CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. The Theoretical Framework

1. Error Analysis

There are various definitions of error analysis, as a standard to know

the students’ error. It is very important to explain the error. Ubol, in Nuraya

(2004, p. 13) said that error analysis is systematic description and

explanation of the error made by the language learners or language users in

their oral and written production in the target language. It means that the

error analysis can be seen from the error made by language users in written

production in their subject (degree of comparison).

Error analysis distinguishes from constructive analysis by

examining of errors attributable to all possible sources not just those that

result from negative transfer of native language. According to Brown

(1980), error analysis is a reaction to the view of second language learning

proposed by constructive analysis theory which assumes language transfer

as the central process involved in second and foreign language learning.

Theoretical aspect of error analysis is a part of the methods used in

investigating thelanguage learning process. The practical aspect of error

analysis is a function guiding the action we must take to correct a non

satisfactory state of affairs for students or teachers.

Sometimes, someone does or writes something by which he does not

knowanything about what he has done of course he got wrong.

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Sometimes,someone does something that principally he knew it but because

of his carelessness or forgetfulness he must got wrong too. In short, when

we do something that wedo not have knowledge or experience about, it is

categorized into error. While, when we do something though basically we

knew it but because of our carelessness or forgetfulness finally we got

wrong. It is categorized into mistake.

a. The Meaning of Error

Learning English language is a process that involves the making

of mistakes even errors as in this new system of language, a learner will

directly connects with a new vocabulary, grammar pattern and a foreign

pronunciation, which differ from learner’s native language. Before

knowing why and what types of errorsare made by the students, it is

important to know the definition about error itself.

According to Harmer (2001, p. 100), errors are part of the

learner inter language that is the version of the language which a learner

has any one stage of development and which is continually reshaped as

he/she aims toward full mastery. It seems that error is part of language

learning. Besides, Brown (2000,p.217) defines error as a noticeable

deviation from adult grammar of native speaker, reflecting the inter

language competence of the learner. Error is the result of the incorrect

rule of language as a partial knowledge and competence that is achieved

in learning language process. Furthermore, we can not avoid making

errors in learning the foreign language.

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According to Corder (1981, p. 23), error analysis is the study of

the analysis of error made by the second or foreign language learners to

predict the errors or the difficulties in learning foreign language. Error

analysis may be carried out in order to:

1) Find out how well someone learns a language

2) Find out how well someone knows language, and

3) Obtain information on common difficulties in language learning.

Norrish (1983, p. 7) defines that error is a systematic deviation

from the accepted system of the target language. Mistake is non-

systematic deviation from the accepted system of a language being

learned and it is usually due to human limitation such as tiredness,

nervousness, and fatigue. It means that error may occur because of

human factors in mastering the target language such as the limitation of

memory, psychological problem and lack of comprehension of the

material of subject, as well as unaware of making errors.

From the definition above, the writer summarizes that error is a

part of second language acquisition that happens systematically and

consistently learners and it’s caused by lack of comprehending the

linguistic competence. On the other hand, making errors are part of

learning process and no one can learn language without his/her first

making errors.

b. Causes of error

According to Richard (1974, p. 3), there are two causes of error,

they are:
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1) Interlingua errors are the errors made by the learners because the

characteristic of their native language or mother tongue

interferences of the language being learned.

2) Intralingua and developmental errors are the errors which reflect

general efforts to learn the second language, which show the

development of learning techniques. A learner’s difficulties in

learning a second language may cause errors. Ellis (1982) mentions

that the differences between the first and the second language create

learning difficulties which result in errors.

In order to analyze errors in a proper perspective, it is crucial to

distinguish errors from mistakes. Chomsky as quoted by Dulay et.al,

(1982) said that performance errors are caused by some factors such as

fatigue and lack of attention; and competence errors are caused by the

lack of knowledge of the rules of the language. Corder (in Risma, 2002,

p. 6) states:

“In some of the second language literatures, performance errors

have been called mistakes while the term errors were reserved for the

systematic deviations due to the students still developing knowledge of

the L2 rule system”(2002, p. 6).

Hubbard, etal (1983, p. 140) said that there are three major

causes of errors:

1) Mother-tongue interference

Mother tongue interference is the result of language transfer

caused by learners’ first language or transfer of grammatical

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elements from learners’ mother tongue to the target language such

as at morphological level; Indonesian students tend to omit the

plural suffix at the end of the word.

2) Overgeneralization

Overgeneralization is the result of faulty or partial learning

of the target language. In other words, it happens because learner

creates a deviant structure based on his own experience of other

structure in target language. The learners tend to use two tense

makers at the same time in one sentence since they do not master the

language yet. For example, He is comes here. The use of “is” is not

correct in the sentence. “is” is used if the sentence does not have

adverb “comes”.

3) Error encouraged by teaching material or method

The teaching material or method can also contribute to the

students errors. Unfortunately, these errors are much more difficult

to classify. If the material is well chosen and presented with

meticulous care, there won’t be any error made by the students.

Error can appear to be induced by teaching process itself. In

other words, it is called as teacher-induced errors. Hubbard et al

(1983, p.142) said that error is evidence of failure of inefective

teaching or lack control. If material is well chosen, graded, and

presented with meticulous care, there should never be error.

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c. The types of error

To know the type of error needs a process of analysis. There are

some types of error based on how the linguists view. Some classify type

of error based on taxonomy. They are:

1) Linguistic category

This type of taxonomy carries out specification of errors in

term of linguistic categories. Dullay (1982, p.138 ) proposed this

type of error and explained that many error taxonomies have been

based on linguistic item which is affected by an error. This linguistic

category indicates on what level (in which component) of the

language the error is located. We have known that language

component here includes phonology, syntax, morphology

(grammar), semantic, and lexicon (meaning and vocabulary), and

discourse (style). And these types also explain where the error

occurs. If it is in grammar level, what is it? It possibly occurs in

auxiliaries, forms of verb, and other grammar elements.

2) The surface strategy taxonomy

This is the second type of descriptive taxonomy proposed by

Dullay (1982, p. 138). He explained that this error type explains on

how the surface structure changes. It is possible for the language

learners to omit and distort sentence. Generally, this type of error

can be classified as follows:

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a) Omission

Omission errors occur when an element of the sentence that

should be presented is omitted or by the absence of an item that

must appear in a well-formed utterance, and it often occurs in form

morphemes. There are two main types of morphemes: lexical

morphemes and grammatical morphemes.

Lexical morphemes consist of referential meaning of the

sentence such as noun, verb, adjective, adverb in sentence.

However, grammatical morphemes include noun and verb

inflections, and play a minor role in conveying the meaning of the

sentence. For example: We will take our exam. The sentence must

be “We will have taken our exam”.

b) Addition

Addition errors are the opposite of omissions. They are

characterized by the presence of an item that must not appeara well-

formed utterance. Based on the explanation for this type of error, the

subtypes are as follows:

(1) Double marking is defined as failure to delete certain items

which are required in some linguistic construction.

(2) Regulation occurs when a learner uses one role in linguistic item

and applies it for other one. He or she that the past form of

regular verb is added by –ed. Then, he or she uses it for irregular

past form. Such as, the verbs eat not become elated it must be

eaten.
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(3) Simple addition; if an addition error is not a double marking or

regularization, it is called a simple addition. No particular features

characterize simple addition. For example: the fishes have not live

in the oil. The right answer is the fish has not live in the oil.

c) Misformation

Misformation is defined misformation as use of the wrong

form of a structure or morpheme. In other words, the error of using

one grammatical form in the place of another grammatical form or

the learner supplies something, although it is incorrect. For example:

It is an book. This sentence should be „It is a book‟.

d) Misordering

Misordering errors are characterized by the incorrect

placement of a morpheme or group of morpheme in an utterance.

Misordering errors occur when a sentence which its order is

incorrect. The sentence can be right in presented elements, but

wrongly sequenced. For example: what this is?, this sentence can be

formed in a simple question: what is this?.

Michaelides (in Mariati, 2008, p. 10) distinguishes the types of

students’error performance or error competence as follows:

(1) Errors of performance are unsystematic and not very serious,

because the students can correct by themselves when their attention

is drawn to them. These errors are included to carelessness, lapse of

memory, ill, emotional state, etc, and these errors should not worry

us.
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(2) Errors of competences are persistent and systematic and in

consequence serious, and their treatment calls for careful analysis to

discover their cause. These errors represent the learners’ rational

competence.

From the explanation above, it means that errors of performance

are not serious as errors of competence and that proper analysis of

students’ errors can be invaluable to language teaching.

d. Procedures of error analysis

In the language teaching, the teacher must analyze the error that

students made. So, the teacher should do procedures of doing the error

analysis. According to Rod Ellis (2008, p. 46), the procedures for

analyzing errors include five steps, there are:

1) Collection of sample of learner’s language

Most samples of learner language which have been used in

error analysis include data collected from many speakers who are

responding to the same kind of task or test. Some studies use

samples from a few learners that are collected over a period of

weeks, months, or even years in order to determine patterns of

change in error occurrences with increasing L2 exposure and

proficiency.

2) Identification of errors

The first step of the analysis requires determination of

elements in the sample of learner language which deviate from the

target L2 in some way. The identification of error involves a

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comparison between what the learner has produced and what native

speaker counter part would produce in the same context.

3) Description of errors

The description of error involves specifying how the forms

by the learner differ from target from. For purpose of analysis,

errors are usually classified according to language level (whatever

an error is phonological, morphological, syntactic, etc.), general

linguistic category (e.g. auxiliary system, passive sentence, negative

construction), or more specific linguistic elements (e.g. articles,

prepositions, verb form).

4) Explanation of errors

Accounting for why an error was made is the most important

step in trying to understand the processes SLA (Standard Language

Acquisition). Two of the most likely causes of L2 errors are

Interlingua and intralingua factors.

5) Evaluation of errors

In evaluation errors, the teacher asks the students’ error and

they try to correct the error by themselves. The evaluation of errors

includes the following steps:

a) Selecting errors to be evaluated

b) Deciding the criteria on which the errors are to be judged

c) Preparing the error evaluation instrument

d) Choosing the judges

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2. Concept of Error and Mistake

Ellis (1986) adds that errors are systematic that is their occurrence in

some way regular, while mistakes aren’t systematic. Furthermore, Brown

(1980, p. 165) said that a mistake refers to performance errors, that are a

failure to utilize a known system correctly, and an error is a noticeable

deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker reflecting the

interlingua competence of the learner. Aladin (in oktaviana, 2009, p. 9)

quotes the differences between mistake and error, as follows:

Mistake Error
Mistakes are caused by lack of Errors are caused by lack of
performance (Brown, 1980). competence (Brown, 1980)
Mistakes are not systematic (Ellis, Errors are systematic that their
1980). occurrence is in some way regular
(Ellis, 1980)
Mistakes can be corrected by the Errors cannot be corrected by the
learner himself (Mc. Keating, learner himself (Mc. Keating,
1985) 1985)
Mistakes occur as a result of failure . Errors are caused by not knowing
that is caused by forgetfulness of the target language rule
(Mc. Keating, 1985) (Brown, 1985)
Mistakes are also made by the adult Errors are not always made by
native speakers. (Brown, 1980) theadult native speaker
(Brown,1980)

From the quotation above, it can be concluded that in differences

between error and mistake, error is produced by students if they have not

learned the correct form yet, but mistake causes inconsistent deviation and

the learner has learned about correct form before. Besides that, error and
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mistake are similar in meaning, but they are different in causes. In learning

activity, mistake is deviation that might occur once but not the second time.

It is caused by momentary lapse of memory in which when the students

make a mistake. They will be able to correct it later. But error is caused by

lack of knowledge and the students are not able to correct it.

3. Nature of Writing

According to Cohen and Riel in Yulianti’s thesis, writing is as a

communicative act, a way of sharing observations, information, thought, or

ideas with others. Meanwhile, Bryne in Yulianti’s thesis defined that

writing is transforming our thoughts into language. In other words, writing

is transforming our thoughts into language. Writing can be defined as a way

of communication by transforming observations, information, thought, or

ideas into language, so it can be shared with others. Also, Byrne added that

writing is not only just transforming our thought or idea in written form but

also it relays to the process of monitoring any single words or features that

we have written and the process of rereading and revising our writing.

(2007, p. 21)

Hughey (1983, p. 33-34) argued that writing is an essential form of

communication. Through writing, we express our feeling-our hopes, dream,

and joys as well as our fear, anger, and frustration. Through writing, we

express our ideas – our plan, our recommendations, our values, and our

commitments.
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According to Syafi’i (2007, p. 113), in producing good writing, we

must master in five aspects of writing. Jacob divides them into 5 categories.

a. Content. The writers must have an ability to think creatively to develop

their ideas. The content of writing should be knowledgeable,

substantive, through development of thesis, relevant to assigned topic.

b. Organization. The writers have fluent expression following the ideas,

clearly stated or supported well relationship between paragraphs, logical

and sequencing.

c. Vocabulary. The writers have a lot of words and idioms to convey

intended information, attitudes and feelings.

d. Language use. The writers can apply the basic agreement between

sentences, tenses, word orders, articles, pronouns and prepositions.

e. Mechanics. The writers are able to write in good spelling, punctuation,

capitalization, and paragraphing.

4. Writing Ability

Writing ability is the ability of a person to express his/her ideas,

feelings, or something in his/her minds to others by using written language.

Writing course is not merely intended to establish the students’ ability, but

more importantly to express the ideas, feelings, and abilities to the readers.

Theoretically, writing is a productive skill to express the ideas and feelings

by using written language.

Writing is the expression of language in the form of letters, symbols,

or words. The primary purpose of writing is communication. People have

used many tools for writing including paint, pencils, pens, typewriters, and
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computers. The writing can be formed on the wall of a cave, a piece of

paper, or a computer screen. The writing process includes prewriting,

composing, revising, editing, and publishing.

5. Degree of Comparison

Carter and Skater (1990, p. 1) in Panjaitan (1998, p. 2) state the

grammar of a language as a system of predictable pattern, words fit together

form phrase, phrases are joined to form clauses, the clauses create

sentences.

As Bowen et al (1985, p. 101 in afdal, 2004, p. 10) say that when

the numbers of the sentence are produced, the students begin to observe

pattern on various level of analysis: sound, arrangement, structure, lexicon,

and meaning. They observe the meaning of the utterances and how to make

changed, they should express similar in similar sentence.

In addition, Michael Swan (1980, p. 16) stated that grammar is the

rule that says how word changes to show different meaning and how they

are combined into sentence.

In order to be able to combine correctly sentence, students have to

learn grammar. As Hornby (1974, p. 325) in HadiImroni (2003, p. 3) says

that learning grammar has always been a central aspect of foreign language.

One of the aims of learning English is to enable the students to write in

English. The students who learn English are expected that they are able to

listen, to read, to speak, and to write in English.

Furthemore, Boey (1975, p. 2 in RozaNorti 2004, p. 16) says that

grammar has a great infect on language teaching. Eckersly (1996, p. 2) also

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says that grammar taught has three major objectives. First, it is used to

make the students understand the grammar. Second, it is used to get the

students comprehend and provide the answer of any grammatical problems

in English. Third, it is also used to make the students able to practice the

grammar in their daily life. These objectives indicate that grammar must be

used and taught in teaching learning, especially in degree of comparison.

Based on the explanation above, the degree of comparison is one

component of grammar. Dealing with this, Hornby (1989, p. 542) says that

grammar rules are for forming word combining them into a sentence. To

make a sentence by using degree of comparison, we have to use good

structure. According to Pyle and Munoz (1991, p. 109), comparison

indicates degree of deference with adjective and adverb maybe equal or

unequal. Furthermore, CE Eckersely (in Pyle and Munoz, 1991, p. 70) says

that comparison is an inflection that is used to compare one thing with

another or other in respect of certain attribute. Hornby (1975, p. 223) says

that comparison is used to compare two objects, persons, equalities, etc. We

may use degree of comparison of adjective and adverb.

a. Positive Degree

Positive degree is used when two persons or things are the same

in certain characteristics, we use positive degree by as…. As or certain

expression has the same meaning (Akh. Kardimin, 2005, p. 49).

Formula: as + positive + as

Example: Amira is as clever as Nadira

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b. Comparative Degree

We use the comparative degree to compare two people or things

with another (Drs. Rudy Hariyono, 2002, p. 70).

Formula: comparative + than

Example: Sinta is Taller than Andin

c. Superlative Degree

We use superlative degree to compare somebody or something

with whole group that the he / she / it belong to (Michael Swam, 1995,

p. 122).

Formula: The + superlative + noun + in

The + superlative + of

Example: He is the cleverest student in the class

She is the most beautiful of the entire girl

Example:

Positive Comparative Superlative

Bad Worse Worst

Good Better Best

Well Better Best

Caution: Do not add-er, est or more, must to irregular forms. Worse,

not worser or worse.

6. The Form of the Degree of Comparisons

a. Monosyllabic form their comparative and superlative by ending –er and

–est.
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Positive Comparative Superlative

Tall Taller Tallest
Warm Warmer Warmest
High Higher Highest
Fast Faster Fastest
Hard Harder Hardest

b. Adjective ending –e

Positive Comparative Superlative

Blue Bluer Bluest
True Truer Truest
Nice Nicer Nicest
Polite Politer Politest
Large Larger Largest

c. If an adjective ends in –y to I and add –er (Betty SchrampferAzar, p.

335)

Positive Comparative Superlative

Busy Busier Busiest
Pretty Prettier Prettiest
Shy Shyer Shyest

d. Adjective of three or more syllables from their comparative and

superlative by putting more and most before positive (J. Thomson & A.

V. Martinet, 1986, p. 36)

Positive Comparative Superlative

Interested More interested Most interested
Frightening More frightening Most frightening
Expensive More expensive Most expensive
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e. Adjective ending in er, y, le, ow, some and those with the stress on the

second syllable add er and est.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Clever Cleverer The cleverest
Narrow Narrower The narrowest
Pretty Prettier The prettiest
Polite Politer The politest
Simple Simpler Than The simplest

f. Monosyllabic adjective ending consonant and before consonant there is

vowel. So adding double consonant and add er – est.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Big Bigger Biggest
Wet Wetter Wettest
Hot Hotter Hottest
Fat Fatter Fattest

g. Adjective ending –y and before y there is vowel, so no change y and

adding er – est.

Positive Comprative Superlative

Grey Greyer Geyest
Lay Layer Layest

h. Irregular comparison

Positve Comparative Superlative

Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Far Farther Farthest
Further Furthest
Old Older Oldest
Elder Eldest
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B. Relevant of the Research

According to Syafi’i (2007), relevant research is required to observe

some previous researches conducted by other researchers in which they are

relevant to our research itself (p.122). Besides, we have to analyse what the

point that was focused on, inform the design, finding and concluding of the

previous research.

1. A research was conducted by Methania Aris Shusantie (2011). The titlle

was “An analysis on the students’ mastery of degree of comparison (a case

study of second grade students of SMPN 3 Tangerang Selatan)”. In this

research, she focused on the students’ mastery in degree of comparison. She

found that the students did not yet master Degree of Comparison.

2. A research was conducted by Lulus Fatmawati (2010). The title was “The

Analysis on Students’ Difficulties in Learning Degree of Comparison at

Second Grade Students of SMP Dua Mei Ciputat”. The result was that most

of students still got difficulties in making and forming the comparative and

superlative form.

C. The Operational Concept

Concept is the main element to avoid misinterpreting in a scientific

study. It is operated in an abstract form in the study and it should be interpreted

into particular words in order to be easily measured. The units of analysis

degree of comparison are:

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1. Students’ errors in using positive degree in writing sentences.

2. Students’ errors in comparative degree by using monosyllabic, disyllabic,

and more syllabic.

3. Students’ errors in superlative degree by using monosyllabic, disyllabic,

and more syllabic.