Analysis & Design of Semester 4

Algorithms
Course Code BCS401 CIE Marks 50
Teaching 3:0:0:0 SEE Marks 50
Hours/Week (L:
T:P: S)
Total Hours of 40 Total Marks 100
Pedagogy
Credits 03 Exam Hours 03
Examination type (SEE) Theory

Course objectives:
To learn the methods for analyzing algorithms and evaluating their performance.
To demonstrate the efficiency of algorithms using asymptotic notations.
To solve problems using various algorithm design methods, including brute force,
greedy, divide and conquer, decrease and conquer, transform and conquer, dynamic
programming, backtracking, and branch and bound.
To learn the concepts of P and NP complexity classes.

Teaching-Learning Process (General Instructions)

These are sample Strategies, which teachers can use to accelerate the attainment of the
various course outcomes.
1. Lecturer method (L) does not mean only the traditional lecture method, but
different types of teaching methods may be adopted to achieve the outcomes.
2. Utilize video/animation films to illustrate the functioning of various concepts.
3. Promote collaborative learning (Group Learning) in the class.
4. Pose at least three HOT (Higher Order Thinking) questions in the class to stimulate
critical thinking.
5. Incorporate Problem-Based Learning (PBL) to foster students' analytical skills and
develop their ability to evaluate, generalize, and analyze information rather than merely
recalling it.
6. Introduce topics through multiple representations.
7. Demonstrate various ways to solve the same problem and encourage students to
devise their own creative solutions.
8. Discuss the real-world applications of every concept to enhance students'
comprehension.

Module-1
INTRODUCTION: What is an Algorithm?, Fundamentals of Algorithmic Problem
Solving.
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHM EFFICIENCY:
Analysis Framework, Asymptotic Notations and Basic Efficiency Classes, Mathematical
Analysis of Non recursive Algorithms, Mathematical Analysis of Recursive Algorithms.
BRUTE FORCE APPROACHES: Selection Sort and Bubble Sort, Sequential Search
and Brute Force String Matching.
Chapter 1 (Sections 1.1,1.2), Chapter 2(Sections 2.1,2.2,2.3,2.4), Chapter 3(Section
3.1,3.2)
LectureNotes|BCS401–DAA|Module1: Introduction

Module-1:Introduction

1.1 Introduction
What is an Algorithm?
Algorithm: An algorithm is a finite sequence of un ambiguous instructions to solve a particular
problem

Characteristics of algorithm

● Input: Zero or more quantities are externally supplied.

● Output: Atleast one quantity is produced.

● Definiteness: Each instruction is clear and unambiguous. It must be perfectly clear what
should be done.
● Finiteness: If we trace out the instruction of an algorithm ,then for all cases, the algorithm
terminates after a finite number of steps.
Effectiveness. Every instruction must be very basic so that it can be carried out, in principle, by a
person using only pencil and paper. It is not enough that each operation be definite as in criterion c; it
also must be feasible

Algorithm Specification
An algorithm can be specified in
1) Simple English
2) Graphical representation like flowchart
3) Programming language like c++/java
4) Combination of above methods.
Steps for writing an algorithm:
1. An algorithm is a procedure. It has two parts; the first part is head and the second part is
body.
2. The Head section consists of keyword Algorithm and Name of the algorithm with
Parameter list E.g. Algorithm name1(p1,p2,…,p3)
The head section also has the following:
//Problem Description:

//Input:

//Output:

3. In the body of algorithm various programming constructs like if, for ,while and some
statements like assignments are used.
4. The compound statements may been closed with{and} brackets.if,for,while can be closed
by end if, end for, end while respectively. Proper indention is must for block.
5. Comments are written using//at the beginning.
6. Theidentifiershouldbeginbyaletterandnotbydigit.Itcontainsalphanumericletters after first
letter. No need to mention data types.
7. Theleftarrow“←”usedasassignmentoperator.E.g.v←10
8. Booleanoperators(TRUE,FALSE),Logicaloperators(AND,OR,NOT)andRelational
operators(<,<=,>,>=,=,≠,<>)arealsoused.
9. Inputand Outputcanbe doneusing readandwrite.
10. Array[],ifthen elsecondition,branchandloopcanbealsousedinalgorithm.

Example:
The greatest common divisor(GCD) of two non negative integers m and n (not-both-zero),
denoted gcd(m, n), is defined as the largest integer that divides both m and n evenly, i.e., with a
remainder of zero.
Euclid’s algorithm is based on applying repeatedly the equality gcd(m, n) = gcd(n, m mod n),
where m mod n is the remainder of the division of m by n, until m mod n is equal to 0.Sincegcd(m,
0) = m, the last value of m is also the greatest common divisor of the initial m and n.

gcd(60,24)can be computed as follows: gcd(60,24)=gcd(24,12)=gcd(12,0)=12.

Euclid’s algorithm for computing gcd(m,n)

Step 1: Ifn=0,=return the value of m as the answer and stop; otherwise, proceed to
Step 2.
Step2:Divide m by n and assign the value of the remainder or.
Step3: Assign the value of n to m and the value of r to n. Goto Step1. Alternatively, we
can express the same algorithm in pseudocode:

Consecutiv
e integer checking algorithm for computing gcd(m,n)

Step1 :Assign the value of min{m,n}to t.

Step2: Divide m by t.If the remainder of this division is 0, go to Step 3; otherwise, go
to Step 4.
Step3: Divide n by t.If the remainder of this division is 0,
return the value of T as the answer and stop;
otherwise,proceed to Step4.
Step4: Decrease the value of t by 1.Goto Step 2.
Note that unlike Euclid’s algorithm, this algorithm, in the form presented, does not
work correctly when one of its input numbers is zero. This example
illustrateswhyitissoimportanttospecifythesetofanalgorithm’sinputsexplicitly and carefully.

1.2FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGORITHMIC PROBLEM SOLVING

A sequence of steps involved in designing and analyzing an algorithm is shown in the figure
below.

FIGURE1.2Algorithmdesignandanalysis process.

(i) Understanding the Problem

● This is the first step in designing of algorithm.

● Read the problem’s description carefully to understand the problem statement completely.

● Ask questions for clarifying the doubts about the problem.

● Identify the problem types and use existing algorithm to find solution.

● Input(instance)to the problem and range of the input get fixed.

(ii) Decision making

The Decision making is done on the following:
(a) As certaining the Capabilities of the Computational Device
● In random-access machine (RAM), instructions areexecuted one after another (The
central assumption is that one operation at a time). Accordingly, algorithmsdesigned
to be executed on such machines are called sequential algorithms.
● In some newer computers, operations are executed concurrently, i.e., in parallel.
Algorithms that take advantage of this capability are called parallel algorithms.
● ChoiceofcomputationaldeviceslikeProcessorandmemoryismainlybasedon
Space and time efficiency
(b) Choosing between Exact and Approximate Problem Solving
● Then ext principal decision is to choose between solving the problem exactly or
solving it approximately.
● An algorithm used to solve the problem exactly and produce correct result is called
an exact algorithm.
● If the problem is so complex and not able to get exact solution, then we have to
choose an algorithm called an approximation algorithm .i.e., produces an
approximate answer. E.g., extracting square roots, solving nonlinear equations, and
evaluating definite integrals.
(c) Algorithm Design Techniques
● An algorithm design technique (or “strategy” or “paradigm”) is a general approach
to solving problems algorithmically that is applicable to a variety of problems from
different areas of computing.
Algorithms+DataStructures=Programs
●

● Though Algorithms and Data Structures are independent, but they are combined
together to develop program. Hence the choice of proper data structure is required
before designing the algorithm.
● Implementation of algorithm is possible only with the help of Algorithms and Data
Structures
● Algorithmic strategy / technique / paradigm are a general approach by which
many problems can be solved algorithmically. E.g., Brute Force, Divide and
Conquer, Dynamic Programming, Greedy Technique and so on.

(iii) Methods of Specifying an Algorithm

There are three ways to specify an algorithm.They are:

a. Natural language
b. Pseudocode
c. Flowchart

Algorithm Specification

Natural Language Pseudocode Flowchart

FIGURE1.3Algorithm Specifications

Pseudocode and flowchart are the two options that are most widely used nowadays for specifying
algorithms.

a. Natural Language
It is very simple and easy to specify an algorithm using natural language. But many times
specification of algorithm by using natural language is not clear and thereby we get brief
specification.
Example: An algorithm to perform addition of two numbers.
Step1:Read the first number, say a.
Step2: Read the first number, say b.
Step3:Add the above two numbers and store the result in c. Step
4: Display the result from c.
Such a specification creates difficulty while actually implementing it. Hence many programmers
prefer to have specification of algorithm by means of Pseudocode.
b. Pseudocode
● Pseudocode is a mixture of a natural language and programming language constructs.
Pseudocode is usually more precise than natural language.
● For Assignment operation left arrow “←”, for comments two slashes “//”,if condition, for,
while loops are used.

ALGORITHM Sum(a,b)

//Problem Description: This algorithm performs addition of two numbers

//Input: Two integers a and b
//Output: Addition of two integers
c←a+b
returnc

This specification is more useful for implementation of any language.

c. Flowchart
In the earlier days of computing, the dominant method for specifying algorithms was a flowchart,
this representation technique has proved to be inconvenient.
Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. Itis a a method of expressing an algorithm
by a collection of connected geometric shapes containing descriptions of the algorithm’s steps.
(iv) Proving an Algorithm’s Correctness

● Once an algorithm has been specified t then its correctness must be proved.

● An algorithm must yields a required result for every legitimate input in a finite amount of
time.
● For example, the correctness of Euclid’s algorithm for computing the greatest common
Divisors terms from the correctness of the equality gcd(m,n)= gcd(n ,m mod n).

● A common technique for proving correctness is to use mathematical induction because an

algorithm’s iterations provide a natural sequence of steps needed for such proofs.
● The notion of correctness for approximation algorithms is less straightforward than it is for
exact algorithms. The error produced by the algorithm should not exceed a pre defined
limit.

(v) Analyzing an Algorithm

● For an algorithm the most important is efficiency. In fact, there are two kinds of algorithm
efficiency. They are:
● Time efficiency: indicating how fast the algorithm runs, and

● Space efficiency: indicating how much extra memory it uses.

● The efficiency of an algorithm is determined by measuring both time efficiency and space
efficiency.
● Sof factors to analyze an algorithm are:

▪ Time efficiency of an algorithm

▪ Space efficiency of an algorithm

▪ Simplicity of an algorithm

▪ Generality of an algorithm

(vi) Coding an Algorithm

● The coding / implementation of an algorithm is done by a suitable programming
languagelike C, C++, JAVA.
● The transition from an algorithm to a program can be done either incorrectly or very
inefficiently. Implementing an algorithm correctly is necessary. The Algorithm power
should not reduced by inefficient implementation.
● Standard tricks like computing a loop’s invariant (an expression that does not change its
value) outside the loop, collecting common subexpressions, replacing expensive operations
by cheap ones, selection of programming language and so on should be known to the
programmer.
● Typically, such improvements can speed up a program only by a constant factor, whereas a
better algorithm can make a difference in running time by orders of magnitude. But once
an algorithm is selected, a 10–50% speedup may be worth an effort.
● It is very essential to write an optimized code (efficient code) to reduce the burden of
compiler.
Review Questions
1.What is an algorithm?
2.What are the 3 methods of specifying an algorithm
3.List the steps involved in fundamentals of problem solving?

1.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF THE ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHM EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of an algorithm can be in terms of time and space. The algorithm efficiency
can be analyzed by the following ways.
a. Analys is Framework.
b. A symptotic Notations and its properties.
c. Mathematical analysis for Recursive algorithms.
d. Mathematical analysis for Non- recursive algorithms.

Analysis Framework
There are two kinds of efficiencies to analyze the efficiency of any algorithm. They are:
● Time efficiency, indicating how fast the algorithm runs, and

● Space efficiency, indicating how much extra memory it uses.

The algorithm analys is frame work consists of the following:

● Measuring an Input’s Size

● Units for Measuring Running Time

● Orders of Growth

● Worst-Case, Best-Case, and Average - Case Efficiencies

(i) Measuring an Input’s Size

● An algorithm’s efficiency is defined as a function of some parameter n indicating the
algorithm’s input size. In most cases, selecting such a parameter is quite straight forward.
For example, it will be the size of the list for problems of sorting, searching.
● For the problem of evaluating a polynomial p(x) = anxn+ . . . + a0 of degree n, the size of the
parameter will be the polynomial’s degree or the number of its coefficients, which is larger
by 1 than its degree.
● In computing the product of two n × n matrices, the choice of a parameter indicating an
input size does matter.
● Consider a spell-checking algorithm. If the algorithm examines individual characters of its
input, then the size is measured by the number of characters.
● In measuring input size for algorithms solving problems such as checking primality of a
positive integer n. the input is just one number.
● The input size by the number b of bits in the n’s binary representation is b=(log2n)+1.
(ii) Units for Measuring Running Time
Some standard unit of time measurement such as a second, or millisecond, and so on can be
used to measure the running time of a program after implementing the algorithm.
Drawbacks
● Dependence on the speed of a particular computer.

● Dependence on the quality of a program implementing the algorithm.

● The compiler used in generating the machine code.

● The difficulty of clocking the actual running time of the program.

So,we need metric to measure an algorithm’s efficiency that does not depend on these
Extraneous factors.
One possible approach is to count the number of times each of the algorithm’s operations
Is executed.This approach Is excessively difficult.
The most important operation (+, -, *, /) of the algorithm, called the basic operation.
Computing the number of times the basic operation is executed is easy. The total running time is
determined by basic operations count.

Orders of Growth
● A difference in running times on small inputs is not what really distinguishes efficient
algorithms from inefficient ones.
● For example, the greatest common divisor of two small numbers, it is not immediately clear
how much more efficient Euclid’s algorithm is compared to the other algorithms, the
difference in algorithm efficiencies becomes clear for larger numbers only.
● For large values of n, it is the function’s order of growth that counts just like the Table1.1,
Which contains values of a few functions particularly important for analysis of algorithms.

TABLE1.1Values(approximate)of several functions important for analysis of algorithms

n √𝑛 log2 n n n 2 n 3 2n n!
n log2n
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 1
2 1.4 1 2 2 4 4 4 2
4 2 2 4 8 16 64 16 24
8 2.8 3 8 2.4•101 64 5.1•102 2.6•102 4.0•104
10 3.2 3.3 10 3.3•101 102 103 103 3.6•106
16 4 4 16 6.4•101 2.6•102 4.1•103 6.5•104 2.1•1013
102 10 6.6 102 6.6•102 104 106 1.3•1030 9.3•10157
103 31 10 103 1.0•104 106 109
104 102 13 104 1.3•105 108 1012 Very
105 3.2•10 17 105 1.7•106 1010 1015 big
2 computati
12 18 on
106 103 20 106 2.0•107 10 10

(iii) Worst-Case, Best- Case, and Average-Case Efficiencies

Consider Sequential Search algorithm some search key K

Clearly, the running time of this algorithm can be quite different

for the same list size n.

In the worst case, there is no matching of elements or the first matching element can found
at last on the list. In the best case, there is matching of elements at first on the list.

Worst-case efficiency

● The worst-case efficiency of an algorithm is its efficiency for the worst case input of size n.

● The algorithm runs the longest among all possible inputs of that size.

● For the input of size n, the running time is Cworst(n)=n.

Best case efficiency

● The best-case efficiency of an algorithm is its efficiency for the best case input of size n.

● The algorithm runs the fastest among all possible inputs of that size n.

● In sequential search, If we search a first element in list of size n. (i.e. first element equal toa
search key),then the running time is Cbest(n) = 1

Average case efficiency

● The Average case efficiency lies between best case and worst case.

● To analyze the algorithm’s average case efficiency, we must make some assumptions about
Possible inputs of size n.
● The standard assumptions are that
o The probability of a successfull search is equal top (0≤ p≤ 1)and
o The probability of the first match occurring in the I th position of the list is the same
for every i.
Yet another type of efficiency is called a mortised efficiency. It applies not to a single run of
an algorithm but rather to a sequence of operations performed on the same data structure.

1.4ASYMPTOTIC NOTATIONS AND ITS PROPERTIES

A symptotic notation is a notation, which is used to take meaningful statement about the
efficiency of a program.
The efficiency analysis frame work concentrates on the order of growth of an algorithm’s
basic operation count as the principal indicator of the algorithm’s efficiency.
To compare and rank such orders of growth, computer scientists use three notations, they
are:
● O-Big oh notation

● Ω-Big omega notation

● Θ-Big theta notation

Let t(n)and g(n)can be any non negative functions defined on these to f natural numbers.
The algorithm’s running time t(n)usually indicated by its basic operation count C(n),and g(n),
Some simple function to compare with the count.

Example1:

Whereg(n)=n2

(i) O-Big oh notation

A function t(n) is said to be in O(g(n)), denoted 𝑡 (𝑛)∈𝑂(𝑔(𝑛)), if t (n) is bounded above by
some constant multiple of g(n) for all large n, i.e., if there exist some positive constant c and some
nonnegative integer n0 such that
(𝑛)≤𝑐𝑔(𝑛)𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑛≥𝑛0.
Wheret(n)andg(n)arenonnegativefunctionsdefinedonthesetofnaturalnumbers. O =
Asymptotic upper bound = Useful for worst case analysis = Loose bound

FIGURE1.5Big-ohnotation: (𝑛)∈𝑂(𝑔(𝑛)).
Example2: Provetheassertions100𝑛+5∈(𝑛2).

Proof: 100n+5≤100n+ n (forall n≥5)

=101n
≤101n2(Ӭ𝑛≤𝑛2)
Since, the definition gives us a lot of freedom in choosing specific values for constants c
And n0. We have c=101 and n0=5
Example3: Prove the assertions 100 𝑛+5∈(𝑛).

Proof: 100n+5≤100n+ 5n (foralln≥1)

=105n
i.e., 100n+5≤105n
i.e., t(n)≤ cg(n)
ӫ100𝑛+5∈(𝑛)with c=105andn0=1

(ii) Ω-Big omega notation

A function t(n) is said to be in Ω(g(n)), denoted t(n) ∈ Ω(g(n)), if t(n) is bounded below by
some positive constant multiple of g(n) for all large n, i.e., if there exist some positive constant c
and some nonnegative integer n0 such that
t(n)≥cg(n) for all n ≥ n0.
Wheret(n)andg(n)arenonnegativefunctionsdefinedonthesetofnaturalnumbers.
Ω=A symptotic lower bound=Useful for best case analysis= Loose bound

Ω=A symptotic lower bound=Useful for best case analysis= Loose bound

FIGURE1.6 Big-omega notation: t(n)∈Ω(g(n)).

Example4: Prove the assertions n3+10n2+4n+2∈Ω(n2).

Proof:n3+10n2+4n+2≥n2 (for all n≥0)

i.e.,by definition (n)≥cg(n),where c=1and n0=0

(iii) Θ-Big theta notation

A function (n)is said to be in Θ(g(n)), denoted t(n)∈ Θ(g(n)),Ift(n)is bounded both above
and below by some positive constant multiples of g(n) for all large n, i.e., if there exist some
positive constants c1 and c2 and some nonnegative integer n0 such that
c2g(n)≤ t (n) ≤c1g(n)for all n≥ n0.
Where t(n)and g(n)are non negative functions defined on these to f natural numbers.
Θ=A symptotic tight bound =Useful for average case analysis

FIGURE1.7 Big- theta notation :t(n)∈Θ(g(n)).

Useful Property Involving the Asymptotic Notations

The following property, in particular, is useful in analyzing algorithms that comprise two
consecutively executed parts.

THEOREM:Ift1(n)∈O(g1(n))andt2(n)∈O(g2(n)),thent1(n)+t2(n)∈O(max{g1(n),g2(n)}). (The
analogous assertions are true for the Ω and Θ notations as well.)

PROOF: The proof extends to orders of growth the following simple fact about four arbitrary real
numbers a1, b1, a2, b2: if a1 ≤ b1 and a2 ≤ b2, then a1 + a2 ≤ 2 max{b1, b2}.
Since t1(n) ∈O(g1(n)), there exist some positive constant c1 and some non negative integern1
such that
t1(n)≤ c1g1(n)for all n ≥n1.
Similarly,sincet2(n)∈O(g2(n)),
t2(n)≤ c2g2(n)for all n ≥n2.
Let us denote c3=max{c1,c2}and consider ≥max{n1,n2}so that we can use both
inequalities. Adding them yields the following:
t1(n)+t2(n) ≤c1g1(n)+c2g2(n)
≤c3g1(n)+c3g2(n)
=c3[g1(n)+g2(n)]
≤c32max{g1(n), g2(n)}.

Hence,t1(n)+t2(n)∈O(max{g1(n),g2(n)}),with the constants can d n0 required by the definition

O being 2c3 = 2 max{c1, c2} and max{n1, n2}, respectively.
The property implies that the algorithm’s overall efficiency will be determined by the part
With a higher order of growth, i.e. ,its least efficient part.
ӫt1(n)∈O(g1(n))andt2(n)∈O(g2(n)),thent1(n)+t2(n)∈ O(max{g1(n),g2(n)}).

Review Questions:
1.what does Time and space efficiency indicate?
2.Write A symptotic notations and its properties
3.What is the running time in worst case, best case, and average case?
1.5 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS FOR NON-RECURSIVE ALGORITHMS

General Plan for Analyzing the Time Efficiency of Non recursive Algorithms
1. Decide on a parameter(or parameters)indicating an input’s size.
2. Identify the algorithm’s basic operation(in the inner most loop).
3. Check whether the number of times the basic operation is executed depends only on the size
of an input. If it also depends on some additional property, the worst-case, average-case,
and, if necessary, best-case efficiencies have to be investigated separately.
4. Setup a sum expressing the number of times the algorithm’s basic operation is executed.
5. Using standard formulas and rules of sum manipulation either find a closed form formula
for the count or at the least, establish its order of growth.

EXAMPLE 1: Consider the problem of finding the value of the largest element in a list of n
numbers. Assume that the list is implemented as an array for simplicity.
ALGORITHM Max Element(A[0..n−1])

//Determines the value of the largest element in a given array

//Input: An array A[0..n−1] of real numbers
//Output: The value of the largest element in A
Max val ←A[0]
For i ←1 to n −1 do

If A[i]> max val

Max val← A[i]

Return max val

Algorithm analysis
● The measure of an input’s size here Is the number of elements in the array, i.e., n.

● There are two operations in the for loop’s body:

o The comparison A[i]>max val and
o The assignment max val←A[i].

● The comparison operation is considered as the algorithm’s basic operation, because the
comparison is executed on each repetition of the loop and not the assignment.
● The number of comparisons will be the same for all arrays of size n; therefore, there is no
need to distinguish among the worst, average, and best cases here.
● Let C(n) denotes the number of times this comparison is executed. The algorithm makes
one comparison on each execution of the loop, which is repeated for each value of the
loop’s variable i within the bounds 1 and n − 1, inclusive. Therefore, the sum for C(n) is
calculated as follows:

EXAMPLE2: Consider the element uniqueness problem: check whether all the Elements in a
given array of n elements are distinct.

ALGORITHM Unique Elements(A[0..n−1])

//Determines whether all the elements in a given array are distinct

//Input: An array A[0..n−1]
//Output: Returns “true” I fall the elements in A are distinct and “false” otherwise
For i ←0 to n −2 do

For j ←i +1 to n −1 do

If A[i]=A[j] return false

return true

Algorithm analysis

● The natural measure of the input’s size here is a gain n (the number of elements in the array).

● Sincetheinnermostloopcontainsasingleoperation(thecomparisonoftwoelements),we
Should consider it as the algorithm’s basic operation.

● The number of element comparisons depends not only on n but also on whether there are
equal elements in the array and, if there are, which array positions they occupy. We will
limit our investigation to the worst case only.
● One comparison is made for each repetition of the innermost loop, i.e., for each value of the
loop variable j between its limits i + 1 and n − 1; this is repeated for each value of the outer
loop, i.e., for each value of the loop variable i between its limits 0 and n − 2.
EXAMPLE3: Consider matrix multiplication. Given two n× n matrices A and B, find the time
efficiency of the definition-based algorithm for computing their product C=AB. By definition, C
is an n×n matrix whose elements are computed as the scalar(dot)products of the rows of matrix A
and the columns of matrix B:

whereC[i,j]=A[i,0]B[0,j]+...+A[i,k]B[k,j]+...+A[i,n−1]B[n−1,j]forevery pairof indices 0 ≤ i, j ≤ n −

1.

ALGORITHM Matrix Multiplication(A[0..n−1,0..n−1],B[0..n−1,0..n−1])

//Multiplies two square matrices of order n by the definition-based algorithm
//Input: Two n×n matrices A and B
//Output: Matrix C=AB
For i ←0 to n −1 do

For j ←0to n −1 do

C[i, j]←0.0
fork←0 to n − 1 do

C[i,j]←C[i,j ]+A[i, k]∗B[k, j]

Return C
Algorithm analysis

● An input’s size is matrix order n.

● There are two arithmetical operations (multiplication and addition) in the innermost loop.
But we consider multiplication as the basic operation.
● Let us set up a sum for the total number of multiplications M(n) executed by the algorithm.
Since this count depends only on the size of the input matrices, we do not have to
investigate the worst-case, average-case, and best-case efficiencies separately.
● There is just one multiplication executed on each repetition of the algorithm’s innermost
loop, which is governed by the variable k ranging from the lower bound 0 to the upper
bound n − 1.
● Therefore, the number of multiplications made for every pair of specific values of variables
i and j is
ThetotalnumberofmultiplicationsM(n)isexpressedbythefollowingtriplesum:

Now, we can compute this sum by using formula(S1) and rule (R1)

The running time of the algorithm on a particular machine m, we can do it by the product

If we consider, time spent on the additions too, then the total time on the machine is

EXAMPLE 4 : The following algorithm finds the number of binary digits in the binary
representation of a positive decimal integer.

ALGORITHM Binary(n)

//Input: A positive decimal integer n

//Output: The number of binary digits in n’s binary representation
count ←1
While n>1do

count←count+1
n←𝖫n/2]
return count

Algorithm analysis
● An input’s size is n.

● The loop variable takes on only a few values between its lower and upper limits.

● Since the value of n is about halved one achrepetition of the loop, the answer should be
about log2 n.
● The exact formula for the number of times.

● The comparison 𝑛>1willbeexecutedisactually𝖫log2n]+1.

Review Questions

1.Consider the element uniqueness problem. Check whether all the elements in a given array of n
elements are distinct

2.Consider matrix multiplication . Given t won× n matrices A and B, find the time efficiency of the
definition-based algorithm for computing their product C=AB.B y definition ,C

is an n×n matrix whose elements are computed as the scalar (dot)products of the rows of matrix A and
the columns of matrix B:
3.write an algorithm for finding the value of the largest element in a list of n numbers. Assume that
the list is implemented as an array for simplicity

1.5MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS FOR RECURSIVE ALGORITHMS

General Plan for Analyzing the Time Efficiency of Recursive Algorithms
6. Decide on a parameter(or parameters)indicating an input’s size.
7. Identifythealgorithm’sbasic operation.
8. Check whether the number of times the basic operation is executed can vary on different
inputs of the same size; if it can, the worst-case, average-case, and best-caseefficiencies
must be investigated separately.
9. Set up a recurrence relation, with an appropriate initial condition, for the number of times
the basic operation is executed.
10. Solve the recurrence or, atleast, ascertain the order of growth of its solution.

EXAMPLE1:Compute the factorial function F(n)=n!for an arbitrary nonnegative integer n. Since

n!=1•....•(n− 1)•n=(n−1)!•n,forn≥1and0!=1by definition,

we can compute F(n) = F(n − 1) • n with the following recursive algorithm.

ALGORITHM F(n)

//Computes n! recursively
//Input: A nonnegative integer n
//Output: The value of n!
if n=0 return1

else return F(n−1)*n

Algorithm analysis
● For simplicity, we consider itself as an indicator of this algorithm’s input size.i.e.1.

● The basic operation of the algorithm is multiplication, whose number of executions we

denote M(n).Since the function F(n) is computed according to the formula F(n)=F(n−1)•n
for n >0.
● The number of multiplications M(n) needed to compute it must satisfy the equality

M(n−1) multiplications are spent to compute F(n−1),and one more multiplication is needed
to multiply the result by n.

Recurrence relations
The last equation defines the sequence M(n) that we need to find. This equation defines
M(n) not explicitly, i.e., as a function of n, but implicitly as a function of its value at another point,
namely n − 1. Such equations are called recurrence relations or recurrences.
Solve the recurrence relation 𝑀(𝑛)=𝑀(𝑛−1)+1,i.e.,to find an explicit formula for
M(n) in terms of n only.
To determine a solution uniquely, we need an initial condition that tells us the value with
which the sequence starts. We can obtain this value by inspecting the condition that makes the
algorithm stop its recursive calls:
if n=0 return1.

This tells us two things. First, since the calls stop when n = 0, the smallest value of n for
which this algorithm is executed and hence M(n) defined is 0. Second, by inspecting the
pseudocode’s exiting line, we can see that when n = 0, the algorithm performs no multiplications.

Thus, the recurrence relation and initial condition for the algorithm’s number of multiplications
M(n):

M(n)=M(n−1)+1 for n>0,

M(0) = 0 for n = 0.

Method of backward substitutions

M(n) =M(n−1)+1 substitute M(n −1)=M(n −2)+1

=[M(n−2)+1]+1

=M(n −2)+2 substitute M(n −2)=M(n −3)+1

=[M(n−3)+1]+2

=M(n −3)+3

=M(n −i)+i
…

=M(n −n)+n
=n.
Therefore M(n)=n

EXAMPLE 2: consider educational workhorse of recursive algorithms: the Tower of Hanoi puzzle.
We have n disks of different sizes that can slide onto any of three pegs. ConsiderA (source), B
(auxiliary), and C (Destination). Initially, all the disks are on the first peg in order of size, the
largest on the bottom and the smallest on top. The goal is to move all the disks to the third peg,
using the
second one as an auxiliary
FIGURE 1.8 Recursive solution to the Tower of Hanoi puzzle

Algorithm analysis
The number of moves M(n)depends on n only, and we get the following recurrence
equation for it: M(n) = M(n − 1) + 1+ M(n − 1) for n >1.
With the obvious initial condition M(1)=1,we have the following recurrence relation for the number
of moves M(n):
M(n)=2M(n−1)+1forn>1, M(1) = 1.

We solve this recurrence by the same method of backward substitutions:

M(n)=2M(n−1)+1 sub. M(n−1)=2M(n−2)+1
=2[2M(n −2) +1]+ 1
=22M(n −2) +2 +1 sub. M(n −2) =2M(n − 3)+ 1
2
=2 [2M(n −3) +1]+ 2 +1
=23M(n −3) +22+2 +1 sub.M(n −3) =2M(n −4) +1
4 3 2
=2 M(n −4)+2 +2 +2 +1
…

=2iM(n−i)+2i−1+2i−2+. .. +2 +1=2iM(n−i)+2i−1.

Since the initial condition is specified for n = 1, which is achieved for i= n − 1,

M(n)=2n−1M(n−(n−1))+2n−1 –1=2n−1M(1)+2n−1 −1=2n−1 +2n−1 −1=2n−1.€ Θ(2n)
Thus, we have an exponential time algorithm

EXAMPLE 3: An investigation of a recursive version of the algorithm which finds the number of
binary digits in the binary representation of a positive decimal integer.

ALGORITHM BinRec(n)

//Input: A positive decimal integer n

//Output: The number of binary digits in n’s binary representation
if n=1

return 1

else return BinRec(𝖫n/2])+1

Algorithm analysis
The number of additions made in computing BinRec(𝖫n/2]) is A(𝖫n/2]), plus one more
addition is made by the algorithm to increase the returned value by 1. This leads to the recurrence
A(n) = A(𝖫n/2]) + 1 for n >1.
Since the recursive call send when n is equal to1 and there are no additions made then, the initial
condition is A(1)=0.
The standard approach to solving such a recurrence is to solve it only for n =2k
A(2k) = A(2k−1) + 1 for k > 0,
A(20)=0.

Backward substitutions
A(2 )=A(2k−1)+1
k
substitute A(2k−1)=A(2k−2)+1
=[A(2k−2)+1]+1=A(2k−2)+2 substitute A(2k−2)=A(2k−3)+1
=[A(2k−3)+1]+2=A(2k−3)+3 ...
...

=A(2k−i)+i
...

=A(2k−k)+k.
Thus, we endup with A(2k)=A(1)+k= k, or, after returning to the original variable n=2kand hence k =
log2 n,
A(n)=log2n ϵ Θ(log2n).

EXAMPLE 3: An investigation of a recursive version of the algorithm which finds the number of
binary digits in the binary representation of a positive decimal integer.

ALGORITHM BinRec(n)

//Input: A positive decimal integer n

//Output: The number of binary digits in n’s binary representation
if n=1return1

else return Bin Rec(𝖫n/2])+1

Algorithm analysis
The number of additions made in computing Bin Rec(𝖫n/2]) is A(𝖫n/2]), plus one more
addition is made by the algorithm to increase the returned value by 1. This leads to the recurrence
A(n) = A(𝖫n/2]) + 1 for n >1.
Since the recursive calls end when n isequalto1 and there are no additions made

then, the initial condition is A(1)=0.

The standard approach to solving such are currence is to solve it only for n =2kA(2k) =
A(2k−1) + 1 for k > 0,
A(20)=0.

Backward substitutions
A(2k)=A(2k−1)+1 substitute A(2k−1)=A(2k−2)+1
=[A(2k−2)+1]+1=A(2k−2)+2 substitute A(2k−2)=A(2k−3)+1
=[A(2k−3)+1]+2=A(2k−3)+3 ...
...

=A(2k−i)+i
...

=A(2k−k)+k.
Thus, we endup with A(2k)=A(1)+k=k, or ,after returning to the original variable n=2kand hence k =
log2 n,
A(n)=log2nϵΘ(log2n).

LH4 Review Questions

1.what is recurrence relations?
2.Solve the tower of Hanoi recurrence, using backward substitution
3.Solve the following recurrence relation?
T(n) = 7T(n/2) + 3n^2 + 2

What is Brute force?

Brute force is a straightforward approach to solving a problem, usually directly based on the problem
statement and definitions of the concepts involved.
As an example, consider the exponentiation problem: compute an for a nonzero number a and a
nonnegative integer n.By the definition of exponentiation,
an = _a ∗……∗a_ {n times}
This suggests simply computing anby multiplying 1 by a n times.

The brute-force approach should not be overlooked as an important algorithm design strategy.
First, unlike some of the other strategies, brute force is applicable to a very wide variety of problems.
In fact, it seems to be the only general approach for which it is more difficult to point out problems it
cannot tackle.

Second, for some important problems—e.g., sorting, searching, matrix multiplication, string
matching—the brute-force approach yields reasonable algorithms of at least some practical value with
no limitation on instance size.

Third, the expense of designing a more efficient algorithm may be unjustifiable if only a few
instances of a problem need to be solved and a brute-force algorithm can solve those instances with
acceptable speed.

Fourth, even if too inefficient in general, a brute-force algorithm can still be useful for solving small-
size instances of a problem.

Finally, a brute-force algorithm can serve an important theoretical or educational purpose as a

yardstick with which to judge more efficient alternatives for solving a problem.

1.6 BRUTE FORCE

Brute force is a straightforward approach to solving a problem, usually directly based on
the problem statement and definitions of the concepts involved.
Selection Sort, Bubble Sort, Sequential Search, String Matching, Depth-First Search and
Breadth-First Search, Closest-Pair and Convex-Hull Problems can be solved by Brute Force.
Examples:
1. Computing an : a * a * a * … * a ( n times)
2. Computing n! : The n! can be computed as n*(n-1)* … *3*2*1
3. Multiplication of two matrices : C=AB
4. Searching a key from list of elements (Sequential search)

Advantages:
1. Brute force is applicable to a very wide variety of problems.
2. It is very useful for solving small size instances of a problem, even though it is
inefficient.
3. The brute-force approach yields reasonable algorithms of at least some practical value
with no limitation on instance size for sorting, searching, and string matching.

Selection Sort
 First scan the entire given list to find its smallest element and exchange it with the first
element, putting the smallest element in its final position in the sorted list.
 Then scan the list, starting with the second element, to find the smallest among the last n − 1
elements and exchange it with the second element, putting the second smallest element in
its final position in the sorted list.
 Generally, on the ith pass through the list, which we number from 0 to n − 2, the algorithm
searches for the smallest item among the last n − i elements and swaps it with Ai:

Selection Sort
We start selection sort by scanning the entire given list to find its smallest element and exchange it
with the first element, putting the smallest element in its final position in the sorted list. Then we scan
the list, starting with the second element, to find the smallest among the last n −1 elements and
exchange it with the second element, putting the second smallest element in its final position.
Generally, on the ith pass through the list, which we number from 0 to n −2, the algorithm searches
for the smallest item among the last n –i elements and swaps it with Ai :

After n −1 passes, the list is sorted.

Here is pseudocode of this algorithm, which, for simplicity, assumes that the
list is implemented as an array:
The sorting of list 89, 45, 68, 90, 29, 34, 17 is illustrated with the selection sort algorithm
The analysis of selection sort is straightforward. The input size is given by the number of
elements n; the basic operation is the key comparison A[j]<A[min]. The number of times it is
executed depends only on the array size and is given by the following sum:

Thus, selection sort is a Θ(n2 ) algorithm on all inputs.

Note: The number of key swaps is only Θ(n), or, more precisely n – 1.

LH6 Review Questions:

1.What is Selection sort?
2.Write an algorithn for selection sort
3.what is brute force?

1.7 Bubble Sort:

The bubble sorting algorithm is to compare adjacent elements of the list and exchange them if they are out of
order. By doing it repeatedly, we end up “bubbling up” the largest element to the last position on the list. The
next pass bubbles up the second largest element, and so on, until after n − 1 passes the list is sorted. Pass i (0 ≤
i ≤ n − 2) of bubble sort can be represented by the following:

The action of the algorithm on the list 89, 45, 68, 90, 29, 34, 17 is illustrated as an example.

etc.
The number of key comparisons for the bubble-sort version given above is the same for all arrays of size n; it
is obtained by a sum that is almost identical to the sum for selection sort

The number of key swaps, however, depends on the input. In the worst case of decreasing
arrays, it is the same as the number of key comparisons.
1.8 SEQUENTIAL SEARCH
The general searching problem: it is called sequential search . To repeat, the algorithm simply
compares successive elements of a given list with a given search key until either a match is
encountered (successful search) or the list is exhausted without finding a match (unsuccessful search).
A simple extra trick is often employed in implementing sequential search: if we append the search
key to the end of the list, the search for the key will have to be successful, and therefore we can
eliminate the end of list check altogether. Here is pseudocode of this enhanced version.

Another straightforward improvement can be incorporated in sequential search if a given list is known
to be sorted: searching in such a list can be stopped as soon as an element greater than or equal to the
search key is encountered.

1.9 Brute Force String Matching

given a string of n characters called the text and a string of m characters (m ≤ n) called the pattern,
find a substring of the text that matches the pattern. To put it more precisely, we want to find i—the index of the leftmost
character of the first matching substring in the text—such that

If matches other than the first one need to be found, a string-matching algorithm can simply continue
working until the entire text is exhausted.
Brute-force: Scan text LR, compare chars, looking for pattern,

Step 1 Align pattern at beginning of text

Step 2 Moving from left to right, compare each character of pattern to the corresponding
character in text until
– all characters are found to match (successful search); or
– a mismatch is detected
Step 3 While pattern is not found and the text is not yet exhausted, realign pattern one position
to the right and repeat Step 2
An operation of the algorithm is illustrated in Figure 3.3. Note that for this example, the algorithm
shifts the pattern almost always after a single character comparison. The worst case is much worse:
the algorithm may have to make all m comparisons before shifting the pattern, and this can happen for
each of the n − m + 1 tries. (Problem 6 in this section’s exercises asks you to give a specific example
of such a situation.) Thus, in the worst case, the algorithm makes

m(n − m + 1) character comparisons, which puts it in the O(nm) class. For a typical word search in
a natural language text, however, we should expect that most shifts would happen after very few
comparisons (check the example again). Therefore, the average-case efficiency should be
considerably better than the worst-case efficiency. Indeed it is: for searching in random texts, it has
been shown to be linear, i.e., Θ (n).