LEADERS PRIVATE SCHOOL, SHARJAH

CH 1 ELECTRIC CHARGES & FIELDS: 2024-25

PHYSICS-Notes
Class: XII

Electric charge
Electric charge is the property of matter by which a particle can influenced by
the electric or magnetic fields
Properties electric charges
1. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other
2. Electric charges are additive
3. Electric charges are quantized (electrons are transferred from one object
to another only as integral multiple of electronic charge, e)
Total amount of charge, Q = ±𝑛𝑒
4. Electric charges are conserved (charge can neither be created nor be
destroyed but only be transferred from one object to another)

Coulomb’s law in Electrostatics

Electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion is directly proportional to the
magnitude of product of point charges and inversely proportional to the square
of distance between them.

𝑞1 𝑞2
Electrostatic force, F 𝛼
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2 1 1
F=𝐾 where K = for free space or vacuum = 9 x 109 N𝑚2 𝐶 −2
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0

Where 𝜀0 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 8.854 x

10−12 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2 𝐶 2
Dimension of permittivity = 𝑀−1 𝐿−3 𝑇 −4 𝐴2
When charges are kept in a medium
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Electrostatic force, F = where 𝜀 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2
𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 where 𝜀𝑟 relative permittivity of the medium ( or dielectric constant
k)
Dielectric constant is defined as the ratio of electrostatic force of attraction
between the two points charges when it is placed in frees space to that when it
is placed a medium
Vector form of Coulomb’s law

Electric field
• The region around the electric charges where you can experience an electrostatic
force is called electric field
• Electric field at a point is defined as the electrostatic force acting on a unit positive
charge placed at that point.
• Electric field due to a point charge
Let P be a point at a distance r from the charge, q. A unit positive charge is kept at P
Then electric field will be the electrostatic force acting on the unit positive charge
placed at P

Direction will be in the direction

𝐹
• Electric field is electrostatic force per unit charge, E = 𝑞
Electrostatic force, F = Eq. Electric field is a vector. S.I.unit of electric field is N/C.
Dimension of electric field -ML𝑇 −3 𝐴−1
• Direction of electric field is from positive to negative
Electric dipole
• Electric dipole is a system of equal and opposite charges separated by a short
distance

• Electric dipole moment is the product of either of the charges and distance between
them. Direction of electric dipole moment is from negative to positive. S.I.unit of
electric dipole moment is Cm. Dimension-ATM. Electric dipole moment is a vector

Electric field due to a dipole along its axial point

Let C be an axial point at a distance, r from the centre of an electric dipole

P be the dipole moment, P = 2𝑞𝑙
From diagram,
Net electric field at C, 𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴
𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞
= −
(𝑟−𝑙)2 (𝑟+𝑙)2

(𝑟+𝑙)2 −(𝑟−𝑙)2
= kq ( )
(𝑟−𝑙)2 (𝑟+𝑙)2

4𝑟𝑙
= kq 2 but 4𝑞𝑙 = 2𝑃, 𝑟 ≫≫ 𝑙, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
(𝑟 2 −𝑙 2)

2𝑘𝑃𝑟
=
𝑟4
2𝑘𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 1
𝑝̂ where k = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑟3 0
Electric field due to a dipole along its equatorial point

Let C be an equatorial point at a distance, r from the centre of an electric

dipole and P be the dipole moment, P = 2𝑞𝑙
From diagram,
𝑘𝑞 𝑙
Net electric field at C, 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 2 E cos𝜗 but E = , cos𝜗 = 1
𝑟 2 +𝑙 2
(𝑟 2 +𝑙 2 )2

𝑘𝑞 𝑙
= 2 1 but , P = 2𝑞𝑙
𝑟 2 +𝑙 2
(𝑟 2 +𝑙 2 )2

𝑘𝑃
= 3 , r>>>>𝑙, 𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
(𝑟 2 +𝑙 2 )2

𝑘𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = (−𝑝
̂ )
(𝑟)3

NOTE: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 is two times 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 and they are antiparallel to each other
Torque on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field

Let P be the electric dipole moment, E be uniform electric field and 𝜗 be the
angle between P & E
From diagram,

Net translational force, 𝐹 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐹𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐴 = E q – Eq =0 (So, dipole does not move
linearly)
Torque on the dipole = force x perpendicular distance
= Eq x 2𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜗 but, P = 2𝑞𝑙
𝜏 = PE 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜗

𝜏 = 𝑃⃗𝑋𝐸⃗
The direction of cross product is found as follows
Curl the fingers of right hand from first vector to the second vector in such a
way that it traverses shortest angle, then thumb gives the direction of cross
product of two vectors

Electric field lines

• An electric field line is an imaginary line or curve drawn through a region of empty
space so that its tangent at any point is in the direction of the electric field vector at
that point.
• Characteristics of electric field lines
1) Field lines never intersect each other.
2) They are perpendicular to the surface charge.
3) The field is strong when the lines are close together, and it is weak when the field
lines move apart from each other.
4) The number of field lines is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
Electric flux
• Electric flux is the scalar product of electric field and area vector
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, ∅𝐸 = 𝐸⃗ . 𝐴 = E A cos 𝜗 , where 𝜗 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴
Direction of area vector is given by the outward normal of that surface
S.I unit is 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −1 . Dimension: M𝐿3 𝑇 −3 𝐴−1
• Electric flux is the total number of field lines passing through an area

Gauss’s theorem in electrostatics

1
“Net electric flux through a closed surface is times net charge
𝜀0
enclosed by the surface when the charge is placed in free space”
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝜀0

Or
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 𝜀0

Where 𝜀0 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 8.854 x 10−12 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2 𝐶 2

Electric field due to infinitely long straight wire using Gauss’s theorem
Let 𝜆 be the linear charge density of infinitely long straight wire and r be
the distance from the wire to the point P parallel to the wire or r be the
radius of cylindrical Gaussian surface
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 𝜀0
2𝜋𝑟𝑙 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐸 ∫0 𝑑𝐴 = but 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝜆𝑙
𝜀0
𝜆𝑙
E 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0
𝜆
E=
2𝜋𝑟𝜀0
When 𝜆 > 0, 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝜆 < 0, 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite thin plane sheet using
Gauss’s theorem

Let 𝜎 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 of charges on an infinite thin

plane sheet
P be a point at a distance “r” from the plane sheet.
Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface with area of cross section dA

From diagram,
Total electric flux over the entire surface of the cylinder, ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2EdA
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
By Gauss’s law in electrostatics, ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = but 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴
𝜀0
𝜎𝑑𝐴
2E dA =
𝜀0
𝜎
𝐸⃗ = 𝑛̂
2𝜀0
When 𝜎 > 0 (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒),
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡
𝜎
Note: for thick infinite plane sheet, 𝐸⃗ = 𝑛̂
𝜀0
Electric field due to uniformly charged thin spherical shell (field inside
and outside)
Inside the spherical cell

Let 𝜎 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 and consider a Gaussian
spherical surface with radius r inside the shell. dA be the surface area from this surface.
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
Net flux through the surface, ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = by Gauss’s law in electrostatics
𝜀0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 0 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝜀
0
E=0
Out side the shell

Let 𝜎 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 and consider a Gaussian
spherical surface with radius r outside the shell. dA be the surface area from this surface.
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
Net flux through the surface, ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = by Gauss’s law in electrostatics
𝜀0
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜎 4𝜋𝑟
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 𝜀0
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜎 4𝜋𝑅 2
𝐸 ∫0 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝜎 4𝜋𝑅 2
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝜀0
𝜎 𝑅2
𝐸= radially out ward for positive charge density
𝜀0 𝑟 2