Ancient History

Revision Notes
Ancient History Revision Notes

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (2500 BC – 1750 BC)

• Indus Valley Civilization belongs to the BRONZE AGE and it forms a part of protohistory of India.
• It was one of the most ancient urban civilizations in the world.
• This civilization developed along the banks of river Indus.
• This civilization covered the parts of Sind, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, West Punjab, Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Maharashtra.
• Mohenjadaro is the largest and Allahdino is the smallest excavated site in this civilization.

Town Planning
• Harappan towns were divided into two parts: Citadels: Fortified settlements on the high mounds.
• Lower Town: Main residential area.
• The streets ran in straight lines crossing one another at right angles.
• Houses stood on both sides of the streets.
• Houses, drains, wells and bathing platforms were made of Kiln-burnt bricks.
• The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro was used for religious bathing.
• Mohenjodaro means ‘the mount of the dead’.
• Lamp-posts indicate the existence of street lighting.

Agriculture
• Irrigation-based agriculture was the backbone of the civilization.
• Sickle stone blades mounted on wooden sticks were used for cultivation purposes.
• Grains were stored in granaries.
• Wheat and six-row barley; field peas, mustard, sesame seeds, etc. were grown.
• People of Indus were the first to produce cotton in the world.

Trade
• Agriculture, industry and forest produce provided the basis for internal and external trade.
• Trade was based on Barter system. Indus people had trade contacts with the Persian Gulf and
Mesopotamia.

Transportation
• Bullock carts, pack animals and boats were used.
• Towns associated with different industries: Daimabad bronze industry, Lothal factory for stone tools
and metallic finished goods, Balakot pearl finished goods, bangle and shell industry and Chanhundaro
beads and bangles factory.

Art and Craft

• Bead Making and jewellery of gold and precious stones were made.
• Pottery: Bright or dark red, plain and painted pottery was made.
• Seals: Seals were made of terracotta and most frequently represented by an animal named Unicorn.
• Terracotta figurines: Fire baked clay was used to make toys, animals, birds and both male and female
figurines.

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Ancient History Revision Notes

Religion
• The chief male deity of Indus valley civilization was Pasupati Mahadeva (Epithet of Lord Shiva).
• The chief female deity of Indus valley civilization was the Mother Goddess (Goddess of fertility).
• They also worshipped fire, peepal trees and Unicorn.

Burial Practices
• Mohenjodaro: Three forms of burial were complete, fractional and post-cremation burials.
• The dead body was generally placed in the North-South direction.

Political System
• It is speculated that the rulers might have been wealthy merchants, or powerful landlords or spiritual
leader.

Scripts
• Scripts were pictographic and written from right to left like modern Urdu.
• These scripts are found on various seals, pottery, copper tablets, tools etc.

Important Discoveries of Indus Valley Civilization Sites

1. Harappa - Dayaram Sahni – 1921
2. Mohenjodaro - R. D. Banerjee – 1922
3. Sutkagendor - R. L. Staine – 1927
4. Chanhudaro - N. G. Majumdar – 1931
5. Rangpur - M. Vats – 1953
6. Kalibangan - A. Ghosh – 1953
7. Ropar - Y. D. Sharma - 1955-56
8. Lothal - S. R. Rao – 1957
9. Surkotada - I. Joshi - 1972-75

Decline of Indus Valley Civilization

• After 700 years, the Harappan cities began to decline.
• Reason: A shift in the course of the river and natural disasters such as drought, floods, etc or longterm
climate change.
• Some scientists also believe that the war with the Aryan civilization can also be a cause of their decline.

ARYAN AND VEDIC AGE (1500 BC – 1000BC)

• Vedic Age is the period of the Aryans in India. The word ARYAN literally means of high birth.
• During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled on the Indo-Gangetic Plains.
• The word ‘Veda’ is derived from ‘Vid’ which means mantra, slokas and also knowledge.
• Vedic Age is divided into the Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period.
Early Vedic Period (1500 BC – 1000 BC)
• The People of the early Vedic period lived in Sapta Sindva which means land of seven rivers.
• The seven rivers are Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswati.

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Ancient History Revision Notes

Economy of Vedic Era

• Aryans followed a mixed economy consisting of both plough-based agriculture and pastoralism.
• The Cow was the standard unit of exchange. Gold coins like Nishka, Krishna and Satmana also were
used.

Political Structure
• Some of the political terms used by Vedic people were:
➢ Samiti: National Assembly of the people.
➢ Sabha: Assembly of Elders.
➢ Purohita: Religious advisor of the King.
➢ Bali: Voluntary offerings to the chief by the people.
➢ Weapons: Made of stone, wood, bone and metal were used. Society
• Jana: People who gave their faithfulness to the tribe (Vis).
• Kula: It means family in Rig Veda.

Varna: Caste of the People based on occupation. The four varnas were:
➢ Brahmins: Teachers and Priests
➢ Kshatriyas: Rulers and Administrators
➢ Vaishyas: Merchants and Bankers
➢ Sudras: Artisans and Labourers.

Religion
• Nature was worshipped by Vedic Aryans - earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder.
• No temples and no idol worship during this period. Economic Condition
• Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people.

Main occupation:
• Cattle rearing. They finally settled in Northern India, started agriculture, cleared forests and cultivated
land.
• Other occupations: Carpentry and spinning. Carpenters made chariots and ploughs made with copper
and bronze.
• Cotton and woolen fabrics also were made.

Rig Vedic Gods

• Indra: Aryan warlord and controlled the weather.
• Called as Purandhar or the destroyer of efforts.
• Varuna: Administrator of cosmic law.
• His worship gives signs of Bhakti
• Agni: Intermediary between Gods and Men.
• Lives in domestic hearth.
• Yama: A type of Adam.
• Soma: God of plants. Special God of Brahmanas.

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Society
• Based on relationship, early Aryans were tribal and democratic.
• The Family was ancient and the birth of a son was desirable.
The Cows
• Most important form of wealth.
• Duhitri – word for daughter, meaning one who milks cows.
• Goghana – Indicates beef offered to guests.

Women’s Position
• Respectable position in society.
• No child marriage and marriageable age for girls – 16 to 17 years.
• There is proof of widow remarriage and the practice of Niyoga.
• Monogamy, polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Female Deities
• Usha- Goddess of dawn
• Aditi- Mother of God
• Prithivi- Goddess of earth
• Aryani- Goddess of forest
• Saraswati-River deity

Important Rituals
• Rajasuya- king’s influence was strengthened by rituals. Conferred supreme power on him.
• Asvamedha – Ceremony lasted for 30 days and ended with horse sacrifice.
• Vajapeya – chariot race was performed by the king. Royal chariot competed against kinsmen in a race.

Types of Marriage
• Brahma – In same class, a suitable dowered girl to a man.
• Daiva- Father gives his daughter to a priest as a part of his fee.
• Arsa – Token bride - gives cow and bull as dowry.
• Prajapatya - Father gives his girl without any dowry.
• Gandharva- Love marriage.
• Asura- Marriage in which bride is bought from her father.
• Rakshasa - Marriage by warriors.
• Paishacha – Marriage by seduction.

Vedic Literature
Aryans developed the Vedic culture based on Vedas. There are four Vedas in Vedic literature.
• Rig Veda: Oldest one. It Consists of 1028 hymns sung in honour of the Gods.
• Yajur Veda: It consists of detailed rules to be followed at the time of sacrifice.
• Sama Veda: The Book of Songs. It contains a set of melodies for singing during sacrifices.
• Atharva Veda: It contains the details of rituals of worship.

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PRE-MAURYAN AGE
• Age period is about 300 years from 600 BC to 300 BC.
• Age of Buddhism hence called Buddhan age.
• Anguttra Nikaya- Source of 16 kingdoms written in Pali language.
• Pali or Prakrit was spoken by the common man.
• Buddhism adopted Pali and Jainism adopted Prakrit.
• During the Medieval period, both languages Pali and Prakrit disappeared.
• During the time of Buddha, most important kingdoms were as follows:
➢ Vatsa: Capital Kausambi
➢ Avanti: Capital Ujjayini
➢ Kosala: Capital Ayodhay
➢ Magadha: Capital Rajagriha.

MAGADHA EMPIRE
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• The period of Magadha Empire was 6 century to 4th century BC.
• Four important royal dynasties – Haryankas of Magadha, Ikshvakus of Kosala, Pauravas of Vatsa and
Pradyotas of Avanti.
• A new dynasty named Haryanka was founded in Magadha by King Bimbisara.
• By defeating the Brihadrathas, Bimbisara founded the dynasty.

King Bimbisara of Magadha (544 BC492 BC)

• Bimbisara, a contemporary of Buddha.
• Rajgir (Giriv Raja) was his capital. Strengthened his position with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaisali
and Madra (3 Wives).
• Rajgir was impregnable because his capital was surrounded by 5 hills.

Ajatshatru (492 BC-460 BC)

• Bimbisara’s son killed Ajatshatru’s father and captured the throne.
• Joined Vaisali and Kosala. At that time, Kosala was ruled by Prasenajit.
• Buddha died during his rule and thus the first Buddhist council was arranged.

Udayin (460-444BC)
• Udayin founded the Pataliputra (Patna), new capital situated at the junction of the Ganga and Son.

Shishunaga Dynasty (412-344BC)

• It was founded by Minister Shishunaga.
• Succeeded by Kalasoka (Second Buddhist Council).
• Destruction of power of Avanti was the greatest achievement.
• Nandivardhan, was the last ruler of Shishunaga dynasty.

Nanda Dynasty (344 – 321 BC)

• Considered as the first of the nonKshatriya dynasties.
• Established by Mahapadma Nanda, a powerful empire.

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Ancient History Revision Notes

• He had the titles of Ekarat and Sarvakshatrantaka.

• Dhanananda, was the last ruler of Nanda dynasty.
• Dhanananda was contemporary of Alexander.
• During Dhanananda’s rule, Alexander invaded India in 326 BC.

Persian Invasion
• Darius, King of Persia (522-486 BC) captured some of the territories in the east of Sindhu in 218 BC.
• The Persian ruler, Xerses enlisted Indians in his army.
• Kharoshti script was brought to India by Persians.

Alexander’s Invasion
• Alexander was born in 356 BC. He was the son of King Philip II of Macedonia, Epirus or Olympias was
his mother and Aristotle was his teacher.
• In 336 BC, he became King. He founded the city Alexandria in Egypt.
• In 326 BC, he defeated Porus and captured Taxila through the battle of Hydaspes on the Jhelum River.
• The ruler of Taxila, Ambhi invited Alexander to India. At the age of 33, he died due to malaria.
• Selucus Nikator was the first general of Alexander in India.
• His teacher Aristotle is considered the “Father of Politics, Biology, Taxonomy and science of Logic”.

JAINISM
• Jainism was founded by Rishabhadeva. There were 24 Tirthankaras. Rishabhadeva was the first
Tirthankara.
• The last Tirthankara was Mahavira. He was born in 599 BC, in Kundagram.
• Siddhartha, the father of Mahavira was head of Jnatrika clan and his mother Trishala, was a Princess of
Lichchavi, Yasoda was his wife and Priyadarshana also called Anojja was his daughter.

Way to Nirvana in Jainism

• Right faith
• Right knowledge
• Right conduct

Five main teachings in Jainism

• Non-Injury
• Non-lying
• Non-stealing
• Non-possession
• Observe continence

Sacred Literature of Jainism

• Ardhamagathi, the sacred literature of the Svetambaras written in a form of Prakrit.
• Literature of Jainism classified as follows:
➢ The twelve Angas
➢ The twelve Upangas

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➢ The ten Parikarnas

➢ The six Chheda-sutras
➢ The four Mulasutras

Jain councils History

• First Council: At the beginning of 3rd century BC, it was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabhadra. It resulted
in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace 14 Purvas.
• Second Council: In the 5th century AD, it was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) by Devridhihgani. It resulted in
the compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Followers of Jainism
• The Digambaras (sky-clad or naked)
• The Svetambaras (White-clad)

BUDDHISM
• Originated in the 6th century BC. Founded by Gautama Buddha.
• Buddha, also known as Siddhartha, Sakyamuni and Tathagata.
• He was born in 563 BC, on the Vaishakha Poornima day at Lumbini, near Kapilavastu in Nepal.
• His father Suddhodana, the Saka ruler. His mother Mahamaya of Kosala dynasty, died on the seventh
day of his birth. So he was taken care of by stepmother Gautami.
• His wife Yoshodhara and his son named Rahula.
• At the age of 29, he left his palace and attained Nirvana at Bodh Gaya at the age of 35.
• In Sarnath, he delivered his first sermon. In 483 BC, at Kushinagar he attained Mahaparinirvana at the
age of 80.
Buddhist Councils
• First Council: Held in 483 BC at Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha. Divided into two Pitakas as Sutta Pitaka
and Vinaya Pitaka.
• Second Council: In 383 BC, held at Vaisali under Sabakami (king was Kalasoka). Followers divided into
Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas.
• Third Council: In 250 BC, at Pataliputra by Mogaliputta Tissa (king was Ashoka). Third part of the
Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language.
• Fourth Council: IN 72 AD, at Kashmir (kundalvan) under Vasumitra (king was Kanishka). Buddhism
divided into two sects as Mahayana and Hinayana.
Buddhist literature - Tripitakas (Three hold basket) – written in Pali language.
• Vinaya Pitaka: Rules of Discipline in Buddhist monasteries.
• Sutta Pitaka: Largest collection of Buddha’s sermons.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: Explains the philosophical teachings of Buddhist religion.
Types of Buddhism
• Mahayana: Followers believed in heavenliness of Buddha. They believed in idol worship.
• Hinayana: Followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha. They did not believe in idol worship.
• Vajrayana: Followers believed the salvation attained by the magical power, which they called Vajra.
Popular in Eastern India, particularly Bihar and Bengal.

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Ancient History Revision Notes

MAURYAN EMPIRE (322-185 BC)

• Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya, who was the
author of Arthashastra.
Chandragupta Maurya defeated King Dhanananda and captured Kingdom Magadha and stated
Pataliputra (now as Patna) as the capital.
• At that time, the Maurya empire was the largest empire.
• Seleucus I sent ambassador namely Megasthenes, who was the author of Indica to Chandragupta
Maurya’s court.
• With the help of his son Bindusara he succeeded and Bindusara extended their empire to southern
regions.
• Bindusara followed by his son Ashoka.

Asoka (ruled 272-232 BC).

• Asoka proved himself as one of the best kings in world history.
• After the brutal war against Kalinga (261 BC), he converted to Buddhism.
• Brihadratha was the last emperor of the Mauryan Empire.

POST- MAURYAN AGE

Sunga Dynasty (185 -71 BC)
• Founder – Pushyamitra Sunga.
• He was the commander-in-chief of the last Mauryan king Brihadratha.
• Malavikagnimitram, Kalidasa’s drama talks about Pushyamitra’s son Agnimitra and Malavika’s love
story.
• Devabhuti – Last king of Sunga dynasty.

Kanva Dynasty (72 BC – 27 BC)

• Founder – Vasudeva Kanva in 72 BC
• He ruled after defeating the last Sunga ruler.
• Ruled for a period for 45 years.
• Rulers of Kanva dynasty – Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susuman.

Cheti Dynasty of Kalinga

• Founder- Maha Meghavahana.
• Hatigumbha inscription of Kharavela gives details about the Chedis of Kalinga.
• Kharavela was the follower of Jainism.
• Ashoka attacked the Kaling during the reign of Kharvela.

Satavahana Dynasty (235 – 100 BC)

• After Mauryans, most powerful ruling dynasty. Also known as Andhras.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni – important ruler. Satavahanas were Brahmanas.
• Chaitya – Two common structures of Satavahanas and monastery called Vihara.
• Prakrit – official language.
• Issued lead coins.

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Ancient History Revision Notes

Indo Greeks
• They were the first to invade India.
• Menander –famous Indo-Greek ruler.
• They were the first to issue gold coins in India.
• Menander was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena (Buddhist Monk).
• Demitrius – king of Bactria invaded India about 190 BC.
• Demitrius is considered as Second Alexander.

Parthians (19 – 45 AD)

• Known as Pahalavas, Iranian people.
• Gondophernes- Greatest Parthian ruler.
• St. Thomas came to India for the propagation of Christianity during the reign of Gondophernes.

Sakas (90 BC – 1st AD)

• Known as Scythians. Maues or Moga - First Saka king in India.
• Rudra Daman I - Famous Saka ruler in western India.
• First Inscription – Junagarh Inscription of Rudradaman in Sanskrit.
• Ujjayini – Rudradharman Capital.

Kushans
• Known as Yuch-chis or Tocharians. Came to India from north central Asia.
• Kujala Kadphises – First Kushana king.
• Kanishka – famous kushana ruler. He became ruler in 78 AD.
• Peshawar – Kanishka’s capital. ‘The Gandhara School of Art’ received royal patronage.
• Kanishka is also known as ‘Second Ashoka’. He started Saka Era in 78 AD.
• Vasudeva – Last king of Kushana dynasty. Kushana School of art is also called Mathura School.

GUPTA EMPIRE (320-540 AD)

• Founded by Sri Gupta. The second ruler was Ghatotkacha.
• Gupta Empire is called as “The Golden Age of India”.

Chandragupta I (319-335 AD)

• He was the first important king of Gupta dynasty.
• He came to rule in 320 AD. By marrying Kumara Devi, princess of Lichchavi Clan of Nepal he increased
his power and prestige.
• He was the first ruler who acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj.

Samudragupta’s (335-375 AD)

• In 335 AD, Samudragupta succeeded Chandragupta I. Harisena, his court poet composed the Allahabad
Pillar inscription (known as Prayagaprasati) that contains Samudragupta’s conquests’ information.
• V.A. Smith described Samudragupta as “Indian Napoleon”.
• Samudragupta composed “Vahukabita” and named as “Kaviraja”.
• His minister was “Vasubandhu”, a Buddhist scholar.

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Chandragupta II (380-413 AD)

• Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramagupta but Chandragupta II killed him and married his queen.
• Chandragupta II was also known as Vikramaditya (Sun of power).
• Took the title of Simhavikrama, by defeating Rudrasimha III.
• First ruler to issue silver coins.

Kumaragupta – I (413-455 AD)

• Adopted the title Mahendraditya.
• Founded Nalanda University and worshipper of Lord Kartikeya.
• He died during the war with Hunas.

Skandagupta (455-467 AD)

• Kumaragupta I was followed by Skandagupta.
• Established Sudharsana Lake.
• After his death, the powerful days of Guptas came to an end.

Gupta Religion
• During this time Bhagavad Gita was written. Buddhism decreased.
• The last ruler was Vishnugupta, who died in 570 AD.
• Vishnu temple at Deogarh and a brick temple at Bhitragaon belong to the architecture of Gupta period.

HARSHAVARDHANA’S HISTORY (606-647 AD)

• Harshavardhana – last Hindu emperor of North India.
• He was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan and belonged to the family of the Pushyabhuti dynasty
(Vardhana dynasty).
• He started Harsha Era in 606 AD. Siladitya was his original name.
• Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were under his control.
• Huen Tsang, the Chinese traveler visited India during his rule.
• At the end of every five years, he celebrated a solemn festival (Council) at Prayag (Allahabad).
• He was a poet and dramatist. His biography “Harshacharita” was written by Banabhatta, his court poet.
He also wrote “Kadambari”.
• Harsha is the author of three plays Priyadharshika, Nagananda and Ratnavali.
• After his death in 647AD, once again the empire was divided into small states.

SANGAM AGE
• Sangam age is called the Golden period, which began in 300 BC and lasted till 300 AD.
• Sangam literature is made up of three kingdoms, namely Chola, Chera and Pandiyan.
• Corresponds to the post-Mauryan and pre-Gupta period.
• First Sangam was held in Madurai. Agastya was the chairman.
• Second Sangam held at Kapatpuram and its chairman was Tolkappiyar (author of Tolkappium).
• Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal (story of a married couple) and Manimegalai by Sattanar are the
famous epics.

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Ancient History Revision Notes

Pandiyan Kingdom
• Their emblem was Fish and the capital was Madurai.
• First mentioned by Megasthenese, who said that the kingdom was famous for Pearls.
• Pandiyan territory included the districts of Tirunelveli, Ramanad and Madurai.
• They gained from trade with Roman Empire and sent embassies to Augus, the Roman emperor.
• Mudukudumi, who was the earliest Pandiyan ruler accused Kovalan of theft.
• As a result, the city was laid under a curse of Kannagi (Kovalan’s wife).

Chola Kingdom
• Their emblem was Tiger and kingdom was called Cholamandalam or Coromandel.
• Kauveripattanam/Puhar was their capital. Chief center was Uraiyur, famous for cotton trade.
• Elara, the Chola king conquered Srilanka and ruled it for fifty years.
• Karikala was their famous king.
• Their main source was from trade in cotton cloth and they also maintained well organized Navy.

Chera Kingdom
• Their emblem was Bow and Vanji was their capital.
• Muzris and Tondi were main ports.
• Roman setup two regiments to protect their interests.
• They fought against Cholas about 150 AD.
• Senguttuvan was the greatest king in Chera history.

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