SCHEME OF WORK SS 2 2nd term

WEEK Topic
1. Heat Energy: Types of Thermometers: Liquid-in-glass, Resistance, Thermocouple and Constant volume gas
thermometer. Advantages and disadvantages
2. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity.
3. Calculation on Specific Heat Capacity
4. Evaporation, Boiling and Melting Point: Effects of Impurities and Pressure on Boiling and Melting Points.
Cooling By Evaporation
5. Latent Heat
6. Vapour Pressure; Saturated and Unsaturated Vapour and its relation to boiling. Humidity, relative humidity,
dew point and it relationship to weather (Formation fog and mist)
7. Gas Laws: Measurement of gas pressure, Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, Pressure law and General gas law
8. Waves – Production, Propagation, Types and Wave Equation
9. Properties of Waves – Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction and Interference, polarization and applications
10. Light Waves. Sources of light, laws of reflection, reflection in plane mirror, reflection in curved mirrors
11. Refraction of Light: Laws of refraction, refractive index, total internal reflection and critical angle
12. Revision
13. Examination

HEAT ENERGY
TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
1. Liquid in glass thermometer
2. Gas thermometer
3. Resistance thermometer
4. Thermoelectric thermometer
5. Pyrometer

1. LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS

i. Clinical thermometer
The clinical thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the human body which is 37 oC (98.6 oF). The constriction and the
short range of temperature measure differentiate the clinical thermometer from other types of thermometers.
The clinical thermometer is not sterilised in boiling water under normal atmospheric pressure for the following reasons:
a. The range of the clinical thermometer is 35 oC to 43oC; since water boils at 100 oC, the mercury can over expand and
break the glass.
b. The boiling water may cause the glass to crack.
ii. Maximum and Minimum or Six’s thermometer
The thermometer consists of a U-shaped stem connected to two large bulbs A and B. Both bulbs contain alcohol and are separated
by a column of mercury in the bend of the U-shaped stem.
As the temperature changes, a small index in both limbs is used to register the highest or
lowest temperature during the day. The indexes are reset using a magnet.

2. GAS THERMOMETERS
The bulb which contains Hydrogen, Helium or air as the gas attached to a mercury manometer which is used to measure the
pressure of the gas.
As the gas is heated, it expands and the pressure is read from the mercury level in the
manometer with the aid of a metre rule.

If Ө is the Celsius temperature corresponding to any gas pressure PӨ,

PӨ – P 0 = Ө - 0
P100 – P0 100 - 0

:- Ө = PӨ – P0 x 100 oC
P100 – P0

Advantages of the gas thermometer

i. It is more accurate than the liquid in glass thermometers
ii. It can measure very low temperature and very high temperature than the liquid in glass thermometer
iii. Gas thermometers can measure wider range of temperature.
iv. The expansion of the glass is negligible compared with the expansion of the gas.
Disadvantages of the gas thermometer
i. It is bulky and difficult to use
ii. it cannot be used to measure temperature of small volume of liquid
iii. It cannot be used to measure rapidly changing temperature because gases are poor conductor of heat
Uses
a. It is used to calibrate electrical thermometers (resistance thermometer and thermoelectric thermometers)
b. It is used in industry to measure high temperatures such as that of a furnace, melting points of metals etc.
If the graph of pressure is plotted against temperature, the shape of the graph is shown below:
Example 1 [WAEC/SSCE June 2010]
A thermometer records 680 mmHg at steam point and 440 mmHg at ice point. The temperature it
records at 380 mmHg is ____
Solution
Example 2 [JAMB/UTME 2013]
Calculate the length which corresponds to a temperature of 20 oC if the ice and steam points of an
ungraduated thermometer are 400 mm apart.
Let X be the scale on the unknown thermometer

3. RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
The resistance thermometer uses the change in electrical resistance of a pure metallic conductor such as platinum with
temperature.
If Ө is the Celsius temperature corresponding to any given resistance R Ө, θ = Rθ - Ro x 100 oC
R100 - Ro
Example 3 (SC/GCE)
A platinum resistance thermometer measures temperature on the assumption that the change in electrical resistance of platinum is
proportional to the change in temperature. The resistance of the platinum wire at 0 oC is 10.40Ω and 10.71Ω at 100oC
a. Calculate the temperature when the resistance is 9.61Ω
b. What will be the resistance of the wire when the temperature is 40 oC?

4. THERMOELECTRIC THERMOMETER OR THERMOCOUPLE

A thermocouple is a circuit is made up of two different metals or wires joined at two junctions and subjected to extreme
temperatures to give rise to thermocurrent.
When a thermocouple is used to measure temperature, it is called a thermoelectric thermometer.

Advantages of the thermoelectric thermometer

i. It is very sensitive and can measure rapidly changing temperature
ii. Unlike the gas thermometer, it can be used to measure the temperature of a small substance almost at a point
Uses
a. It is used in industry to measure high temperatures such as that of a furnace
b. It is used to measure or compare radiant energy on different surfaces (as a thermocouple)

5. PYROMETER
A pyrometer is a type of thermometer used to measure very high temperature without physical contact. A pyrometer is pointed
directly on the surface whose temperature is to be measured.
EVALUATION
1. List three types of thermometers
2. Give two designed features that distinguishes the clinical thermometer from other types of thermometer
3. Explain two reasons why the clinical thermometer is not sterilized in water under normal atmospheric pressure
4. What is used to reset the indexes of the Maximum and Minimum thermometer?
5. Describe the gas thermometer
6. A thermometer which was not accurately calibrated indicates – 0.5 oC at the lower fixed point, and 106 oC at the upper fixed
point. What temperature does the thermometer register when the true temperature is 60 oC?
7. The resistance in the element in a platinum resistance thermometer is 6.750 Ω at 0 oC, 7.750 Ω at 100oC and 6.900 Ω at room
temperature. Determine the room temperature on the scale of the resistance thermometer. [WAEC/SSCE Nov. 2004]
8. A thermometer has its stem marked in millimetre instead of degree Celsius. The lower fixed point is 30 mm and the upper
fixed point is 180 mm. Calculate the temperature in degree Celsius when the thermometer reads 45 mm

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AND HEAT CAPACITY

Specific Heat Capacity (c)
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of a unit
mass (1 kg) of the substance by a unit temperature (1oC or 1K).
The quantity of heat Q received or given out by a body depends on the following factors:
a) mass of the body, m
b) temperature change of the body, θ
c) nature of the material making up the body.
Mathematically,
Q α mθ
Q = cmθ (c = a constant)
Or Q = mcθ
But temperature change θ = θ2 – θ1
 Q = mc(θ2 – θ1)……………………………………………………………… i

Where:
m is the mass of the body in kg
θ2 – θ1 is the temperature change in oC or K
c is the constant which depends on the nature of the material that makes up the body and it is called the
specific heat capacity of the body.
The SI unit of specific heat capacity c is J/kgoC or J/kgK.

HEAT CAPACITY (C)

Heat capacity (C) is defined as the quantity of heat energy required to change the temperature of the entire body of
a substance by a unit temperature (1oC or 1K). The SI unit is J/oC or J/K.1

Heat capacity, C = mc

Example 1
Explain the statement, "The specific heat capacity of copper is 400 J/kg oC".
This means that 400 J of heat energy is required to change (increase or decrease) the temperature of 1 kg of copper
by 1oC
Example 2
What do you understand by, "The heat capacity of copper is 1250 J/ oC?".
This means that 1250 J of heat energy is needed to change (increase or decrease) the temperature of a given mass
of copper by 1 oC or 1 K.
Experimental Verification of Specific Heat Capacity
The heat lost or gain by an object is given by mc(θ2 – θ1)
Specific heat capacity is measure by two methods:
A. Method of mixture
A heated solid is quickly transferred to a liquid in a well lagged calorimeter and stirred thoroughly. The
specific heat capacity of the solid is obtain from the principle of conservation of energy.
When a hotter substance and a colder substance (solid/solid, solid/liquid or liquid/liquid) come in contact with
each other, the hotter substance loses heat to the colder substance. The transfer of heat from the hotter to the
colder substance will continue until the two substances attain the same temperature. Therefore, we can state
the following:
Heat given out by hotter substance = Heat gained by colder substance. That is,
1
While specific hea capacity is constant for a particular object, the heat capacity for the same object varies as it
t
depends on any given mass of the object.
Qh = Qc
Let,
θh be the temperature of the hotter substance
θc be the temperature of the colder substance
θ be the final or equilibrium temperature of both substances or mixture.

The temperature change of the hotter substance is: Δθh = ( θh — θ )

The temperature change of the colder substance is Δθc = ( θ - θc )
Heat given out by hotter substance, QH = mcΔθh
QH = mc( θh - θ )
Heat gained by colder substance, QC = mcΔθc
QC = mc(θ - θc)
If heat given out = Heat gained,
QH = QC
mcΔθh = mcΔθc
mc(θh - θ) = mc(θ - θc)
The masses and specific heat capacities of the hotter and colder substances could be different or the same.
Energy conservation:
Heat lost by the hot solid = heat gained by the liquid + heat gained by the calorimeter

B. Electrical method
In this method, a heater connected to power source is inserted in the material (liquid or solid) whose specific
heat capacity is to be determined.
Energy conservation:
Electrical heat energy lost by the heater = heat gained by the heated material
Electrical power x time = mcθ
IV x t = mcθ
IVt = mc(θ2 – θ1)

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A METAL USING THE METHOD OF MIXTURE

 The calorimeter is brought out of its lagging jacket and weighed empty.
 It is then filled up to half or two-thirds full of water at room temperature and weighed again.
 It is replaced inside its jacket, and the temperature of the water taken, the mass of the solid is also determined.
 The solid is then hung with a thread in a beaker of boiling water for about 10 minutes to ensure that the solid
has attained the temperature of the boiling water, which is taken with a thermometer.
 The hot solid is now quickly transferred into the calorimeter, shaking it to ensure that no hot water is
transferred into the calorimeter, the water in the calorimeter is well stirred, and its final steady temperature
taken.
 The specific heat capacity of the solid is calculated from the following experimental results:

Mass of empty calorimeter = m1

Mass of calorimeter + water = m2
Mass of metal = m3
Initial temp. of water in calorimeter = θ1
Final temperature of water = θ2
Temperature of solid (i.e boiling water) = θ3
Specific heat capacity of copper calorimeter = c1
Specific heat capacity of water = c2
Let the specific heat capacity the metal =c
Heat lost by solid = m3c(θ3 - θ2)
Heat gained by calorimeter = m1c1(θ2 - θ1)
Heat gained by water = (m2 - m1)c2 x (θ2 - θ1)

If no heat is lost to the surroundings, Heat lost by solid = Heat gained by calorimeter + heat gained by water
Therefore,
m3c(θ3 - θ2) = m1c1(θ2 - θ1) + (m2 - m1)c2 x (θ2 - θ1)
EVALUATION
1. Define and explain the difference between heat capacity and specific heat capacity
2. What are the SI units of specific heat capacity and heat capacity?
3. A block of copper of unknown mass is heated to 100 0C and then dropped in 200 g of water at 30 0C. If the final
temperature of the water is 58 0C, calculate the mass of the copper. [Take c for H 2O = 4200 J/kg 0C; for Cu = 400
J/kg0C]
CALCULATIONS ON SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
Example 1 [NECO/SSCE 2007]
The temperatures of water from tap A and tap B are 25 oC and 75 oC respectively. If a mixture of water at 40 oC is required, calculate the
ratio of the mass of water from tap A to that from tap B
Example 2
Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of brass by 10 K.
[Take heat capacity of brass = 3800 J/K]
Example 3 [WAEC/SSCE Nov 2004]
A laundry iron rated 400 W has its temperature increased by 40 oC after 2 minutes when connected to an electric mains. Calculate the heat
capacity of the iron
Example 4
A 140g lump of aluminium at 90 oC is dropped in a copper calorimeter of mass 80g containing 120g of water at 30 oC. What is the final
temperature of the aluminium?
[Take the specific heat capacity of water to be 4.2 kJ/kg oC; specific heat capacity of aluminium to be 880 J/kg oC, specific heat capacity of
copper to be 400 J/kgoC]
ASSIGNMENT
1) A 420 W electric heater is used to heat water of mass 50 kg from 25 oC to its boiling point. How long in hours, does the electric heater
work? (specific heat capacity of water = 4.20 x 103 Jkg-1 OC-1) [NECO/SSCE 2006]
2) A metal of mass 200 g at a temperature of 100 oC is placed in 100 g of water at 25 oC in a container of negligible heat capacity. If the
final steady temperature is 30 oC, calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal. (specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg -1K-1)
[WAEC/SSCE]
3) An electric heater has a resistance of 50 Ω. When it is immersed in water and connected to mains source, it draws a current of 4.0 A.
Calculate the heat gained by the water if the heater is switched on for 2 minutes, assuming no heat losses to the surroundings.
[WAEC/SSCE]

EVAPORATION; BOILING AND MELTING POINT

EVAPORATION
Evaporation is a process in which a liquid turns into vapour at a temperature below its boiling point.

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation:

1. Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases with temperature
2. Pressure: The rate of evaporation decreases with increase in pressure.
3. Area of exposed surface: The more the surface area of liquid exposed, the more the rate of evaporation.
4. Wind and dryness of air: The drier the air the more the rate of evaporation. This explains why clothes dry faster during the
harmattan.
5. Nature of the liquid: The lower the boiling point of a liquid, the higher the rate of evaporation. Volatile liquids such as ether (b.p
34.6 oC)2 evaporate faster than water (b.p 100 oC).

Molecular or kinetic theory explanation of evaporation

Increase in temperature increases the velocity, and consequently, the kinetic energy of the molecules. This makes some molecules near
the surface with sufficient kinetic energy to escape from the attraction of other molecules in the liquid and becomes vapour; some
molecules fall back.

Why evaporation causes cooling

Volatile liquids such as ether, methylated spirit or petrol cause cooling as they evaporate.
If a little methylated spirit is spilt on the hand it evaporates rapidly and the hand feels very cold. To change from liquid to vapour, the spirit
requires latent heat which is extracted from the hand. This consequently makes the hand to feel cool.
From molecular theory, as more energetic molecules escape from the surface of the liquid, the average kinetic energy of the
remaining molecules in the liquid is reduced and the temperature of the liquid is therefore lowered, hence the cooling by evaporation.

BOILING
Boiling or ebullition is the release of bubbles of vapour from the body of a liquid when its saturated vapour pressure equals the external
atmospheric pressure.3
The boiling point (b.p) of a substance is defined as the temperature at which its saturated vapour pressure becomes equal to the external
atmospheric pressure.

Effect of impurities on boiling point

Impurities or dissolved substances in a liquid raise the boiling point of the liquid.
When salt is added to food, it cooks faster. This is simply because salt is an impurity which increases the boiling point of water. At this high
temperature of the water, food cooks faster than when boiled in pure water.

Effect of pressure on boiling point

An increase in pressure at the surface of a liquid raises its boiling point while a decrease in pressure lowers the boiling point.
At high altitudes and mountain tops, liquids boil at a lower temperature than their boiling points due to a fall in pressure; at a depth such
as the bottom of a deep pit or well, liquids boils at a higher temperature than their normal boiling points.

MELTING POINT
This is the temperature at which a solid changes from the solid state to the liquid state at constant temperature and normal atmospheric
pressure.

Effects of impurities on freezing/melting point4

Impurities lower the freezing point of pure liquid or melting point of pure solid, a freezing mixture of ice and salt freezes at a temperature
below 0 oC. When impurity is added to a pure solid, it melts below the melting point. If salt is thrown on a road covered with ice, it melts
immediately below 0 oC. Besides, anti-freeze (as impurity) is added to the water
in the radiator of a car to avoid freezing in cold region.

Effect of pressure on freezing/melting point

An increase in pressure lowers the freezing point of water or the melting point of ice.
When ice is subjected to a high pressure it melts, but when this pressure is removed, the ice re-freezes in a process called regelation.

Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing again when the pressure isreduced5.
2
A common low boiling solvent (b.p. 34.6 °C) and an early anaesthetic
3
Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature called the boiling point unlike evaporation that takes place at
all temperature.

4
Usually for a pure substance, these two parameters are the same. But when the substance is mixed with
impurities, the melting and freezing points will not be equal.
Also melting point is considered as characteristic property of substance and not the freezing point.
5
Regelation is the continuous melting and refreezing of water under pressure
When two dry ice cubes pressed together, stick together. At their faces of contact, the melting point is reduced making a film of water to
form at the interface. As the pressure is removed, the film of water refreezes sticking the ice cubes together.
High pressures exerted by shoes or ice skates reduce the melting point and consequently melts the ice, forming a slippery layer of water
beneath.

The pressure cooker

The pressure cooker uses the principle of increase in pressure inside the cooking chamber to raise the boiling point of the liquid in the
cooker above its normal boiling point. At this high temperature, the cooking time is drastically reduced; hence, saving fuel.

Cooling and Heating curves

A cooling curve is a line curve that represents change of phase of matter with temperature on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal
axis.

A heating curve is the reverse of a cooling curve as it shows how the temperature changes as a substance is heated.

Cooling curves decrease to the right; while, heating curves increase to the right.

The cooling and heating curves for a pure crystalline substance has a horizontal line which represents a sharp change in phase since it has a
sharp melting or freezing point.

LATENT HEAT
During the change of state, the heat applied appears to be hidden as latent heat which is used in breaking inter-molecular bonds.
Latent heat of fusion
Latent heat of fusion is the heat energy required to convert the entire mass of a substance from its solid state to the liquid state at
constant temperature.
SI unit: The joule (J)
Latent heat of vaporisation
Latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy required to convert the entire mass of a substance from its liquid state to the gaseous state
at constant temperature.
SI unit: The joule (J)
Specific latent heat of fusion (l)
This is the quantity of heat needed to convert a unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid without a change in temperature.
Q = ml

l= SI unit: The J/kg

Specific latent heat of vaporisation
This is the quantity of heat needed to convert a unit mass of a substance from liquid to vapour without a change in temperature.
Q = ml

l= SI unit: The J/kg

Example 1 [WAEC/SSCE, Nov 2017]
Determine the quantity of heat required to melt completely 100 g of ice initially at -3 oC. [Specific heat capacity of ice = 2.20 x 10 3Jkg-1K-1;
specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 2.26 x 10 6Jkg-1]
Example 2 [WAEC/SSCE 2012]
A piece of copper of mass 20 g at a temperature of 110 ℃ was dropped into a mixture of ice and water at 0 ℃ , calculate the amount of
ice that melted. [Specific heat capacity of copper = 0.4 Jg-1K-1; Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 330 Jg-1]
Example 3 [WAEC/SSCE 2015]
A box has a volume of 0.28 m 3 and is 70% filled with iron filings at 25 ℃ . Calculate the
i. total mass of the iron filings;
ii. energy required to melt 10 % of the iron filings.
[Density of iron = 8.00 x 103 kg m 3; specific latent heat of fusion of iron = 1.38 x 105Jkg-1, specific heat capacity of iron = 460 Jkg-1K-1,
melting point of iron = 1500 ℃ ]
ASSIGNMENT
1. Ice of mass 10 g at -5 C was completely converted to water at 0 oC. Calculate the quantity of heat used. [Specific heat capacity of ice
o

= 2.1 Jg-1K-1; specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 Jg-1]

2. 10 g of ice at –10 oC is mixed with 120 g of water at 80 oC. Find the final temperature of the mixture. [Specific heat capacity of water =
4200 J/kgK; specific heat capacity of ice = 2200 J/kgK; specific latent heat of ice is 3.36 x 105 J/kg]

VAPOUR PRESSURE
WHAT IS VAPOUR AND VAPOUR PRESSURE?
During evaporation, molecules escape the surface of a liquid, they accumulate above the liquid and form a vapour.
These molecules have gained kinetic energy and are in constant random motion hence they exert pressure on the surface of the liquid.
Vapour pressure is defined as the pressure exerted on the surface of a liquid by vapour formed above the liquid’s surface.
SATURATED AND UNSATURATED VAPOUR
Saturated vapour pressure (s.v.p) is the pressure exerted by a vapour that is in contact with its own fluid in an enclosed space at that
temperature.
Unsaturated vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapour that is not in contact with its own fluid in an enclosed space at that
temperature.
A saturated vapour is in dynamic equilibrium, with its own liquid as the number of molecules escaping from the liquid per unit
time is equal to the number of molecules falling back to the liquid per unit time.
Saturated vapour pressure increases with temperature. The saturated vapour pressure of a liquid at its boiling point is equal to
the external atmospheric pressure.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The water vapour content of the atmosphere is known as its humidity. If the water vapour content in the air is very high, we say that the
air is very humid (moist).

Definition
Relative humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapour present in the atmosphere or a given volume of air to the mass of water vapour
needed to saturate the atmosphere or that given volume of air at the same temperature.

Relative Humidity (R.H)

Mass of water vapour ∈a given volume of air
RH = saturate the same volume of air at that temp .¿ x 100 %
Mass of water vapour needed ¿
R.H is measured with a hygrometer

What is Dynamic equilibrium?

Molecules escaping the surfaces will bounce off the wall and lid and re-enter the liquid. When rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of
condensation.
Then there is dynamic equilibrium.
MIST, FOG, CLOUD AND DEW
1.Mist: suspended water droplets near the Earth’s surface when moist air is cooled below its dew point
2.Fog: similar to mist but thicker and causes less visibility. Can be said to be thick cloud that hangs low
3.Dew: droplets of water that condenses on a cold surface when air is cooled beyond its dew point
4.Cloud: a mass of small water droplets that hang or float high up in the air.
Water vapour is always present in the atmosphere. If a sample of air is cooled, a temperature will be reached when the air
becomes saturated with the water vapour present. This temperature is called the dew point. Dew point is the temperature at which the
water vapour presents in a given volume of air is just enough to saturate it.
Any further cooling below the dew point will cause the excess water vapour to condense into tiny visible droplets called dew. When water
vapour at the dew point comes in contact with objects at a lower temperature, it condenses as visible droplets (dew) on the objects

The conditions favourable for dew formation are:

i. a cloudless sky
ii. absence of wind
iii. a high relative humidity
iv. low temperature
The condensation of water vapour in the air as dew is also responsible for the formation of mist and fog, clouds and rain.
Alternatively, relative humidity is expressed as
s . v . p at dew point
R.H = s . v . p at air temperature x 100 %
Notice that the air temperature may be taken as room temperature.
Dew point can be defined as the temperature at which the water vapour presents in a given volume of air is just enough to saturate it.

Example 1 [WAEC/SSCE 2000]

The mass of water vapour in a given volume of air is 0.05 g at 20 oC, while the mass of water vapour required to saturate it at the same
temperature is 0.15 g. Calculate the relative humidity of the air
Solution

Mass of water vapour ∈a given volume of air

RH = saturate the same volume of air at that temp .¿ x 100 %
Mass of water vapour needed ¿
0.05
RH = x 100
0.15

= 33.3%
Example 2
On a certain day, the average air temperature was 30 oC and the dew point was 8 oC. If the s.v.p of water vapour was 15.6 mmHg at 30 oC
and 9.5 mmHg at 8oC, find the percentage relative humidity of the air.
Solution
s . v . p at dew point
RH = x 100 %
s . v . p at air temperature

R.H = 9.5 x 100%

15.6
= 60.9%
EVALUATION
1. Define vapour pressure
2. What do you understand by relative humidity?
3. Write the mathematical expression for relative humidity
4. Define dew point
5. Briefly explain the formation of dew
6. How much water vapour exists in 105 m3 room on a day when the relative humidity in the room is 32% and the room temperature
is 20 oC? Saturated air at 20 oC contains 17.12 g/m3 water.

GAS LAWS
MEASUREMENT OF GAS PRESSURE
Gas pressure is measured using a manometer.
The height h is called the HEAD of mercury in mmHg or cmHg or mHg

If the height h is above mercury level B as shown above,

P gas=P atm +h (With both Patm and h in mmHg or cmHg or mHg)

P gas=P atm +hρg (With Patm in N/m2 or Pa and h in metre)

But when the height h is below mercury level B,

P gas=P atm−h

P gas=P atm−hρg

EXAMPLE 1: Calculate the pressure exerted by the gas in the manometer above, if
a) Atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg
b) Atmospheric pressure is 1 x 105 N/m2
[Take the density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3 and g = 10 m/s2]
Solution
h = 20 cm = 0.2 m (From the diagram)
a) Expressing the pressure as head of mercury
Let P =H
atm

P gas=P atm +h
P gas = H + h
P gas = 760 mmHg + 20 cmHg
= 760 mmHg + 200 mmHg
= 960 mmHg
b) P gas=P atm +hρg
P gas = 1 x 105 + 0.2 x 13600 x 10
= 100000 + 27200
= 127200 N/m2
= 1.27 x 105 N/m2
Boyle’s law
This states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure provided the temperature remains constant.
1
Symbolically, V∝
P
k
V= (Where K is a constant)
P
PV = k
Alternatively, P1V1 = P2V2
Example 1
At a pressure of 3 atm, a given mass of gas occupies 300 cm3. What volume will it occupy at a pressure of 1 atm? (The temperature
remains constant)
Solution
P1 = 3 atm; V 1 = 300 cm3
P2 = 1 atm; V 2 =?
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2
P V
V2 = 1 1
P2
3 x 300
V2 =
1
V 2 = 900 cm3

Charles’s law
The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature at constant pressure.
VαT
V = kT (k is a constant)
V
=k
T
V1 V2
=
T1 V2
Example 4 [WAEC/SSCE Nov 2017]
A fixed mass of gas of volume 546cm3 at 0 ℃ is heated at constant pressure. Calculate the volume of the gas at 2 ℃
Solution
V 1 = 546cm3
T 1 = 0 ℃ = (273 + 0) = 273 K
V2 = ?
T 2 = 2 ℃ = (273 + 2) = 275 K

V1 V2
=
T1 V2

V1x T2
V 2=
T1
546 x 275
¿
273
= 550 cm 3
Pressure law
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is proportional to its absolute temperature
PαT
P = kT (k is a constant)

The general gas law

This is a combination of the three previously discussed laws. Where,
PV
=k
T

P1V 1 P2V 2
=
T1 T2
Example 5
A vessel is filled with a gas at a temperature 30 ℃ and a pressure of 76 cmHg. Calculate the final pressure if the volume of the gas is
doubled while it is heated to 80 ℃ .
Solution
T 1 = (30℃ ) = (273 + 30) = 303 K
P1 = 76 cmHg
V1 = V
V 2 = 2V
T 2 = 273 + 80 = 353 K
P2 = ?
P1V 1 P2V 2
=
T1 T2
P1 V 1 T 2
P 2=
T1 V 2
76 x V x 353
P 2=
303 x 2 V

76 x 353
P 2=
303 x 2

P2 = 44.27 cmHg
EVALUATION
1. Write the two expressions for measurement of gas pressure in terms of head pressure
2. State Boyle’s law and represent it mathematically
3. A fixed mass of gas of volume 300cm 3 at 800 mmHg is heated at constant temperature. Calculate the pressure of the gas when the
volume is doubled
4. At a pressure of 3 atm, a given mass of gas occupies 300 cm 3. What volume will it occupy at a pressure of 1 atm? (The temperature
remains constant)
5. A given mass of gas has a volume of 600 cm3 at 27 ℃ . What volume will it occupy at 127 ℃ if the pressure is constant? [Ans: 800
3
cm ]
6. Write and explain the general gas law mathematically
WAVES
A wave is a form of disturbance that transmits energy from one point+ to another in the absence of a material medium or through a
material medium without any permanent displacement of the medium.
WAVE MOTION
A wave motion is the movement of a wave transmitting energy due to disturbance in the absence of a material medium or through A
material medium without displacing the medium.
CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES

A. DIRECTION OF VIBRATION RELATIVE TO THE DIRECTION OF MOTION

i) Transverse waves: A transverse wave is the wave in which the direction of vibration of the wave particles is
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave. The highest point in a transverse wave is called a crest;
while the lowest point is a trough.
Examples: Water waves, wave on a stretched string (rope), light waves and other members of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

ii) Longitudinal waves: Here, the direction of vibration of the particles is the same as the direction of motion of the wave.
A longitudinal wave is made up of series of compression and rare-factions (expansions) alternating, corresponding to the crests and
troughs of transverse wave.

Examples: Sound waves and pressure waves in pipes.

B. MEDIUM OF PROPAGATION
a) Mechanical waves: These are waves that travel through a material medium such as air, water, a string, a membrane etc.
Examples are Water waves, sound waves, waves in a string.
b) Electromagnetic waves: These are waves that do not travel through a material medium; rather, they travel though a vacuum. Examples
are radio waves, infra - red, visible light, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma rays.
Notice that all longitudinal waves are mechanical waves; but, not all transverse waves are mechanical waves (e.g electromagnetic waves
are not mechanical waves)

WAVE PROFILE AND TERMINOLOGIES

1. Phase
This is a mode of vibration of a wave in such a way that the particles are at the same level of vibration or disturbance with the same
amplitude and frequency. The following points are in phase: points B, B’ and B”; C, C’ and C”; F, F’ and F”; D, D’ and D” etc
2. Cycle
A motion from one crest to the next or from one trough to the next is a cycle. It is also the motion from one point to the next point in
phase.
3. Amplitude (A)
This is the maximum displacement of the particles from the mean or equilibrium position; when the displacement is not maximum, it is
instantaneous.
4. Wavelength (λ)
This is defined as the distance covered by the wave in one wave cycle. It is also the distance between two successive crests or troughs. It is
also the distance between two successive points in phase.
5. Period (T)
It is the time taken by the wave to cover a distance of one wavelength. It is also the time taken to cover one wave cycle.
6. Frequency (f)
This is the number of cycles performed by the wave in one second. It is also the number of waves passing through a given point per
second. The unit is cycles/second, also known as the hertz (Hz).
1 1
f= & ⇒T=
T f
7. Wave speed (v)
Wave speed is the distance covered by the wave per unit time.
x
v= or
t
v = fλ
Example 1
The frequency of “Wazobia FM” is 95.1 MHz. Calculate the wavelength of the radio wave emanating from the transmitter.
[Take the speed of electromagnetic wave to be 3 x 105 km/s]
Solution
f = 95.1 MHz = 95.1 x 106 Hz
c = 3 x 105 km/s= 3 x 105 x 1000 m/s = 3 x 108 m/s.

c = fλ
8
c 3 x 10
λ= =
f 95.1 x 10 6
λ = 3.15 m
Example 2:
The frequency of a vibrating source is 450 Hz and the velocity of the sound it produces in air is 330 m/s. Find how far the sound travels
when the source completes 50 vibrations.
Solution
In one vibration, the distance travelled by the wave is a wavelength.
From v = fλ
v 330
λ= = =0.73 m
f 450

Distance travelled in 50 vibrations = 50λ

= 50 x 0.73
= 36.5 m

THE PROGRESSIVE WAVE EQUATIONS

The basic sinusoidal wave equation for a wave starting from the origin is:
y = Asinθ - - - - - - - - - - - i
Where y is the vertical instantaneous displacement of the wave from
the equilibrium position
A is the amplitude
θ is the phase angle or angular displacement of the wave.
The rate of change of angular displacement is called angular frequency or angular velocity (ω). Mathematically,
Angular displacement
Angular velocity= in rad/s
time
θ
ω=
t
⇒ θ=ωt
From eqn i,
y = Asinωt - - - - - - - - - - - ii
But ω = 2πf
∴ y = Asin2πft - - - - - - - - - - - iii
1
Using f = and eqn iii,
T
2 πt
y= Asin - - - - - - - - - - - iv
T
v
Using f = and eqn iii
λ
2 πvt
y= Asin -----------v
λ
x
Using v= and eqn v
t
2 πx
y= Asin - - - - - - - - - - - vi
λ
Note: Any of the following is substituted in a wave equation to yield a new one:
x
v=
t

1
f=
T

v
f=
λ
v
λ=
f

Phase difference (α)

A phase difference is always added or subtracted from the phase angle (θ) when the wave did not start from the origin. The basic wave
equation in eqn (i) above becomes:
y = Asin(θ ± α)
y = Asin(ωt± α) - - - - - - - - - - - 1
If the wave is moving to the right, α is negative; if it is moving to the left, it is positive.
Eqn (1) can also be written as
y = Asin(ωt± kx) - - - - - - - - - - - 2
2π
Where α = kx and k =
λ
2 πx
⇒ α=
λ
Where k is the wave number which is defined as the number of waves
over a given distance. k is measured in per metre (m-1);
x is the distance between any two points that are not in
phase along the equilibrium line.
Note:
y = Asin(ωt± kx) is the same as y = Asin( kx ±ωt).
 Using y = Asin(ωt± kx)

(
y= Asin 2 πft ±
2 πx
λ )
(
y= Asin 2 π ft ±
x
λ )
-----------3

1
 From eqn (3) and f =
T
y= Asin 2 π (
t x
T λ
± )
-----------4

v
 From eqn (3) and λ=
f

(
y= Asin 2 π ft ±
fx
v )
-----------5

v
 From eqn (4) and λ=
f
y= Asin 2 π (
t fx
T λ
± )
-----------6

v
 Using f = and eqn 3
λ
y= Asin 2 π (
vt x
λ λ
± )
-----------7

2π
y= Asin ( vt ± x ) - - - - - - - - - - - 8
λ
 From eqn 5

y= Asin 2 πf t ± ( vx ) -----------9

1
 Using f = and eqn 9
T
y= Asin
2π
T
t± ( )
x
v
- - - - - - - - - - - 10

v
 Using f = and eqn 9
λ
y= Asin
2 πv
λ
t±
x
v( ) - - - - - - - - - - - 11

 From eqn 9
y= Asinω t ± ( vx ) - - - - - - - - - - - 12

 From eqn 8
y= Asink ( vt ± x ) - - - - - - - - - - - 13
Example 1 (WAEC/SSCE 2004 modified)
The equation y = 5sin(3x – 4t), where y is in millimeters, x in metres and t in seconds represents a wave motion. Determine the
i. Amplitude
ii. Frequency
iii. Period
iv. Speed of the wave
Solution
y = Asin(α - ωt)
y = Asin(kx - ωt)
By comparison with the given equation y = 5sin(3x – 4t)
i. Amplitude A = 5 mm

ii. ω = 4
2πf = 4
4
f=
2π
2
f = Hz
π
f = 0.637 Hz

1
iii. T=
f

π
T= secs OR
2
1
T=
0.637
T = 1.57 secs

iv. k=3
2π
=3
λ
2π
λ= m
3
22
2x
7 2 x 22
⇒ λ= =
3 3x7
λ=2.095 m
Using v = fλ
2 2π 4
Wave speed v = x =
π 3 3
v = 1.33 m/s
Example 2
A progressive wave equation is represented by
y = Asin2π(0.15t + 0.1x)
Calculate the
(a) Period (b) wave number
Solution
y = Asin(ωt + kx)

(
y= Asin 2 πft +
2 πx
λ )
( xλ )
y= Asin 2 π ft +

y= Asin 2 π ( + )
t x
T λ
From the given equation, y = Asin2π(0.15t + 0.1x)
t
(a) =0.15 t
T
1
=0.15
T
1
T=
0.15
T = 6.67 secs
x
(b) =0.1 x
λ
1
=0.1
λ
1
λ= =10 m
0.1
2π
Wave number k =
λ
22
2x
2π 7
k= =
10 10
2 x 22 44
¿ =
10 x 7 70
k = 0.63 /m
k = 0.63 m-1
Example 3
y = 0.2sin0.80π(x – 90t) represents a wave train in which all the parameters have their usual meaning. What is the
i. Wave velocity
ii. Wavelength
iii. Number of cycles generated per second
Solution
y = Asin(kx - ωt)

y= Asin ( 2 πxλ −2 πft )

v
But f =
λ
y= Asin ( 2 πxλ – 2 πvtλ )
2π
y= Asin ( x−vt )
λ
Comparing with the given equation y = 0.2sin0.80π(x – 90t)
(i) vt = 90t
V = 90 m/s
2π
(ii) =0.8 π
λ
2
=0.8
λ
2
λ= m
0.8
λ=2.5 m
(iii) v = fλ
v 90
f= =
λ 2.5
f = 36 cycles/sec
f = 36 Hz

PROPERTIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVES

1. REFLECTION
This is the bounce back of an advancing waave or wavefront when it encounters an obstacle. For a straight wavefront, the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
2. REFRACTION
This is defined as the change in the direction of a wave as a result of the change in the speed of the wave when it passes from one medium
to another medium of a different density.
Any time a wave moves from one medium to another medium of a different density:
i. The speed will change;
ii. the wavelength will also change;
iii. but the frequency will remain constant.
(Note v α λ, where f is a constant)
3. REFRACTIVE INDEX, N
This is the ratio of the velocity of the wave in the first medium to the second medium
Velocity of the wave∈medium1
n=
Velocity of the wave∈medium2
v1
n=
v2
From v = fλ,
In medium 1, v1 = fλ1
In medium 2, v2 = fλ2
v 1 fλ 1
⇒ n= =
v 2 fλ 2
v1 λ1
n= =
v2 λ2
v1 λ1
∴ n= ∨n=
v2 λ2
Notice that n is always the refractive index of the second medium
4. DIFFRACTION
This is the spreading of a wave when it passes through openings or around obstacles

5. SUPERPOSITION
This is the overlapping of two or more progressive waves travelling either in the same direction, or in opposite direction.

6. INTERFERENCE
This is the overlapping of two or more equal progressive waves having the same frequency and amplitude travelling in the same direction.
There are two types of interference:
(i) Constructive interference (reinforcement)
(ii) Destructive interference (cancellation)
a. Constructive interference is the overlapping of two or more equal progressive waves in phase leading to a large resultant wave of
greater amplitude.
b. Destructive interference is the overlapping of two or more equal progressive waves that are out of phase leading to a cancellation of
the waves.
7. POLARISATION OR PLANE POLARISATION (ONLY FOR TRANSVERSE WAVES)
This is a process in which a wave is constrained to vibrate in only one plane or in a particular direction.
Methods of polarisation
1. The use of polarisers such as polaroid, quartz and tourmaline crystals.
2. Reflection
3. Scattering from a suspension of small particles
4. Double refraction
Applications of polarisers or polarisation
1) In sunglasses to reduce the intensity of incident sunlight
2) For elimination of glare (unwanted reflected light) from shiny surfaces
3) In windows of cars, trains and aeroplane to control the intensity of light going in
STATIONARY OR STANDING WAVE
This results from the superposition of two equal progressive waves travelling in opposite direction as a result of reflection.

λ
¿ N−N =
2
λ
A−A=
2
λ
N− A=
4

In a stationary wave, there are nodes (N) and antinodes (A)

(i) Node(N): This is a point on a stationary wave where there is no motion
(ii) Antinode (A): This is a point where there is maximum motion on a stationary wave.
LIGHT WAVES
SOURCES OF LIGHT
i. Luminous objects such as the sun, stars, fireflies, candles, electric bulbs produce their own light.
ii. Non-luminous objects do not produce their own light. They are seen by the light they reflect e.g. the moon, the earth, mirror
etc.
TYPES OF MATERIALS
i. Transparent materials transmit a large proportion of light falling on them e.g. water, glass etc.
ii. Translucent materials allow light to pass through them but scatter it on the way. We cannot see through a translucent
materials such as frosted glass and waxed paper
iii. Opaque materials absorb and reflect light falling on them; they never transmit light.
RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT AND APPLICATIONS
This is a phenomenon in which light travels from one place to another in a straight line. The applications include:
1. SHADOWS
Shadows result when light falls on opaque objects. Shadow could be made up of purely a dark region called umbra; or, a dark region (the
umbra) surrounded by an outer grey region called penumbra.
Umbra is referred to as the total shadow; while penumbra is the partial shadow.

2. ECLIPSE
i. Eclipse of the sun
ii. Annular eclipse of the sun
iii. Eclipse of the moon
i) Eclipse of the sun or solar eclipse
This occurs when the moon comes between the sun and the earth casting a shadow on the earth. If the shadow of the moon falls on the
area we are living, light from the sun is cut off and we experience total darkness.
It is total darkness for people in the umbra area of the shadow and partial eclipse for those in the penumbra area.

ii) Annular eclipse of the sun

Sometimes, the distance of the moon from the earth is such that the tip of the umbra misses the earth. Under this condition, no eclipse
can occur though the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line.

iii) Eclipse of the moon or lunar eclipse

This occurs when the earth comes between the sun and the moon casting a shadow on the moon.

3. PINHOLE CAMERA
This is a light – tight box painted black inside with a small hole on one of the sides. Opposite this hole is a tracing paper or frosted glass
acting as the screen. When the hole is directed on an object, an inverted image of the object is formed on the screen.
Effect of enlarging the hole
If the hole is larger than a pinhole, the image formed is brighter, but blurred
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in
the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

Image formation in a plane mirror

The eye sees the image in the mirror by the reflection of rays coming from the object on
hitting the mirror surface. The reflected rays apparently appear to the eye E, to be coming
from the image at a point I behind the mirror. The distance OM = IM.
No rays of light actually come from a point I behind the mirror. The image formed is known as
a virtual image.
A virtual image is an image that is not formed by the intersection of actual rays and cannot be captured on a screen.
A real image is an image that is formed by the intersection of actual rays and can be formed on a screen.
Characteristics of image formed by plane mirror
1. It is the same size as the object (magnification = 1)
2. Image distance behind the mirror is equal to the object distance in front
3. The image is upright
4. It is virtual
5. It is laterally inverted. Example of lateral inversion:

INCLINED MIRRORS
If two plane mirrors are inclined at θ, the number of images formed is:
360
n= −1
θ

Example 1
Find the number of images formed when two mirrors are perpendicular to each other.
Solution
θ = 90o (condition for perpendicularity)
360
n= −1
90
=4–1
= 3 images

APPLICATIONS OF REFLECTION IN PLANE MIRROR

1. The kaleidoscope6
2. The periscope7
3. Mirror galvanometer8
4. In a sextant9
5. As a dressing mirror

REFLECTION IN CURVED OR SPHERICAL MIRRORS

A curved mirror could be a concave or convex mirror
SOME TERMINOLOGIES
i. The pole (P)
This is the centre of the reflecting surface of the curved mirror
ii. The centre of curvature (C)
This is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part. For a concave mirror, it is at the front; for a convex mirror, it is
behind.
iii. The radius of curvature (r)
It is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part. It is also the distance from C to P.
iv. The principal axis
This is an imaginary line joining the pole (P) to the centre of curvature (C)
v. The principal focus (F)
This is a point on the principal axis to which all rays parallel and close to the principal axis converge, or from which they appear
to diverge after reflection. The principal focus is midway between the pole and the centre of curvature.
A concave mirror has a real principal focus; while a convex mirror has a virtual principal focus.
vi. The focal length(f)
This is the distance from the pole to the principal focus. It is one-half the radius of curvature, i.e.

9
r
f=
2

FORMATION OF IMAGES BY CONCAVE MIRROR

1. Object between P and F

The image formed is

i. Erect
ii. Virtual
iii. Magnified
iv. Behind the mirror
2. Object at F

The image is
i. At infinity

3. Object between F and C

The image is
i. Real
ii. Inverted
iii. Magnified
iv. Beyond C

4. Object at C

The image is
i. Real
ii. At C
iii. Inverted
iv. Same size as the object

5. Object beyond C

The image is
i. Real
ii. Inverted
iii. Between C and F
iv. Diminished

6. Object at infinity

The image is
i. Real
ii. Inverted
iii. Diminished
iv. At F

Formation of image by convex mirror

For all positions of the object, the image is

i. Virtual
ii. Erect
iii. Diminished
iv. Between P and F

Application: As a car driving mirror due to its dual advantages of

a. Forming erect images
b. Having a wide field of view
MIRROR FORMULA
1 1 1
= +
f u v
Where:
f = Focal length
u = Object distance
v = Image distance

Example 1
A concave mirror produces a real image 1 cm tall of an object 2.5 mm tall placed 5 cm from the mirror. Find the position of the image
formed and the focal length of the mirror.
Solution
image height image distance
Magnification= =
object height object distance
hi v
¿ =
ho u
1 v
¿ =
0.25 5
5
v=
0.25

∴ v=20 cm (real image)

But u = 5 cm
1 1 1
Using= +
f u v
1 1 1
= +
f 5 20
1 1
=
f 4
f = 4 cm (real focus)

Example 2
A concave mirror of radius of curvature 20 cm produces an inverted image 3 times the size of an object placed on a perpendicular to the
axis. Calculate the positions of the object and the image
Solution
r
f=
2
20
f = =10 cm
2
v v
m= ⇒ 3=
u u
v = 3u cm

1 1 1
Using = +
f u v
1 1 1
= +
10 u 3 u
1 4
=
10 3 u
3u = 4 x 10
4 x 10 40
u= =
3 3
1
∴ u=13 ∨13.3 cm
3
From v = 3u
1
v = 3 x 13
3
40
=3x
3
v = 40 cm

Example 3
An object is placed 15 cm in front of a convex mirror and an image is produced 5 cm behind the mirror. Calculate the focal length of the
mirror.
Solution
u = 15 cm (real object)
v = -5 cm (virtual image, always)
1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = −
f 15 −5 f 15 5
1 −2 −15
= ⇒f =
f 15 2
f = -7.5 cm (virtual focus)
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
LAWS OF REFRACTION
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant called
sin i
refractive index for a given pair of media. =n
sin r
For light travelling from air to glass,

sine of angle of incidence ∈air

n¿
a g
sine of angle of refraction ∈glass

For light travelling from glass to air

sine of angle of incidence ∈glass
n¿
g a
sine of angle of refraction ∈air
⇒gna = 1
n
a g

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

When light passes from optically dense medium to a less dense medium,
the refracted ray is displaced from the normal while there is a weak reflected ray in the denser medium.
At a certain critical angle of incidence, the angle of refraction is 90 o as shown in diagram (ii) above. Beyond this critical angle there will be a
total reflection of the incident ray back into the denser medium.

Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium in which the angle of refraction in the less dense medium is 90o.
Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of the incident ray back to the denser medium for a ray of light travelling from a denser
medium to a less dense medium when the critical angle of incidence is exceeded.

Conditions for total internal reflection to occur

i. Light must be travelling from optically denser medium to a less dense medium
ii. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle
Relationship between critical angle and refractive index
1
n=
sin c
Where n is the refractive index of the dense medium; and c is the critical angle

Applications of total internal reflection

i. Optical fibre in telecommunication
ii. Optical fibre in medicine (the endoscope)
iii. In the destruction of tumours10.
iv. In periscopes and binoculars

Example [JAMB 1995]

What is the approximate critical angle for total internal reflection for diamond if the refractive index of diamond is 2.42?
Solution
For a ray moving from diamond to air,
1
n= (Where n is the refractive index of the dense medium)
sin c
1
sin c=
n
1
sin c=
2.42
sin c = 0.4132
c = sin-1 0.4132

10
LASER beam can be aimed at a tumour through an optic fibre cable
c = 24.4o
EVALUATION
1. State the two (2) laws of refraction
2. Define critical angle
3. Define total internal reflection
4. State the conditions necessary for total internal reflection to occur
5. Write the relationship between critical angle and refractive index for a ray of light passing from glass to air
6. List three (3) applications of total internal reflection
ASSIGNMENT
1. The refractive index of a medium relative to air is 1.8. Calculate the critical angle for the medium to the nearest degree
2. Calculate the critical angle of a medium of refractive index 1.65 when light passes from the medium to air
3. Calculate the critical angle for light travelling from water to air. [Refractive index of water = 1.33] If the refractive index of a
medium is√ 2, what is the critical angle?