21CV63

APPLIED GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Dr. D MANIKANTA
Associate Professor and Head
Department of Civil Engineering
BITM, Ballari
Module-1
Soil Exploration: ಪರಿಶೋಧನೆಗಳು

1. Introduction, Objectives and Importance, Stages

2. Methods of exploration- Test pits, Borings, Geophysical methods,
3. Stabilization of boreholes
4. Sampling techniques
5. Undisturbed, disturbed and representative samples
6. Geophysical exploration and Bore hole log
7. Drainage and Dewatering methods
8. Estimation of depth of GWT (Hvorslev’s method)
1. Questions from previous examinations schemes
1. Discuss the necessity of sub-soil exploration. (Aug/Sept- 2020-6M)
2. What is sub-soil exploration and write the objectives of sub-soil exploration
(Dec/Jan 2020-6M, Jun/Jul-2019-6M, Jun/Jul-2018-8M)
1. Necessity of sub-soil exploration
Soil Exploration

 Exploration in soil- involves a site visit, quick visual inspection and

detailed tests to determine the behaviour

 "The field and laboratory investigations

required to obtain necessary data regarding the soil,
for proper design and successful construction of any
structure
at the site are collectively called soil exploration.”
1. Objectives/Importance of sub-soil exploration
1. To assess the general suitability of site
2. To determine the bearing capacity of the soil
3. To Select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure Estimate max. probable
settlement (total and differential)
4. Investigate the nature and depth of each stratum and assess required properties
5. To select the suitable construction technology based on availability and economy
6. To know the ground water conditions
7. Predict possible difficulties and problems in site and suggest remedial actions
8. Ensure safety of existing structures
9. Investigate the occurrence of any natural or manmade changes in conditions and the
result from those changes

This information obtained by - Drilling holes, taking samples,

finding Index and Engineering properties
Conducting some field tests
2. Stages of sub-soil exploration
Explain the stages of subsoil exploration ?

Reconnaissance Preliminary Investigation Detailed investigation

 To assess the need for detailed investigation

 Determination of depth, thickness, extent and  Mainly for big projects- Dams, bridges, multistoried
composition of each layer buildings
 Depth of bedrock and Ground water table also studied  Also for newly built up soil
 Lab and field tests to assess basic properties  Involves extensive boring programme  sampling 
lab and field testing
 Chemical and bacteriological tests if needed
Involves a site visit and visual  For small projects on site with uniform strata or
 Methods:
clear history, info. from reconnaissance and prelim.
inspections at the site  Boreholes, test pits, Penetration, Geophysical investigation sufficient
methods
Rough Idea about work that how to  Uniform strata boreholes at regular spacing
start
2. Stages of sub-soil exploration
1. Site Reconnaissance

Site reconnaissance is the first stage of site investigation.

In this stage, visual inspection of the site is done and information about topographical and geological features of the
site are collected.

The general observations made in site reconnaissance are as follows :

1. Presence of drainage ditches and dumping yards etc.

2. Location of groundwater table by observing well in that site.
3. High flood level marks on the bridges, high rise buildings, etc. are observed.
4. Presence of vegetation and nature of the soil.
5. Past records of landslides, floods, shrinkage cracks, etc. of that region.
6. Study of aerial photographs of the site, blueprints of present buildings, geological maps, etc.
7. Observation of deep cuts to know about the stratification of soils.
8. Observation of Settlement cracks of existing structures.
Some Visual indications about site
 Random depressions and marked irregularities Sink holes
 Wrinkling of surface on hillside soil creep
 Shafts or heaps of mineral waste abandoned mines
 Low lying flat areas river or lake bed
 Springs, wells High water table
 Marshy ground High water table with poor drainage
2. Stages of sub-soil exploration
2. Preliminary exploration
The main objective of preliminary exploration is to obtain an approximate picture of sub-soil conditions at low cost. The soil
sample is collected from experimental borings and shallow test pits and simple laboratory tests such as moisture content test,
density, unconfined compressive strength test, etc. are conducted. Simple field tests such as penetration methods, sounding
methods, geophysical methods are performed to get the relative density of soils, strength properties, etc. The data collected about
subsoil should be sufficient enough to design and build light structures.

Following are some of the general information obtained through primary site exploration.
1. Approximates values of soil's compressive strength.
2. Position of the groundwater table.
3. Depth and extent of soil strata.
4. Soil composition.
5. Depth of hard stratum from ground level.
6. Engineering properties of soil (disturbed sample)

3. Detailed exploration
Detailed exploration is preferred for complex projects, major engineering works, heavy structures like dams, bridges, high rise
buildings, etc. A huge amount of capital is required for a detailed site exploration hence, it is not recommended for minor
engineering works where the budget is limited. For such type of works, data collected through preliminary site exploration is
enough.
In this stage, numerous field tests such as in-situ vane shear test, plate load test, etc. and laboratory tests such as permeability tests,
compressive strength test on undisturbed soil samples are conducted to get exact values of soil properties.
BOREHOLE (BH)-Making a vertical/inclined hole by drilling inside the ground for obtaining a samples of
soil and thereby investigating the engineering properties of soil.

 (a)Depth, (b) lateral extent/spacing and (c) number of boreholes

data are important for any soil investigation before construction
(a). Depth of Exploration: Depends on type of structure, intensity of load, soil
profile, and the physical properties of soil

 For hospitals and office buildings,

 the following rule could be use to determine boring depth
Depends on type of structure, intensity of load, soil
(b) lateral extent/spacing profile, and the physical properties of soil
(c) No. of bore holes

Lateral extent of exploration (IS: 1892-1979)

a. Multi-storied flats
b. Factory building

Q. Explain briefly the spacing, depth

and location of borehole adopted for
various civil engineering projects.
SAMPLING TOOLS AND SAMPLERS

Samples

Undisturbed samples Disturbed samples

The natural state of soil structure The natural state of soil structure get
remain as it is disturbed while sampling
To find: Shear parameters, To find: Atterberg limits, GSD,
Compressibility, Permeability, Field SG
Moisture-Density, Void ratio

Q. Distinguish between
undisturbed, disturbed and Representative samples
representative sample of soil. • Structure get disturbed but mineral Non representative samples
List the category of lab tests for composition is same • Mineral composition is
which each sample type is (Used to find index properties) changed
acceptable? – (6 to 8 marks)
2. Different Methods of sub-soil exploration in soils

Direct/Open excavation (<6m)

• Drifts
• Shafts
• Pits
• Trenches
Semi direct/Boring
• Auger boring
• Wash boring
• Percussion boring
• Rotary boring
• Core Drilling
Indirect methods
• Geophysical methods
• Penetration tests or Sounding
2 (a). Direct/Open excavation
Open excavation (for depth <6m)
 Trial pits-1.2m X1.2m ( IS 4453-1967)
 Depth > 3m lateral support
 Proper ventilation and dewatering if necessary

 Trenches-long shallow continuous pit, exposing a line

 Drifts -horizontal tunnels along hillside, especially for rocks

 Min 1.5m(b) X 2m (h)
 Lateral support if unstable
 Generally expensive
 Helps to establish minimum excavation limits to reach sound rocks,
& to locate failure and shear zones

 Shafts: Large vertical holes (min 2.4m width or diameter)

 For D>4m
 Proper support and ventilation required
Walls of the test pit indicate four layers (1) Clayey silt (2)
Sandy silt (3) Clean sand (4) Sandy gravel
2 (b). Boring methods

 Boring refers to advancing a hole in the ground, used especially when D > 6m
 It is a semi direct method of exploration
 Necessity:
 To obtain representative soil and rock samples for laboratory tests.
 To identify the groundwater conditions.
 Performance of in-situ tests to assess appropriate soil characteristics.
 Extensometers and pressure meters can be installed
 Results Borelog and subsurface profiles can be obtained
Drilling borehole taking samples testing Borelog

 Types: (1)Auger boring (2)Wash boring (3) Percussion drilling (4) Rotary drilling (5) Core drilling
1. Auger Boring
 Simplest and most common method of boring for small projects in
soft cohesive soils. – Fast, economical, light, inexpensive and
flexible
 Auger a drill for advancing holes
 Has a shank with cross wise handle to apply torque
 The length of the auger blade varies from 0.3-0.5m.
 Diameter of central rod almost 18mm
 Auger held vertically and driven by applying torque, either manually
or mechanically
 Driving force: Torque on handle+ downward pressing force
 The auger is rotated until it is full of soil, then it is withdrawn to
remove the soil and the soil type present at various depths is noted.
 Hand augers and mechanically operated auger
 Post hole augers: for taking samples when hole is already dug/driven
Hand operating augers Mechanical/Power operating augers

Outcomes of Auger boring:

 Disturbed soil we get
 Below Water table not possible
 Changes in soil strata not known
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sf2XRnbzyH4
 Hand-operated can be made upto about 6m depth and diameter is not
more than 350mm.
 Usually used for shallow depth applications rail road, highways etc
 Highly disturbed samples (but better than other boring methods) used for
classification purpose and basic tests only
 Power/Mechanically operated The power required to rotate the
auger depends on the type and size of auger and the type of soil.
 can be made upto about 12m depth a
b c

Downwards pressure  applied hydraulically, mechanically or by dead

weight
https://www.youtube.com/shorts/fGIIIV7679k

a. Helical (worm types) Augers b. Short flight Auger

c. Iwan (posthole) Auger
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8PpbBnstrgs
2. Wash Boring
 Fast and simple do works at > 12 m depths

 Casing pipe –5-10cm diameter  driven to the ground first,

upto certain depth (~1.5m)

 Wash pipe- lower dia upper end connected to water supply

system, and lower end to chisel shaped chopping bit

 Water with high pressure pumped through hallow boring rods

 released from narrow holes in a chisel attached to the lower
end of the rods.
Driving force: jetting action of water + chopping action of chisel
 Slurry comes up through annular space between casing pipe and
wash pipe taken in tub settles samples can be taken if
required
 Further advancement of hole can be done by raising and lowering
of chopping bit
 Casings can be extended or drilling fluids can be pumped instead
Wash Boring

Outcomes
 Highly disturbed samples
 Finer particles (clay, loam etc.) wont settle, and
heavier particles not brought up
 Exact strata identification not possible due to mixing of
soil particles
 Slow in coarse grained and stiff soils
 Not effective in hard soils, rocks , boulders

 Can be used in most type of soil but the progress is slow in

coarse gravel strata

 Some indications about strata from slurry colour and drill

penetration resistance

 It is only used for advancing the borehole to enable tube

samples to be taken or field test to be carried at the hole
bottom.
Wash Boring
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6pXuteEtuFA

3. Percussion drilling
 Consists of breaking up of the formation by repeated blows
from a bit or a chisel.
 Water should be added to the hole at the time of boring, and
the debris removed at intervals.

 Where the boring is in soil or into soft rocks and provided

that a sampler can be driven into them, cores may be
obtained at intervals using suitable tools
 But in soils, the material tends to become disturbed by the
action of this method of boring and for this reason, the sample
may not be much reliable

 As these machines are devised for rapid drilling by

pulverizing the material, they are not suitable for careful
investigation.
 The only method suitable for drilling bore holes in
boulderous and gravelly strata.
Percussion drilling

 Change in soil character identified by composition

of outgoing slurry
 Disadvantages:
 Bottom material highly disturbed due to heavy blows
 Expensive- requires large equipments
 Minor changes cannot be detected from the slurry

 Uneconomical for holes of diameter< 10cm

 Also used for drilling tubewells
4. Rotary drilling
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZP8CBarMnFg

4. Rotary drilling
 Similar to wash boring, but hole advanced by rotating a hollow
drill rod with cutting bit at the lower end and drill head at upper
portion
 Primarily intended for investigation in rock, but also used in soils.

 Water or drilling fluid is pumped down the hollow rods and passes
under pressure through narrow holes in the bit or barrel

 Drilling rod rotates cutting bit shears off chips of material materials
removed by circulating drilling fluids
 Functions of drilling fluid:
 cools and lubricates the drilling tool
 carries the loose debris to the surface between the rods and the side
of the hole.
 Provides some support to the sides of the hole if no casing is used .
 Useful for highly resistant strata and for clay, sand,rocks
5. Core drilling
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7XlIUK5qtRk

5. Core drilling
 Atype of rotary drilling used for rocks

 Similar to rotary drilling, but provided with a sharper cutting edge(made of diamond or tungsten)

 Drilling rod with core barrel fitted with drilling bit Rotated drill bit advances down cuts an
annular hole around an intact core.
 Core then removed and retained by core lifter
 Water pumped continuously  to cool the drilling bit, and bring up the disintegrated materials
 Important: ensure that boulders, or layers of cemented soils are not mistaken for bed rock. This
necessitates core drilling to a depth of at least 3 m in bed rock in areas where boulders are known to occur.
 For shear strength determination, a core with diameter to height ratio of 1 : 1 is required.
 Rock pieces may be used for determination of specific gravity and classification.
2 (c). Geophysical methods/Indirect methods/Nondestructive methods

 Indirect method : From surface measuring certain physical properties  interpret the
subsurface soil properties
 Based on the changes in gravitational, magnetic, electrical, radioactive or elastic properties of
the different elements of the subsoil
 Resistivity method based on the electrical properties and
 the seismic refraction method based on the elastic properties 
widely used

ADVANTAGES: simple, fast, economical, portable instruments, large area easily investigated
APPLICATIONS: subsurface soil, mineral ores, geologic structures, groundwater studies
2 (c). List of Geophysical methods
2 (c). List of Geophysical methods: Seismic refraction method
Seismic Methods
Controlling Properties : Elastic property

Principle :

 Subsurface soil and rock formations bear different elastic properties Geophone
seismic waves have different velocities in different types of soils (or rock)
waves refract at boundaries
 Artificial impulse produced either by detonation of explosive or mechanical blow
with a heavy hammer at ground surface or at the shallow depth within a hole.
 Assumes that soil gets denser with depth and hence velocity of seismic waves
increase with depth.
 Geophones fixed at suitable intervals on the ground
Test Procedure of Seismic refraction method
Test Procedure of Seismic refraction method
A plot is made between distance on the x-axis and time on the
y-axis as shown in [Fig. 14.21(b)]. Points B and C in Fig.
14.21(b) represent the distance at which the refracted wave from
the second and third strata arrive at the geophone, marked by a
change in the slope of the graph. The slope of line AB gives the
reciprocal of seismic velocity in the top layer (1/v1, that of BC
gives (1/v2), and that of CD gives (1/v3), etc. The thickness
(H1) of the top stratum of the soil is given by –

where D1 is the distance corresponding to point B,

where the seismic velocity changes from v1 to v2.
Advantages/Merits
 Complete picture of stratification of layer upto 10m depth.
 Simple equipments and easy execution
 Little processing required
 Provides seismic velocity information for estimating material properties.
 Provides greater vertical resolution than electrical, magnetic, or gravity
methods.
Data acquistion requires very limited intrusive activity is non-destructive.

Disadvantages/Limitations
 Cannot be used when hard layer overlies soft layer
 Cannot be used in areas like concrete or bitumen
 Presence of buried conduits and services
 Cannot be used in frozen layers
 High cost, and skilled labour
Problems on Seismic refraction method Important
Problems on Seismic refraction method

Dec/Jan 2019
Electrical Resistivity methods
“Electrical Resistivity is the physical property of a material, which is defined as the
resistance of the material to the passage of electrical current”.

It is expressed as: ρ = RA/L

Where, R = Electrical Resistance (Ohms), A = area of cross section (m2)

L = Length of Conductor (m), ρ = Electrical Resistivity (Ohm-m)

Electrical Resistivity methods: Methods

i. Electrical profiling method.
ii. Electrical sounding method.
Electrical Resistivity methods: Test Procedure
i. Electrical profiling method/resistivity mapping method
• Four electrodes are placed in a straight line at equal distances as shown in Fig. 1.17.
• The two outer electrodes are known as current electrodes and the inner electrodes are known as potential
electrodes.
• A direct current (DC) of 50-100 milliamperes (mA) is applied between the outer electrodes, and the voltage drop
or the potential difference between the inner electrodes is measured using a potentiometer.
• In a semi-infinite homogeneous isotropic material, the electrical resistivity, is given by the formula:

Where,

a = distance between electrodes (m)

ΔV = potential drop between the inner electrodes
i = current flowing between the outer electrodes (Amps)
ρ = Mean resistivity (Ohm-m)
• The calculated value is the apparent resistivity, which is the weighted average of all materials
within the zone created by the electrical field of the electrodes.
• The depth of material included in the measurement is approximately the same as the spacing
between the electrodes.
• The electrodes are moved as a group, and different profile lines are run across the area. The test
is repeated after changing the spacing (‘a’) and again determining the mean resistivity with the
new spacing.
Electrical sounding method: Test Procedure
• This method is similar to the electrical profiling P
method, except that the electrode system is
expanded about a point P by increasing the spacing
between the electrodes in successive operations.

• For example, the electrode spacing is increased with

every successive test, as shown in Fig. 1.18.

• As the depth of current penetration is equal to the

electrode spacing, the change in the mean resistivity is
correlated to the changes in the strata at that location.

P
Electrical Resistivity method- Pros and Cons

Disadvantages/Limitations of this method are:

Advantages
1. It is a very rapid and 1. It can only detect absolutely different strata like
economical method. rock and water.
2. It provides no information about the sample.
2. It is good up to 30m depth. 3. Cultural problems cause interference, e.g., power
3. The instrumentation of this lines, pipelines, buried casings, fences.
method is very simple. 4. The methods are capable of detecting only the
strata having different electrical resistivity.
4. It is a non-destructive method. 5. As the resistivity of different strata at the
interface changes gradually and not abruptly as
assumed, then the interpolation becomes
difficult.
6. The services of an expert in the field are needed
Penetration tests/Other In-situ (Field) tests
In-situ Test Methods: Q. Describe Standard penetration test and its
application in foundation engineering (VTU-5 marks)
• When it is difficult to obtain “undisturbed” samples
• Cohesionless soils, Sensitive clays
1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
2. Vane Shear Test (VST)
3. Pressure meter test (PMT)
4. Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
5. Dilatometer test (DMT)

46
1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT) IS: 2131-1981

Watch the video of SPT

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjWDOqQjsyQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qfc39krdFa8
1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

48
1. Standard1.Penetration Test (SPT)Tests
Standard Penetration IS: 2131-1981

63.5 kg hammer
The obtained SPT ‘N’ value is correlated with denseness, internal friction, unconfined compressive strength and
Consistency of soil
Standard Penetration Tests and its application

Where, qu is the unconfined compressive strength Cohesion (c) = qu/2

Finding bearing capacity factors Nc, Nq and Nγ in Terzaghis

To find SBC of
qu = c Nc + q0Nq + 0.5γB Nγ
soil using SPT
The bearing
‘N’ values capacity factors Nc,
Nq and Nγ are the

Standard Penetration resistance (N)

dimensionless
numbers.
Nc, Nq and Nγ

Where, qu is the
Ultimate bearing
capacity of soil

Angle of shearing resistance (ϕ)

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjWDOqQjsyQ
Important
B. Dilatancy correction in silty fine sands and fine sands

In case of silty fine sands

When the observed N value
exceeds 15 In granular soils, at deeper depths,
Confining pressure will increase the blows

A. Overburden pressure correction in granular soils

Problems on Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
1. A SPT is conducted in fine sand below water table and a value of 25 is obtained for N. What is the corrected
value of N ?

2. A SPT was conducted in a dense sand deposit at a depth of 22 m, and a value of 48 was observed for N. The
density of the sand was 15 kN/m2. What is the value of N, corrected for overburden pressure?

Solution:

3.

(Aug/Sept. 2020)
Open tube sampler/ Shelby tubes
 Sampler pushed at lower ends open least disturbance

 Thin walled, Undisturbed samples

 Made of seamless steel with chamfered lower end for easy penetration

 Outside dia: 45mm,65mm,80mm,100mm etc.

 Thickness:1.25-3.15mm

 Commonly used: outside dia 50.8mm ,inside dia 47.63 mm =>Area

ratio~ 10% (always < 15%) Undisturbed

 Length of tube: 5-10 times dia for sandy soils, and 10-15 times dia for
clayey soils

 Suitable in very soft to medium soft clays and silts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6HWi6iZKciU&t=26s
Split spoon sampler
 3 parts
 Driving shoe at bottom- 75mm long
 Steel tube, split longitudinally into 2 halves-450mm long
 Coupling at the top-150mm long

 Procedure:
 Sampler lowered to the bottom of the borehole by attaching it to the drill rod Then driven by forcing it
into the soil by blows of a standard hammer Sampler assembly then taken out coupling an driving
shoe removed steel tube split into halves samples taken

 Standard penetration Test: Uses split spoon sampler Hammer 63.5Kg; height of fall 762 mm

 Samples generally taken at intervals of 1.53 m

 Commonly used dia: Outside dia 50.8mm and inside dia 34.9mm=> Area ratio > 100% highly
disturbed samples

 When used in sand, ―spring core catcher‖ placed inside the split tube, to retain the sample
Piston sampler
 Consists of two separate parts, (a) the sample cylinder and
(b) the piston system

 Piston fits tightly in the sampler cylinder and is actuated separately.

 During the driving and till the start of the sampling operation, the bottom of
the piston flush with the cutting edge of the sampler.

 At the desired sampling elevation, the piston fixed in to the ground and the
sampler cylinder forced independently into the ground, thus punching a
sample out of the soil

 The piston prevents water and dirt from entering the tube during the lowering
operation. It also keeps the recovery ratio constant during the punch.

 As the sampler tube slides past the tight fitting piston during the sampling
operation, a negative pressure is developed above the sample, which holds
back the sampleduring withdrawal

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wN2RI2FGMt8
Hand carved samples
 Acylindrical container open at both the ends is
used for sampling.
 The soil is trimmed to shape of container at the
bottom of the test pit

 One end of container is closed and inverted

over the soil chunk and the soil sample is
removed using spatula
 This method is suitable for cohesive soil.
Design features affecting degree of disturbance/
Design Requirements of a Sampler for undisturbed soil sampling
Q. Explain with
reference to soil
samplers: Area
ratio, Inside
clearance ratio,
outside clearance
ratio and recovery
ratio.

Indicate the
recommended
values of them for
getting good
undisturbed soil
samples. (VTU-8M)
Design features affecting degree of disturbance
1. CUTTING EDGE

Inside Clearance: Ci = (D3-D1)/D1 X100

• Internal dia of cutting edge must be slightly less
than internal dia of sampling tube

• It allows elastic expansion of the sample and

reduces frictional drag
For undisturbed sample, Ci = 1 to 3%

Outside clearance: Co =(D2 – D4)/D4 X 100

• Outside dia of cutting edge must be more than
outer dia of tube

• To facilitate the withdrawal of sampler from soil, this

must be least

For undisturbed sample, It should lie between 0 to 2%

( But Co < Ci )
Area ratio Ar = (D 2 - D 2 )/D 2 X 100 (cutting edge)
2 1 1

 Ar= Ratio of Maximum cross-sectional area of the cutting edge to total area of the soil sample
 Should be as low as possible, consistent with strength requirement of sample tube
 Generally, for Undisturbed samples:Area ratio less than 10%

Where, D1 = inner dia of cutting edge, D2 = Outer dia of cutting edge

2. Inside wall Friction: The inside wall should be smooth .

Can be done by:

 Applying oil inside the tube

 Providing smooth finish to sample tube
 Ensuring suitable inside clearance
3.Design of Non return Valve:
 The sampler must have a large orifice to allow quick escaping of air, water or slurry.
4. Method of applying force:
 The rate of advancement and method of application of force controls the sample
disturbance.
 The sampler must be pushed not driven
5.Recovery ratio:
R=L/H
L = length of sample within the tube; H= depth of the penetration of sampling tube

 It should be 96-98% for good undisturbed sample

Design features affecting degree of disturbance- Problems
1. One sampler has an area ratio of 8% while another has 16%; which of these samplers do you
prefer and why ?
Solution: The sampler with area ratio of 8% is to be preferred since the sample disturbance is
inversely proportional to it. It is considered desirable that the area ratio be less than 10% for
undisturbed sampling.

2. Compute the area ratio of a thin walled tube samples having an external diameter of 6 cm and a
wall thickness of 2.25 mm. Do you recommend the sampler for obtaining undisturbed soil
samples ? Why ?
Solution:
Design features affecting degree of disturbance- Problems
3.

Aug/Sept-2020 (5 marks)

4.

Dec/Jan-2020 (4 Marks) (Ci = 2.94%, Co = 2.77%, Ar= 18.42%)

5.

Dec/Jan-2018 (8 marks) (I=8.50%, II=5.68%, III=104.08%)

Handling, preservation and transportation of samples
1. Undisturbed samples in seamless tube:
 Ends cut and removed (atleast 2.5cm)wax fill space with saw dust lid
2. Undisturbed samples not in tube:
 Covered wholly with wax metal container tight lid adhesive tape
3. Disturbed:
Immediately placed in glass jar airtight container
4. Rocks:
Label-reference no: directly on surface or tape wounded wrapped in paper box
Rock core preserve whole core core box with separate compartments
 Labeling important

Transportation: Liner or containers placed in wooden box with separate partitions packed with fillers
Video link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TDpdugVY_Ug
 Extrusion:
 Take out chip off wax
 Piston extrusion( if properly oiled) disturbs soft clay
 Support the sample
 Extrude in one direction  from cutting edge to top
 Store in cool humid place
 Rock: kept into box ensure no end to end turning
 Labeling: Label placed inside lid on top
Contents of subsoil investigation report
1.Scope of the investigation
2.Proposed structure
3.Location descriptions of the site  structures nearby, drainage conditions,
vegetation and any other features unique to the site
4.Geological setting of the site
5.Details of the field exploration— number of borings, depths of borings, types of
borings involved, and so on
6.A general description of the subsoil conditions -from lab and field tests
7.The water-table conditions
8.Recommendations regarding the foundation, the allowable hearing pressure, and
any special construction procedure that may he needed;
9.Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
DEWATERING
Hydraulic Modification can be termed as dewatering. Dewatering means
modifying ground by lowering the water table, redirecting seepage or
simply reducing its water content.

 Dewatering is the term for the control of groundwater by pumping. On

construction sites it may be known as ‘construction dewatering’. The
method is also used on mine sites – ‘mine dewatering’

 The process of dewatering can be defined as – pumping from wells or

sumps to temporarily lower groundwater levels, to allow excavations to
be made in dry and stable conditions below natural groundwater level
1. Objectives and techniques
Objectives and techniques
1. Dewatering techniques are based on the traditional gravity drainage and pumping from sumps and wells.
2. The hydraulics of slots and wells, its principles underlie the design of dewatering systems for excavation and
slopes.
3. Geosynthetics and their applications for filtration, drainage, and seepage control.
4. The concept of preloading as a means of dewatering fine-grained soils.
5. Electroosmosis is a means of consolidating fine-grained soils.
Methods of dewatering

What are the methods available for dewatering?

1. Open sumps and ditches Explain anyone method? (Aug/Sept-2020-7 M)

2. Well point systems

3. Deep well drainage

4. Vacuum Dewatering Systems

5. Electro Osmosis
Open sumps and ditches
1. Open sumps and ditches
• The essential feature of this method is a sump below the ground level of
the excavation at one or more Corners or sides.
• A small ditch is cut around the bottom of the excavation, falling towards
the sump.
• It is the most widely used and economical of all methods of ground water
lowering. Sumps provide localized, very shallow dewatering (less than 3
feet) and consist of pumping from perforated drums or casings in a gravel-
filled backhoe pit. Sumps work best in fine grained soils, or very coarse,
boulder deposits.
• There is also a disadvantage that the groundwater flows towards the
excavation with a high head or a steep slope and hence there is a risk of
collapse of the sides.
1. Open sumps and ditches

Dewatering of clayey slopes by combination

Of a toe drain and gravel-filled material.
1. Open sumps and ditches
Important
2. Well point systems/Gravity flow wells
• Wells are systematically drilled around the construction area and submersible pumps placed into
these wells.

• Wells are large-diameter (greater than 6 inches) holes, drilled relatively deep (greater than10
feet), and contain slotted casings and down hole pumps

• This practice appears to work effectively for many projects, especially those building projects
that require excavations for deep basements.

• For dewatering deeper excavations, the well points must be installed in two or more stages
1. Single stage unit/One-stage installations ---It allows the lowering of water table to 3.5 to 4 m
2. Double stage unit/multistage installations
Setup and Procedure of working:
• A well-point is 5.0-7.5 cm diameter metal or plastic pipe 60 cm – 120 cm long
which is perforated and covered with a screen.

• The lower end of the pipe has a driving head with water holes for jetting as
shown in fig. Well-points are connected to 5.0-7.5 cm diameter pipes known as
riser pipes and are inserted into the ground by driving or jetting.

• The upper ends of the riser pipes lead to a header pipe which, in turn,
connected to a pump. The ground water is drawn by the pump into the
wellpoints through the header pipe and discharged.

• The well-points are usually installed with 0.75m – 3m spacing

2. Well point systems
2. Well point systems
3. DEEP WELL
• Deep well drainage system consists of deep wells and submersible or
turbine pumps which can be installed outside the zone of construction
operations and the water table lowered to the desire level.
• Deep wells are usually spaced from 8-80 meters depending upon the
level to which water table must be lowered, permeability of the sand
stratum, source of seepage and amount of submergence available.
• Deep wells may be combined with the well point system on certain field
conditions for lowering the ground water tables
• Normally, individual wells are spaced at an approximate distance of 15
m (50 feet) apart.
• However, depending upon soil conditions and the dewatering plan the
spacing may need to be just a few meters apart.
3. DEWATERING CAPACITY OF DEEP WELL POINT SYSTEM
• Individual well capacities are from 2100 to 3000 gallons per minute and
with total systems the capacities can be as high as 60,000 gallons per
minute.

• Deep well pumps can lift water 30 m (100 feet) or more in a single stage
and the variation of the typical deep well system is a pressure within an
aquifer.

• Deep well points require no pump as the water is forced to the surface
by its own pressure. To boost the water flow a vacuum pump is
frequently used.
3. Deep well point system
3. Deep well point system
4. Vacuum dewatering systems Important

• Gravity methods, such as well points and deep wells are not much effective in the fine-grained
soils (due to capillary tension). Such soils (with permeability's 10E-4 to 10E-6 m/s) can be
dewatered satisfactorily by applying a vacuum to the piping system.

• Principle: A vacuum dewatering system requires that the well-point screens, and rise a pipe be
surrounded with filter sand extending to within a few metres of the ground surface. This
method is most suitable in layered or stratified soils. A vacuum is applied to the sealed off filter
section of the well, seepage in to well is increased due to influence of atmospheric pressure.

• To be effective, vacuum wells have to be spaced very closely, say 1 to 2.5m.

The distance between rows of wells should not be more than 15 to 20m.

• Submersible pumps in combination with vacuum pumps could provide

dewatering to a greater depth. Horizontal systems are also conceivable.
Important
5. Electro osmosis

• Dewatering Technique is done through the use of cathodes and anodes with passage of Electrical
current.

• Electro-osmosis is defined as “the movement of water through a porous media by applying a

direct current (DC) field”.

• It is the only effective method of dewatering in deep clay soils, silty clays, silts and some peats.
Mechanism of Electro-osmosis
• When electrodes are placed across a clay mass and a direct current is
applied, water in the clay pore space is transported to the cathodically
charged electrode by electro-osmosis.

• Electro-osmotic transport of water through a clay is a result of diffuse

double layer cations in the clay pores being attracted to a negatively
charged electrode or cathode.

• The macroscopic effect is a reduction of water content at the anode and

an increase in water content of the clay at the cathode.
5. Electro osmosis
Electroosmosis (electroconsolidation)

Definition:
The movement ( migration) of the dispersion medium of colloidal
solution, under the influence of electrical field, when dispersed
particles are prevented from moving is known as
ELECTROOSMOSIS.

Ruess experiment:
1. Two glass tubes with electrodes were pushed into clayey soil.
2. Upon application of electric current, water is observed to flow in
the direction of electric current towards the cathode, raising the
water level in cathode tube.
Electro osmosis
Module 1 Problems based on Previous question papers
1.Problems on Design features affecting degree of disturbance
2.Problems on SPT corrections
3.Problems on Seismic refraction methods
4.Problems on Location of ground water table (Hvorslev’s method)
8. Estimation of depth of GWT (Hvorslev’s method)
1. As per the Hvorslev’s method, water
table level can also be located in a
borehole used for soil investigation. That
type of bore hole should have a casing to
stabilize the sides.

2. This method consists of

(a) bailing the water out of the casing

(b) observing the rate of rise of the water
level in the casing at different intervals
of time until the rise in Water level
becomes negligible.
(c) t=t1, t=t2, t=t3 Hw
(d) h1, h2, h3 is the height difference of
water levels at t0-t1, t1-t2, t2-t3
(h1≠h2 ≠h3)
8. Estimation of depth of GWT (Hvorslev’s method)
The depths Ho, H2 , H3 of the water level in the
casing from the normal water table level can
be computed as follows:
HVORSLEV’S METHOD cont…
• Let the corresponding depths of water table level below Ground surface
the ground surface be hw1, hw2, hw3 etc.
Now we have hw
hw1 = Hw – Ho
hw2 = Hw - (h1 + h2) – H2
hw3 = Hw - (h1 + h2 + h3) – H3 Hw H2
H3

Where, Hw is the depth of water level in the casing from H0

the ground surface at the start of the test.
Normally hw1 = hw2 = hw3 ; if not an average value gives
hw , the depth of ground water table.
8. Estimation of depth of GWT (Hvorslev’s method)- Problem
1. Establish the location of ground water in a clayey stratum. Water in the borehole was bailed out to a depth of 10.5 m below
The ground surface and the rise of water was recorded at 24 h interval is as follows:
h1 = 0.63 m , h2 = 0.57 m, h3 = 0.51 m

Solution:

Average 2
3
2. Establish the location of ground water in a clayey stratum. Water in the borehole was bailed out
to a depth of 32 m below The ground surface and the rise of water was recorded at 24 h interval is
as follows: Water raise in first day = 2.4 m , Second day = 2 m, Third day = 1.6 m
(June/July- 2019, 08 marks)

3. Establish the location of ground water in a clayey stratum. Water in the borehole was bailed out
to a depth of 15 m below The ground surface and the rise of water was recorded at 24 h interval is
as follows: h1 = 0.80 m , h2 = 0.70 m, h3 = 0.60 m (Dec/Jan 19 (10 marks))

4. Establish the location of ground water in a clayey stratum. Water in the borehole was bailed out
to a depth of 18 m below The ground surface and the rise of water was recorded at 24 h interval is
as follows: h1 = 0.95 m , h2 = 0.86 m, h3 = 0.78 m (Dec/Jan 18 (8 marks))