

(iii) Small offices where installation and maintenance of wired LANs is not economical.

Requirement of wireless LAN:

1) Throughput: medium access control (MAC) protocol should make as efficient use as possible of the
wireless medium to maximize capacity.
2) Number Of Nodes: support hundreds of nodes across multiple cells.
3) Connection to backbone LAN: For infrastructure wireless LANs, this is easily accomplished through the
use of control modules that connect to both types of LANs.
4) Service Area: A typical coverage area for a wireless LAN has a diameter of 100 to 300 m.
5) Battery Power Consumption: Mobile workers use battery-powered workstations that need to have a
long battery life when used with wireless adapters.
Typical wireless LAN implementations have features to reduce power consumption while not using the
network, such as a sleep mode.
6) Transmission robustness and security: design of a wireless LAN must permit reliable transmission
even in a noisy environment and should provide some level of security from eavesdropping.
7) Collocated network operation: when two or more wireless LANs to operate in the same area or in some
area where interference between the LANs is possible. Such interference may disturb the normal
operation of a MAC algorithm and may allow unauthorized access to a particular LAN.

8) License-free operation: Users would prefer to buy and operate wireless LAN products without having to
secure a license for the frequency band used by the LAN.

9) Handoff/roaming: The MAC protocol used in the wireless LAN should enable mobile stations to move
from one cell to another.

10) Dynamic configuration: The MAC addressing and network management aspects of the LAN should
permit dynamic and automated addition, deletion, and relocation of end systems without disruption to
other users.

Wireless LAN technology:

-> Wireless LANs are generally categorized according to the transmission technique that is used.

(i) Infrared LANs (IR LANs):

-> An individual cell of an IR LAN is limited to a single room, because infrared light does not penetrate
opaque walls.

-> Optical wireless communication in the infrared portion of the spectrum is commonplace in most homes,
where it is used for a variety of remote control devices.

Strengths and weakness:

-> The two competing transmission media for wireless LANs are microwave radio using either spread
spectrum or narrow band transmission,infrared.

(a) spectrum for infrared is virtually unlimited, which presents the possibility of achieving extremely high
data rates. The infrared spectrum is unregulated worldwide.
(b) infrared shares some properties of visible light that make it attractive for certain types of LAN
configurations.

-> Infrared light is diffusely reflected by light-colored objects; thus it is possible to use ceiling reflection to
achieve coverage of an entire room.

-> Infrared light does not penetrate walls or other opaque objects.

This has two advantages:

1) infrared communications can be more easily secured against eavesdropping than microwave.
2) separate infrared installation can be operated in every room in a building without interference, enabling
the construction of very large infrared LANs.

-> infrared equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple.

-> Infrared data transmission typically uses intensity modulation, so that IR receivers need to detect only
the amplitude of optical signals, whereas most microwave receivers must detect frequency or phase.
Transmission Techniques:

1) Directed-beam IR:
->used to create point-to-point links.

->range depends on the emitted power and on the degree of focusing.( remote TV control)

2) Omnidirectional configuration:
-> involves a single base station that is within ine of sight of all other stations on the LAN.

-> this station is mounted on the ceiling.

3) Diffused configuration:
-> all of the IR transmitters are focused and aimed at a point on a diffusely reflecting ceiling. IR radiation
striking the ceiling is reradiated omnidirectionally and picked up by all of the receivers in the area.

(ii) Spread Spectrum LANs:

-> This type of LAN makes use of spread spectrum transmission technology.

-> Except for quite small offices, a spread spectrum wireless LAN makes use of a multiple-cell
arrangement.

-> Adjacent cells make use of different center frequencies within the same band to avoid interference.

-> Within a given cell, the topology can be either hub or peer to peer.

-> Regardless of access control mechanism,each station may broadcast using an omnidirectional
antenna so that all other stations in cell may receive.

-> A peer-to-peer topology is one in which there is no hub. CSMA is used to control access.

-> appropriate for ad hoc LANs.

-> Wireless LAN can be usable without having to go through a licensing procedure.

(iii) Narrowband Microwave LANs:

-> Narrowband microwave refers to the use of microwave radio frequency band for signal
transmission,with relatively narrow bandwidth

-> just wide to accomodate signal.

-> Licensed Narrowband RF

Unlicensed Narrowband RF
IEEE 802.11

-> IEEE has defined specifications for wireless LAN,called IEEE 802.11,which covers physical and data
link layers.

Architecture:

-> Std. Define 2 services:

(i) Basic service set (BSS)

(ii) Extended service set (ESS)

(i) BSS:

-> It is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and optional central base station called Access point
(AP).

-> BSS without AP,is stored-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs.

-> It is called an ad hoc architecture.

-> BSS with an AP is an infrastructure network.

(ii) ESS:

-> It is made up of two or more BSSs with APs.

-> In this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is usually a wired

LAN.

-> distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs.

-> distribution system can be any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet.

-> ESS uses 2 types of stations:

- mobile (normal station inside BSS)

- stationary (AP stations that are part of wired LAN)

-> Communication between 2 stations in 2 different BSSs usually occurs via 2 APs.

Station Types:

-> three types of stations according to IEEE 802.11 based on their mobility in a wireless LAN:

(a) No Transition:
-> Station with no transition mobility is either stationary or moving inside BSS.

(b) BSS Transition:

-> Move from 1 BSS to another BSS inside 1 BSS.

(c) ESS transition mobility:

-> Move from 1 BSS to another.

MAC Sublayer:

-> IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers:

(a)the distributed coordination function (DCF)

(b)point coordination function (PCF).

(a) DCF:
-> DCF uses CSMAICA as the access method. Wireless LANs cannot implement CSMAfCD for three
reasons:

(i) For collision detection a station must be able to send data and receive collision signals at the same
time.

This can mean costly stations and increased bandwidth requirements.

(ii) Collision may not be detected because of the hidden station problem.

(iii) distance between stations can be great.

Signal fading could prevent a station at one end from hearing a collision at the other end.

Process Flowchart:
-> Fig shows flowchart for CSMA/CA as used in wireless LANs
DIFS- distributed interframe space

SIFS- Short interframe space

RTS- request to send

CTS- clear to send

(b) PCF:

-> PCF has a centralized, contention-free polling access method.

-> AP performs polling for stations that are capable of being polled.

-> stations are polled one after another, sending any data they have to the AP.

-> To give priority to PCF over DCF, another set of interframe spaces has been defined:

(i)PIFS-shorter than DIFS

(ii) SIFS-same as that in DCF

-> This means that if, at the same time, a station wants to use only DCF and an AP wants to use PCF, the
AP has priority.

-> Due to the priority of PCF over DCF, stations that only use DCF may not gain access to the medium.

-> To prevent this, a repetition interval has been designed to cover both contention-free (PCF) and
contention-based (DCF) traffic.

-> repetition interval,which is repeated continuously, starts with a special control frame, called a beacon
frame.

-> When the stations hear the beacon frame, they start their NAV for the duration of the contention-free
period of the repetition interval.

-> During the repetition interval, the PC (point controller) can send a poll frame, receive data, send an
ACK, receive an ACK, or do any combination of these.

-> At the end of the contention-free period, the PC sends a CF end (contention-free end) frame to allow
the contention-based stations to use the medium.
-> Fragmentation:

division of a large frame into smaller ones. It is more efficient to resend a small frame than a large one.

Frame Format:

-> MAC frame consists of 9 fields

(i) FC- type of frame and some control information(frame control)

Subfields:
(ii) D- In all frame types except one, this field defines the duration of the transmission that is used to set
the value of NAY.

In one control frame, this field defines the ID of the frame.

(iii) Addresses- four address fields, each 6 bytes long.

The meaning of each address field depends on the value of the To DS and From DS subfields

(iv) Sequence control- This field defines the sequence number of the frame to be used in flow control.

(v) Frame body- between 0 and 2312 bytes, contains information based on the type and the subtype
defined in the FC field.

(vi)FCS- CRC-32 error detection sequence.

Frame Types:

-> IEEE 802.11 has three categories of frames types for wireless LAN

(i) Management frame- used for initial communication between station and APs

(ii) Control frame- used for accessing channels and acknowledging frames

(iii) Data frame- carrying data and control information

Control Frames:
-> For control frame value of type field is 01.

-> values of subtype fields for frames

Addressing mechanism:

-> The IEEE 802.11 addressing mechanism specifies four cases, defined by the value of the two flags in
the FC field, To DS and From DS.

-> Each flag can be either 0 or I, resulting in four cases.

-> Add 1-always the address of next device

Add 2-always address of previous device

Add 3-address of final destination,if it is not specified by add 1

Add 4-address of original source,if it s not same as add 2

Case 1: 00

->In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = O. This means that the frame is not going to a distribution
system (To DS = 0) and is not coming from a distribution system(from DS=0)

-> frame is going from one station in a BSS to another without passing through the distribution system.

-> ACK frame should be sent to the original sender.

Case 2: 01

-> To DS = 0 and From DS = 1

-> frame is coming from a distribution system (From DS = 1)

->frame is coming from an AP and going to a station.

->ACK should be sent to the AP.

Case 3: 10

->To DS =1 and From DS =O.

->frame is going to a distribution system (To DS = 1).

->frame is going from a station to an AP.

-> The ACK is sent to the original station.

Case 4: 11

-> To DS =1 and From DS =1.

-> This is the case in which the distribution system is also wireless.

-> The frame is going from one AP to another AP in a wireless distribution system.

-> We do not need to define addresses if the distribution system is

a wired LAN because the frame in these cases has the format of a wired LAN frame

(Ethernet, for example).

Physical layer:

->Six Specifications:
-> All implementations, except the infrared, operate in the industrial, scientific,

and medical (ISM) band, which defines three unlicensed bands in the three ranges