UNIT 1

Introduction: Network Types, LAN, MAN, WAN, Network Topologies Reference models- The OSI
Reference Model- the TCP/IP Reference Model - A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference
Models, OSI Vs TCP/IP, Lack of OSI models success, Internet History.
Physical Layer –Introduction to Guided Media- Twisted-pair cable, Coaxial cable and Fiber optic
cable and unguided media: Wireless-Radio waves, microwaves, infrared.

Introduction to Computer Network:

COMPUTER NETWORK:
Computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing
resources.
PROTOCAL:
A protocol is the set of rules that govern data communication. The term data communication
refers to the exchange of information (a message) between two or more devices. A protocol defines
what is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is communicated.
Computer network uses:
The following are the important uses and benefits of a computer network.
File sharing: Networking of computers helps the network users to share data files. Not only
can you share photos, music files, and documents, you can also use a home network to save
copies of all of your important data on a different computer.
Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives,
hard drives etc. Without computer networks, device sharing is not possible. It‟s easy to set up
all of the computers to share a single printer. No longer will you need to bounce from one
system or another just to print
User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail, newsgroups,
and video conferencing etc.
Network gaming: A lot of network games are available, which allow multi-users to play
from different locations.
Internet telephone service: Voice over IP (VoIP) services allows you to make and receive
phone calls through your home network across the Internet. With an Internet connection, it is
entirely possible to make free calls, but only to other people who are using the same free
Internet calls software as you. For example, calls between 2 Skype users are entirely free (all
you need is an internet connection and the Skype app). However, if one person has Skype and
wishes to call a „normal‟ phone number, the call will be charged.

Types of networks:

Computer networks can be classified into different types based on their scale of operation.
PAN: A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for data transmission amongst
devices such as computers, telephones, tablets, personal digital assistants, fax machines and

printers, that are located close to a single user.

LAN: A local-area network (LAN) is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most
often, a LAN is confined to a single room, building or group of buildings; however, one LAN can
be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. Local Area
Networks cover a small physical area, like a home, office, or a small group of buildings, such as a
school or airport.

CAN: Controller Area Network (CAN) are larger than LANs, but smaller than metropolitan area
networks (MANs, explained below), these types of networks are typically seen in universities,
large K-12 school districts or small businesses. They can be spread across several buildings that

are fairly close to each other so users can share resources.

MAN: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) these types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than
WANs – and incorporate elements from both types of networks. MANs span an entire geographic area it
connects two or more computers that are apart but resides in the same or different cities (Typically a town
or city, but sometimes a campus). Ownership and maintenance is handled by either a single person or
company (a local council, a large company, etc.).

WAN: Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that extends over a large geographical area,
although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. The Internet is the most basic
example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around the world. Because of a WAN‟s vast
reach, it is typically owned and maintained by multiple administrators or the public. The technology is
high speed and relatively expensive.
Network Topology: The arrangement of the nodes (devices) and links for communication in a network
is called Network Topology.

1) BUS Topology
• Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable through a dropline.A dropline is connection between the main cable and the
device.
• It transmits data only in one direction. This topology is used in small networks.

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. Cable required is less when compared to other network topology.

2. It is easy to understand.
3. Easy to install.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.

2) RING Topology:
• It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each
device.
• Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
througheach node of the network, till the destination node.

• A number of repeaters(rearranges the signal) are used for Ring topology with large number of
nodes, because if node 1 wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100
nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent
data loss repeaters are used in the network.
• The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
• In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction
in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Easy to install
2. A signal can travel long distance because there are repeaters in network.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

2. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3) STAR Topology
• In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable.
• This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
• The devices are not linked to each other directly. If one device wants to send data then it sends
to Hub which delivers it to destination device.
Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of Hub is high

2. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
3. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

4)MESH Topology
• It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected
to each other..
• There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding

Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic
to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-
configure the failed nodes.

Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load
over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

5)TREE Topology
• It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also
called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
• Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

2. Easily managed and maintained.
3. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

6) HYBRID Topology:
• It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies.
• For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology
is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star
topology).
• Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

Communication model:
OSI MODEL:

The seven Open Systems Interconnection layers are:

1. Physical layer
2. Data link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer

Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification. Each layer
communicates with the same layer’s software or hard ware on other computers. The lower four layers
are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network. The upper fourlayers of OSI
model are oriented towards services to applications.
The functionalities of different layers are:

1) Physical layer:
This layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to next node.
It converts the individual bits into electrical signals(0.s and 1‟s are changed to signals)
It defines the data rates i.e. the number of bits set each second. In other words it defines the
duration of bits, which is how long it lasts
It is also responsible for activation and deactivation of physical connection
The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also their clocks must be
synchronized.
2) Data link layer
It is responsible for arranging the bits into frames and transmits these frames from onenode
to next node. It creates and detects the frame boundaries.
Error control: it uses a mechanism to prevent the duplication of frames. It detects and
retransmits the lost frames.
Access control: when two or more devices are connected to same link, data link layer protocols
are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
Flow control: if the rate at which the data absorbed by receiver is less than the rate produced by
the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the
receiver.
Physical layer: this layer adds header to frame to define the sender and receiver of the frame.

3. Network layer:
This layer delivers the packets from source and destination. It divides the outgoing messages
into packets and assembles the incoming packets into messages for higher levels.
Fragmentation: Fragmentation means dividing the larger packets into small fragments. For this,
network layer divides the large packets into fragments so that they can be easily sent on the
physical medium
Routing: When independent networks or links are combined together to create internet works,
multiple routes are possible from source machine to destination machine. The network layer
protocols determine which route or path is best from source to destination. This function of
network layer is known as routing.
Packetizing The network layer receives the data from the upper layers and creates itsown
packets by encapsulating these packets. The process is known as packetizing.This packetizing in
done by Internet Protocol (IP) that defines its own packet format.
Logical Addressing Large number of different networks can be combined together to from
bigger networks or internetwork. In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely,
network layer defines an addressing scheme. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.
Internetworking One of the main responsibilities of network layer is to provide internetworking
between different networks. It provides logical connection between different types of network.
It is because of this layer, we can combine various different networks to form a bigger network.
4. Transport layer
It is responsible for process to process delivery of messages. it manages the end to end
delivery of packets
Segmentation: A message is divided into transmittable segments; each segment consists of a
sequence number. These numbers enables the transport layer to reassemble the messages
correctly upon arrival at destination.It identifies the duplication of data units. It checks that the
data units are error free.
Connection control:

Transport layer provides two types of services:

1 Connection Oriented Transmission

(a) In this type of transmission the receiving device sends an

acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or group of packet is
received.
(b) This type of transmission is also known as reliable transport method.
(c) Because connection oriented transmission requires more packets be
sent across network, it is considered a slower transmission method.
(d) If the data that is sent has problems, the destination requests the
source for retransmission by acknowledging only packets that have been
received and are recognizable.

2. Connectionless Transmission

(a) In this type of transmission the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of
a packet.
(b) Sending device assumes that packet arrive just fine.
(c) This approach allows for much faster communication between devices.
(d) The trade-off is that connectionless transmission is less
reliable than connectionoriented.

5. Session layer:
Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application processes on
different machines to establish, use and terminate a connection, called a session.
Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate overthe
network, performing security, name recognition, logging and so on.
Dialog control: Dialog control is the function of session layer that determines which
device will communicate first and the amount of data that will be sent.
6. Presentation layer
Presentation Layer is also called Translation layer.
It prepares the data and takes data from application layer and marks it with formatting code such
as .doc, .jpg, .txt, .avi etc. These file extensions make it easy to realize that particular file is
formatted with particular type of application.
Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will understand
data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the application layer. Languages
(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under thiscondition presentation
layer plays a role of translator.
It performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc
7. Application layer
It is the topmost layer. Application layer provides platform to send and receive data over the
network. All applications and utilities that communicate with network fall in this layer.
For examples

Browsers :- Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome etc

Email clients: - Outlook Express, Mozilla Thunderbird etc.
FTP clients :- Filezilla, sFTP, vsFTP

Transferring of files and distributing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail services,
directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application layer.
This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.

Disadvantages of OSI MODEL:

Many applications do not require/need the data integrity, which is provided by OSI-
model.
In order to fast set up OSI requires agreement b/w three-parties: users & service provider.
Complex.
This model is not adapted at all to telecommunication applications on computer

The summary to layers:

The TCP/IP model

TCP/IP is based on a four-layer reference model. All protocols that belong to the TCP/IP protocol suite are
located in the top three layers of this model.

Layer Description Protocols

Application Defines TCP/IP application protocols and HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, SNMP, DNS,
how host programs interface with transport SMTP, X Windows, other application
layer services to use the network protocols
Transport Provides communication session TCP, UDP, RTP
management between host computers.
Defines the level of service and status of the
connection used when transporting data.
Internet Packages data into IP datagrams, which IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP
contain source and destination address
information that is used to forward the
datagrams between hosts and across
networks. Performs routing of IP datagrams
Specifies details of how data is physically Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame
sent through the network, including how bits Relay, RS-232, v.35
Network interface are electrically signaled by hardware devices
that interface directly with a network
medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber,
or twisted-pair copper wire

Difference between osi and tcp/ip model:

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol)
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around
acting as a communication gateway between the which the Internet has developed. It is a communication
network and end user. protocol, which allows connection of hosts over a
network.
2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model is
more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or
Session layer. Session layer.
5. OSI is a reference model around which the 5. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI
networks are built. Generally it is used as a guidance model.
tool.
6. Network layer of OSI model provides both 6. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
connection oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.
7. OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols 7. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
into the model.
8. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily 8. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
replaced as the technology changes.
9. OSI model defines services, interfaces and 9. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
protocols very clearly and makes clear distinction clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
between them. It is protocol independent.
10. It has 7 layers 10. It has 4 layers
PHYSICAL LAYER

Transmission media:
Physical path between transmitter and receiver

Types of transmission media:

1) Guided media:

It is the transmission media in which signals are confined to a specific path using wire or cable. The types of
Bounded/ Guided are discussed below.

a) Twisted Pair Cable

This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap, can be installed
easily, and they support many different types of network. Some important points :

• Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.

• Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.

Attenuation:Reduction of signal strength during transmission. Attenuation is the opposite of

amplification, and is normal when a signal is sent from one point to another. If the signal attenuates too
much, it becomes unintelligible, which is why most networks require repeaters at regular intervals.
Attenuation is measured in decibels

• Typical delay is 50 µs/km.

• Repeater spacing is 2km.
a repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher
power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances

Physical description
➢ Two insulated copper wires arranged in regular spiral pattern
➢ Number of pairs are bundled together in a cable
➢ Twisting decreases the crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs in the cable, by using different
twist length for neighboring pairs
➢ Less expensive compared to coaxial cable or optical fiber
➢ Limited in terms of data rate and distance
➢ Cables are twisted to reduce the noise pickup from outside sources and crosstalk on multi pair cables
➢ Requires amplifiers every 5-6 km for analog signals
➢ Requires repeaters every 2-3 km for digital signals
➢ Susceptible to interference and noise
Twisted Pair is of two types

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• Shielded Twisted Pair

(STP)Unshielded Twisted Pair

(UTP):

• Does not include extra shielding around the wire pairs

• It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical
formto reduce electrical interference from similar pair.
• Ordinary telephone wire and commonly used in LANS
• Least expensive, easy to install
• Suffers from external interference
• It is not as good as blocking noise and interference

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

• This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated conductors
• Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing
• Shielding also eliminates crosstalk
• Reduces interference
• Better performance at higher data rates
• More expensive and difficult to work compared to UTP
• It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair
• STP is used in ring token networks
• Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
• Difficult to manufacture, it is Heavy.
• Increases the signaling rate

B) Coaxial Cable:

Physical description
• Consists of two conductors with construction that allows it to operate over a wider range of frequencies
comparedto twisted pair
• Hollow outer cylindrical conductor surrounding a single inner wire conductor
• Inner conductor held in place by regularly spaced insulating rings or solid dielectrical material
• Outer conductor covered with a jacket or shield
• Diameter from 1 to 2.5 cm
• Shielded concentric construction reduces interference and crosstalk
• Can be used over longer distances and support more stations on a shared line than twisted pair

Here the most common coaxial standards.

• 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.

• 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
• 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
• 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

There are two types of Coaxial cables :

BaseBand

This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly used for LAN’s.
Basebandtransmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major drawback is that it needs
amplification after every 1000 feet.

BroadBand

This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits several simultaneous signal
using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with Baseband Coaxial Cable.
Advantages :

• Bandwidth is high
• Used in long distance telephone lines.
• Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
• Much higher noise immunity
• Data transmission without distortion.
• The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared to
twisted pair cable

Disadvantages :

• Single cable failure can fail the entire network.

• Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
• If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

Applications

• Most common use is in cable tv

• Traditionally part of long distance telephone network
• Can carry more than 10,000 voice channels simultaneously using frequency-division multiplexing
• Short range connections between devices

c)Fiber Optic Cable

These are similar to coaxial cable.A thin glass fiber through which light can be transmitted.

Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)

Cylindrical cross-section with three concentric links

1. Core
• Innermost section of the fiber
• very thin (dia. 8-100 µm) strands or fibers
2. Cladding
• Surrounds each strand
• Plastic or glass coating with optical properties different from core
• Interface between core and cladding prevents light from escaping the core
3. Jacket
• Outermost layer, surrounding one or more claddings
• Made of plastic and other materials
• Protects from environmental elements like moisture, abrasions, and crushing
Comparison with twisted pair and coaxial cable
• Much higher bandwidth
• Can carry hundreds of Gbps over tens of kms
• Smaller size and light weight
• Very thin for similar data capacity
• Significantly lower attenuation
• Not affected by external electromagnetic fields
• Not vulnerable to interference, impulse noise, or crosstalk
• No energy radiation; little interference with other devices; security from eavesdropping
• Greater repeater spacing
• Lower cost and fewer error sources
Transmission characteristics
• Single-encoded beam of light transmitted by total internal reection
• Transparent medium should have higher refractive index compared to surrounding medium
• Refractive Index { The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a medium
• under consideration
• Optical fiber acts as a waveguide for frequencies in the range of about 1014 to 1015 Hz (IR and
visibleregions of spectrum)
• Step-index multimode
o Rays at shallow angles are reflected and propagated along the fiber
o Other rays are absorbed by the surrounding material
• Multimode transmission
o Allows for multiple propagation paths, with different path lengths and time to traverse the fiber
o Signal elements can be spread over time
o Limits the rate at which data can be accurately received
o Best suited for transmission over very short distances

Advantages :

• Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed.

• These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is very less.
• Used for both analog and digital signals.

Disadvantages :

• It is expensive
• Difficult to install.
• Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
• Do not allow complete routing of light signals.

2) Wireless transmission media (unguided media)

It refers to a form of unguided media that does not require the establishment of physical links
between two or more devices. Wireless transmission is used when installing cables or using wired
transmission would be impossible, impractical or inconvenient. Wireless signals are spread over in the air
and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas. When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of
a computer or wireless device, it converts the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its
frequency range. The receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.

a) RADIO transmission:

Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate through walls
and structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000 km and have frequency ranging
from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub -
divided into six bands.

Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in straight line and
bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover long distance. High frequency
radio waves have more power.

Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over the earth’s
surface
Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use Ionosphere
of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are spread upwards. When
they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

APPLICATIONS:

Radio waves have other applications, such as for military and civilian aircraft communication

Disadvantages

• Radio waves cannot transmit a lot of data simultaneously because they're low frequency.
• In addition, continued exposure to large amounts of radio waves can cause health disorders
likeleukemia and cancer.

b) Microwave Transmission

Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them can be
sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves travels in straight lines,
both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight. Microwaves can have wavelength
ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above, multiple
antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do not penetrate wall like
obstacles.

Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is using.

Advantages:

• Carry large quantities of data due to the large bandwidth.

• They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
• Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies small area.
• High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antenna.

Disadvantages:

• Line-of-sight will be disrupted if any obstacle, such as new buildings, are in the way
• Signal absorption by the atmosphere. Microwaves suffer from attenuation due to atmospheric
conditions.
• Towers are expensive to build

Some of the applications are:

Remote Sensing: Most of you may be familiar with this Application. The most common application of
Microwave is its use in RADAR and SONAR. RADAR is used to illuminate an object by using a transmitter
and receiver to detect its position and velocity. Radiometry is also one of the Remote Sensing Applications.
Heating: You all are familiar with this application. We uses Microwave Oven to bake and cook food. It
isvery convenient electronic machine which performs the heating task very cleanly and in a very less time. If
you Want to know How Does a Microwave Works? then you may wonder that is based on the vibration of
electrons present in the Food Particles. That is why Microwave Oven heats the food uniformly without
heating the container.

c) Infrared Transmission

Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of 700-nm to 1-mm
and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.Infrared wave is used for very short range communication
purposes such as television and it’s remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature.
Because of high frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles. Infrared communication is
therefore a realistic alternative for indoor wireless LANs

Disadvantage

• The main disadvantage is that infrared light will not pass through solid objects.
• On the plus side, an infrared system in one room of a building will not interfere with similar systems
innearby rooms,