CHAPTER 5

DISTRIBUTED FORCES
CHAPTER OUTLINE
5/1 Introduction
SECTION A Centers of Mass and Centroids
5/2 Center of Mass
5/3 Centroids of Lines, Areas, and Volumes
5/4 Composite Bodies and Figures; Approximations
5/5 Theorems of Pappus
SECTION B Special Topics
5/6 Beams – External Effects
5/7 Beams – Internal Effects
5/8 Flexible Cables
5/9 Fluid Statics
Graham Oliver/Alamy Stock Photo
Article 5/1 Introduction

• Concentrated Forces

• Distributed Forces

• Forces are spread out over a line, area, or volume.

• Treated as concentrated forces when analyzing their external effects on a

body.

• Occur when a force is applied over a region whose dimensions are not
negligible compared with other pertinent dimensions.
Article 5/1 – Categories of Distributed Forces (1 of 3)
• Line Distribution

• When a force is distributed along a line, as in the

continuous vertical load supported by a suspended
cable.
• The intensity w of the loading is expressed as force
per unit length of line, newtons per meter (N/m) or
pounds per foot (lb/ft).
Article 5/1 – Categories of Distributed Forces (2 of 3)
• Area Distribution

• When a force is distributed over an area, as with the

hydraulic pressure of water against the inner face of a
section of dam
• Intensity is termed pressure for fluids and stress for solids.
• SI unit is the Pascal (Pa).
• 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
• 6895 Pa = 1 lb/in.2
• Pressure is commonly reported in kilopascals (kPa = 103 Pa).
• Stress is commonly reported in megapascals (MPa = 106 Pa).
Article 5/1 – Categories of Distributed Forces (3 of 3)
• Volume Distribution (Body Force)

• A force which is distributed over the volume of a

body is called a body force. The most common
body force is the force of gravitational attraction
(weight), which acts on all elements of mass in a
body.

• Intensity is termed specific weight, γ = ρg.

• ρ = density (mass per unit volume)
• g = acceleration due to gravity
• SI units are N/m3
• U.S. customary units are lb/ft3 or lb/in.3
Article 5/2 Center of Mass
• Consider a three-dimensional body of any size and shape,
having a mass m. If we suspend the body, as shown in Fig. 5/3,
from any point such as A, the body will be in equilibrium under
the action of the tension in the cord and the resultant W of the
gravitational forces acting on all particles of the body. This
resultant is clearly collinear with the cord.

• We repeat the experiment by suspending the body from other

points such as B and C, and in each instance, we mark the line
of action of the resultant force.

• For all practical purposes these lines of action will be concurrent at a

single point G, which is called the center of gravity of the body.
Article 5/2 – Determining the Center of Gravity (1 of 3)
• To determine mathematically the location of the center of gravity of any
body, we apply the principle of moments to the parallel system of
gravitational forces.
• Body of Total Weight W
• Center of Gravity Coordinates are (𝑥,ҧ 𝑦,
ത 𝑧)ҧ
• Differential Element of the Body of Weight dW
• Coordinates of the Element are (x, y, z)
• The moment of the resultant gravitational force W about any axis
equals the sum of the moments, about the same axis of the
gravitational forces dW acting on all particles treated as infinitesimal
elements of the body.
Article 5/2 – Determining the Center of Gravity (2 of 3)

• Substitute W = mg and dW = g dm…

• Substitute ρ = mV and dm = ρ dV, with ρ variable…

Article 5/2 – Determining the Center of Gravity (3 of 3)

• Vector Format
• r = xi + yj + zk

• 𝒓ത = 𝒙
ഥi + 𝑦j
ത + 𝑧kҧ
Article 5/2 – Center of Mass versus Center of Gravity

• Center of Mass is…

• a unique point in the body which is only a function of the distribution of mass.
• coincident with the center of gravity if the gravitational field is uniform and
parallel.
• still present when the body is removed from a gravitational field.
• the preferred choice of reference.
• important in calculating the dynamic response of a body to unbalanced
forces.
Article 5/2 – Comments about the Center of Mass

• Tips and Hints

• Choice of Axes: In most problems the calculation of the position of the center of mass may be
simplified by an intelligent choice of reference axes. In general, the axes should be placed so
as to simplify the equations of the boundaries as much as possible. Thus, polar coordinates
will be useful for bodies with circular boundaries.
• Lines and Planes of Symmetry:Whenever there exists a line or plane of symmetry in a
homogeneous body, a coordinate axis or plane should be chosen to coincide with this line or
lane.
Article 5/3 Centroids of Lines, Areas, and Volumes

• Centroid
Term used when a center of mass calculation concerns a geometric shape only.

• Centroids of Lines
• Differential segment dm = ρA dL
• A = cross-sectional area of line
• Equations of interest if ρ and A are constant…
Article 5/3 – Centroids (cont.)

• Centroids of Areas
• Differential section dm = ρt dA
• t = thickness of area
• Equations of interest if ρ and t are constant…

• Centroids of Volumes
• Differential portion dm = ρ dV
• Equations of interest if ρ is constant…
Article 5/3 – Choice of Element for Integration (1 of 6)
• Order of Element
• Whenever possible, select a first-order
differential element to reduce the
number of integrations.

• Lower: Horizontal Strip, dA = l dy

• Higher: Square, dA = dx dy

• Lower: Circular Disk, dV = πr2 dy

• Higher: Cube, dV = dx dy dz
Article 5/3 – Choice of Element for Integration (2 of 6)
• Continuity
• Whenever possible, choose an element which can be
integrated in one continuous operation to cover the
figure.

• Horizontal strip requires one integration in dy because

the boundaries for the right and left ends of the strip are
continuous in the vertical direction

• Vertical strip requires two integrations in dx because the

boundaries for the top and bottom of the strip are not
continuous in the horizontal direction.
Article 5/3 – Choice of Element for Integration (3 of 6)
• Discarding Higher-Order Terms
• Higher order terms may always be dropped when
compared to lower-order terms.

• First Order: dA = y dx

• Second Order: dA′ = ½ dy dx

Article 5/3 – Choice of Element for Integration (4 of 6)
• Choice of Coordinates
• Choose the coordinate system which best matches the
boundaries of the figure.

• Rectangular Coordinates: x = ky2

• Polar Coordinates
Article 5/3 – Choice of Element for Integration (5 of 6)
• Centroidal Coordinate of Element
• When a first- or second-order differential element is chosen, it is essential
to use the coordinate of the centroid of the element for the moment arm
in expressing the moment of the differential element.

• Example with a Horizontal Strip

• New Equations
Article 5/3 – Choice of Element for Integration (6 of 6)
• Centroidal Coordinate of Element (cont.)
• Example with a Semicircular Slice

• New Equations
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/1 (1 of 2)

Locate the centroid of a circular arc as shown in the figure.

Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/1 (2 of 2)
• Solution
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/2 (1 of 2)
Determine the distance h from the base of a triangle of altitude h to the centroid of its area.
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/2 (2 of 2)
• Solution
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/3 (1 of 3)
Locate the centroid of the area of a circular sector with respect to its vertex.
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/3 (2 of 3)
• Solution I
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/3 (3 of 3)
• Solution II
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/4 (1 of 3)
• Locate the centroid of the area under the curve x = ky3 from x = 0 to x = a.
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/4 (2 of 3)
• Solution I: Vertical Strip
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/4 (3 of 3)
• Solution II: Horizontal Strip
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/5 (1 of 4)
Locate the centroid of the volume of a hemisphere of radius r with respect to its base.
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/5 (2 of 4)
• Solution I: Circular Slice
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/5 (3 of 4)
• Solution II: Cylindrical Shell
Article 5/3 – Sample Problem 5/5 (4 of 4)
• Solution III: Use θ as the Variable
Article 5/4 Composite Bodies and Figures; Approximations
• When a body or figure can be conveniently divided into
several parts whose mass centers are easily determined,
we use the principle of moments and treat each part as a
finite element of the whole.

• Similar equations exist for lines, areas, and volumes by

replacing the m’s with L’s, A’s, and V’s, respectively.
Article 5/4 – Comments about Composite Bodies
• Identify composite pieces based on Table D/3 and D/4 in
Appendix D.

• Treat holes and cutouts as negative quantities. In the upper

shape, the rectangular cutout has an area of -8 in.2.

• Measure the centroidal coordinate for every piece from the

origin of your reference axes. In the upper shape, the horizontal
centroidal coordinate of the rectangular cutout is 12 in., not 1 in.

• Most objects consist of a single type of composite piece

geometry (lines, areas, or volumes), but sometimes they are
combined. For example, the upper shape consists of areas, while
the lower shape consists of areas and volumes. To find the
centroid of the lower shape, you must use the mass of the
individual pieces.
Article 5/4 – An Approximation Method
When the boundaries of an area (or volume) are not
expressible in terms of simple geometrical shapes or
mathematical expressions…

• Divide the body into individual pieces.

• Calculate the area A = h Δx of each piece.
• Determine the centroidal coordinates, xc and yc for each piece.
• Evaluate the expression…
Article 5/4 – Irregular Volumes
The centroidal location of an irregular volume may
be simplified to one of locating the centroid of an
area.

• Plot the magnitudes of the cross-sectional areas A.

• Calculate the volume ΔV = A Δx of individual slices.
• Determine the centroidal coordinates xc of each slice.
• Evaluate the expression…
Article 5/4 – Centroids of Common Shapes (1 of 6)
Article 5/4 – Centroids of Common Shapes (2 of 6)
Article 5/4 – Centroids of Common Shapes (3 of 6)
Article 5/4 – Centroids of Common Shapes (4 of 6)
Article 5/4 – Centroids of Common Shapes (5 of 6)
Article 5/4 – Centroids of Common Shapes (6 of 6)
Article 5/4 – Sample Problem 5/6 (1 of 3)
Locate the centroid of the shaded area.
Article 5/4 – Sample Problem 5/6 (2 of 3)
• Composite Shapes
Rectangular Area (1)
Triangular Area (2)
Semicircular Cutout (3)
Square Cutout (4)
Article 5/4 – Sample Problem 5/6 (2 of 3)
Article 5/4 – Sample Problem 5/7 (1 of 2)
Approximate the x-coordinate of the volume centroid of a body whose length is 1 m and whose
cross-sectional area varies with x as shown in the figure.
Article 5/4 – Sample Problem 5/7 (2 of 2)
• Solution
Article 5/4 – Sample Problem 5/8 (1 of 4)
Locate the center of mass of the bracket-and-shaft combination. The vertical face is made from sheet metal
which has a mass of 25 kg/m2. The material of the horizontal base has a mass of 40 kg/m2, and the steel shaft
has a density of 7.83 Mg/m3.
Article 5/4 – Sample Problem 5/8 (2 of 4)
• Composite Shapes
Semicircular Area (1)
Square Plate (2)
Triangular Cutout (3)
Rectangular Flat (4)
Cylindrical Shaft (5)
Article 5/4 – Sample Problem 5/8 (3 of 4)
Article 5/4 – Sample Problem 5/8 (4 of 4)
Article 5/5 Theorems of Pappus
• Area of a Revolved Line Segment
• L = length of a revolved line segment
• 𝑦ത = y-coordinate of the centroid C for the line of
length L
𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑑𝐿
A = 2π න 𝑦𝑑𝐿

Due to 𝑦𝐿
ത = ‫𝐿𝑑𝑦 ׬‬, total area A:

𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑦𝐿
ത

• For a partial revolution through the angle θ…

• A = θ𝑦L
ത where θ is expressed in radians
Article 5/5 – Theorems of Pappus (cont.)
• Volume of a Solid of Revolution
• A = area of a revolved section
• 𝑦ത = y-coordinate of the centroid C for the area A

• Equation of Interest: V = 2π𝑦A

ത

• For a partial revolution through the angle θ…

• V = θ𝑦A
ത where θ is expressed in radians
Article 5/5 – Sample Problem 5/9 (1 of 2)
Determine the volume V and surface area A of the complete torus of circular cross section.
Article 5/5 – Sample Problem 5/9 (2 of 2)
• Solution
Article 5/5 – Sample Problem 5/10 (1 of 2)
Calculate the volume V of the solid generated by revolving the 60-mm right-triangular area
through 180° about the z-axis. If this body were constructed of steel, what would be its mass
m?
Article 5/5 – Sample Problem 5/10 (2 of 2)
• Solution