UNIT 5 PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF

DATA
Coritents
5.0 Objectives
5:l Introduction
5.2 Data Processing
5.3 Editing of Data
5.4 Coding of Data
5.5 Preparing a Master Chart
5.6 Tabulation of Data
5.7 Classification of Data
5.8 Data Analysis and Jpterpretation
5.9 Use of Computer in Data Processing and Tabulation
5.10 Let Us Sum Up
5.11 Key Words
5.12 Suggested Readings
5.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

On completion of this Unit, you would be able to:

edit your data;
prepare the code book for your Interview schedule/questionnaire;
prepare your Master Chart;
plan your data analysis;
classify your data;
tabulate your data;
analyse your data;
know the application of computer for data processing and analysis.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit we discussed about methods and tools of data collection.
After data collection the researcher turns his focus of attention on its processing.
In this Unit, we will discuss about one of the most important stages of the
research process, i.e. data processing and analysis.

5 . 2 DATA PROCESSING
Data processing refers to certain operations such as editing, coding, computing
of the scores, preparation of master charts, etc. A researcher has to make
his plan for each and every stage of the research process. As such, a good
researcher makes a perfect plan of processing and analysis of data. To some
researchers data processing and analysis is not a very serious activity. They
feel many times that data processing is a job of computer assistants. As a
assistants which may not help them to achieve their objectives. To avoid such Processing and
1 Analysis of Data
I situations, it is essential that data processing must be planned in advance and
1 instructed to assistants accordingly.

5.3 EDITING OF DATA

I
After collection of filled in questionnaires, editing of entries therein is not only
necessary but also useful in making subsequent steps simpler. Many a times,
1 a researcher or the assistants either miss entries in the questionnaires or enter
responses, which are not legible. This sort of discrepancies can be resolved
by editing the schedule meticulously. Another problem comes up at the time
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of tabulation of data when researcher asks for tabulation of responses from
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consecutive questions. In cases where data are not cleaned there has to be
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inconsistency in the tabulations. The researcher has to be very particular
about consecutive questions where category 'not applicable' exists.

Check Your Progress I

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of this unit.
1) Distinguish 'data processing' from 'data analysis'.
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5.4 CODING OF DATA

Coding of data involves assigning of numbers to each response of the question.
The purpose of giving numbers is to translate raw data into numerical data,
I
I which may be counted and tabulated. The task of researcher is to give numbers
1 to response carefully. As we have already discussed various types of questions
I (such as open-end, close-end, matrix, factual, opinion, etc.) in the previous
-unit, the coding scheme will vary accordingly. For example a close-end question
may be already coded and hence it has to be just included in the code book
I whereas coding of open-end questions involves operations such as classification
of major responses and developing a response category of 'others' for responses
which were not given frequently. The classification of responses is primarily
based on similarities or differences among the responses. Usually, in the case
of open-end questions, to classify responses researcher looks for major
characteristics of the responses and puts it accordingly. In case of attitude
scales, researcher has to keep in mind, the direction or weightage of responses.
For example, a response 'strongly agree' is coded as 'five' the subsequent
codes would be in order. Therefore, if there are responses like 'agree' 'undecided'
'disagree' and 'strongly disagree' they have to be coded as four, three, two,
one. Alternatively, if strongly agree is coded as minus two, the subsequent
responses would be coded as minus one, zero, + 1 and +4. The matrix questions
have to be coded taking in to consideration each cell as one variable. For
example, if the column of matrix represents employment status, namely, 'permanent'
Basics Of Social Research and 'temporary7 and row represents employers or type of employer, namely,
government and private, the first cell would represent a variable 'government-
permanent7.The second cell would represent 'government-temporary' and
so on. In order to demonstrate the points discussed above a section of the
code-book is reproduced in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Code Book

I
Q.No Var. Information Sought Responses Code Column Remarks
Na Na
1 Respondents Number 1-3
2 1 Age Actual 45
3
~ Designation Worker
Supervisor
Manager 1i
1

6
4 3 Establishment Public 1 1
I I I I Private 1 2 1 7 I I
5 4 Level of Education Graduate 1
Intermediate 2
High School 3
I 1 1 I Middle school]
Primary
4 1 1 I
Illiterate
Other
6 5 Marital Status Married 1
Unmarried 2
Widow 3

1 1 1 36 35 Nature of work
I
Divorce
Yes
4 9

I 1 Duration of work

I ( 38 Promotion
I Yes
No

I 43
42 ' ' Attitude of Employer
Preference for male
employees
Undecided
Disagree

5.5 PREPARING A MASTER CHART

After a code book is prepared, the data can be transferred either to a master
chart or directly to computer through a statistical package. Going through
master chart to computer is much more advantageous than entering data
directly to computers because one can check the wrong entries in the computer
by comparing 'data listing' as a computer output and master chart. Entering
data directly to computer is disadvantageous, as there is no way to check
wrong entries, which will show inconsistencies in tabulated data at the later
stages of tabulation. A sample of master chart prepared in accordance with
the code book is presented in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Master Chart

VARIABLE LABELS

NUMBER

Check Your Progress I1

1) What is "Coding of Data"

Basics of Social Work Research
2) Highlight the importance of preparing of 'Master Chart".
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5.6 TABULATION OF DATA

Tabulation is a process of presenting data in a compact form in such a way
as to facilitate comparisons and show the involved relations. In other words,
it is an arrangement of data in rows and columns. This also helps the researcher
to perform statistical operation on the data to draw inferences. Tabulation
can be generally in the form of uni-variate, bi-variate, tri or multi-variate
tables. Accordingly, analysis proceeds in the form of uni-variate analysis. bi-
variate analysis and tri or multi-variate analysis.

5.7 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

The process of classification in accordance with the objectives and hypothesis
of the study is arrived at with the help of frequency distributions.Re-classification
is a process to rearrange responses with the help of statistical techniques.
This helps researcher to justify the tabulation. We have seen earlier that the
responses to a statement may be assigned scores or weightage. These scores
or weightage are summated and re-classified may be as 'high,' 'medium' and
'low'. The basic principle in the process of classification or re-classification
is that the categories thus obtained must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
In other words, the categories have to be independent and not overlapping.

5.8--
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
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The purpose of data analysis is to prepare data as a model where relationships

between the variables can be studied. Analysis of data is made with reference
to the objectives of the study and research questions if any. It is designed
to test the hypothesis. It also involves re-classification of variables, tabulation,
explanation and casual inferences.

The first step in data analysis is a critical examination of the processed data
in the form of frequency distribution and cross tabulation. This analysis is
made with a view to draw meaningful inferences and generalisation.
Setting up the Analytic Model
Before we begin the analysis of data we have to look back to the objectives
of our research study and set up analytic models. These models are diagrammatic
presentation of variables and their interrelationships.

Let us hypothesise that awareness about the Equal Remuneration Act affects
wage differentials.

68
Processing and
H1 -b Awareness about the Act Affects Wage Differnetials Analysis of Data

The two variables in the hypothesis are awareness about the Act and the
wage differentials. The relation beheen the two variables can be diagrammatically
presented as follows:
I
Awareness d Wage Differential

Further it is hypothesised that the bivariate relationships between the variables

/ are affected by another variable regional development. Let us suppose that

1 regional development has been categorised into three, namely, high, medium
and low. This can be described as follows:

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT: HIGH

I

Wage Differential - Awareness about the Act

Awareness about the Act ---, Wage Differential

REGIONALDEVELOP= MEDIUM

Awareness about the Act Wage Differentials

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT: LOW

Awareness about the Act Wage Differential

With the analytic model described above the researcher can proceed to analyse
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the data as discussed in the following sections:
I ~ni;ariate Analysis
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Univariate analysis refers to tables, which give data relating to one variable.
Uni-variate tables which are more commonly known as frequency distribution
tables show how frequently an item repeats. Examples of frequency tables
are given below. The distribution may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. The
characteristics of the sample while examining the percentages, further properties
of a distribution can be found out by various measures of central tendencies.
However, researcher is required to decide which is most suited for this analysis.
To know how much is the variation, the researcher has to calculate measures
of dispersion.

Usually, frequency distribution tables are prepared to examine each of the

independent and dependent variables. Tables 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5 present two
independent variables and one dependent variable.
Basics of Social Work Research Table 5.3: Showing Awareness of the Respondents
(The Independent Variable)

Level of Distribution of Respondents

Awareness Freq. Percentage
High 110 39.3
Medium 106 37.9
Low 64 21.8
Total 280 100.0

Table 5.4: Showing the Respondents by Regional Development

(The Independent Variable)

Regional Distribution i f Respondents

Development Freq. Percentage
High 142 57.7
Medium 86 30.7
Low 52 14.6
Total 280 100.0

Table 5.5: Showing Wage Differentials of the Respondents

(The Dependent Variable)

Distribution of Respondents

Medium
1 Low
1 Total
1
1
1
134
68
280
1
1
47.9
24.2
100.0
,
1
1
A frequency distribution of a single variable is the frequency of observation
in each category of a variable. For example, an examination of the pattern
of response to variable 'awareness of the respondents' in Table 5.3 would
provide a description of the number of respondents who have high, medium
and low level of awareness. In case of nominal variables categories can be
listed in any arbitrary order. Thus, the variable "Religion" may be described
with the category 'Hindu' or the category 'Christian' listed first. However,
the categories of ordinal, interval and ratio variables are arranged in order.
Let us consider the frequency distribution (Tables 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5) which
describes the awareness, wage differentials and regional development of
Processing and
respondents. The tables have four rows, the first three being the categories Analysis of Data
of variables, which appear in the left-hand columns and the right hand columns
show the number of observation in each category. The last rows are the totals
of all frequencies appearing in tables. To anal$e the data it is necessary to
convert the fhquencies into figures that can be inteeted meaningfully. Frequencies
expressed in comparable numbers are called proportions or percentages. A
proportion is obtained by dividing the frequency of a category by the total
number of responses in the distribution. Proportions when multiplied by 100
become a percentage. For example, the relative weight of d e category 'High'
in Table 5.3 is expressed by the proportion 1101280=.393 or by the percentage
1101280 x 100=39.3 per cent. These figures indicate that only about 40 out
of every 100 respondents in the group have 'high' level of awareness about
the Act. Proportions and percentages permit the comparison of two or more
frequency distributions,for instance, while distribution of respondents by regional
development displayed in Table 5.4 clearly shows the predominance of respondents
from 'high' development region whereas,*distibution of respondents by wage
differential in Table 5.5 indicates that the proportions of respondents with
'high' and 'low' wage differentials are almost equal.
Bivariate Analysis
A researcher might be interested in knowing the relationships between the
variables. To know the relationship between these variables, the data pertaining
to the variables are cross tabulated. Hence, a bi-variate table is also known
as cross table. A bi-variate table presents data of two variables in column
and row simultaneously. An example of a bi-variate table is given below:

Table 5.6: Showing Levels of Awareness Towards the Act and

Wage Differentials of the Respondents

Awareness about Wage Differentials

the Act
High Medium Low Total
High 94 9 7 110
(66.2) (10.5) (13.5) (39.3)
Medium 37 58 11 106
(26.1) (67.4) (2 1.2) (37,9)
Low 11 19 34 64
(7.7) (22.1) (65.3) (22.8)
Total 142 86 52 280
(57.70) (30.7) (14.6) (100.0)

The table presents data with regard to two variables namely awareness about
the Equal Remuneration Act and the level of wage differential. First row
presents data with regard to respondents who were aware of the Act. The
second row presents data about who were not. Similarly, the first column
gives data pertaining to workers who have low wage differentials. The second
column presents data of workers whose differentials were medium and the
last column represents the respondents who felt high wage differentials. For
example, the first cell (in the left-hand corner) represents 94 respondents who
were fully aware of the Act and perceived high wage differentials.

The association between two variables can be explained either by comparing the
percentages of respondents column wise or row wise. The relationship between
Basics Of Research the variables can also be examined by various statistical techniques depending
upon the level of measurement of the data. Apparently, the two variables are
associated, therefore, more people who were aware of the Act have perceived
low wage Merentials than who were not aware of the Act. Alternatively, comparatively
smaller percentage of people who were aware of the Act has perceived high
wage differentials than people who were not aware of the Act.

In bivariate analysis the researcher also explains the nature and the degree
of association. That is whether t h e ' r e l a t i ~ n s h is
i ~positive or negative and
it also indicates the degree of relationships in terms of high, moderate or low.
Trivariate Analysis
Sometimes researcher might be interested in knowing whether there is a third
variable which is effecting the relationships between two variables. In such
cases the researcher has to examine the bi-variate relationship by controlling
the effects of third variable. One way of controlling the effects of a third
variable is to prepare partial tables and examine the bi-variate relationship.
Let us take an example. In the above table, if researcher wants to examine
whether there is effect of regional development on the bivariate relationship
he may prepare three partial tables giving data relating to awareness of the
Act and wage differential for high, medium and low regional development.

Table 5.7: Regional Development = High (N = 142)

I1 Awareness about
the Act
Wage Differentials
High Medium Low 1 Total

Medium
1 13
(40.6) (33.3)
12
(37.5)
42
(53.8)
2o
(62.5)
~ 74
Total 32 78 32 142 1

Table 5.8: Regional Development = Medium (N = 86)

I 1
- -

r ~ w e r e n e s sabout Wage Differentials

the Act Medium Low Total
High
Hi@

Medium
8
(36.4)
9
(40.9)
11
(25.6)
17
(39.5)
4
(19.0)
8 .
(38.1)
23
34
~
Total 1 22 . 43 21 1
I
86
Table 5.9: Regional Development = Low (N = 52) Processing and
Analysis of Data

1 Awareness about ( Wage Differentials 1 1

I the Act High Medium Low 1 Total 1
I Medium 1 8 4 6 1 18 1

i Total 1 24 1 13 1 15 1 ' 5 2 1
On examination of these three partial tables, if the researcher finds out that
bi-variate relationships do not hold good he may infer that it is the third
variable, the regional development which is affecting the bi-variate relationship.
In the partial tables for higher regional development, the proportion of people
perceiving high wage differential are those who are having high level of awareness
about the Act. The similar trend can be noticed in the remaining two partial
tables, which means regional development does not effect the bi-variate relationships
between wage differential and awareness about the Act.

AND TABULATION
Research involves large amounts of data, which can be handled manually or
by computers. Computers provide the best alternative for more than one
reason. Besides its capacity to process large amounts of data, it also analyses
data with the help of a number of statistical procedures. Computers cany
out processing and analysis of data flawlessly and with a very high speed.
The statistical analysis that took months earlier takes now a few seconds or
few minutes. Today, availability of statistical software and access to computers
has increased substantially over the last few years all over the world.

While there are many specialised software application packages for different
types of data analysis, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) is one
such package that is often used by researchers for data processing and analysis.
It is preferred choice for social work research analysis due to its easy to
use interface and comprehensive range of data manipulation and analytical
tools.

1 Basic Steps in Data Processing and Analysis

There are four basic steps involved in data processing and analysis using
SPSS. They are:
1) Entering oidata into SPSS,

I 2) Selection of a procedure from the Menus,

I 3) Selection of variables for analysis, and
I 4) Examination of the outputs.

I1 You can enter your data directly into SPSS Data Editor. Before data analysis,
it is advised that you should have a detailed plan of analvsis so that vou are
Basics of Social Research clear as to what analysis.,is to be performed. Select the procedure to work
on the data. All the variables are listed each time a dialog box is opened.
Select variables on which you wish to apply a statistical procedure. After
completing the selection, execute the SPSS command. Most of the commands
are directly executed by clicking '0.K'. on the dialog box. The processor
in the computer will execute the procedures and display the results on the
monitor as 'output file'.
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Check Your Progress I11

1) What is an analytic model?

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2) What is 'bivariate' and 'trivariate' analysis?
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5.11 KEY WORDS

Univariate Analysis : refers to tables which give data relating to
one variable.
Bivariate Analysis : refers to relationship between two variables.
Trivariate Analysis : controlling the effects of third variable which
is effecting the relationship between two
variables.

5.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bailey, Kenneth, D. (1978), Methods of Social Research, The Free Press,
London.
Baker, L. Therese (1988), Doing Social Research, McGraw Hill, New York.
Doby, J.T. et al. (1953), An Introduction to Social Research, Harrisburg:
Stackpole Co., London.
Kerlinger, Fred, R. (1964), Foundations of Behavioural Research, Surjeet
Publications, Delhi.
La1 Das, D.K. (2000), Practice of Social Research :A Social Work Perspective,
Rawat Publications, Jaipur.
Monete, Duane, R. et. al. (1986), Applied Social Research: Tool For the
Human Services, Holt, Chicago.
Nachmias, D and Nachmias, C. (1981), Research Methods in the Social
Sciences, St. Martins press, New York.
Processing and
Sellitz, G et. al. (1973), Research Methods in Social Relations, Holt, Rinehart Analysis of Data
and Winston (3cdedition), New York.
Sjoberg, G. and Nett. B. (1968)' A Methodology of Social Research, Harper
& Row, New York.
Wilkinson, T.S. and Bhandarkar, P.L. (1977)' Methodology and Techniques
of Social Research, Himalaya, Bombay.

5.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I
1) While data processing refers to editing and coding of responses, preparation
of master charts and computing of the scores, where as, data analysis
involves tabulation, cross tabulation and explanation of data to study the
I relationships between the variables. Analysis of data is made with reference
I
to the objectives of the study and research questions if any. It is also
designed to test the hypothesis and causal inferences.
Check Your Progress I1
1) Coding of data involves assigning of numbers to each response of the
question. The purpose of giving numbers is to translate verbal data into
numerical data, which may be counted and tabulated. For example, a
response 'strongly agree' is coded as ' 1' the subsequent codes would
be in order. Therefore, if there are responses like 'agree' 'undecided'
'disagree' and 'strongly disagree' they have to be coded as '2', '3' ,'4'
and ' 5 ' .
After a code book is prepared, the data can be transferred from interview
schedules/questionnaires to a master chart with the help of the code
book. Entering data from master chart to computer is much more
advantageous than entering data directly to computers because one can
check the wrong entries in the computer by comparing 'data listing' as
a computer output and master chart. Entering data directly to computer
is disadvantageous, as there is no way to check wrong entries, which
will show inconsistencies in tabulated data at the later stages of tabulation.
Check Your Progress I11
1) An analytic model is a plan for data analysis. In other words, an analytic
model is diagrammatic presentation of variables and their interrelationships.
The purpose of preparing an analytic model is to visualise relationships
between the variables as per the objectives of the study. It is also designed
to test the hypothesis.
2) A bivariate table presents data of two variables in column and row
simultaneously. When a researcher is interested in knowing the relationships
between two variables the data pertaining to the variables are cross
tabulated and a bivariate table is prepared.
Sometimes researcher might be interested in knowing whether there is
a third variable which is effecting the relationships between two variables.
In such cases the researcher has to examine the bivariate relationship by
controlling the effects of third variable. This is known as trivariate analysis.
One way of controlling the effects of a third variable is to prepare partial
tables and examine the bivariate relationship.