Solutions Manual

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF

RADAR

Habibur Rahman, Ph.D.

Saint Louis University
Chapter 2: Radar Fundamentals

Solutions

2.1 The distance of the moon from the radar transmitter located on the surface of the
earth is 3.84×108 m. Calculate the elapsed round trip time of a radar signal
transmitted from radar the antenna.

Solution:
2 R 2(3.84  108 )
td = = = 2.56 s
c 3  108

2.2 Consider a low PRF pulsed radar with a PRF of 1500 pps and a bandwidth of 0.5
MHz. Calculate the maximum unambiguous range, pulse width, range resolution,
and the duty factor.

Solution:
c 3  108
Ru = = = 100 km
2 f r 2  1500
1 1
= = = 5 μs
B .2  106
c (3  108 )(2  10−6)
R = = = 300 m
2 2
d t =  f r = (2  10−6 )(1500) = 3  10−3

2.3 A C-band radar transmits a peak power of 1 MW at a frequency of 5.5 GHz with
the pulse length of 1 μs and the PRF of 200 Hz.
(a) Find the average transmitted power.
(b) Find the bandwidth and the range resolution of the radar.

Solution:
(a)

Pav = Pt = Pt f r = (106 )(10−6) )(200) = 200 W
T

(b)
1
1
B= =
= 1 MHz
 10−6
c (3  108 )(10−6 )
R = = = 150 m
2 2

1
2.4 A pulsed radar has a PRF of 1500 pps and transmit rectangular pulse train of
duration 15  s . (a) What maximum range can a target have if no part of its first
time around returned echo is to overlap any part of the transmitted pulse? (b)What
is the minimum distance of separation so that targets can be identified?

Solution:
(a)
cT c 3  108
Ru = = = = 100 km
2 2 f r (2)(1500)

(b)
c (3  108 )(15  10−6 )
R = = = 2250 m
2 2

2.5 The speed of a missile toward a radar is 300 m/s. Assume an X-band radar
operating at a frequency of 12 GHz.
(a) Calculate the exact Doppler frequency at the receiver.
(b) Calculate the receiver Doppler frequency assuming vr c .

Solution:
(a)
c+v 2vf 0
f 0 = f 0    f d = f 0 − f 0 =
c−v c−v

(2)(300)(12  109)
fd = = 24000.024 Hz
3  108 − 300

(b)
2vf 0 (2)(300)(12  109 )
fd  = = 24000 Hz
c 3  108

2.6 Assuming that the target is receding (opening), derive the expression for the
Doppler shift

Follow the article 2.4 by assuming that the target is receding and thereby changing the
polarity of v .

2.7 For an approaching (closing) target whose radial velocity is 300 m/s, find the
Doppler shift and the unambiguous range when the PRF is 8000 pps and the
transmitting frequency is 15 GHz.

Solution:

2
2vf 0 (2)(300)(15  109 )
fd = = = 30 kHz
c 3  108

c 3  108
Ru = = = 18.75 km
2 f r (2)(800)

2.8 Consider an S-band pulsed radar transmitting 250 kW of peak power with a pulse
width of 1.5  s and a PRF of 500 pps. The radar is transmitting at a frequency of
3000 MHz
(a) Calculate the maximum unambiguous range of this radar, range resolution, and
duty factor
(b) Calculate the average transmitted power and the energy radiated in first 10 ms.
(c) Calculate the Doppler shift for a target approaching the radar with a radial
velocity of 30 m/s.

Solutions:
(a) The maximum unambiguous range, range resolution, and duty factor are
calculated as follows:

cT c 3  108
Ru = = = = 300 km
2 2 f r (2)(500)

c (3  108 )(1.5  10−6 )

R = 2 = = 225 m
2 2

dt =  f r = (1.5  10−6 )(500) = 7.5  10−4

(b) The average transmitted power and the energy radiated in first 10 ms.
−4
Pav = Pd
t t = (250  10 )(7.5  10 ) = 187.5 W
3

E = Pav  (total time)=(187.5)(104 ) = 1.875  106 J

(c) The Doppler shift is calculated as

2vr f 0 (2)(30)(3  109 )

fd = = = 600 Hz
c 3  108

2.9 Find an expression for the Doppler shift when the radial velocity of the approaching
target is in km. Plot the Doppler frequency as a function of radial velocity of the
target for various transmitted frequencies.

3
Solution: Starting with Eq. (2.18), obtain the desired Doppler shift and plot the resulting
expression.

2.10 An L-band radar capable of transmitting a peak power of 500 W at 1000 MHz is
designed to provide an unambiguous range of 100 km and range resolution of at
least 100 m.
a) Find the maximum required pulse width and the PRF.
b) Find the average transmitted power.

Solution:
(a)
c 2R (2)(100)
R =  = = = .6667 μs
2 c 3  108

c c 3  108
Ru =  fr = = = 1.5 kHz
2 fr 2 Ru (2)(100  103 )

(b)
Pav = Pt f r = (500)(.6667  10−6 )(1.5  103 ) = .5 W

2.11 An L-band radar operates at a frequency of 1500 MHz. Find the Doppler shift
associated with an outbound target moving at the velocity of 100 m/s when the
target velocity vector makes angle of 45o , and 90o with the radar line of sight. In
each case, calculate the time dilation factor.

Solution: For  = 45o

2v cos  (2)(100cos 45o )(1.5  109 )

fd = f0 = = 707.11 HZ
c 3  108

c − v cos 45o 3  108 − 70.71 299999929.29

Dilation Factor, DF = = = = .99999974
c + v cos 45o 3  108 + 70.71 300000070.71

and for  = 90o

vr = 100cos90o = 0  f d = 0, and DF = 1

______________________________________________________________________

4
Chapter 3: Radar Equations

Solutions
3.1 Calculate the maximum gain of an X-band antenna operating at 8 GHz and having
a diameter of 1 m. Repeat this problem with the diameter changed to 1.5, 2.0 m.
Assume Ae =  a A with  a = 1 in each case.

Solution: We have
4 Ae
G =
2

D =1m:
 = 3  108 8  109 = 0.0375 m, A e =  ( D 2) 2 =  (1 2) 2 = 0.785 m 2

4 Ae (4 )(0.785)
Gmax = = = 7014.55 = 38.46 dB
 2
min (0.0375) 2

D = 1.5 m :
 = 3  108 8  109 = 0.0375 m, A e =  ( D 2) 2 =  (1.5 2) 2 = 1.767 m 2

4 Ae (4 )(1.767)
Gmax = = = 41.98 dB
2
min (0.0375)2

D = 2 m:
 = 3  108 8  109 = 0.0375 m, A e =  ( D 2) 2 =  (2 2) 2 = 3.1416 m 2

4 Ae (4 )(3.1416)
Gmax = = = 44.48 dB
 2
min (0.0375)2

3.2 Calculate the maximum gain of 2 m radius antenna operating in the L-, S-, and C-
bands. Assume Ae =  a A with  a = 1 in each case.

Solution: The maximum gain of an antenna is directly proportional to the maximum

value in corresponding band.

5
4 Ae 4 Ae  4 A  2
Gmax = = =  2 e  f max = Hf max
2

 2
min ( c f max ) 2
 c 

 4 A   (4 )( (2 1) 
2
−16
H = 2 e=  = 4.3865  10
 c   (3  10 ) 
8 2

L-band: f max = 2 GHz  Gmax = Hf max

2
= (4.3865  10−16 )(2  109 )2 = 32.44 dB
S-band: f max = 4 GHz  Gmax = Hf max
2
= (4.3865  10−16 )(4  109 )2 = 38.46 dB
C-band: f max = 8 GHz  Gmax = Hf max
2
= (4.3865 10−16 )(8 109 )2 = 44.48 dB

3.3 Find the size of a circular aperture antenna of X-band radar operating at
f 0 = 10 GHz to attain G = 30, 40, 50 dBs . Assume Ae =  a A with  a = 0.7 in each
case.

Solution: We have

4 A  D2
G02  0.03
G=  A= = D= 0 G= G
2
0 4 4   ( ) 0.7

D = 1.14  10−2 G

G = 30 dB = 103 : D = 1.14  10−2 103 = .360 m

G = 40 dB = 104 : D = 1.14  10−2 104 = 1.14 m
G = 50 dB = 105 : D = 1.14  10−2 105 = 3.60 m

3.4 An L-band radar operates at highest gain of 30 dB. The radar duty factor is 0.2 and
the average power transmitted is 30 kW. Find the size of the antenna and the
power density at a range of 55 km. Assume  = 1 .

Solution: It can be shown that

0
D= G where 0 = (3  108 2  109 ) = 0.15 m at f = 2  109 GHz
 
for obtaining maximum gain. Thus
 .15 1000
D= 0 G= = 1.51 m
  
Now
Pav 300  103
Pav = Pd
t t  Pt = = = 1.5 MW
dt 0.2

6
Therefore
PG (1.5  106 )(103 )
pˆ t = t t
= = 39.45 mW m2
4 R 2
4 (55  10 )3 2

3.5 An L-band radar operating at frequency 1.5 MHz with an antenna of gain 36 dB is
designed to obtain a single pulse minimum signal-to-noise ratio of 20 dB. Assume
the receiver bandwidth of 4 MHz, RCS of 102, noise figure of 10 dB, and the
maximum range of 120 km. Find the minimum detectable signal, the peak power,
and the pulse width for this radar.

Solution: We have
3  108
G = 36 dB  4000, SNR = 20 dB = 100,  = = 0.2 m, F = 10 dB = 10
1.5  109

The minimum detectable signal is

Smin = FKT0 B(SNR)min = (10)(1.38  10−23 )(290)(4  106 )(100)  16  10−12 W

The peak power and the pulse width of the radar

(4 )3 Rmax
4
Smin (4 )3 (120  103 ) 4 (16  10−12 )
Pt = =  1.03 MW
G 2 2 (4000)2 (0.2) 2 (10)

1 1
= = = .25 μs
B 4  106

3.6 A C-band radar operating at a frequency of 6 GHz with an antenna having a gain
of 50 dB transmits a peak power of 1.5 MW. Assume the receiver bandwidth of 5
MHz, the minimum output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)min of 20 dB, and the radar
cross section of 0.2 m2 for this radar system. Find the maximum range for the
receiver noise figure of 5 dB and overall radar loss of 0 dB.

Solution:
From (3.18) we have
1/4
 PG 
2 2

Rmax = t

 (4 ) FKT0 BL(SNR) min 
3

where
3  108
G = 50 dB = 105 , (SNR) min = 20 dB = 102 ,  = = 0.05 m, F = 5 dB = 3.1623, L = 0 dB = 1
6  109

Thus

7
1/4
 (1.5  106 )(105 )2 (0.05)2 (0.2) 
Rmax = −23
2 
= 156.33 km
 (4 ) (3.1623)(1.38  10 )(290)(5  10 )(1)(10 ) 
3 6

3.7 Consider a C- band radar operating at a frequency of 4.6 GHz that must provide a
minimum received signal power of 10-12 W. Assume that Pt = 10 kW, the antenna
aperture area is 2.0 m2, aperture efficiency is  a = 0.80, radar cross section is  =
2 m2, and overall loss is L = 5 dB. Calculate the maximum range.

Solution: For this radar

3  108 4 A (4 )(0.8)(2.0)

= = 0.0652 m, G= 2 = = 4729.71, L = 5 dB = 3.1623
4.6  10 9
 (0.0652)2

The (3.10) can be modified by introducing the overall loss L as

14
PG 2 2  PG 2 2 
Pr = t 3 4  Rmax =  t 3 
(4 ) R  (4 ) Smin L 

14
 (10  103 )(4729.71)2 (0.0652) 2 (2.0) 
Rmax =  = 23.463 km
 (4 )3 (10−12 )(3.1623) 

3.8 A C-band radar operating at a frequency of 4 GHz with an antenna having a gain
of 45 dB transmits a peak power of 50 kW. Assume a total system loss of 2 dB. For
a target located at a range of 100 km, find the minimum radar cross section to
produce an available received signal power of Pr = 2  10−12 W.

3  108
Solution: Here G = 45 dB = 31622.78, L = 2 dB = 1.585,  = = 0.075 m
4  109

Again by introducing the total system loss as in Problem 3.8, we can modify (3.10) as

PG   min
2 2
Pr (4 )3 R 4 L (2  10−12 )(4 )3 (100  103 )4 (1.585)
Pr = t
  min = =
(4 )3 R 4 L PGt 
2 2
(50  103 )(31622.78)2 (0.075)2

 min = 2.24 m2

3.9 An X-band radar employs the same circular aperture antenna for both transmission
and reception at 8 GHz with its diameter of 3 m, antenna efficiency of 0.8. The
radar is designed to produce an average received power of 3  10−14 W when the
radar cross section is 1 m2 at a maximum range of 100 km. If the total system loss
is 3 dB, what transmitter peak power is required?

8
Solution: We have
3  108
= 10
= 0.03 m, Ae =  a ( D 2) 2 = 0.8 (3 2) 2 = 5.655 m 2 L = 3 dB = 2
10

4 Ae 4 (5.655)
G = = = 78958.7
 2
(0.03)2

From (3.10):

PG 
2 2
Pr (4 )3 R 4 L (3  10−14 )(4 )3 (100  103 ) 4 (2)
Pr = t
 P = =
(4 )3 R 4 L G 2 2
t
(78958.7)2 (0.03)2 (1)

Pt = 2.122 kW

3.10 A millimeter-wave (MMW) radar uses a single antenna at 35 GHz to transmit a

peak power of 650 W. The diameter of the antenna is 1.2 m, and antenna
efficiency is 0.6. If a target at a range of 50 km has radar cross section of 10 m 2,
calculate the available received power. Assume that the overall system loss is 0
dB.

Solution: Here
3  108 4 a ( D 2 4)  a 2 0.6 2
= = 0.0086 m, G= = = = 80067.1, L = 0 dB = 1
35  109 2 2 0.00862

Therefore,
PG   (650)(80067.1)2 (.0086)2 (10)
2 2
Pr = t
= = 2.485  10−13 W
(4 ) R L
3 4
(4 ) (50  10 ) (1)
3 3 4

3.11 A C-band monostatic radar operating at a frequency of 5.4 GHz transmits a peak
power of 1 MW has the following parameters: total system loss L = 3 dB, R = 120
km,  = 1.2 m2, and the antenna has a circular aperture with aperture efficiency
 a = 0.6 . Find the diameter of the antenna in order to produce an available
receiver power Pr = 2.0  10−14 W.

Solution:
3  108
L = 3 dB  2,  =  0.052 m
5.8  109

12 12
 (4 )3 Pr R 4 L   (4 )3 (2.0  10−14 )(120  103 ) 4 (2) 
G=  =  = 2252.23
 Pt   
2
 (106 )(0.052)2 (1.2) 

9
12 12
4 a ( D 2 4)  G 2   (2252.23)(0.052)2 
G= D= 2  =  = 1.014 m  1 m
2  a   0.6 2 

3.12 A high PRF airborne radar operating at a frequency of 10.5 GHz transmit a peak
power of 10 kW has the following parameters: pulse width  = 1.2  s , pulse
repetition frequency PRF = 250 kHz, antenna gain G = 35 dB, radar cross
section of the target  =10 m2, receiver noise figure F = 3 dB, and the overall
system loss including the propagation path loss L = 5 dB.
(a) Find the maximum range at which the radar can detect the target if the minimum
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for detection is 15 dB.
(b) Repeat part (a) for 0 dB SNR.

Solution:

(a) From (3.18):

1/4
 PG 
2 2

Rmax = t

 (4 ) FKT0 BL( SNR) min 
3

where
3  108
= = 0.0286 m, G = 35 dB = 3162.27, L = 5 dB = 3.162,
10.5  109
1 1
F = 3 dB  2, B = = −6 = 106
 10

Then, for ( SNR)min = 15 dB = 31.62,

1/4
 (104 )(3162.27)2 (0.0286)2 (10) 
Rmax =  = 26.79 km
 (4 ) (2)(1.38  10 )(290)(10 (3.162)(31.62) 
3 −23 6)

(b) and for (SNR)min = 0 dB = 1,

1/4
 (104 )(3162.27)2 (0.0286)2 (10) 
Rmax =  = 63.53 km
 (4 ) (2)(1.38  10 )(290)(10 (3.162)(1) 
3 −23 6)

3.13 A Doppler radar with a 1.3 m diameter antenna transmits 1.2 kW of power at a
frequency of 3 GHz. The equivalent noise bandwidth is 1 kHz and the noise
figure is 4.4 dB, and the overall loss factor is 10 dB. Assume a radar cross
section of 10 m2
(a) Find the signal-to-noise ratio at target ranges of 32 and 160 kms.

10
(b) Find the target range at unity signal-to-noise ratio.

Solution:
 So  PG 
2 2
(a) Using (3.16) gives   = t

 N o  (4 ) R FKT0 BL
3 4

where
3  108
= = 0.1 m, F = 4.4 dB = 2.754, L = 10 dB = 10
3  109

(4)(3.1416)(1.3 2) 2 (3.1416)
G= = 1667.97
(0.1)2

Thus for R = 32 km,

 So  (1.2  103 )(1667.97)2 (0.1)2 (10)

  = = 1455.75 = 31.63 dB
 N o  (4 ) (32  10 ) (2.754)(1.38  10 )(290)(1000)(10)
3 3 4 −23

and for R = 160 km,

 So  (1.2  103 )(1667.97)2 (0.1)2 (10)

  = = 2.33 = 3.67 dB
 N o  (4 ) (160  10 ) (2.754)(1.38  10 )(290)(1000)(10)
3 3 4 −23

PG 
2 2
(b) Using (3.19): R = 4 t
(4 ) FKT0 BL
o 3

14 14
 PG  
2 2
 (1.2  103 )(1667.97)2 (0.1)2 (10) 
R0 =  t
 =  = 197.66 km
 (4 ) FKT0 BL   (4 ) (2.754)(1.38  10 )(290)(1000)(10) 
3 3 −23

3.14 A high PRF radar operating at 5.4 GHz transmits a peak power of 10 kW, and
has the following parameters: antenna gain G = 20 dB, overall loss L = 10 dB,
noise figure F = 3 dB, time on target T i = 2.5 s, duty factor dt = 0.25, radar cross
section σ = 0.02 m2. For target range R = 45 km, find the single pulse SNR.

Solution: We have
3  108
= = 0.06 m, and Pav = Pd
t t = (10  10 )(0.25) = 2.5 kW,
3

5  109

L = 10 dB = 10, F = 3 dB  2

From (3.30) for a high PRF radar, the output SNR is given by

11
PavTiG 2 2 (2.5  103 )(2.5)(100)2 (0.06)2 (0.02)
(SNR)o = =  6.90 = 8.39 dB
(4 )3 R 4 FKT0 L (4 )3 (45  103 )4 (2)(1.38  10−23 )(290)(10)

3.15 Consider an X-band radar operating at 10 GHz with the following parameters:
antenna gain G = 50, a = e = 3o , scan time Ts = 3.0 s, overall system loss L = 5
dB, noise figure F = 4.41 dB, radar cross section σ = 0.1 m2, SNR = 12 dB, and
the range R = 275 km.
(a) Find the power aperture product.
(b) Find the transmitted power corresponding to d t = 0.3 .

Solution: We have
3  108 3 3
= = 0.03 m,  = = 0.00274 steradian, G = 50 dB = 105
10  10 9
(57.3)2
F = 4.41 dB = 2.758, SNR = 12 dB = 15.85, L = 5 dB = 3.162

(a) From (3.35), we can write

Pav A ts 16R 4 FKT0 L(SNR)o

(SNR)o =  P A =
16R 4 FKFT0 L 
av
 ts

The power-aperture product is thus calculated as

(16)(275  103 )4 (2.758)(1.38  10−23 )(290)(3.162)(0.00274)(15.85)

Pav A = = 36.65 dB
(0.1)(0.3)

(b) We have

4 A G 2 (105 )(0.03)2
G=  A= = = 7.162 m2
2 4 4

( Pav A) 9248.48 P 1291.33

Pav = = = 1291.33 W  Pt = av = = 4.30 kW
A 7.162 dt 0.3

3.16 A millimeter wave (MMW) search radar has the following specifications: P t = 5 W,
PRF = 12 KHz, pulse width  = 6  10−8 s, overall system loss L = 10 dB, circular
aperture antenna with diameter D = 0.3048 m, target RCS  = 25 m2, noise
figure F = 6.17 dB, azimuth scan a = 25o , elevation scan e = 3o , and ts = 3.5 s.
(a) Find the power aperture product.
(b) Find the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) to detect a target at a range of 10 km.

Solution: We have

12
 D2   0.30482 
A=   =    = .073 m
2

 4   4 

(a) The power aperture product is

Pav A = Pt ( PRF ) A = (5)(6 10−8) (12000)(0.073) = .000263 W-m2

(b) The SNR can be calculated using (3.35) as

Pav A ts
( SNR) =
16 R FKT0 L 
4

(25 + 25)(3)
where = = .0457 steradian, F = 6.17 dB = 4.138
(57.3)2

(0.000263)(25)(3.5)
( SNR) = = 19.00 = 12.79 dB
(16)(10  10 ) (4.138)(1.38  10−23 )(290)(10)(0.0457)
3 4

3.17 A typical MMW search radar operating at a frequency of 94 GHz is used in a

sector defined by 30o azimuth and 4 o
3.18 elevation scan, and has the following specifications:
Antenna Gain 40 dB
Antenna diameter 0.25 m
Radar cross section 25 m2
System losses 10 dB
Noise figure 3 dB
Transmit peak power 5W
Pulse width 40 ns
Pulse repetition frequency 10 kHz
(a) Find the detection range for a signal-to-noise ratio of 10 dB.
(b) Find the antenna coverage rate and the time on-target (dwell time) if the coverage
is obtained in a radar frame time of 6 seconds.
(c) Find the number of integrated pulses.
(d) Find the detection range when an integration loss of 3 dB is included.
(e) Justify that it is below the maximum unambiguous range.

Solution: For this radar we have,

 = 3  108 (94  109 ) = 0.0031 m, G = 40 dB = 104 , LS = 10 dB = 10, LI = 3 dB = 2,

 (0.0031)(57.3)
SNR=10 dB = 10,  BW = = = 0.71o , B = 1 (40  10−9 ) = 25  106 Hz
D .25

13
(a) The single pulse radar signal-to-noise ratio equation for this case can written
using (3.16) as

PG 
2 2
PG 
2 2
SNR = t
 R 4
= t
(4 ) R1 FKT0 BLS (4 ) FKT0 BLS (SNR)
3 4 1 3

14 14
 PG 
2 2
  (5)(104 )2 (0.0031)2 (25) 
` R1 =  t
 =  = 2.345 km
 (4 ) R FKT0 BLS (SNR)   (4 ) (2)(1.38  10 )(290)(25  10 )(10) 
3 4 3 −23 6

(b) The angular coverage  = (30 + 30)  5 = 300o . Then the antenna coverage rate is
300
= = 50 degrees/s
6

 BW .71
The time on-target or the dwell time is Ti = = = 14.2 ms
 50

(c) The number of integrated pulses is n = ( f rTi ) = (104 )(0.0142) = 142

(d) The detection range equation, for the case of n pulses integrated and integration
loss included, can be written by modifying (3.16) as
14 14
  n  n
14
142 
2 2
PG
Rn =  t
 = R1   = (2.345)  = 6.81 km,
 (4 ) FKT0 BLS LI (SNR)   2 
3
 LI 

which indicates a significant improvement in the detection range.

(e) The maximum unambiguous range is

c 3  108
Rmax = = = 15 km,
2 f r (2)(10  103 )

which justifies that the detection range even with integration is below the maximum
unambiguous range.

3.19 A radar is subject to interference by a self-protection jammer. The radar and

jammer specifications are:
Radar transmit power 60 kW
Radar antenna gain 50 dB
Radar pulse width 2.5 μs
Radar losses 10 dB
Jammer power 180 W

14
Jammer antenna gain 10 dB
Jammer bandwidth 45 MHz
Jammer losses 0 dB
(a) Find the cross over range for a target of RCS σ = 5 m2.
(b) Find the detection range if the required SNR for detection is 10 dB.

Solution: We have
1
G = 50 dB = 105 L = 10 dB = 10 G j = 10 dB = 10 L j = 0 dB = 1 B = −6
= 4  105
2.5  10
(a)
1/2
 PG B j L j 
12
 (60  103 )(105 )(5)(45  106 )(1) 
( Rco ) ssj =  t  =  = 3.86 km
 4 PjG j BL   (4 )(180)(10)(4  10 )(10) 
5

(b)
( Rco ) ssj 3,862.74
( Rd ) ssj = = = 1.22 km
( S / Sssj ) min 10

3.20 The radar in problem 3.17 is now subject to stand-off jammer (SOJ) with the
following parameters: Pj = 200 W, Gj = 20 dB, Lj = 3 dB, G =10 dB, and Rj =20
km.
(a) Find the cross over range for a target of RCS σ = 5 m2.
(b) Find the detection range if the required SNR for detection is 10 dB.

Solution: We have additional parameters,

G j = 20 dB = 100, L j = 3 dB = 2, G = 10 dB = 10,
(a) From (3.58):

1/4
 PG R 2j  B j L j 
1/4
 (60  103 )(105 ) (20  103 )2 (5)(45  106 )(2) 
2 2

( Rco ) soj = t
 = 
 4 PjG jGBL   (4 )(200)(100)(10)(4  105 )(10) 

( Rco ) soj = 57.250 km

(b) From (3.60):

( Rco ) soj 57250

( Rd ) soj = = 4
= 32.194 km
4 ( S / Ssoj ) min 10

3.21 Work Example 3.7 to find the signal-to-noise ratio at the missile of the bistatic
system when the atmospheric attenuation of 0.08 dB/km during the propagation.

15
Solution:

From Example 3.7 we have SNR = 16.33 dB.

Therefore, the SNR is decreased by the atmospheric attenuation as

SNR = 16.33 − 0.08(40 + 24) = 11.21 dB

3.22 In a bistatic radar the two stations use identical antennas at 40 GHz with gain of
30 dB. In this system Pt = 55 kW, F = 1.66 dB, B = 10 MHz, total loss
L = Lt Lr Lp = 3 dB , and (SNR)r = 13.01 dB, and target RCS σ = 5 m2. What are

the target ranges Rt and Rr if it is found that Rt = 1.65Rr?

Solution: We have
Gt = Gr = 30 dB = 103 , F = 1.66 dB = 1.466, L = 3 dB = 2, SNR=13.01 dB  20,
From (3.42):
t t Gr   b
2
PG
( SNR) = ,
(4 )3 Rt2 Rr2 FKT0 BLt Lr Lp
We get
(55  103 )(103 )(103 )(0.0075) 2 (5)
20 =
(4 )3 (1.65Rr ) 2 ( Rr ) 2 (1.466)(1.38  10−23 )(290)(107 )(2)

14
 (55  103 )(103 )(103 )(0.0075) 2 (5) 
Rr =  2
 5.910 km
 (4 ) (1.466)(1.38  10 )(290)(10 )(2)(20)(1.65) 
3 −23 7

Rt = 1.65Rr = (1.65)(5.910) = 9.752 km

_____________________________________________________________________

16
Chapter 4: Targets and Interference

Solutions

4.1 A C-band monostatic radar operating at 5 GHz is to track a conducting sphere

calibration target. Find the sphere’s cross section if the diameter of the sphere is
20 cm.

3  108
Solution: We have = = 0.06 m
5  109

 2 a   0.2 
 =  = 10.47 , indicating the optical region.
    0.06 

Thus
 =  a 2 = ( )(0.1)2 = −15.02 dBsm

4.2 A hollow aluminum sphere with a diameter of 20 cm is the target at 10.5 GHz. (a)
Find the radar cross section of the target. (b) What is the minimum frequency that
makes the sphere optical?

Solution:
(a)
3  108
= = 2.85 cm, 2 (20 2) = 62.83 cm
10.5  109

 2 a   62.83 
Thus  =  = 22.05 5
    2.85 

The sphere with a diameter of 20 cm is a target in the optical region leading to the RCS
given by
2 2

 =    =  
D 0.2 
 = 0.0314 m = −15.02 dBsm
2

2  2 

(b) Using the ( 2 a  = 5) criterion for the minimum value of frequency at which the
target enters the optical region, we get

 2 a   62.83  10 f min 
−2
(5)(3  108 )
 =
   = 5  f = 2.387 GHz
    3  108
min
 0.6283

17
4.3 Find the target RCS of a sphere with a diameter of 1.0 m. Find the target RCS of a
flat plate with the same projected area as the sphere for C-band radar operating at
6 GHz.

Solution:

For sphere,

3  108   D    (1.0) 
= = 0.05 m   =  = 62.83  5 : optical region
6  10     (0.05) 
9

 D2  (1.0)2
= = = −1.05 dBsm
4 4
For flat plate,

4 A2 4 (1.0)2
 fp = = = 37 dBsm
2 (0.05)2

4.4 For an X-band radar operating at 10 GHz, find the target RCS of 1.2 m  1.2 m flat
plate and of a corner reflector with 1.2 m sides.

Solution:

For flat plate,

3  108 4 A2 (4 )(1.2  1.2)

= = 0.03 m   = = = 43.03 dBsm
10  109
p
2 (0.03)2

From (4.20) for corner reflector,

12 a 4 (12)( )(1.2) 4

 cr = = = 49.39 dBsm
2 (0.03)2

4.5 A low noise RF amplifier is connected to an antenna with T s = Ta = 250 K. The

amplifier has a noise figure of F = 10 dB. Find the overall operating noise figure Fs
of the system.

Solutions: We have, F = 10 dB = 10.

Te T 290
Te = T0 ( F − 1)  Fop = 1 + = 1 + 0 ( F − 1) = 1 + (10 − 1) = 10.58 dB
Ts Ts 250

18
4.6 A low noise amplifier (LNA) is connected to radar receiver which has a noise figure
of 10 dB. The available power gain of the LNA is 40 dB, and its effective noise
temperature is 150 K. find the overall noise temperature and the noise figure
referred to the input.

Solution: We have F = 10 dB = 10, G = 40 dB = 10,000 and therefore,

Te = To ( F − 1) = 290(10 − 1) = 2610 K

Te 2610
Tin = Ta + = 150 + = 150.26 K
G 104

Tin 150.26
and Fin = 1 + = 1+ = 3.01 dB .
Ta 150

4.7 For the system shown in Figure 4.23, the radar receiver noise figure F = 10 dB, the
cable loss L = 3 dB, the LNA gain G1 = 40 dB, and its equivalent noise temperature
Te1 = 170 K. The antenna noise temperature is 40 K. Find the overall noise
temperature of the radar receiver system referred to the input.

Solution: We have, F = 10 dB = 10, L = 3 dB = 2, G 1 = 40 dB = 10,000. Using (4.88):

( L − 1)T0 L( F − 1)T0
Ts = Tant + Te1 + +
G1 G1

(2 − 1)(290) (2)(10 − 1)(290)

Ts = 40 + 170 + + = 210.55 K.
104 104

4.8 Repeat the calculation when the system of Figure 4.23 is modified to system as
shown in Figure 4.24.

Solution:

Using (4.89):
L( F − 1)T0
Ts = Tant + Te1 + T0 ( L − 1) + Te1L +
G1

(2)(10 − 1)(290)
Ts = 40 + 170 + (290)(2 − 1) + (290)(2) + = 1080.52 K
104

It suggests that LNA must be placed in front of cable right at the antenna location as
shown in Figure 4.23.

19
4.9 A low noise amplifier is connected to an antenna having a noise temperature of 40
K through a lossy feeder cable having a loss of 3 dB. The LNA has a noise
temperature of 100. Find the system noise temperature referred to (a) the cable
feeder input and (b) the LNA input.

Solution: We have L = 3 dB = 2
(a) Equivalent noise temperature referred to feeder input is

Ts1 = Ta + T0 ( L − 1) + Te L = 40 + (290)(2 − 1) + (100)(2) = 530 K

(b) Equivalent noise temperature referred to LNA input is

Ts1 530
Ts 2 = = = 265 K
L 2

4.10 A radar receiver system consists of an antenna having a noise temperature of 70

K, feeding directly into an LNA. The LNA has a noise temperature of 110 K and a
gain of 50 dB. The coaxial feeder between the LNA and the receiver has a loss of
3 dB and the main receiver has a noise figure of 10 dB. Find the system noise
temperature referred to input.

Solution: We have G1 = 50 dB =105, L = 3 dB, F = 10 dB = 10. Using (4.88):

( L − 1)T0 L( F − 1)T0
Ts = Tant + Te1 + +
G1 G1

(290)(2 − 1) (290)(10 − 1)(2)

Ts = 70 + 110 + + = 180.05 K
105 105

4.11 A radar receiver consisting of RF amplifier with a noise figure of 10 dB and a gain
of 30 dB, and a combination of an IF mixer and amplifier with noise figure of 12 dB
and a gain of 50 dB.
(a) Find the overall noise figure referred to the input.
(b) If the antenna temperature is 800 K, find the operating noise figure for the
system.

Solution:

Two amplifiers are connected in cascade where F1 =10 dB = 10, G1 = 30 dB = 103, F2

=12 dB = 15.85, G2 = 50 dB = 105.

(a) The overall noise figure is obtained by using

F2 − 1 15.85 − 1
F0 = F1 + = 10 + = 10.01 = 10.004 dB
G1 103

20
(b) The equivalent noise temperature at the input of the radar receiver is

Ts = T0 ( Fs − 1) = (290)(10.01 − 1) = 2613 K

Thus the operating noise figure is

Ts 2613
Fop = 1 +
= 1+ = 4.27 = 6.30 dB
Ta 800
______________________________________________________________________

21
Chapter 5: Propagation of Radar Waves

Solutions

5.1 A radar mounted at a height of 30 m on smooth planar surface transmits a peak

power of 1 MW, and operates with a target at a height of 50 m and of RCS 4.0 m 2
at a range of 40 km. The antennas directive gain toward the target is 34.77 dB.
Assume a C-band radar operating at a frequency of 5.4 GHz, and the radar and
the target are above the smooth flat surface. For multipath propagation, find (a) the
propagation factor and (b) the signal power at the radar receiver.

Solution: We have
3  108
= = 0.0556 m, G = 34.77 dB = 3000
5.4  109

(a) The propagation factor F4 is

2 ht hr (2 )(50)(30)
F 4 = 16sin 4 = 16sin 4 = 10.0145
R (0.0556)(40  103 )
(b) Using (5.14) gives:

 PG 2 2   2 ht hr   (106 )(3000)2 (0.0556)2 (4)   (2 )(50)(30) 

Pr =  t 3 4  16sin 4 =  16sin 4
 (4 ) R   R    (4 ) (40  10 )
3 3 4
 (0.0545)(40  103 ) 

 Pr = 2.468  10−10 W

5.2 Repeat Problem 5.1 for targets at small angles.

Solution: Using (5.15) for targets at low angles:

4 PG 2
 (ht hr )4 (4 )(106 )(3000)2 (4)(50  30)4
Pr  t
= = 1.176  10−7 W
 R
2 8
(0.0556) (40  10 )
2 3 8

5.3 Find the angles corresponding to the first lobe and null for a radar-target system
described in Problem 5.1.

Solution: The angle at which the first maximum occurs with respect to the flat surface is

ht  0.0556
l1  = = = 0.000454 radians = 0.026o
R 4hr (4)(30)

The angle at which the first null occurs is

22
ht  0.0556
n1  = = = 0.00092367 radians = 0.052o
R 2hr (2)(30)

5.4 Referring to Figure 5.4, show that the following relationship is true:

12
 (h + h )2 
 = tan  2 t r 2 
−1

 R1 − (ht − hr ) 

Solution: The lengths AF and DE are equal and are given by

( AF )2 = R12 − (ht − hr )2
2
 h + hr 
( DE ) = ( DC + CE ) =  t
2 2

 tan 

Then
12
 (h + hr )2 
AF = DE   = tan  2 t −1
2
 R1 − (ht − hr ) 

5.5 Using the law of cosines to appropriate triangles in Figure 5.7 relevant to smooth
spherical surface, derive the following relationships:
12
  d 
L1 = hr2 + 4re ( re + hr )sin 2  2  
  2re  

12
  d 
L2 = ht2 + 4re ( re + ht )sin 2  1  
  2re  

12
  d 
Rd = (ht − hr )2 + 4( re + hr )( re + ht )sin 2  
  2re 

Solution: Apply law cosines to triangles AOB, BOC and AOC to obtain the expressions
for L1, L2, and Rd, respectively.

5.6 Using (5.23) for the expression of  , show that the expressions for d1 and d2 are
given by

d1  −re + ( re )2 + 2rehr

23
d 2  −re + ( re )2 + 2reht

Solution: Equation (5.23) corresponding to d1 is

1 d12 
 −
d1  2re 
hr

d12 + 2re d1 − 2rehr  0

The acceptable solution is

d1  −re + ( re )2 + 2rehr

Similarly,  corresponding to d2 is

1  d 22 
 −
 r 2r 
h
d2  e

d 22 + 2re d 2 − 2rehr  0

And the corresponding solution is

d 2  −re + ( re )2 + 2reht

5.7 Consider a radar is at a height of 12 m above a smooth spherical earth, and target
at a height of 450 m. Find the values of d1, d2, d, and radial range Rd when the
grazing angle is 3 degree for acceptable performance.

Solution:  = 3o = 0.05236 rad

Using expressions in Problem 5.7 we have

d1  − re + ( re )2 + 2rehr

= −(4 3)(6371)( 0.05236) + [(4 3)(6371)( 0.05236)]2 + (2)(4 3)(6371)(12) = 7.233 m

d 2  − re + ( re )2 + 2reht

= −(4 3)(6371)( 0.05236) + [(4 3)(6371)( 0.05236)]2 + (2)(4 3)(6371)(450) = 2355.76 m

24
d = d1 + d 2 = 7.23 + 2355.76 = 2411.26 m  2.363 km

Rd can be found using the expression given in Problem 5.6 as

12
  d 
Rd = (ht − hr )2 + 4( re + hr )( re + ht )sin 2  
  2re 

12
  2.41126  
= (0.450 − 0.012)2 + 4((4 3)(6371) + 0.012)((4 3)(6371) + 0.450)sin 2  
  (2)(4 3)(6371)  

Rd  2.45 km

5.8 Consider a radar located 50 m above a sooth spherical ocean surface and a target
at a height of 1.2 km tracked by the radar. If the grazing angle due to multipath is 2
degrees, find (a) distance to the reflection point from the radar, (b) distance to the
target over the ocean surface, and (c) the divergence factor.

Solution: We have,
 = 2o = 0.035 rad, hr = 0.05 m, hr = 1.2 km

(a) The distance L1 of the reflection point from the radar is found using the expression
in Problem 5.6 as

12
  d 
L1 = hr2 + 4re ( re + hr )sin 2  2  
  2re  

12
  32.51 
= (0.05)2 + (4)(4 3)(6371) ((4 3)(6371) + 0.05)sin 2    32.51 km
  (2)(4 3)(6371)  

where
d 2  − re + ( re )2 + 2reht
= −(4 3)(6371) (0.035) + [(4 3)(6371) (0.035)]2 + (2)(4 3)(6371) (1.2) = 32.51 km

(b) We have to calculate d1 to calculate d = d1 + d 2 .

d1  − re + ( re )2 + 2rehr
= −(4 3)(6371) (0.035) + [(4 3)(6371) (0.035)]2 + (2)(4 3)(6371) (.05) = 0.832 km

25
d = 32.51 + 0.832 = 33.342 km

(c) The divergence factor D is obtained from (5.25):

−1 2
 
 2

−1 2  2 
2d1 d 2 1 + (2)(0.832) (32.51)  = .9984
D  1 +  
 r d ( h − ( d 2
2 r ))    0.832  
 (4 3) (6371)(33.342)  0.05 − (2)(4 3)(6371)  
e r 1 e

  
______________________________________________________________________

26
Chapter 6: Continuous Wave Radars (CW)

Solutions

6.1 Assuming a LFM-CW radar using a triangular modulation as shown in Figure 6.6
with a maximum frequency deviation of 250 kHz and a modulating frequency of 20
Hz. For a stationary target located at a range of 150 km, find the beat frequency of
the radar system.

Solution: The beat frequency of the radar system can be calculated using (6.19):

4 Rf m f (4)(150  103 )(20)(250  103 )

fb = = = 10 kHz
c 3  108

6.2 Consider an LFM-CW radar that uses the triangular modulation as shown in Figure
6.6 with F = 200 kHz and f m = 30 Hz, and measures a beat frequency of 12 kHz
for a stationary target. Find the range of the target.

Solution: The range of the stationary target is obtained by using (6.20):

cf b (3  108 )(12  103 )

R= = = 150 km
4 f m f (4)(30)(200  103 )

6.3 In problem 6.2, if the target is an aircraft that is approaching the radar at a radial
velocity of 100 m/s, find the range of the aircraft.

Solution: Since the target is moving, the average frequency will contain a component of
the Doppler shift f d where

2vr 2vr f 0 (2)(100)(3  109 )

fd = = = = 2000 Hz
 c 3  108

This results in an average beat frequency of

f b = 12000 + 2000 = 14 kHz

cf b (3  108 )(14  103 )

R= = = 175 km
4 f m f (4)(30)(200  103 )

6.4 A certain LFM-CW radar is modulating a carrier with a triangular waveform at a

frequency of 200 Hz with a maximum frequency sweep of 45 MHz. Find the

27
average beat frequency difference corresponding to a range increment of 12
meters.

Solution: We have from (6.19):

4 Rf m f
fb =
c

If we let f b1 and f b 2 correspond to ranges R1 and R2 , respectively, then the average beat
frequency difference is written as

4 f m f 4 f f R
f b = f b 2 − f b1 = ( R2 − R1 ) = m
c c

4 f m f R (4)(200)(45  106 )(12)

f b = = = 1.44 kHz
c 3  108

6.5 Consider an LFM-CW radar operating at a frequency of 12 GHz uses triangular

modulation scheme with a maximum frequency sweep of 220 kHz at a frequency
rate of 10 MHz per second. Find the beat frequencies during the positive and
negative slopes of the triangular waveform when the target initially located at a
range of 360 m is approaching the radar at a radial velocity of 230 m/s.

Solution: The desired beat frequencies f b+ and f b− corresponding to the positive and
negative slopes of the triangular waveform can be calculated directly from (6.21) and
(6.22), respectively, as follows:

2R 2 R (2)(360  103 )(10  106 ) (2)(230)

f b+ = f − = − = 24000 − 18400 = 5.6 kHz
c  3  108 0.025

2R 2 R (2)(360  103 )(10  106 ) (2)(230)

f b− = f + = + = 24000 + 18400 = 42.4 kHz
c  3  108 0.025

6.6 An X-band LFM-CW radar is used to measure both the range and the velocity. The
beat frequencies f b+ and f b− during the positive and negative slope of the frequency
excursion are measured to provide 6.667 kHz and 40 kHz, respectively. Assume
that a triangular baseband signal with a frequency of 20 Hz is frequency
modulating the radar signal of 10 GHz with a maximum frequency sweep of 250
kHz.
(a) Determine the range and velocity of the target.
(b) Determine the maximum range if the maximum time delay is selected as10%
of t0 .
(c) Determine the maximum unambiguous range.

28
Solution:
(a) Using (6.23) for a closing target:

c
R= ( f b+ + f b− )
4f
here

f = 2 f mf = (2)(20)(250  103 ) = 10 MHz s,  =0.03 at f = 10 GHz

c 3  108
R= ( f b+ + f b− ) = (6.667 + 40)(103 ) = 350 km
4f (4)(10  106 )

and using (6.24) gives:

 0.03
R= ( f b− − f b+ ) = (40 − 6.667)(103 )  250 m s
4 4

(b) The maximum time delay as selected is

 1  0.1
tmax = 0.1t0 = (0.1)  = = 0.0025 s
 2 f m  (2)(20)

ctmax (3  108 )(0.0025)

Rmax = = = 375 km
2 2

(c) The maximum unambiguous range will correspond to time delay of 2t0 leading to

c(2t0 )  1  3  108
Run = = ct0 = c  = = 7500 km
2  2 f m  (2)(20)

6.7 An X-band CW radar operates at frequency of 10 GHz and triangularly sweeps a

bandwidth of frequency excursion of 2 MHz at a 200 Hz rate. The frequency
difference between the transmit and receive signals on the up-sweep is 65.51 kHz
and on the down-sweep it is 82.65 kHz. Find the target range and radial velocity.

Solution: In the problem, F = 2 MHz, f m = (1 2t0 ) = 200 Hz implying

2  106
t0 = (1 2 f m ) = (1 (2  200)) = 0.0025 s  f = = 8  108 Hz s
0.0025

29
c 3  108
R= ( f b+ + f b− ) = (65.51 + 82.65)(103 ) = 13.851 km
4f (4)(8  10 )
8

and

 0.03
vr = ( f b− − f b+ ) = (82.65 − 65.51)(103 ) = 128.55 m s
4 4

6.8 Consider a sinusoidal frequency modulated continuous wave radar that operates at
a frequency of 3 GHz, and measures the average beat frequency of 160 Hz for a
stationary target. Assume that the maximum frequency deviation is 15 kHz and the
sinusoidal modulating signal has a frequency of 50 Hz. Find the target range.

Solution: The target range of the sinusoidal CW radar can be calculated using (6.39):

c (3  108 )(160)
R= fb = = 8 km
8 f m f (8)(50)(15  103 )

6.9 A certain radar transmitter is modulating the carrier with a sinusoidal triangular
waveform with a frequency of 250 Hz with a frequency sweep of 40 kHz. Find the
average beat frequency difference if the target is at a range of 100 km.

Solution: The average beat frequency can be determined from (6.36):

8Rf m f (8)(100  103 )(250)(30  103 )

fb = = = 20 kHz
c 3  108

6.10 Consider an X-band radar operating at 10.4 GHz uses sinusoidal FM for ranging.
The modulating is a sinusoidal signal having the frequency of 100 Hz. The phase
difference between the received modulated signal and that transmitted is 3.5 o. Find
the range of the target.

Solution: The period of the 90 Hz sinusoidal signal is T0 = (1 f m ) = (1 100) = 0.01 s leading

to round trip time (propagation time) equal to

(  )T0 (3.5)(0.01)
t = = = 97.22 μs
360 360

This results in a target range given by

−6
ct (3  108 )(97.22  10 )
R= = = 14.583 km
2 2

30
6.11 The unambiguous range can be increased by using multiple frequency
transmission of sinusoidal signals. Consider transmitted sinusoidal signals of
frequency f1 = 88.5 kHz and f 2 = 90 kHz. Find the maximum unambiguous range.

Solution: The maximum unambiguous range is calculated as

c c
R= R= , when  = 2 , for unambiguous range
4f 2f

c 3  108
Run = = = 100 km
2f (2)(90 − 88.5)(103 )

6.12 If the transmitted signal of a multiple frequency of a CW radar consists of two

continuous sinewaves of frequencies f1 = 100 kHz and f 2 = 105 kHz, find the
corresponding maximum unambiguous range.

Solution: The maximum unambiguous range can also be found as in Problem 6.6:

c 3  108
Run =
= = 30 km
2f (2)(105 − 100)(103 )
______________________________________________________________________

31
Chapter 7: MTI and Pulse Doppler Radars

Solutions

7.1 Find the maximum unambiguous range for an X-band radar operating at a
frequency of 10 GHz corresponding to a first blind speed of 500 mph.

Solution: The maximum unambiguous range can be directly obtained following

Example 6.1 as

c (3  108 )(0.03)
Run = = = 10.068 km
4v1 (4)(223.47)

where v1 = 500 mph = 223.47 m s has been used.

7.2 An S-band radar operating at a frequency of 3 GHz is used to detect a target in an

unambiguous maximum range of 30 km. What is the corresponding first blind
speed in mph that limits this desired range?

Solution: The blind speed corresponding to the maximum unambiguous range can be
obtained from

c c
Run =  v1 =
4v1 4 Run

c (3  108 )(0.1)
v1 = = = 62.5 m s  225 mph
4 Run (4)(120  103 )

where  = (3  108 ) (3  109 ) = 0.1 m has been used.

7.3 A pulse Doppler radar is used to resolve the Doppler ambiguity, and employs two
different prfs to obtain a desired unambiguous range of 120 km. Determine
f r1, f r 2 , Ru1 , and Ru 2 . Assume N = 63.

Solution: The desired basic prf corresponding to the desired unambiguous range is

c 3  108
fB = = = 1.250 kHz
2 Ru (2)(120  103 )

The two prfs that must be chosen with the assumed integer N = 63 are

f r1 = Nf B = (59)(1250) = 73.75 kHz

32
f r 2 = ( N + 1) f B = (63 + 1)(1250) = 80.00 kHz

The resulting unambiguous ranges corresponding to two prfs are

c 3  108
Ru1 = = = 2.034 km
2 f r1 (2)(73.75  103 )

c 3  108
Ru 2 = = = 1.875 km
2 f r 2 (2)(80.00  103 )

7.4 Consider a pulse Doppler radar that uses two prfs to resolve range ambiguity. If
the desired unambiguous range is 200 km, find the unambiguous ranges for the
two prfs. Select the integer N = 7.

Solution: The desired basic prf that corresponds to Ru = 200 km is obtained from

c c 3  108
Ru =  fB = = = 750 Hz
2 fB 2 Ru (2)(200  103 )

With the selection of N = 7, we can easily calculate the two prfs as follows:

f r1 = Nf B = (7)(750) = 5.25 kHz

f r 2 = ( N + 1) f B = (7 + 1)(750) = 6.0 kHz

It follows that

c 3  108
Ru1 = = = 28.57 km
2 f r1 (2)(5.25  103 )

c 3  108
Ru 2 = = = 25 km
2 f r 2 (2)(6.0  103 )

7.5 A longer unambiguous range can be obtained by constructing a three-prfs MTI

system along with the provision of resolving range ambiguity. Design an MTI radar
for this purpose that uses three prfs to attain a desired unambiguous range of 100
km. Determine the unambiguous ranges corresponding to the three prfs selected.

Solution: The desired basic prf corresponding to the desired unambiguous range is

33
c 3  108
fB = = = 1.5 kHz
2 Ru (2)(100  103 )

In order to design the three-prfs MTI system for the desired unambiguous range of 100
km, select N = 59. Then

f r1 = N ( N + 1) f B = (33)(33 + 1)(1500) = 1683.00 kHz

f r 2 = N ( N + 2) f B = (33)(33 + 2)(1500) = 1732.50 kHz

f r 3 = ( N + 1)( N + 2) f B = (33 + 1)(33 + 2)(1500) = 1785.00 kHz

It follows that

c 3  108
Ru1 = = = 89.13 m
2 f r1 (2)(1683.00  103 )

c 3  108
Ru 2 = = = 86.58 m
2 f r 2 (2)(1732.50  103 )

c 3  108
Ru 3 = = = 84.03 m
2 f r 3 (2)(1785.00  103 )

7.6 A pulsed Doppler radar operating at a frequency of 10 GHz uses three-prfs

scheme to resolve Doppler ambiguities for a target that is approaching the radar at
a radial velocity of 540 m/s. The prfs employed are: f r1 = 14 kHz, f r 2 = 17 kHz,
and f r 3 = 20 kHz.
(a) Find the Doppler frequency position of the target corresponding to each prf.
(b) Find the true Doppler frequency for another closing target appearing at
Doppler frequencies of 8 kHz, 16 kHz, and 10 kHz for each prf.
(c) What is the radial velocity corresponding to the true Doppler frequency as
obtained in part (b)?

Solution:
(a) The Doppler frequency for the target that is approaching the radar at a radial
velocity of 600 m/s is

2vr (2)(540)
fd = = = 36 kHz
 (3  108 10  109 )

From (7.31):

34
f d = ni f ri + f di , i = 1, 2, 3

we can write the desired Doppler frequency as a function of each set of prf and
corresponding Doppler frequency as

36 = n1 f r1 + f d 1 = 14n1 + f d 1 (A)
36 = n2 f r 2 + f d 2 = 17n2 + f d 2 (B)
36 = n3 f r 3 + f d 3 = 20n3 + f d 3 (C)

where all frequencies are in kHz. In order to satisfy that the Doppler frequency cannot
be greater than the corresponding prf, we can write the above relations as

f d 1 = 36 − 14n1  14 (D)
f d 2 = 36 − 17n2  17 (E)
f d 3 = 36 − 20n3  20 (F)

From (D) we can easily show that f d 1 = 8 kHz for n1 = 2. Similarly (E) and (F), we can
find that f d 2 = 2 kHz for n2 = 2, and f d 3 = 16 kHz for n3 = 2.

(b) Again the Doppler frequency for another closing target appearing at 8 kHz, 16 kHz,
and 10 kHz for each prf can be obtained by using (7.13):

f d = ni f ri + f di , i = 1, 2, 3

This generates the following expressions for the given Doppler frequencies:

f d = 14n1 + 8 (G)
f d = 17n2 + 16 (H)
f d = 20n3 + 10 (I)

where all frequencies are in kHz. From (G) we can obtain a series of f d for
n1 = 0, 1, 2, 3, as

f d = 8, 22, 36, 50, kHz, n1 =0, 1, 2, 3,

Similarly, from (H) and (I), we obtain the following:

f d = 16, 33, 50, 67 , kHz, for n2 = 0, 1, 2, 3,

f d = 10, 30, 50, 70, kHz, for n3 = 0, 1, 2, 3,

35
By inspection of the above 3 expressions for f d , it reveals that f d = 50 kHz is the true
target Doppler frequency for n1 =3, and n2 = n3 = 2.

(c) It follows that the radial velocity of the target corresponding to f d = 50 kHz is

 fd(0.03)(50  103 )
vr = = = 750 m s
2 2

______________________________________________________________________

36
Chapter 8: Pulse Compression Radar

Problems

8.1 Show that the following property given by (8.23) is true:

 ( , d   (0,0 = 1

Proof: We can write the expression for the ambiguity function from (8.23) as

 2

 ( , d ) =  g (t ) g  (t −  ) exp( j t )dt
2
d
−

Applying Schwartz inequality, as described in (8.7), yields

 
 ( , d )   g (t ) dt  g  (t −  ) exp( jd t ) dt
2 2 2

− −
 
=  g (t ) dt  g (t −  ) dt
2 2

− −

Each of the two integrals on the right hand side represents unit energy yielding

 ( , d )  1   ( , d )  1
2

For  = 0 and d = 0 , X (0,0) = 1 .

8.2 Show that the following property given by (8.24) is true:

 
1
  ( , d d dd = 1
2

2 − −

Solution: We have
 2

 ( , d ) =  g (t ) g  (t −  ) exp( j t )dt
2
d
−

This relation can be modified, by replacing d = − , and omitting the magnitude square
symbols, to

37

 ( ,  ) =  g (t ) g  (t −  ) exp(− jt )dt = F x( , t )
−

Here F x( , t ) is the Fourier transform of x( , t ) , where x( , t ) = g (t ) g  (t −  ) .

By Perceval’s theorem we can write

   
1
 x( , t ) d dt =   ( ,  ) d d
2 2

− −
2 − −

The left side of the above equation is written as

   

 x( , t ) d dt =  g (t1 ) g  (t2 ) J (t1, t2 ) dt1dt2

2 2

− − − −

where the Jacobian J (t1 , t2 ) is equal to 1.

Therefore, we find

 
1
  ( ,  ) d d = 1
2

2 − −

8.3 Show that the following property given by (8.25) is true:

 ( − , −d =  ( , d

Solution: The relation of the uncertainty function is modified by setting − and −d to


 ( − , −d ) =  g (t ) g  (t +  ) exp(− jt )dt
−

Let
t1 = t + 

Then


 ( − , −d ) = exp( jd )  g (t1 −  ) g  (t1 ) exp( − jd t1 )dt1 = exp( jd )   ( , d )
−

Taking the absolute value of both sides, we get

 ( − , −d =  ( , d

38
8.4 Show that the following property given by (8.26) is true:

if g(t )   ( , d )
then g(t ) exp( j kt 2 )   ( , d + k )

Solution: Let 1 be the uncertainty function corresponding to a signal with envelope

g1 (t ) where
g1 (t ) = g (t )exp( j kt 2 )

Then

1 ( ,  ) =  g (t ) g  (t −  ) exp( j t )dt
−
1 1 d

Then


1 ( ,  ) =  g (t ) exp( j kt ) g  (t −  ) exp[ − j k (t −  ) 2 ]exp( jd t )dt
2

−

Then it follows

1 ( ,  ) = exp( − j k 2 )  g (t ) g  (t −  ) exp[ j 2 (d + k )t ]dt
−

= exp( − j k )  ( , d + k )
2

Taking the absolute value of both sides, we get

1 ( , d ) =  ( , d + k )
It follows then

g(t )exp( j kt 2 )   ( , d + k )

8.5 Consider an LFM pulse compression radar operating at Ku-band using a 200 ns
pulse which is compressed with a compression ratio of 100. Find the chirp
bandwidth and the range resolutions due to uncompressed and compressed
pulses.

Solution: The length of the compressed pulse

−9
 c = (200  10−9 100) = 2  10 s

The chirp bandwidth is

39
B = 1 (2  10−9 ) = 500 MHz

The resolution due uncompressed pulse is

c (3  108 )(200  10−9 )

Ru = = = 30 m
2 2

The resolution due compressed pulse is

c (3  108 )(2  10−9 )

Rc = = = 30 cm
2 2

Thus a significant improvement in the resolution is achieved.

8.6 A certain LFM pulse compression radar with a very large bandwidth of 500 MHz
performs stretch processing over 1500 m. Find the minimum FFT size of the
processor.

Solution: From (8.72) we have

2 Rrec (2)(1500)
Trec = = = 10 μs
c 3  108

Thus, the minimum size of the FFT is

N FFT = 2BTrec = (2)(500  106 )(10 10−6 ) = 10,000

8.7 Consider a certain radar that uses stretch processor to process a bandwidth of 600
MHz and transmits a pulse of length 40  s with a range receive window of 600 m.
(a) Find the frequency tones corresponding to two targets if the minimum range is
10 km.
(b) Find the minimum FFT size.

Solution: R1 = Rmin = 10 km , R2 = Rmax = Rmin + Rrec = 10,000 + 600 = 10,600 m . The receive
window in seconds is then

2 Rrec (2)(600)
Trec == = = 4 μs
c 3  108

(a) The frequency tones corresponding to the targets are obtained from (8.77):

 c   2B 
Rn =   fn  fn =   Rn
 2B   c 

40
It follows then

 2B   (2)(600  106 ) 
f1 =  =
 1 
R −6 
(10  103 ) = (105 )(10  103 ) = 1.00 GHz
 c   (3  108
)(40  10 ) 

 2B   (2)(600  106 ) 
f2 =  =
 2 
R −6 
(10.6  103 ) = (105 )(10.6  103 ) = 1.060 GHz
 c   (3  10 )(40  10 ) 
8

(b) Using (8.81) we get

N FFT = 2BTrec = (2)(600 106 )(4 10−6 ) = 4,800 .

8.8 Generate a Barker of length N = mn = 39.

Solution: The possible Barker codes are B3,13 or B13,3 which are

B3,13 = {1111100110101, 1111100110101, 0000011001010}

B13,3 = {110, 110, 110, 110, 110, 001, 001, 110, 110, 001, 110, 001, 110}

8.9 Work Problem except for N = mn = 55

Solution: The possible Barker codes are B5,11 or B11,5 which are

B5,11 = {11100010010, 11100010010, 11100010010, 00011101101, 11100010010}

B5,11 = {11101, 11101, 11101, 00010, 00010, 00010, 11101, 00010, 00010, 11101, 00010}

8.10 Generate a Frank code of length N = 9

Solution: We have M = 9 = 3 which gives the phase increment of 2 3 . Using (8.85)

to generate the following matrix:

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 2 = 0 2 4   0 2 4 
  3  3  3
0 2 4 0 4 8  0 4 2

The resulting matrix above can be written by replacing the elements where phase
exceeds by 2 by their equivalent values of modulo 2 . The phases of these elements
are obtained by multiplying each by  3 . Then it follows that the Frank code of length 9
is written as

F9 = { 0 0 0 ; 0 2 4 ; 0 4 2} .

41
Note that the first three code word elements are from row 1 where the semicolon
represents the end of row 1. With this convention the next six elements follow from rows
2 and 3 in order.

______________________________________________________________________

42
Chapter 9: Synthetic Aperture Radars (SAR)

Problems

9.1 An airborne coherent SAR operating at 10 GHz is flown with a depression angle of
90o at a constant speed of 300 m/s. The Doppler frequency change
measured is 30 Hz from two separate targets at a constant range of 2 km.
Determine the distance of separation between the two targets and the
corresponding synthetic aperture length.

Solution: The distance of separation between the two targets can be found, using
(9.22), as

2vX f i R0 (30)(2  103 )(3  108 1010 )

fi = sin 0  X = = =3m
R0 2v sin 0 (2)(300)(1)

The synthetic aperture length is

R0 (2  103 )(0.03)

L= = = 10 m.
2X sin 0 (2)(3)(1)

9.2 An airborne SAR moving at a constant speed of 300 m/s operates at 10 GHz and
has the following parameters as depicted in figure 9.4: y0 = 0 , R0 = 2 km, L = 30 m.
Find the cross-range resolution and the maximum length of the actual antenna.

Solution: For this SAR,

3  108  0 
= = 0.03 m, 0 = cos−1  3
= 90o
10  10 9
 5  10 

Then

 R0 (0.03)(2  103 )
dX = = = 1.0 m
2 L sin 0 (2)(30)sin 90o

max = 2d X = (2)(1.0) = 2.0 m.

9.3 For an SAR depicted in Figure 9.4 with y0 = 0 , derive the expression of the range
difference at the two edges of synthetic aperture length given by

43
L2
R  .
8R0

Solution: This is a special case when 0 = cos−1 ( y0 R0 ) = cos−1 (0 20  103 ) = 90o . Setting
this in (9.13) we get

v 2t 2 2 v 2t 2
R(t )  R0 − vt cos 0 + sin 0  R(t ) = R0 +
2 R0 2 R0
Then

Rmin = R(t ) t =0 = R0

and
v 2 (T 2)2
Rmax = R(t ) t =T 2 = R0 +
2 R0

The range difference is then

(vT )2 L2
 R = Rmax − Rmin = =
8 8

9.4 Consider an airborne SAR flown in an aircraft with the ground point geometry, as
depicted in Figure 9.4, has the following parameters: L = 400 , R0 = 20 km, and
y0 = 0 . Determine the range difference at the two edges of the synthetic aperture.

Solution: The range difference can be determined directly using expression derived in
Problem 9.4 as

L2 (400)2
R = = =1m
8R0 (8)(20  103 )

9.5 Work Problem 9.4 in case of a spaceborne SAR with the following parameters:
L = 12 km, R0 = 850 km, and y0 = 0 .

Solution: Exactly the same way as in Problem in 9.4, we can determine the range
difference as

L2 (12  103 )2
R = = = 21.17 m
8R0 (8)(850  103 )

44
9.6 Consider an airborne SAR system transmitting an average power of 10 W at 10.0
GHz operating frequency has the following parameters: G = 35 dB , d R = 0.2 m,
d X = 2 m,  = 1 m2, F = 3 dB , v = 210 m/s, R = 12 km. Find the signal-to-noise ratio
for this radar.

Solution: For this radar,  = 3  108 1010 = 0.03 m, G = 35 dB = 3162.2 and F = 103 10  2 .
Using (9.33) gives

PavG 2 3 (10)(3162.2)2 (0.03)3 (1)

SNR = =
2(4 )3 R3 FKT0vd X sin 0 (2)(4 )3 (12  103 )3 (2)(1.38  10−23 )(290)(150)(2)(1)

 1.63946  105 = 52.15 dB

9.7 Work Problem 9.6 to calculate the clutter-to-noise ratio for the same radar but the
target is distributed, which is described by the following parameters: the
depression angle 0 = 30o , the normalized RCS of the ground per unit area
illuminated  0 = −20 dB .

Solution: Now for this radar,  0 = −20 dB = 0.01. Using (9.37) gives

PavG 2 3 0d R (10)(3162.2)2 (0.03)3 (0.01)(0.2)

SNR = =
2(4 )3 R3 FKT0v sin 2 0 (2)(4 )3 (12  103 )3 (2)(1.38  10−23 )(290)(150)(sin 30o )2

 SNR = 2.623  103 = 34.19 dB

______________________________________________________________________

45
Chapter 10: Tracking Radars

Problems

10.1 A monostatic radar system measures the delay time of 0.12 ms caused by a
return echo from a target. Find the distance of the target.

Solution: The range is obtained as follows;

ctd (3  108 )(0.12  10−3 )

R0 = = = 18 km
2 2

10.2 A target range measured from a monostatic radar is 30 km. Find the
corresponding delay time.

Solution: The delay time corresponding to the target range of 30 km is

2 R0 (2)(30  103 )
td = = = 0.2 ms
c (3  108 )

10.3 A radar measures the target range with a mean-squared error of 100 m2. Find
the corresponding mean-squared error in measuring delay due to noise.

Solution: The mean-squared error measuring delay due to noise is calculated as

2 2

 tˆ2d =    R2ˆ  2 
2
= 8 
(100)  0.004  10−12 s2
c 0
 3  10 

10.4 A monostatic radar measures a target’s delay with mean-squared error due to
noise of 0.01  10−12 s2. What is the corresponding rms error in measuring range?

Solution: The mean-squared error in range measurement is obtained from (10.3) as

2 2
c  3  108 
 2
Rˆ0
=    tˆ2 =  −12
 (0.01  10 ) = 225 m
2

 
2 d
 2 

which gives the rms error in measuring range as  Rˆ = 15 m .

0

10.5 Consider a monostatic radar that measures the angular position of a target at a
distance of 60 km to an rms error of 0.6 mrad. Find the distance in an off-axis
direction form the boresight axis corresponding to this error.

46
Solution: For this problem, 0.6 mrad = (0.6  10−3  57.3) = 0.0344o corresponds to 60 km.
Hence, the distance in the off-axis direction form the boresight axis corresponding to
this angular error is

RV = R0 sin(0.0344o ) = (60  103 )sin(0.0344o ) = 36 m .

10.6 For the monostatic radar of Problem 10.6, if the delay measurement system
provides an rms range error due to noise of half the off-axis error, calculate the
target’s rms delay error.

Solution: The rms range error is half of the off-axis error, that is,  Rˆ = 36 2 = 18 m.
0

It follows that the target’s rms delay error is

2 2

 =    R2ˆ = 
2 2 
2
tˆd 8 
(18)2  0.0144  10−12 s2
 
c 0
 3  10 

That is
 tˆd = 0.12 μs

10.7 Work Example 10.2 when the range is determined by observing the target range
for 2 ms.

Solution: The number of pulses observed in 2 ms is n = f rt0 = (12  103 )(2  10−3 ) = 24 .
Then it follows that the rms time delay error due to noise is obtained using (10.5):

1 1  tˆ 0.08
 tˆ = = = d1 =  0.016 μs
d 2 B f r t0 SNR 2 B nSNR n 24

The corresponding rms range error is

c  3  108 
 Rˆ =  tˆd =  −6
 (0.016  10 ) = 2.4 m.
2  2 

10.8 A conical scan tracking radar uses a pulse train with prf of 100 kHz. Calculate the
maximum scan rate so that at least 10 pulses are emitted in one scan to be able
to track the target.
Solution: The maximum scan rate is (100  103 10) = 10  103 cycles per second.

10.9 For the α-β filter with same specifications as in Example 10.6, estimate the
desired smoothed values corresponding to the predicted values of a target at 12
km with a velocity of 340 m/s.

47
Solution: Using (10.36) gives

 s (k ) =  p (k ) + ( x0 (k ) −  p (k ))
where

12  103  x 
p =  , s =  s  ,
 340   vs 

the gain  is represented by

 α  0.75
= = 
β T   1.5 

and the output matrix  is represented by

 = 1 0.

Solving the above equations gives  s =  xs vs  = 12  103 340

T T

10.10 For the α-β-γ filter with same specifications as in Example 10.7, estimate the
desired smoothed values corresponding to the predicted values of a target at 12
km with a velocity of 330 m/s and acceleration of 36 m 2.

Solution: Using (10.49) gives

 s (k ) =  p (k ) + ( x0 (k ) −  p (k ))

where

12  103   xs 
 
 p =  330  ,  s =  vs  ,
 
 36   as 
 

the gain  is represented by

 α   1.5 
 =  β T  =  375 
   
 2γ T 2   2.5  106 

and the output matrix  is represented by

48
 = 1 0 0.

Solving above equations gives

T
 s = 12  103 330 36
______________________________________________________________________

49
Chapter 11: Aperture and Phased array antennas

Problems

11.1 Find the total radiate power if the radiated power density of an antenna is given
by Pˆ = Rˆ (10sin  R2 ), W m2 , where R̂ is the unit vector in the direction of R .

Solution: The total radiated power of the antenna is

2  2 
Prad =   Pˆ ( ,  ) Rds
ˆ =
  ˆ sin  R 2 ) RR
( RA0
ˆ 2 sin  sin d d = 10 2
0 0 0 0

11.2 Repeat Problem 11.1 to find the radiation intensity and hence the total radiated
power of the antenna.

Solution: The radiation intensity is

P( ,  ) = R2 Pˆ ( , ) = R2 ( Rˆ (10sin  R2 ) = Rˆ10sin 

Hence the total radiated power is

2  2 
Prad =   P( ,  )d  =   P( ,  )sin  d d
0 0 0 0
2 
=  (10sin  )sin  d d = 10 2
0 0

11.3 Repeat Problem 11.1 to find the directivity of the antenna.

Solution: The radiation intensity is as found in Problem 11.2 is given by

P( ,  ) = R2 Pˆ ( , ) = R2 ( Rˆ (10sin  R2 ) = Rˆ10sin 

The maximum radiation is directed along  =  2 , and is given by Pmax = 10 W . The total
radiated power is

2  2 
Prad =   P( ,  )d  =   P( ,  )sin  d d
0 0 0 0
2 
=  (10sin  )sin  d d = 10 2
0 0

Using (11.17) gives the directivity of the antenna equal to

4 P( ,  ) max (4 )(10)

GD = = = 1.27
Prad 10 2

50
11.4 The radiation intensity of a resonant half-wavelength dipole antenna is
P( ,  ) = 15sin3  W. Find the directivity of the antenna.

Solution: The maximum radiation pattern of the antenna is Pmax = 15 W along the
 =  2 . The total radiated power is then

2  2 
Prad =   P( ,  )d  =   P( ,  )sin  d d
0 0 0 0
2 
=  (15sin 3  )sin  d d = 11.25 2
0 0

Thus

Pmax 15
GD = 4 = 4 = 1.70
Pard 11.25 2

11.5 Consider a 2.4 m diameter reflector antenna with a focal length to diameter ratio
of L f D = 0.6 operating at a frequency of 6 GHz. Find the aperture efficiency.

Solution: Using (11.47) gives

 (1 2)( f d )  −1  (0.5)(0.6) 
0 = tan −1   = tan   = 45.29o
 ( f d ) − (1 16)   (0.6) − (0.063) 
2 2

The aperture efficiency is obtained using (11.48):

2
         
 ap = 24 sin 2  0  + ln cos  0    cot 2  0 
 2   2   2
= 24 sin 2 (22.64o ) + ln[cos(22.64o )] cot 2 (22.64 o ) = 0.64 = 64%.
2

11.6 For the reflector antenna of Problem 11.5, find the distance from the focal point
to the edge of the rim.

Solution: The distance from the focal point to the edge of the rim is calculated using the
relation, for   = 0 = 45.29o , as

2Lf (2)(1.44)
r0 = = = 1.7 m,
(1 + cos 0 ) (1 + cos(45.29o ))

where L f = (0.6  2.4) = 1.44 m has been used.

51
11.7 For the reflector antenna of Problem 11.5, find the overall directivity of the
antenna.

Solution: The overall directivity of the antenna is obtained using (11.49) as

2
D    (2.4) 
2

D =  ap   = (0.64)  9 
= 14,553.32 = 41.62 dB.
    3  10 (6  10 ) 
8

11.8 A 10 m diameter reflector antenna operating at 600 MHz has a directivity of 35

dB. Find the aperture efficiency and the effective aperture.

Solution: The aperture efficiency  ap can calculated as

D  D 
2 2

D =  ap   = 35 dB = 3162.27   ap = 3162.27  
     

3  108
where  = = 0.5 m , and D  = 10 0.5 = 20 . It follows then
600  106

3162.27
 ap = = 0.80 = 80% .
(20 )2

The effective aperture is

Ae =  p ( D2 4) = (0.80)( 102 4) = 62.83 m2 .

11.9 Consider Example 11.4 except for the sources with equal amplitudes and
opposite phases, and show that the normalized array factor is given by

 
f ( ) = sin   cos  .
2

Solution: We can obtain the normalized array factor following exactly the same steps as
in Example 11.4. The array factor in this case is

AF = Ae j 2 e − j ( d 2) cos + Ae j ( d 2) cos = − Ae − j ( d 2) cos + Ae j ( d 2) cos

 d 
= j 2 A sin  cos  
 2 

52
Using d =  2 and normalizing we have

 
f ( ) = sin   cos  .
2

11.10 Consider Example 11.4 except for the sources with equal amplitudes and 90o
out of phase, and show that the normalized array factor is given by

 
f ( ) = cos  (cos  − 1)  .
4 

Solution: The factor in this case is

AF = Ae − j ( d 2)cos + Ae − j ( 2)e j ( d 2)cos

= Ae− j ( 2)  e− j[  ( d 2)cos − 4] + e j[  ( d 2)cos − 4] 
d 
= e− j ( 4) 2 A cos  cos − 
 2 4

Using d =  4 and normalizing we have

 
f ( ) = cos  (cos  − 1)  .
4 

11.11 Consider Example 11.4 except for the spacing between the elements is one
wavelength, and show that the normalized array factor is given by

f ( ) = cos( cos ).

Solution: The array factor in this case is

 d 
AF = Ae − j ( d 2)cos + Ae j ( d 2)cos = 2 A cos  cos  
 2 

 2 
where  d =    = 2 , which gives
  
AF ( ) = 2 A cos ( cos ) .

The normalized array factor is then

f ( ) = cos( cos ).

53
11.12 Work Example 11.5 for a broadside array.

Solution: The desired parameters can be obtained using (11.87) and the equations
listed in Table 11.1. We have for the broadside array,

 = (  d cos +  )  = 90o =  d cos90o +  = 0   = 0

The first null beamwidth is obtained using

 n  −1   
n = cos−1    = cos    , for n = 1
 Nd   Nd 
   −1  4
n = cos−1   −1
 = cos    = cos (1 3)
 Nd   12 

 70.52o
n =  o
 FNBW = (109.47 − 70.52) = 38.85o
109.47

The half-power beam width is obtained using

 1.39  −1  (1.39)(4) 
h = cos−1    = cos  
−1
 = cos ( 0.147)
  Nd   12 

 81.51o
h =  o
 HPBW = (98.49 − 81.51) = 16.98o
98.49

The position of the maximum of the first minor lobe is obtained using (11.80)

   3  −1   3 
 s = cos−1   −1
   = cos  2    = cos ( 0.5)
 2d  N     12  
 60 o
 s =  o  both are feasible solutions
120
This indicates that first minor lobe maximum occurs at 60o as well as 120o as expected.
The position of the maximum value is obtained using

 m 
 max = cos−1   −1
 = cos (0) = 90 for m = 0 : verified.
o

 d 

11.13 Work Example 11.5 for an ordinary end-fire array.

54
Solution: The parameters can be obtained using (11.87) and the equations listed in
Table 11.2. We have for the broadside array,

 2    
 = (  d cos  +  )  = 0o =  d cos0o +  = 0   = −  d =    =
   4  2

The first null beamwidth is obtained using

 n 
n = cos−1 1 −  , for n = 1
 Nd 

   −1  4 −1  2 
n = cos−1 1 −  = cos  1 −  = cos   = 48.19
o

 Nd   12   3

FNBW = 2n = (2)(48.19o ) = 96.38o

The half-power beam width is obtained using

 1.39  −1  (1.39)(4) 
h = cos−1 1 −  = cos 1 −
−1
 = cos (0.8525) = 31.51
o

  Nd   12 

HPBW = 2h = (2)(31.51) = 63.02o

The position of the maximum of the first minor lobe is obtained using

(3)  −1  (3)(4) 
 s = cos−1  1 −  = cos 1 −
−1
 = cos (0.5) = 60
o

 2 Nd   (2)(12) 

This indicates that first minor lobe maximum occurs at 60o . The position of the
maximum value is obtained using

 m 
 max = cos−1 1 − −1
 = cos (1) = 0 for m = 0 : verified.
o

 d 

11.14 Find the HPBW, FNBW and the position of the maximum of the first minor lobe of
a 10-element uniform phased array consisting of isotropic sources placed the z-
axis. The spacing between the elements is  3 and the main beam is steered at
75o from the z-axis.

Solution: The progressive phase shift φ can be obtained using (11.87):

55
 = (  d cos +  )  =  =  d cos0 +  = 0   = −  d cos0
0

It follows
 2    2
 = −   cos75 = −
o
(0.259) = −0.54 radian = −30.94o
   3  3

The FNBW is obtained using (11.69)

   2  −1  3  2  
 n = cos−1   −    = cos   0.54  
 2 d  N   2  10  
= cos−1[0.477(0.54  0.628)]

56.14o
n =  o
 FNBW = (92.94 − 56.14) = 36.8o
92.94

The HPBW is obtained using (11.74)

   2.782   −1  3  2.782  
 n = cos−1   −    = cos   0.54  
 2 d  N   2  10  
= cos−1[0.477(0.54  0.278)]

67.02o
h =  o
 HPBW = (82.82 − 67.02) = 15.8o
82.82

The position of the maximum of the first minor lobe is obtained using (11.80)

   3   −1  3  3  
 s = cos−1   −    = cos   0.54  
 2 d  N   2  10  
 3 
= cos−1  (0.54  0.9.43)  = cos −1 0.477 ( 0.54  0.943) 
 2 
 45o
s =  o
101

This indicates that first minor lobe maximum occurs at 45o as well as 101o as expected.

______________________________________________________________________

56