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THEORY FILE : DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

(FULL NOTES WITH DETAILS BY: SAHIL ) .
SUBJECT CODE: UGCA: 1922

BACHELOR OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

MAINTAINED BY: TEACHER’S / MAM’S :

Sahil Kumar Prof.

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COLLEGE ROLL NO: 226617

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO: 2200315

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DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING

BABA BANDA SINGH BAHADUR ENGINEERING

COLLEGE FATEGARH SAHIB

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Program BCA

Course Name ➖
Semester 4th.
Database Management systems .

UNIT ➖ 01

● Introduction of DBMS ➖
A database management system (DBMS) is a software tool that helps organisations create,
manage, and retrieve data from a database. It acts as an interface between the database and
the end-user, ensuring that the data is well-organised and accessible.

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1. Security
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Some characteristics of DBMS include:

2. Self-describing nature
3. Insulation between programs and data abstraction
4. Support of multiple views of the data
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Some types of DBMS include:
1. Relational databases (RDBMS) The most widely used type of DBMS. It uses a
table-based structure to store and organise data. Each table represents a specific entity,
and data is stored in rows and columns. RDBMS uses structured query language (SQL)
to interact with databases.

2. Hierarchical databases ➖ Organises model data in a tree-like structure. Data storage

is either a top-down or bottom-up format and is represented using a parent-child
relationship.

● Data Modeling for a Database ➖

Data modelling is a key step in software engineering that involves creating a structured
representation of data and its relationships within a system. It involves:

1. Evaluating all the data dependencies for the application

2. Explaining how the data will be used by the software
3. Defining data objects that will be stored in a database
4. Creating a visual data map that accurately describes the data structure
5. Highlighting important data relationships
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Data modelling serves as a blueprint for designing databases and information systems. It
ensures organised, consistent, and manageable data.

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The steps involved in data modelling include : Requirements analysis, Conceptual
modelling, Logical modelling, Physical modelling, Maintenance and optimization.

● Three level Architecture of DBMS ➖

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The three-level architecture of a database management system (DBMS) is made up of the
following levels:

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1. External level
The highest level of abstraction, this level is concerned with how users and user groups see
the data.

2. Conceptual level ➖
This level is concerned with the way the DBMS and operating system differentiate the data.

3. Internal level ➖
This level is concerned with how the DBMS and operating system store the data using data
structures and files.

The three-level architecture of a database can be viewed as three levels of abstraction. The
architecture allows for multiple data views to be created to meet the needs of different users.
For example, faculty salary information can be hidden from student view, but shown in admin
view.
The ANSI-SPARC Architecture (American National Standards Institute, Standards Planning
And Requirements Committee) is an abstract design standard for a DBMS. It was first
proposed in 1975, but never became a formal standard.
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● Components of a DBMS
A database management system (DBMS) has five main components: Hardware, Software,
Data, Procedures, Database access language.
A DBMS is a software program that database developers use to create tables, relationships,
and other structures in a database.

Here are some other components of a DBMS: ➖

1. Users ➖
Users are the fourth most important component of a DBMS. They use the information entered

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into a database to perform their business operations and responsibilities.
2. Database design
This is the process of creating and organising a database structure to meet an organisation's

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needs and requirements. A well-designed database ensures data storage, reliability, and

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security.
3. Data security
This is the process of protecting data from unauthorised access. It includes both physical and

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logical security measures.
4. Data structure
This is a key feature of a DBMS. All the data is stored in a categorised structure so that it
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5. DBMS architecture ➖
becomes easier for the user to call upon the data when it is required.

This refers to the overall design of a DBMS which includes its components, modules, and their
interrelationships. It describes how data is stored, accessed, managed, and controlled in a

● Introduction to Data Models ➖

Data modelling is a key step in software engineering that involves creating a structured
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representation of data and its relationships within a system. It involves evaluating all the data
dependencies for the application and defining data objects that will be stored in a database for
later use.
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Data modelling involves: Requirements analysis, Conceptual modelling, Logical modelling,
Physical modelling, Maintenance and optimization.

Data models provide a blueprint for designing a new database or reengineering a legacy
application. They help design the database at the conceptual, physical, and logical levels.

Data models help avoid the drawbacks of poorly designed data. They are similar to a map that
aids in the organisation of data for better use.

● Hierarchical ➖
In software engineering, a hierarchical structure is a way of organising elements into levels or
layers.
Each level has a parent-child relationship with the next one. The top level is the root, and the

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lowest level is the leaf. Each element in a level can have one or more children, but only one
parent.

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Hierarchical architecture is a type of distributed system in which the modules are organized
into multiple control levels. This approach is typically used in designing system software such
as network protocols and operating systems.

In a hierarchical system design, each level in the hierarchy represents a different level of
abstraction. Higher levels are more abstract and lower levels are more detailed.

● Network and Relational Model ➖

The network model and the relational model are two different ways to organize data in a
database.
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Here are some differences between the two models: ➖
1. Network model ➖
Represents data as record types. Uses links to represent the relationship between entities.

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Network databases can be represented as a graph, defined by a schema.
2. Relational model
Represents data as relations or tables. Access is usually through a language like SQL.
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Here are some other differences: ➖
1. Network models can have more than one parent.
2. Network models are complex and difficult to design, implement, and maintain.
3. Network models require a high level of technical skill and knowledge.
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It's rare to find a database that uses both models simultaneously.

● Comparison of Network ➖
Networks are made up of endpoints that send and receive data, while software is a collection
of data that runs devices and computers.

Network engineers focus on fixing issues with computer networks, while software engineers
focus on creating applications and software.

Here are some other differences between network and software engineers:

1. Responsibilities: Network engineers plan, design, and deploy network infrastructure.

Software engineers design, develop, test, deploy, and maintain software systems.

2. Work schedules: Most software engineers work full-time, 40 hours a week, Monday
through Friday. They may work from home or in the office.

3. Salary: Salary differences are a factor to consider.

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There are four types of area networks:
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a LAN that doesn't use cables to connect to the
network. WLANs are used in the same situations as LANs, but the choice depends on whether
you want a remote cloud solution or an on-premises solution.

● Hierarchical and Relational Model ➖

What Is A Hierarchical Data Model?

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A hierarchical data model organises data in a tree-like structure. Data elements are
represented as nodes with parent-child relationships. Due to this approach, hierarchical
databases are especially adept at representing structured data with well-defined relationships.
Each parent can have multiple children, but each child has only one parent.

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What Is A Relational Data Model?
A relational data model represents data as tables consisting of rows and columns. Each row in
a table represents a specific record, while each column represents an attribute or field.

The relational database management system (DBMS) continues to serve as a reliable

workhorse for the modern enterprise. Most database administrators and developers are
accustomed to the relational data model and its representation of data in tabular form, where
data elements are organised into tables with rows and columns.
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Hierarchical Data Model Vs. Relational Data Model At A Glance
Hierarchical and relational data modelling paradigms have distinct characteristics, differing
significantly in structure, how they represent data, and their operational mechanisms. Here’s a
high-level look at how they compare.

Hierarchical Data Model Relational Data Model

Stores data hierarchically in tree structure; Uses Organises data in table form; Uses common
parent-child relationships fields to establish relationships between tables

Does not support queries Supports declarative queries

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Complex and difficult to design Comparatively easy for users

Less flexible More flexible

● Entity Relationship Model ➖

In software engineering, an Entity Relationship Model (ER Model) is a high-level data model
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that defines the relationship between data elements within a software system. ER Models are
typically drawn at three levels of abstraction: conceptual, logical, and physical
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ER Models are represented graphically by ER Diagrams. ER Diagrams are visual tools used to
model and design databases. They represent the relationship between entities in a database
system, as well as the attributes of these entities and their interactions.

ER Modeling is a systematic process for designing a database. It requires analyzing all data
requirements before implementing the database.

Here are some ER Model concepts:

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1. Multivalued attribute
An attribute that consists of more than one value for a given entity. For example, a phone
number. In ER diagrams, multivalued attributes are represented by a double oval.

2. Cardinality ➖
The number of values in a set. In ER Diagrams, cardinality specifies how many instances of an
entity relate to one instance of another entity. The three main cardinal relationships are
one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-many.

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UNIT

● Relational Database ➖
A relational database (RDB) is a way to organise information in tables, rows, and columns. It's
also a type of database that stores and provides access to data points that are related to one
another.

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In a relational database, each row in the database table is a record with a unique identifier
called a key. Each column holds attributes of the data.

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Here are some benefits of the relational database approach:
1. Create meaningful information
Joining tables allows you to understand the relations between the data, or how the tables
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connect.

2. Easy to sort and find information ➖

This helps organisations make business decisions more efficiently and minimise costs.

Relational databases are based on the relational model, which is a straightforward way of
representing data in tables. The Structured Query Language (SQL) is used to manipulate
relational databases.

● Relational Algebra and Calculus ➖

Relational algebra and relational calculus are both formal query languages used to retrieve and
manipulate data from a relational database management system. They differ in syntax and
level of abstraction.
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Relational algebra is a procedural query language that uses a step-by-step procedure for
carrying out a query. Relational calculus is a non-procedural or declarative query language that
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describes the information. Relational algebra targets how to obtain the result, while relational
calculus targets what result to obtain.

Relational algebra is more operational and useful for representing execution plans. Relational
calculus lets users describe what they want, rather than how to compute it.

For a database language to be relationally complete, the query written in it must be expressible
in relational calculus.
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Difference between Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus:

Basis of
S.NO Relational Algebra Relational Calculus
Comparison

It is a Procedural Relational Calculus is a Declarative

1. Language Type
language. (non-procedural) language.

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Relational Algebra
Relational Calculus means what result
2. Procedure means how to obtain
we have to obtain.
the result.

3. Order
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the order is specified in In Relational Calculus, the order is not
which the operations specified.
have to be performed.
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Relational Algebra is Relation Calculus can be
4. Domain independent of the domain-dependent because of domain
domain. relational calculus.

Relational Algebra is
Relational Calculus is not nearer to
Programming nearer to a
5. programming language but to natural
language programming
language.
language.
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● SQL Fundamentals
Structured Query Language (SQL) is a fundamental building block of modern database
architecture. It's the primary language used for relational databases, where all the data sets
are connected.

SQL is used for: ➖

❖ Creating databases: Defining their structure, implementing them, and performing various
functions on them
❖ Accessing, maintaining, and manipulating: Already created databases
❖ Entering, modifying, and extracting data: In a database

SQL is considered a foundational programming skill. Some say that every software developer
or programmer should know how to write SQL queries to retrieve data from a database.

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SQL queries are fundamental processes. For example, the “SELECT” query is used to retrieve
data from the database.

SQL joins are a fundamental aspect of SQL and are used in many database management
systems. They allow you to retrieve data from multiple tables and combine it in a single result
set. This is useful for creating complex queries and performing data analysis.
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SQL transactions are an important feature of SQL and its ability to maintain quality data in the
database. Transactions adhere to the ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
Durability). They can be started, committed, and rolled back.

● DDL, DML, DCL, PL/SQL Concepts ➖

In software engineering and database management, several concepts are crucial for working
with relational database systems. These concepts are often associated with the Structured
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Query Language (SQL) and its extensions. Here's an overview of DDL (Data Definition
Language), DML (Data Manipulation Language), DCL (Data Control Language), and PL/SQL
(Procedural Language/Structured Query Language):

1. DDL (Data Definition Language): ➖

A. Definition: ➖ DDL is a subset of SQL that deals with the structure (schema) of the
database. It involves the creation, alteration, and deletion of database objects such as
tables, views, indexes, etc.

B. Key Commands: ➖
❖ CREATE: Used to create database objects like tables, indexes, views, etc.
❖ ALTER: Used to modify the structure of existing database objects.
❖ DROP: Used to delete database objects.
❖ TRUNCATE: Removes all records from a table, but retains the structure for future use.
❖ COMMENT: Adds comments to the data dictionary.
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1. DML (Data Manipulation Language):

A. Definition: DML is used for managing data within the database. It includes operations
like inserting, updating, retrieving, and deleting data from tables.

B. Key Commands:
❖ SELECT: Retrieves data from one or more tables.
❖ INSERT: Adds new records to a table.
❖ UPDATE: Modifies existing records in a table.
❖ DELETE: Removes records from a table.

1. DCL (Data Control Language): ➖

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A. Definition: DCL is concerned with the rights, permissions, and other access control
aspects of the database. It includes commands for granting and revoking permissions.

B. Key Commands:
❖ GRANT: Provides specific privileges to a user or role.
❖ REVOKE: Removes specific privileges from a user or role.

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1. PL/SQL (Procedural Language/Structured Query Language):

A. Definition: PL/SQL is an extension of SQL that adds procedural programming

constructs. It allows the creation of stored procedures, functions, triggers, and more.
B. Key Features:
❖ Variables, loops, conditional statements for procedural programming.
❖ Exception handling for error management.
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❖ Ability to create reusable code in the form of procedures and functions.

These concepts are fundamental to understanding and working with relational databases, and
they play a crucial role in designing, managing, and interacting with database systems in
software engineering.

● Cursors ➖
In software engineering, a cursor is a temporary memory or workstation that's allocated by a
database server. It's used to store database tables and to refer to a program that fetches and
processes rows returned by an SQL statement.

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There are two types of cursors:
1. Implicit cursors: These are automatically created when select statements are
executed.

2. Explicit cursors: ➖ These need to be defined by the user by providing a name. They
can fetch multiple rows and close automatically after execution.
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Cursors can also refer to:
❖ Text insertion cursors: These indicate where text can be inserted.
❖ Pointing cursors: These indicate where the mouse pointer is located.
❖ Selection cursors: These select text or other items.
❖ Busy cursors: These indicate that the computer is busy processing data.

● Stored Procedures ➖
In software engineering, a stored procedure is a collection of pre-compiled SQL statements
that are saved in a database. Stored procedures are also known as subroutines and can be
used by applications that access a relational database management system (RDBMS).

Stored procedures can help improve the performance, security, and maintainability of software
applications. They can also be easily modified, reused, and can automate tasks that require

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multiple SQL statements.

Here are some other benefits of stored procedures: ➖

1. Access or modify data: Stored procedures can access or modify data in a database.

2. Remote procedure call: Stored procedures are a form of remote procedure call that
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operates in a client-server environment.

3. Define programming interface: Stored procedures define a programming interface for

the database instead of allowing the client application to interact with database objects
directly.

Stored procedures can accept input parameters, perform defined operations, and return
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multiple output values.

To get the most out of stored procedures, it is important to follow standards and conventions
for designing and implementing them.

● Stored Functions ➖
A stored function is a defined function that is called from within an SQL statement and returns
a single value. It is a PL/SQL unit of code that consists of SQL and PL/SQL statements that
perform a set of related tasks or solve specific problems.

Stored functions are one of the types of stored programs in MySQL. To create a stored
function, you must have a CREATE ROUTINE database privilege.

Here are some differences between stored functions and stored procedures:

1. Return values ➖
A stored function can only return one value, while a stored procedure can return multiple
values or an entire result set.
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2. Supported parameters
A stored function only supports input parameters, while a stored procedure supports IN, OUT,
and INOUT parameters in any combination.

3. Execution ➖
A stored procedure is run as a unit, while a function performs several actions serially.

4. Performance ➖
Stored procedures and functions are pre-compiled and stored in the database, which means
they can be executed more quickly than ad-hoc queries. This can result in faster response
times and better overall performance of the database.

Functions can be overloaded, meaning that you can create many functions, all with the same

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name, as long as each function has a different set of parameters. At run time, the SQL engine
will determine which of the functions to invoke, based upon the parameters passed.

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● Database Triggers ➖
In software engineering, a database trigger is a piece of code that automatically executes
when a specific event occurs in a database. Events can be data manipulation operations, like
updates, inserts, or deletes, or system events, like logins or logouts.
Database triggers are mainly used to maintain the integrity of the information in the database.
They help maintain database integrity by preventing incorrect, unauthorised, or inconsistent
changes to data.

There are different types of triggers in SQL, including: ➖

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❖ DML triggers: These triggers run when a user tries to modify data through a data
manipulation language (DML) event. DML events are INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statements on a table or view.

❖ Logon triggers: These triggers fire when the LOGON event of SQL Server is raised.
This event is raised when a user session is being established with SQL Server.

❖ Row-level triggers: These triggers are used for data retrieval operations.

❖ Statement-level triggers: These triggers are associated with data manipulation

operations.

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UNIT

● Introduction to Normalisation ➖
Database normalisation is a process for organising data in a database. It involves creating
tables and establishing relationships between them. The goal is to eliminate data redundancy
and inconsistent dependency, and to make the database more flexible.

The concept of normalisation was first proposed in the 1970s by IBM researchers E.F. Codd.

Here are some objectives of database normalisation: ➖

1. Eliminate redundant data
2. Minimise data modification errors

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3. Simplify the query process
4. Improve workflow
5. Increase security
6. Lessen costs

Normalisation is a multi-step process that involves:

1. Setting the data into tabular form
2. Removing duplicated data from the relational tables
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The first three steps of normalisation are:
1. Each attribute in the connection is atomic
2. The non-prime qualities become functionally reliant on the entire candidate key
3. The non-prime attributes become directly (non-transitively) reliant on candidate keys
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● First, Second, Third Normal Forms
The first three types of database normalisation are 1NF, 2NF, and 3NF, which stand for first
normal form, second normal form, and third normal form.

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Here are some details about each normal form:
1. First normal form (1NF)
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The first step in normalising a table by reducing confusion and redundancy. In 1NF, you
remove redundant columns and fields, and add a primary key. A relation is in 1NF if and only if
no attribute domain has relations as elements.

2. Second normal form (2NF) ➖

Based on the principle of full functional dependency. It is specifically applied to relations that
have composite keys, which are relations with a primary key comprising two or more attributes.

3. Third normal form (3NF) ➖

A means of organising database tables by removing the transitive dependencies from a
relational system. A relation is said to be in its third normal form when it's in 2NF but has no
transitive partial dependency.

● Dependency Preservation ➖
Dependency Preserving Decomposition is a technique used in Database Management System
(DBMS) to decompose a relation into smaller relations while preserving the functional
dependencies between the attributes. The goal is to improve the efficiency of the database by
reducing redundancy and improving query performance.
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● Boyce-Codd Normal Form
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is a higher level of database normalization that applies to
relational databases with a primary key. BCNF is a stricter form of 3NF that ensures that each
determinant in a table is a candidate key.

BCNF states that every non-key column in a table should depend on the whole primary key,
and not on any subset of it.

A table is in BCNF if every functional dependency X → Y, X is the super key of the table.

Here are some steps for BCNF decomposition: ➖

1. Identify the dependencies which violate the BCNF definition and consider that as X->A.

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2. Decompose the relation R into XA & R-{A} (R minus A).

Transformation into Boyce-Codd normal form deals with the problem of overlapping keys. An
indirect dependency is resolved by creating a new relation for each entity.

● Multi-valued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form ➖

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In database management systems (DBMS), the fourth normal form (4NF) is a higher level of
database normalisation that removes multi-valued dependencies from a relational database.
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A multi-valued dependency occurs when a table contains more than one independent,
multi-valued relationship among the data. For example, a multi-valued dependency exists for a
relation A −> B when multiple values of B exist for a single value of A.

4NF helps to:

❖ Eliminate data redundancy
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❖ Improve data integrity
❖ Improve database performance

4NF is similar to the Boyce-Codd normal form, but 4NF is stronger because it exchanges
functional dependencies with multivalued dependencies.

● Join Dependencies and Fifth Normal Form ➖

In database management systems (DBMS), join dependencies and fifth normal form (5NF) are
related concepts. 5NF is a level of database normalisation that ensures a table has no join
dependencies.

A join dependency occurs when a table can be split into two or more smaller tables, and then
reconstructed by joining them on their primary keys, without losing any information.

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A relation is said to be in 5NF if and only if it satisfies 4NF and no join dependency exists. 5NF
is also known as Project-join normal form (PJ/NF).

A relation is in 5NF if it is in 4NF, and won't have lossless decomposition into smaller tables.
You can also consider that a relation is in 5NF, if the candidate key implies every join
dependency in it.
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The concept of Join Dependency is directly based on the concept of 5NF. Similar to functional
or multivalued dependency, join dependency is a constraint.

● Domain-key normal form (DKNF) ➖

Domain-key normal form (DKNF) is a database normalisation technique that ensures a
relational database schema is free from modification anomalies. It requires that the database
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contains no constraints other than domain constraints and key constraints.

DKNF goes beyond the Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) and addresses additional
constraints that BCNF might not capture.
A relation is in DKNF when insertion or delete anomalies are not present in the database.
DKNF ensures there are no insertion and deletion anomalies.
If a relation is in DKNF, it is already in 5NF, 4NF, 3NF, BCNF, 2NF, 1NF.
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UNIT

● Database Recovery ➖
Database recovery in database management systems (DBMS) is the process of restoring a
database to its original state after a failure.

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Here are some related concepts:

1. Backup: A replication of data that can be used in case of a database failure.

2. Concurrency control: A feature that allows multiple users to access a database at the
same time. It prevents two users from changing the same record at the same time and
serialises transactions for backup and recovery.
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3. Data independence: A property that allows the schema at one level of the DBMS to be
changed without affecting the schema at the next level.
4. Data integrity management: A concept that ensures data protection from corruption.
5. Log-based recovery: A technique that uses transaction logs to recover a database to a
consistent state after a failure or crash.
6. Oracle: A database that uses the RMAN (Recovery Manager) functionality to recover or
restore database files during downtime or outages.

● Concurrency Management ➖
Concurrency management in database management systems (DBMS) is the process of
managing simultaneous operations without conflict. It ensures that database transactions are
performed correctly and concurrently to produce correct results without violating data integrity.

The primary goal of concurrency control is to allow transactions to run concurrently while
maintaining the database's ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability) properties.

Here are some concurrency management protocols: ➖

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1. Timestamp Ordering Protocol
Uses a timestamp for each transaction to determine its order in relation to other transactions.

2. Lock-based Protocol ➖
Applies a lock condition on the data element, which helps in restricting another resource to
perform read and write operation until the lock is active. There are mainly two types of lock
such as shared or read-only lock and exclusive lock.

3. Validation based protocol ➖

Requires that each transaction executes in two or three different phases in its lifetime,
depending on whether it is a read-only or an update transaction.

4. Timestamp-based Protocol ➖

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Uses the System Time or Logical Counter as a timestamp to serialize the execution of
concurrent transactions.

● Database Security ➖
Database security is a set of tools, controls, and measures that protect databases from
unauthorised access, misuse, and other security breaches. The goal of database security is to
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protect critical and confidential data from unauthorised access.

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Database security is based on three constructs: Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability.
Here are some best practices for database security:
1. Separate database servers and web servers
2. Encrypt data at rest and in transit
3. Use strong authentication
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4. Continuously discover sensitive data
5. Revoke privileges continuously
6. Deploy physical database security
7. Ensure database user accounts are secure
8. Monitor database activity

Encryption is a technique that encodes data so that only authorised users can understand it.
However, encryption alone is not enough to secure data.

Authentication is the process of proving a user's identity by entering the correct user ID and
password. Authorization allows each user to access certain data objects and perform certain
database operations.

● Integrity and Control ➖

Integrity constraints in database management systems (DBMS) are a set of rules that ensure
the quality of information. They ensure that data is consistent and accurate, and that data
insertion, modification, and other operations do not affect data integration.
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Integrity constraints are protocols that a table's data columns must follow. They restrict the
types of information that can be entered into a table. You can apply integrity constraints at the

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column or table level.

There are four main types of integrity constraints: Domain, Entity, Referential, Key.
Integrity control is a control that rejects invalid data inputs, prevents unauthorised data outputs,
and protects data and programs against accidental or malicious tampering.

Data integrity in a database is preserved by an array of error-checking and validation

procedures, rules, and principles executed during the integration flow designing phase.
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● Design of Distributed Databases ➖
A distributed database management system (DDBMS) is a collection of databases that are
logically related and spread across a network. The databases are not located on a single
server system. Each site has its own database, and the databases are connected to form a
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single, integrated system.

Here are some design strategies for distributed databases: ➖

1. Data replication ➖
This is the process of storing separate copies of the database at two or more sites. It is a
popular fault tolerance technique.
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2. Fragmentation
This is the task of dividing a table into a set of smaller tables. The subsets of the table are
called fragments. Fragmentation can be of three types: horizontal, vertical, and hybrid.

3. Design of distribution ➖
This can be performed top-down or bottom-up. The first approach is typical of a distributed
database developed from scratch. The second approach is typical of the development of a
multidatabase as the aggregation of existing databases.

A decentralised architecture provides several benefits, including enhanced scalability, fault

tolerance, and improved performance.

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HAPPY ENDING BY SAHIL RAUNIYAR

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